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TESIS Id.Indd CONCLUSIONES EL CASO DEL CUSCO EN EL CONTEXTO DE LAS SOCIEDADES HIDRÁULICAS PRECOLOMBINAS Vista del Valle del Vilcanota - Pisac - Cusco A lo largo de los capítulos anteriores hemos presentado los datos disponibles y una primera propuesta para reconstruir la gran estrategia de gestión del agua que implicó el desarrollo del Cusco como capital del Tawantinsuyu. En las líneas siguientes, haremos un esfuerzo por poner en un marco más amplio la experien- cia cusqueña. Esta no constituyó un ejemplo aislado, ni en el contexto de los Andes ni en el resto del conti- nente americano. A pesar de las extraordinarias dimensiones de la obra realizada por los incas, contamos en América con otros ejemplos de asentamientos organizados como una extensa red articulada a partir de una sofi sticada gestión de los recursos hídricos. Buenos ejemplos como el de Tenochtitlan, en México, donde los diques de la gran capital de los mexica eran las vías de circulación de una auténtica ciudad fl otante, que se ex- tendía sobre islas artifi ciales construidas en el lago Texcoco. También en esta misma época, en el corazón de la sierra nevada de Santa Marta, junto al Caribe colombiano, los tairona habían construido una extensa red de más de 200 asentamientos entrelazados que ocupaban las laderas elevadas de la sierra. Los caminos enlosados y las escaleras de bloques de piedra garantizaban la circulación y además conducían el agua en la estación lluviosa. Si nos desplazamos hacia el norte y retrocedemos ochocientos años en el tiempo, en el valle del río San Juan, en lo que hoy es el desierto de Nuevo México (EEUU), la cultura anasazi construyó una densa red de asentamientos ceremoniales que ocupaban una amplia llanura en torno a un estrecho valle que actualmente es denominado Chaco Canyon . El agua del valle, procedente de las montañas nevadas de San Juan y de las escorrentías de las mesetas elevadas, era canalizada y encauzada para alimentar una retícula de campos de cul- tivo que formaban cercados rectangulares. Podríamos continuar con los extensos campos elevados de la costa del Caribe colombiano, los llanos de Barinas (Venezuela) o del entorno del lago Titicaca, por citar tan sólo algunos de los ejemplos más conocidos, para darnos cuenta de la importancia que tuvo la gestión del agua, tanto en las sociedades altamente jerarquizadas, como en las sociedades de jefatura dotadas de organizaciones políticas menos estratifi cadas socialmente. Dichos ejemplos también nos muestran cómo la fundación de las antiguas ciudades americanas, como el Cusco, implicó la ocupación y trasformación de extensos territorios agrarios. Los centros urbanos se extendían gracias a los caminos y sobre todo a los cauces de agua. La apari- ción de las formas urbanas fue una consecuencia del conocimiento y adaptación al entorno que trajo consigo la agricultura intensiva. El paisaje transformado que constituían estos extensos asentamientos fue ante todo un paisaje producto de la gestión del agua. Todo ello nos lleva necesariamente a intervenir en uno de los debates históricos de mayor trascenden- cia en los últimos cincuenta años para la interpretación de las culturas preindustriales del mundo: la cuestión de las sociedades hidráulicas. Adentrados ya en el siglo XXI puede parecer inútil retornar a la bibliografía de los años cuarenta del siglo pasado para hablar de modos de producción, de marxismo y del despotismo hidráulico. Sin embargo, creemos necesario hacerlo, precisamente por las raíces ideológicas del debate. La 257 CONCLUSIONES Fig. 5.1 258 EL CASO DEL CUSCO EN EL CONTEXTO DE LAS SOCIEDADES HIDRÁULICAS PRECOLOMBINAS Fig. 5.2 Fig. 5.3 (Ilustración: Tomás Filsinger) Proponemos tres contextos naturales específi cos para hablar de las estrategias de ocupación del territorio y del uso y control de los recursos hídricos en la América precolombina: las montañas de Sur América (como las ciudades de los Tairona en la Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia fi g. 5.1), las zonas secas con cursos constantes de agua (como los desiertos de la costa peruana fi g. 5.2) o las zonas lacustres (como en caso del Valle de México fi g. 5.3). Estos son los escenarios, que con una serie de ejemplos dispersos por la geografía americana, nos permitirán hablar de estrategias análogas y de un profundo conocimiento del medio, tal y como ha ejemplifi cado en los capitulos anteriores el caso del Cusco. Las características específi cas de cada uno de estos contextos condicionaron el modo en que de los grupos humanos se adaptaron a condiciones que supusieron un reto a todos los niveles. 