sign in sign up
<<
Home , Gerhard Herzberg

The Most-Cited Physical-Sciences Publications in the 1945-1954 Science Citation hdex

Stephen G. Brush Department of History and Institute for Physical Science and Technology University of Maryland College Park, MD 20742

This essay examines the 52 most highly cited papers and books in the physical sciences, 1945-1954, based on the ScienceCitationIndexe cumulationfor that decade. It discussesSQrmof the major trends, achievements, and researchers in the physicaf sciences in the period including World War II. Com- parisons are made between citation frequencyand other measures of importance, suchas Nobel Prizes and judgments by historians of science. Virtuallyaflof the 52 most-citedphysicaf-sciencespublica- tionspresentedin the Bibliography at the end of this essay are in physics or chemistry. MaUer fields with lower citation frequencies, such as mathematics, geosciences, and astronomy/astrophysics, are not well represented. In Part 2, we will identify and discuss high-impact works from these fields.

Introduction: The Top Five Citdion the themy of molecular structure-a theory Classics of 194S-1954 based directly on physics! After that experience it was no surprise A few years ago, when I was trying to ert- to learn that Pauling’s book, 27reNature of courage to take an interest in the the Chen”cd Bond and the Stracture of MoI- history of their discipline, 1I asked them a ecules and C~stals: An Introduction to simple question: Who do you think is the Modem Structural Chemistry, was the most most important of the twentieth cen- highly cited publication in the physical sci- tury? Who shotdd be presented to the public ences during the decade 1945-1954. The as the hero of modem chemistry, corre- total number of citations for the 1939 and sponding to Albert Einstein, who has beat 1940 editions was 571 during this period. extensively promoted as the hero of modem Citations to all editions of this book num- physics? Having read a lot about how chem- ber more than 16,000, according to an istry is a science in which experiments are analysis by Zelek S. Herman, Linus Pau- more vahrablethan theories, and having seen ling Institute of Science and Medicine, Palo how much chemists dislike being told that Alto, Califortria.z There were more than chemistry can be reduced to physics, I was 600 citations to all editions of the book in unprepared for the answer. the 1989 Science Citation Indexm (SCP ). Every member of this small and unsys- Publications in chemistry were also the tematically selected sample, after express- second, third, and fourth most cited during ing some puzzlement that anyone should ask that period, which cart be seen in the Bibli- such a strange question, finafly came up with ography at the end of this essay. A 1938 the same answer: . Yet Pau- paper by Stephen Brtmauer and Pauf H. Iing is best known for his development of Emmett, then at the Bureau of Chemistry

168 and Soils, Washington, DC, and Edward more authors, more papers, more citations. Teller (widely acknowledged to be the in- Thus, as Eugene Garfield has pointed out, ventor of the hydrogen bomb), George any list of most-cited papers for all of sci- Washington University, Washington, DC, ence must make allowances for field or dis- on “Adsorption of gases in multimolecular ciplinary differences: “The most-cited layers” received 450 citations. It, too, is a works in fields like botany, radioastronomy, contribution to theoretical chemistry using mathematics, and so on, would not turn up concepts borrowed from physics—although, on this undifferentiated list.”4 as in Pauling’s monograph, comparisons Indeed, the list of 250 most-cited works with experimental data play an important from the 1955-1964 SCI ornits astronomy, part. mathematics, the earth sciences, and other The monograph on the 7heory oj Rate relatively small fields.4 And the list of the Processes (1941) by Samuel Glasstone, 52 most-cited books and articles in Keith J. Laidler, and Henry Eyring, Prince- 1945-1954 presented here is composed ton University, New Jersey, cited 418 times, almost entirely of publications in chemistry was written in paII (according to its preface) (25) and physics (25); there are only 2 in to show how much progress had been made mathematics, and none in astronomy or the in calculating absolute reaction rates by earth sciences. Rather than omit mathemat- using quantum mechanics and statistical ics, astronomy, and the earth sciences, 1S1 mechanics. The Ultracentn@ge (1940) by is compiling additional lists for those fields, Teodor Svedberg, Kal O. Pedersen, and which will be presented and discussed in the Johannes H, Bauer, University of Uppsala, second part of this essay. Sweden, received 381 citations; it describes With the exception of a small-scale cita- a physical method of great utility to chem- tion study of 16 physics journals of the ists. Not until we reach the fifth mbst-cited 1920s,s the new 1945-1954 SC1cumulation item, “Table of isotopes” (1948), cited 259 represents the earliest period for which ci- times, by Glenn T. Seaborg and I. Perhnan, tation data are now available.b This com- Department of Chemistry and Radiation pilation thus offers an exceptional oppor- Laboratory, University of California, tunity to look back at a historic period of Berkeley, do we fmd a publication on phys- science and see what articles were Citariorr ics itself rather than on its application to C.kzssics” during this time. chemistry. Of the 52 publications most cited from While chemistry dominates the five most 1945 to 1954,5 were published before 1935 highly cited papers, the physicrd sciences as and 3 appeared after 1949 (a detailed a whole account for only 11 percent of the chronological breakdown for all the physi- top 250 most-cited papers in the 1945-1954 cal-sciences publications is given in Table SC1 cumulation. ISI@ therefore decided 1). I will concentrate on the 15-year period to publish two separate articles: one by (1935-1949) in which the other 44 publica- Bernard Dixon, former editor of New Sci- tions appeared. entist and currently contributing editor to Biotechnology, surveying the 102 most- Major Developments and lkembzs Physics cited articles in the life sciences,s and this The most important advance in twentieth- one, devoted only to the physical sciences. century physical science was the develop- ment of quantum theory by Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr, Louis de Citation Data Vary by Fie!d Broglie, Werner Heisenberg, and Erwin ‘fhis decision reflects the view that the ab- Schr6dinger in the period 1900-1926.7-9By solute citation count for a publication is less 1935 the basic principles of quantum me- significant than its citation count relative to chanics and their application to the simplest other works in the same field. Some fields systems had been firmly established. This simply have a bigger literature than others— may be seen from the fact that the 1930 ar-

