Westward Expansion: A New History CHOICES for the 21st Century Education Program July 2011 Director Susan Graseck Communications & Marketing Jillian McGuire Turbitt Curriculum Development Director Andy Blackadar Acknowledgments Curriculum Writer Westward Expansion: A New History was developed by the Susannah Bechtel Choices for the 21st Century Education Program with the assistance of the research staff at the Watson Institute for Curriculum Writer International Studies, scholars at Brown University, and other Sarah Massey experts in the field. We wish to thank the following researchers for their invaluable input: Professional Development Director Mimi Stephens Colin G. Calloway John Kimball, Jr. 1943 Professor of History and Professor of Native American Studies, Dartmouth College Program Associate Emmett Starr FitzGerald Karl Jacoby Professor of History, Brown University Program Coordinator Natalie Gillihan Scafidi Naoko Shibusawa Associate Professor of History, Brown University Video & New Media Producer We would like especially to thank Professor Jacoby for allowing Tanya Waldburger us to use the research from his book Shadows at Dawn, which formed the basis for much of Parts II and III and the Perspectives. The Choices for the 21st Century Education Program is a program of We would also like to thank Josh Otlin, an assistant principal at the Thomas J. Watson Jr. Institute Hudson Public Schools in Massachusetts, for the research and for International Studies and the writing he did in the early stages of this project. Office of Continuing Education at Brown University. Thanks to Dana Karin and Sundeep Sood for their contributions and input. The Choices Program develops curricula on current and historical international issues and offers Cover art by Douglas Miles. workshops, institutes, and in-service programs for high Maps by Alexander Sayer Gard-Murray. school teachers. Course materials place special emphasis on the Westward Expansion: A New History is part of a continuing series importance of educating students on international public policy issues. New units are published in their participatory role as each academic year and all units are updated regularly. citizens. Visit us on the World Wide Web — www.choices.edu Westward Expansion: A New History 19 Part II: Experiencing U.S. Expansion: Southern Arizona n this section, you will read about the expe- experience of people here was not identical Iriences of groups in a region that is, today, to others across the continent, but neither southern Arizona. For the Indian groups who was it unique. Many of the same themes that lived there, the region was the center of the characterized the interactions between groups world that they knew. For the Spanish and here—cultural misunderstanding, adaptation, then Mexicans, it was the northern frontier, cooperation, and conflict—replayed them- and for the United States it would become the selves throughout the continent during the southwest. For purposes of clarity, the region period of U.S. westward expansion. will be referred to as “southern Arizona,” al- Focusing on the local experience allows though it only got that name in 1863. us to see the ways in which larger themes and The story of southern Arizona is a case events in history affected individuals. Con- study in how specific communities and indi- sidering history this way is a powerful tool, viduals experienced U.S. expansion. Thanks to because it allows us to understand the com- the scholarship and primary sources that exist, plex and diverse ways in which history was it is possible for us to understand how groups lived. As you read, think about how the events in this region thought about this period. The and policies you read about in Part I affected groups in southern Arizo- na. In what ways were the experiences of groups in southern Arizona similar to UNITED STATES OF AMERICA or different from groups in Arizona New Mexico other regions of the conti- nent? What challenges did groups here face? How did groups cooperate? What Western factors were at the root of Akimel O’odham Apache violence? Aravaipa Canyon Native American Societies in Hia-Ced Tucson Chricahua Apache O’odham Southern Arizona Canoa There were two broad Tubac groupings of Native Ameri- Tohono Santa cans in southern Arizona O’odham Cruz Sobaipuris Chihuahua when the Spanish arrived in the seventeenth century. Gulf of California Territorial Claims c. 1853-54 The Spanish referred to United States one group as the “Pima” MEXICO MEXICO and “Papago,” and the oth- Mexico Lower Sonora er group as “Apache.” But Ures California Apache individuals in these groups Pitic O’odham did not consider them- selves members of a broad, This map shows the region that will be discussed in this section of your all-encompassing nation or reading. O’odham, Apaches, Mexico, and the United States all made claims to land in this region. tribe. Instead, each group WWW.CHOICES.EDU ■ WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY ■ CHOICES FOR THE 21ST CENTURY