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Appendix the Nobel Prize in Chemistry

Appendix the Nobel Prize in Chemistry

Appendix

The in

Alfred Bernard Nobel (1833-1896) amassed an enormous fortune from his inventions and improvements in the manufacture of . His father was also an explosives manufacturer, and in 1863 Alfred developed a detonator based on mercury fulminate, which made possible the use of the liquid nitroglycerine. Nobel continued his experiments in spite of an explosion in 1864 that destroyed the factory and killed five people including his younger brother. In 1867 he patented dynamite, in which nitroglycerine was absorbed by the inert solid kieselguhr and was therefore much safer to handle. In 1875 he introduced the more powerful blasting gelatin.e, in which the nitroglycerine was gelatinised with nitrocellulose. These inventions made possible major civil engineering projects like the Corinth canal and the St Gotthard tunnel. In 1887 Nobel introduced ballistite, a smokeless explosive for military use. Nobel hoped that the destructive capabilities of the new explosives would reduce the likelihood of war. Nobel left his fortune for the establishment of five prizes to be awarded annually for achievements in chemistry, , or , literature of an idealistic tendency, and the promotion of world . The rust awards were made in 1901. The Nobel Prize for was founded in 1968 by the National Bank of and the rust award was made in 1969. The Nobel Prizes have become the most highly regarded of all international awards. A Prize cannot be shared by more than three people, and cannot be awarded posthumously. A list of the winners of the Nobel Prize for Chemistry is given below. On occasions the work that has resulted in awards in physics and physiology or medicine has been to some extent chemical in content or application.

1901 Jacobus Hemicus van't Hoff 'For the laws of chemical dynamics (1852-1911) and of osmotic pressure.'

1902 Emil Hermann Fischer 'For his syntheses in the groups of (1852-1919) and purines.'

1903 Svante August Arrhenius 'For his theory of electrolytic (1859-1927) dissociation. '

260 Appendix: The 261

1904 'For the discovery of the gaseous, (1852-1916) indifferent elements in the air and the determination of their place in the periodic system.'

1905 Johann Friedrich Wilhelm 'For his researches on organic dyestuffs and hydroaromatic (1835-1917) compounds.'

1906 Ferdinand-Frederick Henri 'For his investigation and isolation Moissan of the element and for (1852-1907) placing at the service of the electric furnace which bears his name.'

1907 'For his biochemical researches and (1860-1917) his discovery of cell-free .'

1908 'For his investigations into the (1871-1937) disintegration of the elements and the chemistry of radioactive substances.'

1909 Friedrich 'For his work on and for (1853-1932) his investigations into the fundamental principles governing chemical equilibria and rates of reaction.'

1910 'For his pioneer work in the (1847-1931) field of alicyclic compounds.'

1911 Marie Sklodowska Curie 'For her services to the (1867-1934) advancement of chemistry by the discovery of the elements and polonium, by the isolation of radium and the study of the and compounds of this remarkable element.'

1912 Fran~ise August 'For the discovery of the so-called (1871-1935) Grignard reagent, which in recent years has greatly advanced the progress of .' 262 Appendix: The Nobel Prize in Chemistry

Paul Sabatier 'For his method of hydrogenating (1854-1941) organic compounds in the presence of finely divided metals.'

1913 'In recognition of his work on the (1866-1919) linkage of in , by which he has thrown fresh on old problems and opened up new fields of research, especially in .'

1914 Theodore William Richards 'For his exact determination of the (1868-1928) atomic weights of a large number of chemical elements.'

1915 Richard Martin Willstiitter 'For his researches on plant (1872-1942) pigments, especially chlorophyll.'

1916 No award

1917 No award

1918 'For the synthesis of from (1868-1934) its elements.'

1919 No award

1920 Hermann 'In recognition of his work in (1864-1941) . '

1921 'For his important contributions (1877-1956) to our knowledge of the chemistry of radioactive substances and his investigations into the origin and nature of .'

1922 'For his discovery, by means of his (1877-1945) spectrograph, of isotopes in a large number of non-radioactive elements, and for his enunciation of the whole-number rule.'

1923 'For his invention of the method (1869-1930) of microanalysis of organic substances. ' Appendix: The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 263

1924 No award

1925 Richard Adolf Zsigmondy 'For his demonstration of the (1865-1929) heterogeneous nature of solutions and for the methods he used, which have since become fundamental in modem colloid chemistry. '

1926 Theodor 'For his work on disperse systems.' (1884-1971)

1927 'For his investigations of the (1877-1971) constitution of the bile acids and related substances.'

