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Pdf File Available on P.3 of Essay The Most-Cited Physical-Sciences Publications in the 1945-1954 Science Citation hdex Stephen G. Brush Department of History and Institute for Physical Science and Technology University of Maryland College Park, MD 20742 This essay examines the 52 most highly cited papers and books in the physical sciences, 1945-1954, based on the ScienceCitationIndexe cumulationfor that decade. It discussesSQrmof the major trends, achievements, and researchers in the physicaf sciences in the period including World War II. Com- parisons are made between citation frequencyand other measures of importance, suchas Nobel Prizes and judgments by historians of science. Virtuallyaflof the 52 most-citedphysicaf-sciencespublica- tionspresentedin the Bibliography at the end of this essay are in physics or chemistry. MaUer fields with lower citation frequencies, such as mathematics, geosciences, and astronomy/astrophysics, are not well represented. In Part 2, we will identify and discuss high-impact works from these fields. Introduction: The Top Five Citdion the themy of molecular structure-a theory Classics of 194S-1954 based directly on physics! After that experience it was no surprise A few years ago, when I was trying to ert- to learn that Pauling’s book, 27reNature of courage chemists to take an interest in the the Chen”cd Bond and the Stracture of MoI- history of their discipline, 1I asked them a ecules and C~stals: An Introduction to simple question: Who do you think is the Modem Structural Chemistry, was the most most important chemist of the twentieth cen- highly cited publication in the physical sci- tury? Who shotdd be presented to the public ences during the decade 1945-1954. The as the hero of modem chemistry, corre- total number of citations for the 1939 and sponding to Albert Einstein, who has beat 1940 editions was 571 during this period. extensively promoted as the hero of modem Citations to all editions of this book num- physics? Having read a lot about how chem- ber more than 16,000, according to an istry is a science in which experiments are analysis by Zelek S. Herman, Linus Pau- more vahrablethan theories, and having seen ling Institute of Science and Medicine, Palo how much chemists dislike being told that Alto, Califortria.z There were more than chemistry can be reduced to physics, I was 600 citations to all editions of the book in unprepared for the answer. the 1989 Science Citation Indexm (SCP ). Every member of this small and unsys- Publications in chemistry were also the tematically selected sample, after express- second, third, and fourth most cited during ing some puzzlement that anyone should ask that period, which cart be seen in the Bibli- such a strange question, finafly came up with ography at the end of this essay. A 1938 the same answer: Linus Pauling. Yet Pau- paper by Stephen Brtmauer and Pauf H. Iing is best known for his development of Emmett, then at the Bureau of Chemistry 168 and Soils, Washington, DC, and Edward more authors, more papers, more citations. Teller (widely acknowledged to be the in- Thus, as Eugene Garfield has pointed out, ventor of the hydrogen bomb), George any list of most-cited papers for all of sci- Washington University, Washington, DC, ence must make allowances for field or dis- on “Adsorption of gases in multimolecular ciplinary differences: “The most-cited layers” received 450 citations. It, too, is a works in fields like botany, radioastronomy, contribution to theoretical chemistry using mathematics, and so on, would not turn up concepts borrowed from physics—although, on this undifferentiated list.”4 as in Pauling’s monograph, comparisons Indeed, the list of 250 most-cited works with experimental data play an important from the 1955-1964 SCI ornits astronomy, part. mathematics, the earth sciences, and other The monograph on the 7heory oj Rate relatively small fields.4 And the list of the Processes (1941) by Samuel Glasstone, 52 most-cited books and articles in Keith J. Laidler, and Henry Eyring, Prince- 1945-1954 presented here is composed ton University, New Jersey, cited 418 times, almost entirely of publications in chemistry was written in paII (according to its preface) (25) and physics (25); there are only 2 in to show how much progress had been made mathematics, and none in astronomy or the in calculating absolute reaction rates by earth sciences. Rather than omit mathemat- using quantum mechanics and statistical ics, astronomy, and the earth sciences, 1S1 mechanics. The Ultracentn@ge (1940) by is compiling additional lists for those fields, Teodor Svedberg, Kal O. Pedersen, and which will be presented and discussed in the Johannes H, Bauer, University of Uppsala, second part of this essay. Sweden, received 381 citations; it describes With the exception of a small-scale cita- a physical method of great utility to chem- tion study of 16 physics journals of the ists. Not until we reach the fifth mbst-cited 1920s,s the new 1945-1954 SC1cumulation