259 CONCLUSIONES Fig. 5.4 El área cultural llamada Oasisamérica fue el contexto en el que culturas como los Anazasi, Hohocam o Mogollon implementaron todo un abanico de respuestas a un contexto, más benigno al actual, pero con un equilibrio muy frágil. Esto queda evidente en el momento en el que un posible cambio climático lleva a estos pueblos a abandonar los lugares donde habían vivido por cientos de años y emigrar hacia el norte cerca de las montañas nevadas. El caso de Chaco Canyon es un claro ejemplo del rápido abandono de poblados enteros. interpretación de las sociedades hidráulicas nació del continente; además, se ha desarrollado un en- como un debate profundamente político. Aunque riquecedor debate sobre los contextos sociales que sus principales investigadores indagaban en sucesos rodearon la aparición de estas formas de agricultura que habían pasado hacía siglos, su perspectiva era avanzada. Aunque en sus inicios la discusión co- rigurosamente contemporánea; estaban luchando menzó con una perspectiva tal vez excesivamente por construir una realidad mejor para todos. En este rígida, asociada al concepto de sociedad hidráulica sentido, es importante subrayar que, desde hace más (Wittfogel) en el contexto del evolucionismo cultu- de cincuenta años, el estudio de los sistemas hidráu- ral (Childe, Stewart), en los últimos decenios la in- licos es una parte fundamental en la investigación vestigación ha adquirido un notable grado de com- de las sociedades americanas pre-coloniales. A lo plejidad y fl exibilidad, lo que se ha visto refl ejado largo de este periodo se han multiplicado los siste- en la reconstrucción de las culturas que se desarro- mas hidráulicos documentados en todas las latitudes llaron en contacto directo con la gestión del agua. 260 EL CASO DEL CUSCO EN EL CONTEXTO DE LAS SOCIEDADES HIDRÁULICAS PRECOLOMBINAS En este punto, es necesario tener en cuen- presentan algunos rasgos comunes muy signifi cati- ta una segunda cuestión. En general, los contactos vos: en general fueron el resultado de una profunda culturales directos entre las sociedades americanas comprensión de las características y funcionamiento es un tema de estudio en pleno desarrollo. Aún así, del medio natural. Asimismo, todos ellos gestiona- sorprende ver cómo culturas lejanas geográfi camen- ron el agua de un modo coherente, implementando te llegaron a desarrollar estrategias similares en la tecnologías muy avanzadas que fueron verdaderos gestión de los recursos hídricos. Como veremos, se modelos responsables de explotación de los recursos trató de respuestas análogas a condiciones similares naturales. Como veremos, no todas las experiencias que ofrecía el medio natural; “respuestas análogas” de la América pre-colonial alcanzaron el ideal de que nos hacen comprender que las culturas america- un ecosistema equilibrado y sostenible. Como nos nas percibían el medio natural de un modo muy pa- recuerda el título de un célebre congreso científi co, recido, y que contaban en su cosmovisión con cier- Imperfect Balance 1 (Lentz (ed.) 2000) , el resultado tos rasgos comunes que les permitió responder a los fue un equilibrio en muchas ocasiones “imperfecto”. desafíos de la naturaleza con respuestas culturales Sin embargo, lo que nos interesa para estas refl exio- similares. Podría objetarse que un proceso de este nes fi nales, es comprender en qué medida el cono- tipo es el que rodea la aparición de sociedades des- cimiento acumulado durante miles de años permitió póticas en puntos alejados, en el tiempo y en el espa- tomar las decisiones de alimentación y producción, cio, del continente asiático. Esto es lo que constituye así como de organización del trabajo en comunidad, el gran dilema de la investigación histórica sobre las que condujeron al desarrollo de sofi sticadas cultu- sociedades hidráulicas iniciada hace cincuenta años: ras basadas en la gestión inteligente de los recursos ¿Es posible imaginar una sola línea para el desarro- hidráulicos. llo de las “culturas” del agua?, o en realidad, ¿es esta aparente analogía en la respuesta cultural de pueblos A diferencia de la culturas precolombinas, muy diferentes sólo una conclusión buscada por no- nuestro mundo contemporáneo es el resultado del sotros mismos? Para comprender las profundas im- modelo impuesto durante los últimos doscientos plicaciones sociales del debate, es necesario cono- años, un modelo en el que los seres humanos hemos cer sus raíces, remontándonos al ambiente científi co cambiado de manera radical nuestra relación con y político de los estudios académicos en los años el entorno que habitamos. El crecimiento aparente- posteriores a la II Guerra Mundial. Sin embargo, los mente ilimitado de las ciudades y la sobreexplota- límites de la discusión son un tema perfectamente ción de los entornos naturales, con la consiguiente actual. degradación y contaminación del medio natural, son Adaptar el medio natural para asentarnos hoy en día dos constantes que afectan el equilibrio y conseguir los recursos necesarios para nuestra natural del planeta. Como resultado, nuestra socie- supervivencia es una estrategia que caracteriza la dad vive inmersa en el debate sobre las causas del trasformación cultural de los grupos humanos des- Cambio Climático, un proceso autodestructivo que de hace milenios. Un proceso que comenzó cuando se adivina como un gran desafío para el futuro de la cazadores del fi nal del paleolítico quemaron por pri- humanidad como especie.
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