1928 Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus 'For the services rendered through (1876-1959) his research into the constitution of the sterols and their connection with the .'

1929 'For their investigations of the (1865-1940) fermentation of and Hans Karl August Simon fermentative .' von Euler-Chelpin (1873-1964)

1930 'For his researches into the (1881-1945) constitution of hemin and chlorophyll and especially for his synthesis of hemin.'

1931 'In recognition of their (1874-1940) contributions to the invention and development of chemical high- (1884-1949) pressure methods.'

1932 'For his outstanding discoveries (1881-1957) and investigations within the field of surface chemistry.'

1933 No award

1934 Harold Clayton Urey 'For his discovery of heavy (1893-1981) .' 264 Appendix: The Nobel Prize in Chemistry

1935 Irene Joliot-Curie 'For their synthesis of new (1897-1956) radioactive elements.' Jean Frederic Joliot (1900-1958)

1936 Peter Joseph William Debye 'For his contributions to the study (1884-1966) of molecular structure through his investigations on dipole moments and on the diffraction of X-rays and in gases.'

1937 Walter 'For his investigations on (1883-1950) and C.'

Paul Karrer 'For his researches and (1889-1971) investigations on carotinoids, flavins, and vitamins A and B.'

1938 'For his work on carotinoids and (1900-1967) vitamins.'

1939 'For his work on the mammalian (b. 1903) sex hormones.'

Leopold Stephen Ruzicka 'For his work on polymethylenes (1887-1976) and higher terpenes.'

1940 No award

1941 No award

1942 No award

1943 George Charles Hevesy 'For his work on the use of (1885-1966) isotopes as tracers in the study of chemical processes.'

1944 'For his discovery of the fission of (1879-1968) heavy nuclei.'

1945 'For his research and (1895-1973) discoveries in the field of agricultural and nutrition chemistry, and particularly his method of preserving animal fodder.' Appendix: The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 265

1946 James Batcheller Sumner 'For his discovery that enzymes can (1887-1955) be crystallised.'

John Howard Northrop 'For their preparation of enzymes (1891-1987) and virus in pure form.' (1904-1971)

1947 Robert Robinson 'For his investigations on plant (1886-1975) products of biological importance, especially the alkaloids.'

1948 Arne Wilhelm Kaurin Tiselius 'For his research on electrophoresis (1902-1975) and on analysis by , in particular for his discoveries concerning the heterogeneous nature of the proteins of the serum.'

1949 William Francis Giauque 'For his contributions in the (1895-1982) field of chemical , particularly concerning the behaviour of substances at extremely low temperatures.'

1950 Otto Paul Hermann Diels 'For their discovery and (1876-1954) development of the diene synthesis. ' (1902-1958)

1951 Glenn Theodore Seaborg 'For their discoveries in the (b. 1912) chemistry of the transuranium Edwin Mattison McMillan elements.' (b. 1907)

1952 Archer John Porter Martin 'For their invention of partition (b. 1910) . ' Richard Laurence Millington Synge (b. 1914)

1953 'For his discoveries in the (1881-1965) field of macromolecular chemistry. ' 266 Appendix: The Nobel Prize in Chemistry

1954 'For his research into the nature of (b. 1901) the and its application to the structure of complex substances.'

1955 'For his work on biochemically (1901-1978) important sulphur compounds and particularly for the first synthesis of a polypeptide hormone.'

1956 'For their researches into the (1897 -1967) mechanisms of chemical reactions.' Nikolai Nikolaevich Semenov (1896-1986)

1957 Alexander Robertus Todd 'For his work on and (b. 1907) coenzymes.'

1958 'For his work on the structure of (b. 1918) proteins, especially that of .'

1959 Jaroslav Heyrovsky 'For inventing and developing the (1890-1967) polarographic method of analysis.'

1960 Willard Frank Libby 'For his method to use 14 (1908-1980) for age determination in archaeology, geology, geophysics and other branches of science.'

1961 'For his work on the carbon (b. 1911) dioxide assimilation in plants.'

1962 John Cowdery Kendrew 'For their studies of the structure (b. 1917) of globular proteins.' Max Ferdinand Perutz (b. 1914)

1963 Guilio Natta 'For their discoveries in the field (1903-1979) of the chemistry and technology of high .' (1898-1973) Appendix: The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 267

1964 Dorothy Mary Crowfoot Hodgkin 'For her determination by X-ray (b. 1910) techniques of the structures of important biochemical substances.'