169 Table 1: Cbronologid distribution of pubtkation Xl. The Bibliography aiso lists two papers dates forthephysicahciencespapersandbmksmost by another American (originally British) cited in the SCF cumulation, 1945-1954. , Freeman J. Dyson, Institute for Publication Number of Advanced Study, Princeton, which ex- Year Papers plained and extended the Feynman- Schwinger-Tomonaga theories. 1920-1924 1 1925-1929 0 Feynman subsequently became much bet- 1930-1934 4 ter known to the public when he served on 1935-1939 8 the commission appointed to investigate the 1940-1944 17 1945-1949 19 Challenger disaster. By dropping an O-ring 1950-1954 3 into a glass of ice water, he vividly demon- strated the dangers of launching a shuttle in cold weather. His two-volume autobiogra- title on quantum treatment of “Atomic phy (the second volume was published just shielding constants” by John C. Slater, after his death in 1988) is a fascinating ac- Harvard University and the Massachusetts count of the human side of science. 1I.Iz Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massa- The reason the development of quantum chusetts, needed no significant revision and electrodynamics was postponed until the late was still highly cited in the 1955-1964 1940s was of course that were decade (336 citations)Q as well as in preoccupied with the atomic nucleus. In 1945-1954 (176 citations). 1938 and Fritz Straasmann, Physicists were not satisfied that quantum Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry, theory could give an adequate account of the Berlin-Dahlem, , performed the interaction betsveen subatomic particles and experiment that their colleague Lise radiation consistent with relativity theory, Meitner, Academy of Sciences, Stockholm, but this problem was set aside for a dozen Sweden, recognized as the discovery of tis- years. In 1947 Willis E. Lamb and Robert sion. 1sThe theory of this ominous phenom- C. Rutherford, Columbia University, New enon was explained in 1939 by Bohr and York, showed that the energy difference be- John A. Wheeler, Princeton University. tween two excited states of the hydrogen Meitner’s crucial role in the discovery was atom, a difference theoretically due to the ignored when Hahn alone received the 1944 electron-radiation interaction, could be in chemistry and has only measured by experiment. 10 This result recently come to be recognized. 14.15 prompted theorists to work out detailed cal- Of these only the Bohr-Wheeler paper ap- culations, leading to the establishment of pears in the Bibliography. Its 149 citations “quantum electrodynamics,” a theory that greatly underestimate the impact of knowl- achieved remarkable quantitative agreement edge about how fission works because sci- with the experimental results. entists soon realized that this knowledge was Richard P. Feynman, California Institute toodangerous to be published in a world on of Technology (Caltech), Pasadena, and the brink of war. For the next six years, Julian Schwinger, Harvard University, in most of the citations to the revolutionary the US, and Sin-itiro Tomortaga, Universi- papers on nuclear fission were confined to ty of Education, Tokyo, Japan, irtdependent- [he secret reports of weapons laboratories, Iy developed this theory, for which they not included in the SCI database. This may won the 1965 . dso be true of the Cita~ion Classic book by Tomonaga’s work was not widely known in Sydney Chapman and T.G. Cowling, Im- Europe and America until after 1947 and is perial College of Science and Technology, not represented in the Bibliography. But London, since it was the authoritative source both Feynman and Schwinger published two m the theory of the diffusion processes used papers on quantum electrodynamics that LOseparate uranium isotopes for the Man- became Citation Ckmrics in the 1945-1954 Iattan Project.

170 ......