item, “Table of isotopes” (1948), cited 259 represents the earliest period for which ci- times, by Glenn T. Seaborg and I. Perhnan, tation data are now available.b This com- Department of Chemistry and Radiation pilation thus offers an exceptional oppor- Laboratory, University of California, tunity to look back at a historic period of Berkeley, do we fmd a publication on phys- science and see what articles were Citariorr ics itself rather than on its application to C.kzssics” during this time. chemistry. Of the 52 publications most cited from While chemistry dominates the five most 1945 to 1954,5 were published before 1935 highly cited papers, the physicrd sciences as and 3 appeared after 1949 (a detailed a whole account for only 11 percent of the chronological breakdown for all the physi- top 250 most-cited papers in the 1945-1954 cal-sciences publications is given in Table SC1 cumulation. ISI@ therefore decided 1). I will concentrate on the 15-year period to publish two separate articles: one by (1935-1949) in which the other 44 publica- Bernard Dixon, former editor of New Sci- tions appeared. entist and currently contributing editor to Biotechnology, surveying the 102 most- Major Developments and lkembzs Physics cited articles in the life sciences,s and this The most important advance in twentieth- one, devoted only to the physical sciences. century physical science was the develop- ment of quantum theory by Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr, Louis de Citation Data Vary by Fie!d Broglie, Werner Heisenberg, and Erwin ‘fhis decision reflects the view that the ab- Schr6dinger in the period 1900-1926.7-9By solute citation count for a publication is less 1935 the basic principles of quantum me- significant than its citation count relative to chanics and their application to the simplest other works in the same field. Some fields systems had been firmly established. This simply have a bigger literature than others— may be seen from the fact that the 1930 ar- 169 Table 1: Cbronologid distribution of pubtkation Xl. The Bibliography aiso lists two papers dates forthephysicahciencespapersandbmksmost by another American (originally British) cited in the SCF cumulation, 1945-1954. physicist, Freeman J. Dyson, Institute for Publication Number of Advanced Study, Princeton, which ex- Year Papers plained and extended the Feynman- Schwinger-Tomonaga theories. 1920-1924 1 1925-1929 0 Feynman subsequently became much bet- 1930-1934 4 ter known to the public when he served on 1935-1939 8 the commission appointed to investigate the 1940-1944 17 1945-1949 19 Challenger disaster. By dropping an O-ring 1950-1954 3 into a glass of ice water, he vividly demon- strated the dangers of launching a shuttle in cold weather. His two-volume autobiogra- title on quantum treatment of “Atomic phy (the second volume was published just shielding constants” by John C. Slater, after his death in 1988) is a fascinating ac- Harvard University and the Massachusetts count of the human side of science. 1I.Iz Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massa- The reason the development of quantum chusetts, needed no significant revision and electrodynamics was postponed until the late was still highly cited in the 1955-1964 1940s was of course that physicists were decade (336 citations)Q as well as in preoccupied with the atomic nucleus. In 1945-1954 (176 citations). 1938 Otto Hahn and Fritz Straasmann, Physicists were not satisfied that quantum Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry, theory could give an adequate account of the Berlin-Dahlem, Germany, performed the interaction betsveen subatomic particles and experiment that their colleague Lise radiation consistent with relativity theory, Meitner, Academy of Sciences, Stockholm, but this problem was set aside for a dozen Sweden, recognized as the discovery of tis- years. In 1947 Willis E. Lamb and Robert sion. 1sThe theory of this ominous phenom- C. Rutherford, Columbia University, New enon was explained in 1939 by Bohr and York, showed that the energy difference be- John A. Wheeler, Princeton University. tween two excited states of the hydrogen Meitner’s crucial role in the discovery was atom, a difference theoretically due to the ignored when Hahn alone received the 1944 electron-radiation interaction, could be Nobel Prize in chemistry and has only measured by experiment. 10 This result recently come to be recognized. 14.15 prompted theorists to work out detailed cal- Of these only the Bohr-Wheeler paper ap- culations, leading to the establishment of pears in the Bibliography. Its 149 citations “quantum electrodynamics,” a theory that greatly underestimate the impact of knowl- achieved remarkable quantitative agreement edge about how fission works because sci- with the experimental results. entists soon realized that this knowledge was Richard P. Feynman, California Institute toodangerous to be published in a world on of Technology (Caltech), Pasadena, and the brink of war.
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