1965 Robert Bums Woodward 'For his outstanding achievements (1917-1979) in the art of .'

1966 Robert Sanderson Mulliken 'For his fundamental work (1896-1986) concerning chemical bonds and the electronic structure of molecules by the molecular orbital method.'

1967 'For their studies of extremely fast (b. 1927) chemical reactions, effected by Ronald George Wreyford Norrish disturbing the equilibrium by (1897-1978) means of very short pulses of .' (b. 1920)

1968 'For the discovery of the reciprocal (1903-1976) relations bearing his name, which are fundamental for the thermodynamics of irreversible processes.'

1969 Derek Harold Richard Barton 'For their contributions to the (b. 1918) development of the concept of conformation and its application (1897-1981) in chemistry.'

1970 'For his discovery of sugar (b. 1906) nucleotides and their role in the of carbohydrates.'

1971 'For his contributions to the (b. 1904) knowledge of electronic structure and geometry of molecules, particularly free radicals.'

1972 Christian Boehmer Anfinsen 'For his work on ribonuclease, (b. 1916) especially concerning the connection between the sequence and the biologically active conformation.' 268 Appendix: The Nobel Prize in Chemistry

Stanford Moore 'For their contribution to the (1913-1982) understanding of the connection William Howard Stein between chemical structure and (1911-1980) catalytic activity of the active centre of the ribonuclease .'

1973 'For their pioneering work, (b. 1918) performed independently, on the chemistry of organometallic, (b. 1921) so-called sandwich compounds.'

1974 Paul John Flory 'For his fundamental achievements, (1910-1985) both theoretical and experimental, in the of the .'

1975 John Warcup Cornforth 'For his work on the stereo• (b. 1917) chemistry of -catalysed reactions.'

Vladimir Prelog 'For his research into the (b. 1906) of organic molecules and reactions.'

1976 William Nunn Lipscomb 'For his studies on the structure of (b. 1919) boranes illuminating the problems of chemical bonding.'

1977 'For his contributions to (b. 1917) nonequilibrium thermodynamics, particularly the theory of dissipative structures.'

1978 Peter Dennis Mitchell 'For his contribution to the (b. 1920) understanding of biological energy transfer through the formulation of the chemiosmotic theory.'

1979 Herbert Charles Brown 'For their development of boron• (b. 1912) and phosphorus-containing Georg Friedrich Karl Wittig compounds, respectively, into (b. 1897-1987) important reagents in organic synthesis. ' Appendix: The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 269

1980 'For his fundamental studies of the (b. 1926) of nucleic acids, with particular regard to recombinant DNA.'

Walter Gilbert 'For their contributions concerning (b. 1932) the determination of base Frederick Sanger sequences in nucleic acids.' (b. 1918)

1981 'For their theories, developed (b. 1918) independently, concerning the course of chemical reactions.' (b. 1937)

1982 'For his development of (b. 1926) crystallographic microscopy and his structural elucidation of biologically important nucleic acid- complexes.'

1983 'For his studies of the mechanisms (b. 1915) of electron transfer reactions, particularly of metal complexes.'

1984 'In recognition of his methodology (b. 1921) for on a solid matrix.'

1985 Herbert Aaron Hauptmann 'For their outstanding achievements (b. 1917) in the development of direct methods for the determination (b. 1917) of structures.'

1986 Dudley Robert Herschbach 'For their contributions concerning (b. 1932) the dynamics of elementary Yuan Tseh Lee chemical processes.' (b. 1936) John Charles Polanyi (b. 1929) 270 Appendix: The Nobel Prize in Chemistry

1987 Charles Pedersen 'For their development and use of (1904-1988) molecules with structure-specific Donald Cram interactions of high selectivity.' (b. 1919) Jean-Marie Lehn (b. 1939)

1988 'For their work in the field of (b. 1943) . ' (b. 1937) (b. 1946)

1989 'For their discovery of the (b. 1939) catalytic function of the genetic material RNA.' (b. 1948)

1990 'For rmding new ways of (b. 1928) producing and synthesising chemical compounds.'