After Hiroshima and Nagasaki, nuclear The widening impact of quantum mechan- physics was largely declassified and occu- ics during the period 1935-1949 can be seen pied a significant part of the journrd litera- in several areas outside of atomic physics. ture for the next several years. This research i%e Modem lheory of Solids (1940), a Ci- activity is reflected by several highly cited tation Classic by , then at the works on isoto~s, energy levels, and magn- Carnegie Institute of Technology, Pitts- etic moments of nuclei—F. Ajzenberg and burgh, Pemsylvania, is an obvious exam- T. Lauritsen, Kellogg Radiation J_aborstory, ple, as is his review article on a special topic Caltech; F. Bloch, Stanford University, Crd- within this field, “Color centers in alkali ifornia; N. Bloembergen e~ al., Harvard halide crystals” (1946). The theory of the University; et al., Universi- superfluidity of helium (1941) by L. D. ty of California, Berkeley; Eugene Feenberg Landau, Kharkov University, USSR, ap- and Kenyon C. Hammack, Washington Uni- plied quantum mechanical ideas to fluids in versity, St. Louis, Missouri; M. Goldhaber a novel fashion that first mystified but ulti- and A.W. Sunyar, Brookhaven National mately enlightened the physics commu- Laboratory, Upton, New York; Emil J. Ko- nity. 17 nopinski, Indiana University, Bloomington; Maria G. Mayer, Argonne National Labo- Chemistry ratory, Illinois; and Seaborg and Perhnan. Scientists were extensively involved in the As noted at the begiming of this essay, public debates about nuclear weapons dur- Pauling used quantum mechanics to explain ing the postwar period. The two most-cited the chemical bond and molecular structure. publications carry the names of scientists A 1945 book on infrared and Raman spec- who were on opposite sides of those debates. tra by Gerhard Herzberg, National Research Pauling won his second Nobel Rlze—the Council of Canada, , , and a 1962 Peace Prize-for his leadership in the 1941 paper on molecular vibrations by movement to ban nuclear tests. Teller, on E. Bright Wilson at Harvard, along with the the other hand, was an outspoken advocate 1941 book by Glasstone, Laidler, and for the development and testing of new Eyring on rate processes, also taught many weapons. chemists how to use quantum mechanics to Missing from the list of Citation Classics deduce by experiment quantitative informa- is a subfield of physics that had already be- tion about molecular properties. come prominent by 1949 and that was to An alternative to Pauling’s “valence attract an increasing share of intellectual and bond” method was the “molecular orbital” financial resources in the following decades: approach popularized by Robert S. Mulli- elementary particles. Hideki Yukawa’s 1935 ken, University of , Illinois. The proposal that nuclear forces are carried by highly cited 1941 paper on ‘‘Hyperconju- a particle with a mass of about 200 times gation” by Mulliken and University of that of the elecrron, and the discovery of the Chicago colleagues Carol A. Rieke and pi-meson by Cecil F. Powell and G.P.S. Oc- Weldon G. Brown illustrates this approach. chialini in 1947, were recognized by the Another paper by Mulliken (1952) on the award of Nobel Prizes in 1949 and 1950. molecular orbital method was a “late But the two review articles on cosmic rays bloomer’ ‘—that is, it was more highly cited (one by Bruno Rossi and Kenneth Greisen, from 1955 to 1964 than in the previous , Ithaca, New York, and decade coverai in this study, 1945-1954. the other by Rossi alone) are the only ones Table 2 lists this and nine other “late- in the Bibliography directly related to thk bloomer” publications, including another subfield, although the publications on quan- molecular orbital theory paper by C.C.J. tum electrodynamics mentioned above were Roothaan, . to have some influence on theories of ele- Curiously, historians and philosophers of mentary particles. lb science have largely neglected these major

171 . .

Table 2: “Late bfuamers’ ‘–10 physicaf-sciences items publkhed before 1954 that were among the 250 most cited in the 195S-1964 SCP cumulation but not in the 52 physical-sciences items must cited io the SCI mmmfation for 194S- 1954. An asterisk (*) indicates that the item was ttre subject of a Citation (%ssic” commentary. The issue, year, and d]tion of the commentary follow the blbliogcaphic reference. A =totaf nmnbcr of 1945-1954 citations. B = total number of 1955-1964 citations.

AB Bibfiograpkic Data

97 475 Blatt J M & Weisakopf V F. theoretical nuclear physics. New York: Wiley, 1952.864 p, 122 356 ● Chartdraaekhar S. Stucbastic problems in physics and astronomy. Rev, Mod. Phys. 15:1-89, 1943. (47/891ET&AS; 47/89/PC&ES) 79 404 Cruickshank D W J. Tbe accuracy of elcctrondensity maps in X-ray anafysis with special reference to dibenzyl. .4cm CrpraUogr. 2:65-82, 1949. 73 35-t * Heraberg G. Molecular spectra and molecular structure, I. Spectra of eiiaromic molecules, New York: Van Nostrand, 1950.658 p. (13/83/PC&ES) 23 325 * McWeeny R. X-ray acattcring by aggregates of bundcd atoms. 1. Analytical approximations in single-atom scattering. ,4cm CrysfaUogr, 4:513-9, 1951. (17/8 I/pC&ES) 79 403 Muffiken R S. Molemdar compounds and their spectra, ff. J. Amer. Chem, WC. 74:811-24, 1952. I35 459 Racak G. Theory of complex spectra. II. Phys. Rev. 62:438-62, 1942. 47 352 Ruothaan C C J. New developments in molecular orbital theory. Rev. Mod. Phys. 23:69-89, 1951. 20 355 ShuckfeyW & Read W T. Statistics of the recombination of holes and electrons. Phys. Rev. 87:835-42, 1952. 115 438 * Vmr Vleck .1 H. The dinolar broadening of maenetic. resonance lines in cnwals. Phw. Rev. 74: 1168-8;, 1948. (3i/79/PC&ES) -

contributions to the foundations of chemistry covafently linked molecules, rather than ag- whife giving perhaps excessive attention to gregates of smaller molexules. 19The first the foundations of physics. 1 Thus the Isis attempt at a mathematical description of their Cumulative Bibliography 19761985, which spatial configurations was pubfished in 1934 lists nearly all publications on the history of by Werner Kuhn, University of Basel, science published during this period, has Switzerland. The subject was further dis- only 5 items on Pauling and 3 on Mulliken, cussed in a 1943 paper by Kuhn and Hans compared to 234 on Einstein, 33 on Bohr, Kuhn, afso at the University of Basel. Both 26 on Heisenberg, 16 on Phtnck, 15 on papers are listed in the Bibliography. , 13 on de Broglie, and The Kuhn theory was based on a simpli- 12 on Robert Andrew Millikan, Cakech. ]g fied model, the molecule being represented Since one of the articles on Pauling also by the “random walk” of a point particle. deafs with Mulliken, the total for both au- Flory made a significant improvement by thors is onfy seven. Other works by Pauling taking account of the “excluded volume ef- are listed in the Crifica[ Bibliography of fect’‘—thefact that two segments of the mol- the Histoq of Science and Its Cultural ht- ecule (unliie the path of a moving point par- jluences, published annurtfly in Isis. In this ticle) cannot occupy the same space. Flory’s case the citation data are especially valuable work led to major advances in understand- in calling attention to influential contribu- ing the propefiies of polymers, substances tions in a large body of technical literature that also have considerable technological im- that few nonspecialists can understand. portance. 19 He identifies his own key con- While the largest number of chemistry Ci- tribution to the subject as a paper published tation C!assics (6 out of 25) involve the ap- in 1949 and does not mention the earlier pa- plication of quantum mechanics, afmost as pers listed here. many (4) deaf with polymers. As Paul J, Flory, then at Esso Laboratories, Standard Oil Development Co., Linden, New Jersey, Nobel Laureates author of two of these papers, redled in his Nobel lecture, had For physics and chemistry, the obvious established by about 1930 that polymers are question about any list of highly cited works