EDUCATION PROGRAM ■ Westward Expansion: 20 A New History was made up of diverse, independent commu- The group that the Spanish called the nities. The broad groupings such as “Apache” “Apache” called themselves the Nnēē (pro- and “Pima” that we understand today are nounced “En-nay”), which means “the People” based on linguistic and cultural similarities. in their language. Different Nnēē societies Bands within the same broad group might co- were spread across much of what is present- operate but they also might compete with each day Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, northwest other or go to war. Mexico, and the southern Great Plains. Nnēē societies shared linguistic and cul- What Native American groups lived in tural similarities, but there was tremendous southern Arizona when the Spanish arrived? diversity among them. For example, like the People who the Spanish called the “Pima” O’odham, the Nnēē lived in small bands of and “Papago” referred to themselves as the extended family. Each family band had its own O’odham, or “the People.” According to their leader, or headman. These bands joined to- oral histories, they had always lived in the gether in clusters, led by a headman and often Sonora Desert, which today is located in a headwoman. Clusters then had loose affilia- southern Arizona and northwest Mexico. By tions with clusters in adjoining territories, and the start of the nineteenth century, there were would come together for trade or religious cer- several different societies that fell under the emonies. In addition, Nnēē belonged to clans, umbrella term O’odham. which were matrilineal, or based on the blood Each of these O’odham societies was relation of one’s mother. By marriage, members made up of many different communities. In of a clan might belong to different clusters, but the harsh desert environment, most O’odham they would also be expected to assist members lived in small bands of extended family. Oc- of their clan. casionally bands that were located near each It was difficult for the Spanish to under- other would come together for festivals or stand the ways in which these Indian groups trade. At the same time, competition and con- were organized. The Spanish names for the flict existed between different bands. O’odham and Nnēē illustrate the difficulties Native American Groups in Southern Arizona at the Time of Spanish Arrival Name for Sub-group or Spanish Way in which each society lived self society name O’odham Akimel O’odham Pima “River People;” farmers “Sand People;” hunter-gatherers that migrat- Hia-Ced O’odham Pima ed with the seasons “Desert People;” grew small farms in the Tohono O’odham Papago summer, gathered wild food in the winter Nnēē Western Apache Apache Some farming, mainly hunting and gathering Chiricahua Apache Hunter-gatherers ■ CHOICES FOR THE 21ST CENTURY EDUCATION PROGRAM ■ WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY ■ WWW.CHOICES.EDU Westward Expansion: A New History 21 What do historians know about how these groups lived before the Spanish arrived? There were a number of different O’odham and Apache societies living in this region (see chart on page 20). But not much is known with certainty about these groups before the arrival of the Spanish. Using archeological evidence as well as O’odham oral histories, historians believe the O’odham might be the descendants of the Huhugam, whose large farming villages collapsed in the 1400s due to drought, flash floods, and increased warfare in the region. Information about the Apache is harder to come by. Historians believe the Apache migrated south into the region but are not sure exactly when that migration occurred, due to lack of archaeological evidence and little men- tion of the Apache in early Spanish accounts. Some historians argue that Apache people may not have arrived in the region until the six- teenth century. But contemporary Apache say that a lack of evidence does not mean that they Courtesy of the John Carter Brown Library at Brown University. Library at Brown Courtesy of the John Carter Brown were not there. As a way of protecting them- This engraving shows a Spanish missionary baptizing Native Americans in South America in selves, it was customary for Apaches to erase the 1600s. One of the primary aims of Spanish traces of their presence and avoid potentially colonization in the Americas was to convert Indian dangerous outsiders. groups to Catholicism. By the seventeenth century, a bitter con- flict had developed between the Apache and that they had in deciphering the Indian groups O’odham groups in the region. Historians in the region. For example, the word “Pima” believe the animosity between the two groups is probably from the O’odham word pi ha’icu may have been caused by increased contact which means “nothing.” The Spanish classi- after the southerly migration of the Apache, or fied the Tohono O’odham as a separate group by the arrival of Spanish diseases, weapons, that they named “Papago,” which is prob- and livestock.