1991 Richard Ernst 'For the development of nuclear (b. 1933) magnetic resonance .'

1992 Rudolph Marcus 'For his theoretical work on (b. 1923) electron transfer between molecules. ' Bibliography

A considerable number of journals deal with the history of science and medicine, but only one (Ambix, published by the Society for the History of and Chemistry) is devoted specifically to the . Articles of historical interest frequently appear in journals such as Chemistry in Britain, Journal of Chemical Education and Education in Chemistry. Historical articles also appear occasionally in more general journals such as Scientific American and New Scientist, as well as in specialised journals concerned with particular subdivisions of chemistry. An excellent guide to the literature published in the period from approximately 1960 to 1980 is to be found in C. A. Russell (ed.), Recent Developments in the History of Chemistry (London, 1985). Anyone wishing to explore an aspect of the history of chemistry in greater depth would be well advised to start with that publication. The book list that follows is inevitably somewhat idiosyncratic, but it comprises a selection of some of the more readily available works that the author has found to be of interest and value. Included in the list is a selection of reprints of famous books and papers. Those seriously interested in the history of chemistry should read a selection of the classics of the subject, and some of the publications listed reproduce the original works in facsimile. While few of us may be able to consult a contemporary copy of Robert Kerr's translation of Lavoisier's Traite published in 1790, a facsimile edition is readily available, and we can thus attempt to imagine ourselves as one of the original readers of that great classic of chemistry.

General Works

E. Farber (ed.), Great (Interscience: New York, 1961). A. Findlay, A Hundred Years of Chemistry, 3rd edn. rev. T. I. Williams (Methuen: London, 1965). C. C. Gillispie (ed.). Dictionary of Scientific Biography (Charles Scribner's Sons: New York, 1970-80). A. J. Ihde, The Development of Modern Chemistry (Dover: New York, 1984). H. M. Leicester, The Historical Background of Chemistry (Dover: New York, 1971). J. R. Partington, A History of Chemistry, 4 vols (Macmillan: London, 1961-70). J. R. Partington, A Short History of Chemistry, 2nd edn. (Macmillan: London, 1948).

271 272 Bibliography

C. A. Russell (ed.), Recent Developments in the History of Chemistry (Royal Society of Chemistry: London, 1985).

Books on Particular Topics

W. H. Brock, From Protyle to (Hilger: Bristol, 1985). W. A. Campbell, The Chemical Industry (Longmans: London, 1971). D. S. L. Cardwell (ed.), and the Progress of Science ( University Press, Manchester, 1968). M. P. Crosland, Historical Studies in the Language of Chemistry, 2nd edn. (Dover: New York, 1978). E. J. Holmyard, Alchemy (Dover: New York, 1990). H. M. N. H. Irving, The Techniques of (HMSO: London, 1974). G. B. Kauffman, Inorganic Coordination Compounds (Heyden: London, 1981). H. Kearney, Science and Change (Weidenfeld and Nicholson: London, 1971). G. E. R. Lloyd, Early Greek Science: Thales to (Chatto & Windus: London, 1970). G. E. R. Lloyd, Greek Science.ajter Aristotle (Norton: New York, 1973). D. McKie, Antoine Lavoisier, Scientist, Economist, Social Reformer (Constable: London, 1952). C. A. Russell, The History of Valency (Leicester University Press: Leicester, 1971). F. Szabadvuy, History of Analytical Chemistry (Pergamon: Oxford, 1966). F. S. Taylor, The Alchemists (Heinemann: London, 1951). T. Wasson (ed.), Nobel Prize Wmners (Wilson: New York, 1987). M. E. Weeks and H. M. Leicester, Discovery of the Elements, 7th edn. (Journal of Chemical Education: Easton, Pennsylvania, 1968). S. Weinberg, The Discovery of Subatomic Particles (Scientific American Books: New York, 1983). T. I. Williams, The Chemical Industry, 2nd edn. (EP Publishing: Wakefield, 1972).