172 is: How many were authored by Nobel Table 3: Nubef Isoreates tkted ss authors nf the rnmt- laureates? And how many Nobel Prize- cited pbysicaf-aeienccs pspmx and books in the 1945-1954 SCP, showing the field und year of heir winning papers don ‘tappear on the “most- awards. cited” list? There are 78 authors for the 52 most-cited NobelLst Field Ymr publications (some of them being authors of Bloch F Physics 1952 more than one item). If one omits the two Bluembergen N Physics 1981 mathematicians (Stefan Banach, Universi- Bohr N Physics 1922 ty of Lvov, USSR, and Harald Cram&, Uni- Calvin M Chernisoy 1%1 Feynman R P Physics 1965 versity of Stockhohn, Sweden), there are 18 Flory P J Chemistry 1974 Nobel laureates among the 76 physicists and Herzberg G chemistry 1971 chemists. They are listed in Table 3, which Landau L D Physics 1962 Mayer M G Physics 1963 also shows the year in which they were Mott N F Physics 1977 awarded the prize. Mulliken R S Chemistry 1966 Eleven items in this study list at least one Onsager L chemistry 1%8 PaulinS L Chemistry 1954 Nobel physicist author. Since 1 of the 25 Peace 1962 physics publications was coauthored by a Purcell E M Physics 1952 Nobel chemist (Seaborg), one could also say Schwinger J Physics 1%5 .%ahurg G T Chemistry 1951 that 48 percent of the most-cited physics Svedberg T Chemistry 1926 publications were written by Nobel Ziegler K Chemistry 1963 laureates. And there are 11 items with at least one Nobel chemist author. Of the 25 chemistry items, 10 (including two editions C.kssics listed here. Calvin, Herzberg, of Pauling’s book) or 40 percent were au- Nevill F. Mott, and Pauling were honored thored by a chemistry Nobel laureate. for research originally published in journals; This is not to say that the publications their Citation Classics are monographs identified here are necessarily the Nobel covering the same and related subj@s. Sim- laureates’ prizewinning works. As pointed ilarly, Seaborg’s and Mayer”s highly cited out by Garfield, the most-cited publications papers are compilations of data relevant to by Nobel laureates are sometimes not the their research. Bloembergen, Feynman, ones for which they won the prize.zo In Flory, Landau, Mulliken, Purcell, some cases the prize is given for a body of Schwinger, and won the Nobel work rather than a single publication. More- Prize for research that does include papers over, it is stifl possible for a scientist to win on the most-cited list. the Nobel Priie in the future for work done Onsager is the only Nobel laureate on the during this period. For example, the 1989 list whose highly cited paper is on a subject prize in physics went to Norman Ramsey, clearly different ffom the research for which Harvard University, for his research on mo- he received the prize. He received the prize lecular beams in the late 1940s.z1 for a 1931 work on reciprocal relations in Another reason many Citation Classics irreversible processes .22,23But I consider don’t win Nobel Prizes is that they do not his solution of the two-dimensionaf Lsing report original research discoveries. hstead, problemzd more significant than that work they describe useful new experimental in- m his paper on electric moments in struments or methods, or they review prog- ~iquids17included in the list. ress in a field or compile data. I estimate that only about 40 percent of the items in Mathematics the Bibliography are first reports of original research. The books by Banach (1932) and Crarm% Of the Nobel laureates in this study, Bohr, [1945), the otdy mathematics publications , and Svedberg won it for work in the Bibliography, are Citation Classics done before they published the Citation for rather different reasons. Cram6r’s com-

173 Table 4 The 198S SCF research fronts that include at least one of the 1945-1954 most-cited physical-sciences items as core documents. The names of first authors fromtheBibliographyappearin parentheses. A = rmmbcr of Bibliography items that are core to each research front. B = total number of core documents. C = total number of 1988 citing papers.

Number Name ABC

88-fsM6 Polymer mixtures, binary blend void systems, statistical rhermmdyrramics, and 1 11 136 Monrc-Carlo simulations of lattice models (Flory) 88-0082 Superdefonrred states of rotating nuclei, complex fragment emission, gamma-ray 1 37 338 spcctrowopy, high angular momentum, and intermediate energies @obr) 88-0141 Superfluid He-4, interatomic potentials, deep inelastic neutron-scattering, collkion 1 38 329 induced spectmscopies, and long-range 3-bGdy interactions (Lamlau) 88-0465 Symmetcicaf hydrogen-baded ice, contimrum model proton tramfer, dynamics of 1 33 306 solitons, amorphous Si02, high-pressure phases, and bonding defects (Eternal) 88-1474 Nucl=-spin relaxation, nematic phase, themtotropic liquid crystats, proton NMR, I 12 147 and spectd densities for isotropic interrnolemtar interactions (BIoembcrgen) 88-3298 Sodium tetmhydroborate, efficient reduction of acyl cbforides, and living catiordc I 3 21 polymerization (Nystrom) 88-3360 Adsorption of water, anomalous synthetic tobermorites, and surface characteristics 1 2 118 (Brunauer) 88-4626 Electrical-resistivity in Y% CU107.J, ferromagnetic Ni-baae ~loYs, ~d thin 1 4 35 anti ferromagnetic fdms (Mott) 88-4982 Symmetry group transformation operators in the interaction piCNKe and quantum 2217 fluid at nonzero temperature (Dyson, Feymrran) 88-5199 Unified photon dosimemy approach, pencil barn kernels, and arbitrary dose 1 5 27 distributions (Rossi) 88-8156 Molecular vibrations, infrared spectroscopic &ta, and ethyl bromoacetnte (Wilson) 1213

prehensive treatise was useful to many sci- terms of a few variables (x,y,z), whose entists because it presented modem mathe- vah.tesare numbers, to spaces of@rctions; matical models that could be conveniently these can be regarded as spaces with an in- learned and applied to problems requiring finite number of dimensions. In quantum statistical analysis. Banach’s monograph mechanics the state of a system is repre- stimulated further research by mathemati- sented by a wave function that may be cians working in harmonic analysis, partird treated as belonging to a ‘‘Hilbert space, ” differential equations, algebra, and topolog- a special cstse of the more general space ical vector spaces. Although Cramt?r’s book studied by Banach. The “linear operators” was more dmtly applicable to empirical re- in the title of Banach’s Citation Chssic search in the physical sciences, Banach’s had monograph correspond in quantum mechan- a closer intellectual relation to the theoretical ics to physical entities like energy and mo- approach that dominated physics and chem- mentum, whose values can be found by let- istry in the second quarter of the twentieth ting the operators operate on the wave func- century. tion, Banach (1892-1945) seems to have had no interest in quantum mechanics and it would Research Fronts, Chronological and be difficult to show that it had any infhtence National Diitrilmtions, and Journals of on his ideas. Nevertheless, his work on the Top 52 Physical-Sciences Ci$ation linear operators and the invention of classics ‘‘Banach space” fall squarely within the tra- dition that provided the mathematical foun- Table 4 lists current 1988 research areas dation for the versions of quantum mechan- that frequently cite one or more of the items ics developed by Schrbdinger, Paul Dirac, in the Bibliography. The cited items are con- John von Neumann, and Feynman.Z5~zb sidered part of the “core” for the “research The key idea in this tradition is to generalize fronts, ” as determined by an algorithm de- the idea of a‘ ‘space, ” originally defined in veloped at ISI.Z7-Z9Items in a core must be

174 Table 5: The number of authors per paper for the 36 Table Z The Jourmata that published the 36 papers physicaf-sciencs.s papers most cited in the SCI@ listed [n the Bibliography. The numbers in cumulation, 1945-1954. parentheses are the 1988 impact factors for the journals. (The 1988 impact factor eqmds the number Number of Number of 1988 citations received by the 1986-1987 articles Authors of in a joumat divided by the number of articles published per Paper Papers by the journal during the same period.) Data were taken from the 1988 JCR@ The figures at the right 5 1 indicate how many papers from each jnumat appear 4 1 in the Bibliography, 3 4 2 11 Number of 1 19 Journal Papers

I Phys. Rev. (N/A) 13 J. Amer. Chem. Snc. (4.57) 8 related to each other by co-citations, and Rev, Mnd, Phys. (15.13) 6 must also satis~ a minimum “citation J. Chem. Phys. (3.59) 3 strength” criterion that weights each cita- 2 Bcr. Deut. Chem, Ges, B (N/A) 1 HeIv, Chim. Acts (1.97) 1 tion relative to the total number of citations 3 Ind, Eng. Chem. Amd. J?zl. (N/A) I in the reference list of the citing paper. This 4 J. Phys. SSSR (N/A) 1 procedure should to some extent mitigate the 5 Just. Liebigs Ann, Chem. (N/A) 1 bias against fields such as mathematics in GKolloid Z. Z. Polym, (N/A) 1 which articles have shorter reference lists. 1 Divided in 1970 into Phys, Rev. A—Gen. Phys, It is interesting to note that both of the core (2. 32), Phys. Rev, B–Solid State (changed in papers in research front #88-4982, ‘‘Sym- 1978 to Phys. Rev, B—Condensed Matter [3.82]), Phys. Rev. C–NUC1. Phys. (2.01), metry group transformation operators in the and Phys. Rev. D—Part. Fields (2.33) interaction picture and quantum fluid at non- 2 Merged with Ber. Deut. Chem. Ges. A in 1947 zero temperature, ” are Citation (Yassics in- to form Chem. Bar. (1 .53) 3 Changed to Anal. Chem. (3.98) in 1947 cluded in this study— Dyson’s 1949 paper 4 Published 1939-1947 on the Tomonaga-Schwinger-Feynman ra- s Changed to Llebigs Ann. Chem. (1, 10) in 1979 diation theories and Feynman’s 1949 paper GChanged to CoUoid Pnlym. Sci. (0.95) in 1974 on the space-time approach to quantum elec- trodynamics. That these and other works of comparable age are still co-cited in current and discussed by Garfield,31 refers to im- resenrch fronts indicates that they have not portant discoveries that have become so been “obliterated by incorporation. ” This completely integrated into scientific phenomenon, described by sociologist knowledge that authors no longer feel a need Robert K. Merton,so Columbia University, to cite the original publication. Other statistical characteristics for the 36 Table 6 Natiomd Incatinm of the fnatitutfonal articles in this study are given in Tables 5-7: NIUationa listed by authors in the Bibliography, the number of authors per paper, mtionali- according tn total appmmnces (column A). B=number w based on authors’ institutional affiliations, of items cnautfrored with researchers affiliated with institutions in other countries. C= national InCations andjournal of publication, respectively (ex- of institutions listed by coauthors. cept for the table showing mtionalities, these three tables exclude this study’s 16 books). connt3y AB c us 37 2 Camda, Denmark UK 6 Conch?skma Canada 21 us Germany 2 In this essay I have tried to sketch a few Sweden 2 of the scientific developments of the 1930s Switzerland 2 and 1940s and to contrast the visibility of Denmark 11 us Poland 1 those developments at mid-century, as mea- USSR 1 sured by citation frequency, with their im-