Reprints of Famous Books and Papers

J. Dalton, A New System of Chemical Philosophy (Peter Owen: London, 1965). R. Kirwan, An Essay on Phlogiston (Frank Cass: London, 1968). D. M. Knight (ed.), Classical Scientific Papers, Chemistry (Mills & Boon: London, 1968). D. M. Knight (ed.), Classical Scientific Papers, Chemistry, Second Series (Mills & Boon: London, 1970). A. L. Lavoisier, Elements of Chemistry, transl. Robert Kerr (Dover: New York, 1965). H. M. Leicester and H. S. Klickstein (eds), Source Book in Chemistry 1400-1900 (McGraw-Hill: New York, 1952). Bibliography 273

H. M. Leicester (ed.), Source Book in Chemistry, 1900-1950 ( Press: , Massachusetts, 1968). Name Index

Note: The page numbers of biographies are printed in bold type

Abney, W. de W. 222 Bainbridge, K. T. 172 Blagden, C. 59, 68 at Pontin, M. M. 97 Balmer, 1. 1. 177 Bloch, F. 225 Agricola, G. 28, 228, 246 Barbier, P. A. 144 Blomstrand, C. W. 191 a1-Razi, see Rhases BarIda, C. 173 Boerhaave, H. 48 A1bertus Magnus 25 Bartlett, N. 201 Bohr, N. 176, 177, 178 Alder, K. 156, 265 Barton, D. H. R. 151, 267 Boisbaudran, P. E. L. de A1derotti, T. 25 Bauer, G., see Agricola, G. 133 Alexander the Great 10 Bayen, P. 66 Bolos 18 Altman, s. 270 Becher, 1. 1. 47 Boltwood, B. B. 170 Amagat, E. H. 208 BecquereI, H. 164, 166 Bolzmann, L. E. 207, 215 Ampere, A. M. 98, 126, 187 Beddoes, T. 93 Born, M 179 Anaxagoras 8 Beer, A. 238 Bosch, C. 250, 263 Anaximander 6 Beguin, J. 39 Boscovich, R. 103, 208 Anaximenes 6 Behrend, R. 240 Bottger, W. 240 Andrews, T. 208 Berg, O. 238 Bougouer, P. 238 Anfinsen, C. B. 267 Berg, P. 269 Boullay, P. 111 Anschiitz, R. 120 Bergius, F. 263 Boyle, R. 36,41,42,50, Aquinas, T. 15 Bergman, T. 49, 104, 229, 62, 66, 68, 202, 229 Archimedes 15, 36 230 Brackett, F. S. 177 Aristotle 8, 10, 35 Bemouilli, D. 206 Bragg, W. H. 150, 173 Armstrong, H. E. 141 Berthelot, M. 143, 205, 210 Bragg, W. L. 150, 173, 223 Arndt, F. G. 182 Berthollet, C. L. 69, 70, 73, Brahe, T. 37 Arrhenius, S. A. 202, 211, 76, 78, 231, 249 Brand, H. 16 217, 218, 260 Berzelius, 1. J. 86, 87, 88- Brlllnsted, 1. N. 221 Aston, F. W. 171, 262 9, 90, 95, 97, 99, 103, Broglie, L. V. de 178 Avicenna 24, 25 104, 105, 110, 111, 127, Broignart, A. 112 Avogadro, A. 86, 100, 123, 188,229 Brown, A. C. 120, 139 137,207 Bethe, H. 186 Brown, H. C. 157, 268 Bijvoet, 1. M. 150 Brunschwygk, H. 27 Biot, 1. B. 75, 146 Buchner, E. 261 Bacon, F. 37,202 Biringuccio, V. 28 Bunsen, R. W. 114, 125, BaeIdand, L. H. 256 Birkbeck, G. 245 233 Baeyer, J. F. W. A. von Black, J. 51,66,69, 72, 77, Bury, C. 178 118, 141, 150, 254, 261 202, 244, 245 Butenandt, A. 264 276 Name Index

Butlerov, A. M. 138 Davisson, C. 178 Ernst, R. 270 Davy, H. 71, 89, 93, 94-9, Eschenmoser, A. 156 Cadet-Gassicourt, L. C. 114 101, 103, 160, 187 Esson, W. 210, 211 Cailletet, L. P. 208 de Broglie, L. V. 178 Euclid 15 Calvin, M. 266 de Chancourtois, A. E. B. Euler-Chelpin, H. K. A. S. Cannizzaro, S. 90, 123, 127 von 263 124-5, 137, 142, 158, de Fourcroy, A. 69, 70 207 de Laplace, P.S. 70, 72, 73, Carlisle, A. 92 76,203 Fabre, P. J 31 Carnot, S. 214 de Morveau, L. B. G. 65, Fajans, K. 170 Caro, H. 253 69,70,111 Faraday, M. 94, 98, 99, Carothers, W. H. 256 de Saint-Gilles, L. P. 210 101-4, 127, 208 Castner, H. Y. 249 Debierne, A. 165 Fehling, H. von 152 Cavendish, H. 53, 56, 77 Debye, P. J. W. 219, 264 Festing, E. R. 222 Cech, T. 270 Deisenhofer, J. 270 Fischer, E. G. 78 Chadwick, J. 176 Demar~y, E. 165 Fischer, E. H. 118, 152, Chain, E. 255 Democritos of Abdera 8, 153, 154-5, 260 Chancourtois, A. E. B. de 18,36 Fischer, E. o. 268 127 Democritos (Bolos) 18 Fischer, H. 263 Chargaff, E. 225 Dempster, A. J. 172 Fischer, H. o. 153 Charles, J. A. C. 206 Descartes, R. 36 Fleming, A. 255 Chevreul, M. E. 105, 123 Descroizilles, A. H. 231 Florey, H. 255 Claisen, L. 144 Desormes, C. B. 248 Flory, P. J. 268 Clapeyron, B. P. E. 215 Dewar, J. 101, 141, 208 Fourcroy, A. de 69, 70 Claus, A. C. L. 142 Diels, o. 156, 265 Frankland, E. 107, 115, 13l Claus, C. E. 191 Diemann, 1. R. 92 138, 144, 189 Clausius, J. E. 207, 215 Dirac, P. A. M. 179 Franklin, R. 225 Clement, N. 248 Dobereiner, J. W. 127 Fraunhofer, J. 125 Conrad, M. 144 Dole, M. 241 Fresenius, C. R. 230 Cooke, J. P. 127 Dorn, F. E. 168 Fresnel, A. J. 146, 248 Copernicus, N. 37 du Vigneaud, V. 266 Friedel, C. 144 Corey, E. J. 158, 270 Duboscq, 1. 238 Friedenthal, H. W. 238 Cornforth, J. W. 268 Duchesne, 1. 39 Friedrich, W. 173 Couper, A. S. 119, 120, Dulong, P. L. 75,89 Friman 175 138, 189 Dumas, J. B. A. 107, 109, Fukui, K. 269 Courtois, B. 98 111, 112, 118, 127 Crafts, J. M. 144 Dupont de Nemours, E. I. Cram, D. 270 63 Gadolin, J. 188 Crick, F. 225 Duppa, B. F. 148 35 Crookes, W. 126, 161, 166, Galileo 36, 38 168, 208, 249, 259 Galvani, L. 92 Cullen, W. 244 Edman, P. 155 Gassendi, P. 14,36 Curie, M. 164-5, 166, 261 Ehrlich, P. 254 Gay-Lussac, J. L. 71, 74, Curie, P. 165 Eigen, M. 267 75, 85, 96, 98, 103, 107, Einstein, A. 208 111, 112, 205, 230, 232 EmpedocIes 7 Geber, see Jabir ibn Hayyan Dalton, 1. 19, 75, 79, 80-4, Epicurus 13, 36 Geiger, H. 172 206,245 Eratosthenes 15 Geissler, H. 160 David, J. L. 62 Ercker, L. 28 Genth, A. 190, 196 Name Index 277