175 portance as perceived in subsequent de- son; one must then look at the citing articles cades. to find out why it was cited, In some cases Since some science departments now use (e.g., the article by Brtmauer et al. on ad- citation counts in evaluating faculty for pro- sorption) one karrts about important original motion and tenure, it should be emphasized research that may have been neglected by that most of the papers that are later judged historians of science. The list of articles that to contain outstanding discoveries were not cited a publication is also extremely helpful highly cited by contemporaries. Thus one in studying how and why a theory or dis- cannot dismiss publications as insignificant covery was accepted or rejected by the sci- merely because they are not frequently cited entific commutity, which I demonstrated in (even relative to other papers in the same a historical study of theories of the origin joumals).32 of the solar system .33 For historians and others interested in un- As those who have participated in the sci- derstanding the science of a particular entific enterprise have learned (sometimes period, citations (to say nothing of the more by bitter experience), it is not sufficient sophisticated kinds of citation analysis now merely to publish your ideas and results; you used in the discipline of scientometrics) can must also persuade other scientists to accept be quite revealing. The fact that a publica- them. The SCI offers a valuable tool for in- tion was highly cited shows that it was visi- vestigating the dynamics as well as the struc- ble to the scientific community for sorrterea- ture of science. <,,s,W

REFERENCES 1. Brush S G. Why chemistry needs history-and how it can get some. J. COU. Sci. Teach. 7:288-91, 1978, 2, HermarsZ S. The twenty-fivemost-citedpublicationsof Lirrus Patding. (Huemer R P, cd.) 7he roors of molecular medicine: a tribute to Linus Prruling. New York: Frmnan, 1986. p. 254-9, 3. Dmon B. The 102 nrnst-cited Iife-scierrces publications in the ocw 1945-1954ScienceCitation Index. Parts 1 & 2. Current Contents (15):4-10, 10 April 1989; (16):3-10, 17 April 1989, 4. Garfield E. The 250 most-cited Citation Ckz.mics from the essential decade 1955-1964. Essays of an information scientist: ghostwriting and orher essays. Pbitadelphia: 1S1 Press, 1986. Vol. 8, p. 37-49. 5. Smrdl H. Physics Citarion Index, 15EW1929. Philadelpbiw fnstitute for scientific Information, 1981. 2 Vols 6. Garfield E. The new 1945-1954 SCI cumulation provides ursique access to the crucial pstwar decade of acientitic and technological achievement. Currenr Contents (27):3- 10, 4 July 198S. 7. Segr+ E. From x-rays to quarks: modern physicists and their discoveries. San Rartcisco,CA: Freeman, 19s0. 337 p. 8, Heifbron J L, Wbeaton B R, May J G, Rider R & Robinson D. Literature on the history ofphysics in the 2&h century. Berkeley, CA: OffIce for History of Science and Technology, University of California, 1981.485 p. 9. Brush S G & BeUord L. lhe history of modem physics: an international bibliography. New York: Garland, 1983.334 p. 10. Lamb W E & Retfrerford R C. Firre structure of tbc hydrogen atom hy a microwave nrerfrod. Phys. Rev. 72:241-3, 1947. Il. Feynrrmn R P. “Surely you ‘rejoking, Mr. Feynman!” Adventures of a curious characrer. New York: Norton, 1985.350 p. 12. -.-- —------. “What do YOU care whet other people rhmk ?‘’ Further adventures of a curious characrer. New York: Norton, 1988.255 p. 13. Meitner L & Frisch O R. Letter to c&tor. (Disintegration of uranium by neutrons: a new type of nuclear reaction.) Nature 143:239d0, 1939. 14. Krafff F. Internal and external conditions for the discovery of nuclear fission hy the Rerlin team. (Shea W R, ed. ) Otto Hahn and rhe rise of nuclear physics. Snston, MA: Reidel, 1983. p. 135-65. 15. Dickman S. Meitner receives her due. Narure 340:497, 1989. 16. Weinberg S. Tbe search for unity: notes for a history of quantum field tbeury. Dae&lus 10&17-35, 1977, 17. Brush S G. Statistical physics and the atomic theory of matter from Boyle and Newron to l.anrzhu rmd Onsager. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983, p. 244-6. 18. Neu J, ed. Isis cumukrtive bibliography 197tL1985. Bnston, MA: Halt, 1989, 2 vols. 19. Pforv P J. SDStial confimmmiorr of nracromolecrdas cbsins. (Odelfxm? W. ed. ) La Pri.r Nobel en 1974. ;tnckbolrn. Sweden: -Norstedt & Wrer. 1975. D. 104-25 -

176 20. Gartleld E. Dn Nobel f%ze winners write Cimrkm Cfassics? Op. cir., 1988. Vol. 9. p. 182-7. 21. Pod R. Basic measurements lead to physics Nobel. Scienre 246:327-8, 1989. 22. Onaager L. Reciprocalrelations in irreversible prncesses, 1. Phys. Rev. 37:405-26, 1931, 23. ------, Rcciprccalrelationsin irreversible prncesses, If. Phys. Rev. 38:2265-79, 1931. 24. ------Crystal statistics. 1. A two-dmensionaf mndel with an order-disorder transition, Phys. Rev. 65:117-49, 1944. 25. Stefnfmru H. Stefan Banach, 1892-1945. Ser. Math. 2693 -lMt, 1961. 26. Bemkopf M. The development of timctinn spaces with particular reference to their origins in integral equation tieocy. Arch. His?. Eracr. Sci. 3:1-96, 1966, 27. Smafl H & Sweeney E. Clustering the Science Citation Irrdcx using ccwitations. 1. A comparison of methods. .$cienkmrreoics 7:391-409, 1985. 28. Smafl H, Sweerrey E & Greerdee E. Clustering the science Citarion hdc.r using co-citations. 2. Mapping science. Scientometrics 8;321 -40, 1985. 29. Small H & Garfield E. The geography of science: disciplinary and national mappings, J. hrform. Sci. 11:147-59, 1985. 30. Merton R K. On the shoulders of giants: a Sharrdcan postscnjrt. San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1985. p. 218-9. 31. Garfield E. The “obliteration phenomenon” in arience-and the advantage of being obliterated! QP. cit., 1977, Vol. 2. p, 396-8. 32. ------How to use citation ansfysis for faculty evaluations, and when is it relevant? Pacts 1 & 2. fbirf., Vol. 6. p. 3S4-72. 33, Bnrah S G. ‘flrcuries of the origin of the solar system 1956-1985. Rev, Mod. Phys. 62(1) :43-1 12, 19913.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The 52 pbyaicaf-aekmces papers and hook moat cfted brthe SCF’ cunndation, 1*1954, listed in alphabetic order by first author. Numbers folIowing the bibliographic entcy iodicate the 1988 SC1/SSCF research-front specialties for which these are core papers. An asterisk (*) indicates that the item waa the subject of a Citation CTossic” commentary. The issue, year, and edition of the cmnmcnqwy fohw the bibfiogmphic reference. A =trrtal number of 1945-1954 citations. A dagger (t) indicates that the item has been previously identified in an essay on the 250 most-cited items from the 1955-1964 SCI cumulation. (See reference 4).

A Bibwaphic DatIs

146 Ajsenberg F & Larrrif-sen T. Energy levels of light nuclei. Ff. Rev. Mod. Phys. 24:321-402, 1952. 167 Banach S. ?leorie &s operations lineaires (77reory of linear operations). Waraaw, Poland Z subwencji Funduszu kultury narndowej, 1932. 254 p. 142 Rarrer R M. Difiion in and through $olitilr. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1941. 464 p. 179 Berrmf J D & Fowler R H. A theory of water and ionic snlution, with particular reference to hydrogen and hydroxyl ions. J. Chem. Phys. 1:515-48, 1933.88-0465 175 Barry J W, Chappefl D G & Barnea R B. Improved method of flame phaomet~. Ind. Eng. Chem. And Ed. 18:19-24, 1946. 257 Blchowsky F R & Roasini F D. ‘fhe therrnachemistry af the chemical sabstanres. New York: Reinhold, 1936.460 p. 147 TBfoch F. Nuclear induction. f%ys. Rev. 70460-74, 1946. 199 *tBloembergen N, Purcell E M & Pound R V. Relaxation effccta in nuclear magnetic resonance absorption. Phys, Rev. 73:679-712, 1948. (18/77) 88-1474 I49 Bnhr N & Wheeler J A. The mechanism of nuclear fission. Phys. Rev. 56:426-50, 1939.88-0082 143 Brockmann H & Sdmdder H. Ahmdniumoxyd tit abgestuflem Adaorptionsvermngen zur chromstographischen Adsorption (Ahuniomrr oxide with graduated adaurption capacity in chromatographlc adsorption). Ber. Deut. Chem. Ges. B 74:73-8, 1941. 450 *tBmnauer S, Emmett P H & Tefler E. Adaocption of gaaes in multimolecular layers. J, Amer. Chcnr. SoC. 60:309-19, 1938. (35/77) 88-33El) 140 Cafvfn M, Heidelberger C, Reid J C, Tolbert B M & Yarrkwich P F. Isotonic carbon: techniques in its measurement aud chemicaf rnaaipufation. New York: Wtiey, 1949. 376 p. 185 Chapman S & Cowfing T G. ‘lhe mathematical theory of mm-urr$own gases: an account of the kinefic theory of viscosity, thcrrnol condti”on, and difliesion in gases. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1939.404 p. 177 * Crarm% H. Mathematical method.i of statistics. Uppsala, Sweden: Almqvist & Wkaeffs, 1945. 575 p. (28/83/PC&ES) 219 Dysnrr F J. The S matrix in quantum elwtrndynanrics. Phys. Rev. 75:1736-55, 1949. 191 Dyson F J. The radiation theories of Tomonaga, Schwinger, and Feynmarr. Phys, Rev. 75:486-502, 1949, 88-4982