Geoffroy, C. J. 231 Herschbach, D. R. 269 Kellner, C. 249 Geoffroy, E. F. 49, 82 Herschel, W. 222 Kelvin, Lord 206 Gerhardt, C. F. 107, 113, Herzberg, G. 267 Kendrew, J. C. 224, 266 114, 117, 123, 138 Hess, G. H. 204 Kepler, J. 37 Germer, L. H. 178 Hevesy, G. C. 170, 264 King, V. 196 Giaque, W. F. 265 Hewlett 240 Kirchhoff, G. R. 125, 126 Gibbs, J. W. 216 Heyrovsky, J. 241, 266 Kirchhoff, J. S. 105 Gibbs, o. W. 196 Hinshelwood, C. N. 266 Kirkland, J. J. 236 Gilbert, W. 269 Hirst, E. L. 154 Kirwan, R. 70 Glauber, J. R. 39 Hisinger, W. 86, 95, 188 KjeIdahI, J. 230 Gmelin, L. 190 Hodgkin, D. 155, 224, 267 Klaproth, M. 77, 188, 230 Goldstein, E. 160 Hoffmann, R. 269 Klemensiewicz, Z. 241 Gomberg, M. 158 Hofmann, A W. von 107, Klug, A 269 Goodyear, C. 255 116, 138, 251 Knipping, P. 173 Gossage, W. 247 Hohenheim, T. B. von, see Kohlrausch, F. 195, 220 Gough, J. 79 Paracelsus Kolbe, H. 106, 115, 143 Graebe, C. 142 Home, F. 231 Kopp, H. 222 Graham, T. 191, 206, 245 Honigschmid, O. 171 Komer, W. 142 Griess, J. P. 253 Hooke, R. 42, 44, 202 Kossel, W. 180 Grignard, V. 146, 261 Horstmann, AF. 215 Kuhn, R. 264 Grotthuss, T. von 95, 217 Horvath, C. 236 Kunckel, J. 229 Guericke, O. von 42 Huber, 1. F. K. 236 Guettard, J. E 62 Huber, R. 270 Guldberg, C. M. 74, 210, Hiickel, E. 185, 220 Ladenburg, A 140 212 Huckel, W. 152 Lambert, 1. H. 238 Humboldt, A von 75 Langer, C. 199 Hyatt, J. W. 256 Langmuir, I 181, 214, 263 Haber, F. 241, 249, 250, Laplace, P. S. de 70, 72, 73, 259,262 76,203 Hahn, o. 264 ibn-Sina, see Avicenna Lapworth, A 213 Hales, S. 50, 66 Ingold, C. K. 182, 214 Lassaigne, J.L. 231 Harcourt, A V. 210, 211 Latimer, W. M. 181 Harden, A 263 Laue, M. von 173 Harvey, W. 37 Jabir ibn Hayyan 23 Laurent, A 112 Hassel, o. 151, 267 James, A T. 236 Lavoisier, A L. 44, 53, 57, Hauptmann, H. A 269 Jl'lrgensen, S. M. 192 59,61,62,63-73, 77,92, Haworth, W. N. 150, 154, JoIiot, J.F. 176, 264 111, 126, 203 264 Joliot-Curie, I. 176, 264 Lavoisier, M. A P. 62-3, Heine, C. 237 Jonson, B. 34 70 Heisenberg, W. 179 Jordan, P. 179 Le Bel, 1. A 149 Heitler, W. 183 Joule, J. P. 203, 206, 215 Le Blanc, M. 240 Helmholz, H. von 216 Le ChateIier, H. L. 213 Henery-Logan, K. R. 255 Le Rossignol, R. 249 Henry, E. O. 234 Karle, J. 269 Leblanc, N. 247 Henry, W. 79, 81 Karrer, P. 264 Lee, Y. T. 269 Heraclitus 6, 7 Kealy, T. 199 Lehn, 1. M. 270 Herapath, J. 206 Kekule, F. A 118, 122, Leloir, L. F. 267 Hermes 17,36 139-41, 189, 191, 193, Lembert, M. 171 Hero 14 211 Lemery, N. 44 278 Name Index