177 A BibliographicData

141 FeerrbergE & Ihrrrrmck K C. Nuclearshellstructure.Phys. Rev. 75:1877-93, 1949, 160 Feyrunan R P. The theory of pnsitrons. Phys. Rev. 76:749-59, 1949. 195 FeyssrsrarsR P. Space-time appmacb to quautrmr electrcdyrramics. Phys, Rev, 76:769-89, 1949. 88-4982 150 Flory P J. Molecular weights and intrinsic viscosities of polyiaobutylenes. J. Amer. Chem. SOc. 65:372-82, 1943. 216 * Flory P J. Tbermndynamics of high polymer sohnions. J. Chem, Phy$. 10:51-61, 1942, (18/85/ET&AS; 18/85/PC&ES) 884)046 418 *tGlaaatone S, Lakffer K J & E@rsg H. 77rethem-y of rare processes: the kineb’cs of cherrdcal renctions, viscosity, di@rion and electrochemical pherrorrrena. New York: McGraw-HM, 1941. 611 p. (1 l/85/ET&AS; 1l/85/PC&ES) 243 GnhfJraber M & Sortyar A W. Classification of nuclear isomers. Phys. Rev, 83:906-18, 1951. 240 * Heraberg G. Molecular spectra and rrrolecukrr structure. II. lnfiared and Rarmrn spectra of pdyaeorrric rrrdecrdes. New York: Van Nostrarrd, 1945.632 p. (13/88/ET&AS; 13/88/PC&ES) 222 Huarsg-Mhrlon. A simple mndifrcation of the Wolff-Kisfmer reduction. J. Amer. Chcm. .%. 68:2487-8, 1946. 173 Knsropimaki E J. Beta-decay. Rev. Mod. P/Iys. 15:20945, 1943. 152 Krsbrs W. Uher die Gestalt fadenformiger Molekiile in Lbsungen (Shape of fibre-forrning molecules in solutions). Kol(oid Z. Z. Polym. 68:2-15, 1934. 140 KubrrW & Kuhn H. Die Frage nach der AufroOung vmr Fadenmolekeln in strbmenden LiMungen (Coiling of fdamentmy molecufes in flowing liquids). He/v. Chim. Acto 26:1394-465, 1943. 140 Landau L D. Theory of superfluidity of He U. J. Phys. SSSR 5:71-90, 1941. g8-0141 162 Latfreser W M. Y?reoxidation states of the elements and their potentials in aqueous solutions. New York: Prentice-Hall, 1938.352 p. 146 Lewis G N & RarrdaIi M. 7herrnodyrwmics orrd the free energy of chemical substances. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1923.653 p, 255 Mayer M G. Nuclear cotilguratinns in the spin-orbh couplig mndel. 1, Empirical evidence. Phys. Rev. 78:16-21, 1950. 165 Mott N F & Gurney R W. Electronic processes in iorric crysral$. Oxford, UK: Cfarendon Press, 1940.275 p, 154 Mott N F & Jrmea H. 77re theory of the properties of metoh and alloys. Oxford, UK: Clarendnn Press, 1936.326 p. 884626 I50 Mnzfrsgn R, Wolf D E, Harris S A & Fnlkers K. Hydrogennlysis of sulfur cnmpcrunda by Raney rnckel catalyst. J. Amer. Chem. Sot. 65:1013-6, 1943. 148 Muflkken R S, Rieke C A & Brnwrs W G. Hyperconjugatinn. J. Amer. Chem. Sot. 63:41-56, 1941. 223 Nystrom R F & Brnwm W G. Reduction of organic compounds by lithium afumismm hydride. 1. Aldehydes, ketones, esters, acid cbforides and acid anfrydrides. J. Amer. Chem. Ser. 69:1 I97-9, 1947.88-3298 143 Nyatroart R F & Brnwn W G. Reduction nf organic compnunds by lithhmr ahmrirrum hydride. D. Carbnxylic acids. J. Arrrer, Chem. Snc. 69:2548-9, 1947. 169 Onaager L. Electric mnments of molecules in liquids. J. Arrwr. Chem, &x, 58:1486-93, 1936. 153 * Paufing f.. i’le nature of the chemical bond and the structure of molecules ond crystals: an introduction 10 modem structural chemiwy. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1939. 429 p. (4/85/ET&AS; 4185/PC&ES) 418 * Pmsl@ L. 371t nature of the chemical bond and thr structure of molecules orrd crystafs: an introduction to modem structural chemistry. Ithaca, NY: Comeff Urriversity Press, 1940. Lcnsdnn: Oxford University Press, 1945.450 p. (4/85/ET&AS; 4/85/PC&ES) I86 Roaai B. frrterpretatinn nf cosnric-ray phenomena. Rev. Mod. Phys. 20:537-83, 1948. 227 Rtwsi B & Grefaen K. Cosmic-ray the-my. Rev. Mod. Phys. 13:240-309, 1941.88-5199 187 Sehwksger J. @ammrr electrodynamics. I. A covariant fnrmrdation. Phys. Rew 74:1439-61, 194g. 197 Srhwissger J. Quantum electrodynamics. II. Vacumrr pnlariration and self-energy. Phys. Ro. 75;651-79, 1949. 259 Seahorg G T & Perfman L Table nf iantopes. Rev. Mod. Phys. 20:585-667, 1948. 140 Seifa F. Cnlor centers in alkafi halide crystals. RerJ. Med. Phys. 18:384408, 1946. 176 Seita F. 31e modem theory of soli~. New York: McGraw-Hi3f, 1940.698 p. 176 ~Slater J C. Atomic shielding constama. Phys. Rev. 3657-64, 1930. 381 ‘tSvedberg T, Pederress K O & Basser J H. 7he uhracenmfige. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1940.478 n. 140 ● Wflaors E B. Sosnr mathematical metbnds for the study nf mok?cuk vibrations, J, Chem. Phys. 9:76-84, 1941. (1 l/81/PC&ES) 88-8156 168 Ziegfer K, Spath A, Sehsraf E, S’chrrmmm W & Wmkefrrtarm E. Die Halogerriemng unge.wmigter Substanzen in der Allylstellung (l’be hafogemarion of unsaturated substances in the allylic pnsirion). Just. Liebim Ann. Chem. 551:80-119, 1942.

178