Leucippos 8 Mond, L. 199 Perrier, C. 188 Lewis, G. N. 180, 181, 214, Monge, G. 70 Perrin, J. B. 209 216,221 Moore, S. 268 Perutz, M. F. 224, 266 Lewis, W. 231 Morveau, L. B. G. de 65, Petit, A. T. 89 Libavius, A. 39, 190 69,70, 111 Pfaff, C. H. 230 Libby, W. F. 266 Moseley, H. G. J. 136, 173, Pfaundler, L. 212 Liebig, J. von 107,111-113 188 Pfeffer, W. 217 Linnaeus, C. 69 Mulliken, R. S. 185, 267 Pfund, A. H. 177 Lipscomb, W. N. 268 Mylius, 1 32 Phillips, P. 248 Lockyer, J. N. 136, 239 Pictet, R. P. 208 London, F. 183 Pitzer, K. S. 150 Lonsdale, K. 223 Natta, G. 200, 266 Planck, M. 176 Loschmidt, J. J. 207 Nemst, H. W. 181, 220, Plato 8 Lowry, T. M. 221 223,262 Playfair, L. 115, 120 Lucretius 13 Newcomen, T. 214 Plotinus 17 Lundegardh, H. G. 239 Newlands, A. R. 128, 131 Pliicker, 1 160 Lyman, T. 177 Newton, I. 38, 44, 79 Polanyi, J. C. 269 Nicholson, W. 92 Pontin, M. M. af 97 Nobel, A. B. 260 Powell, H. M. 199 McInnes, D. A. 241 Nollet, 1 A. 216 Pregl, F. 262 McMillan, E. M. 265 Norrish, R. G. W. 267 Prelog, V. 268 Maier, M. 31 Northrop, J. H. 265 Price, J. 34 Mansfield, C. B. 252 Priestley, J. 53, 54,66, 245 Marcet, J. 99 Prigogine, I. 268 Marduk 5 Odling, W. 128, 131 Proust, 1 74, 78, 105 Marggraf, A. S. 125 Onsager, L. 220, 267 Prout, W. 89, 127, 135 Margueritte, F. 233 Ostwald, F. W. 181, 202, Ptolemy (astronomer) 15, 3: Maria the prophetess 208, 210, 219, 261 Pungor, E. 241 (Jewess) 20 Owens, R. B. 168 Purcell, E. M. 225 Markownikoff, V. V. 139 Pythagoras 7 Marsden, E. 172 Martin, A. J. P. 235, 265 Paracelsus 28, 38 Maxwell, J. C. 206, 207 Parkes, A. 256 Quercetanus, see Duchesne, Mayer, J. R. von 203 Parmenides 7 J. Mayow, J. 44, 50 Paschen, F. 177 Melsens, L. H. F. 106, 113 Pasteur, L. 146, 147, 148, Mendeleef, D. I. 90, 123, 255 Ramsay, W. 60, 135, 168, 129-30, 131, 132-6 Pauli, W. 178 261 Merrifield, R. B. 157, 269 Pauling, L. 183, 184, 201, Raoult, F. M. 217 Messel, R. 248 266 Rayleigh, Lord 60, 135 Meyer, J. L. 124, 132, 141 Paulze, M. A. P., see Regnault, H. V. 208 Michel, H. 270 Lavoisier, M. A. P. Reich, F. 126 Miller, S. 199 Pauson, P. 199 Rhases 24 Millikan, R. A. 163 Pavesi, A. 124 Richards, R. 225 Miolati, A. 195 Peary, R. E. 2 Richards, T. W. 170, 262 Mitchell, P. D. 268 Pedersen, C. 270 Richter, H. T. 126 Mitscherlich, E. 88, 146 Pepys, S. 44 Richter, J. 78, 87 Mohr, F. 233 Perey, M. 188 Robert of Chester 25 Moissan, F. F. H. 187, 261 Perkin, W. H. 148, 251 Robertson, 1M. 224 Name Index 279

Robinson, R. 182,214, 265 Stein, W. H. 268 Van Helmont, J. B. 40, 61 Rodebush, W. H. 181 Stock, A. 200 Van Troostwijk, A. P. 92 Roebuck, J. 248 Strato 13 Van Vleck, J. H. 186 Roelen 200 Sumner, J. 8. 265 Van't Hoff, J. H. 118, 149, Rontgen, W. K. von 164, Svedberg, T. 263 202, 210, 211, 216, 219, 168 Synge, R L M. 236, 265 260 Rose, H. 209,230 Vauquelin, LN. 78 Royds, T. 167 Vesalius, A. 37 Rudolph II 34 Taube, H. 269 Vigneaud, V. du 266 Ruggiero, Count 106 Tebboth, J. 199 Villard, P. 166 Riunford, Count 93, 203 Tennant, C. 249 Vincent of Beavais 25 Runge, F. 235 Thales 6 Virtanen, A. I. 264 Rutherford, D. 59 Thenard, L J. 71, 75, 96, Vitruvius 2 Rutherford, E. 166-7, 168, 98,107 Volta, A. 75, 92 169, 172, 177, 208, 261 12 von Baeyer, J. F. W. A. Ruzicka, L S. 264 Thilorier, A. 101 118, 141, 150, 254, 261 Rydberg, J. R 177 Tholde, J. 30 von Euler-Chelpin, H. K. A. Thompson, 8., see Rumford, S. 263 Count von Fehling, H. 152 Sabatier, P. 262 Thomsen, J. 205 von Grotthuss, T. 95, 217 Saint-Gilles, L P. de 210 Thomson, J. J. 161, 162, von Guericke, O. 42 Sanger, F. 155, 266, 269 163, 168, 171, 172, 177, von Helmholz, H. 216 Saytzeff, A. M. 144 179, 208 von Hofmann, A. W. 107, Scheele, C. W. 57,98, 104, Thomson, T. SO, 81, 84, 116, 138, 251 187 244,245 von Humboldt, A. 75 SchrOdinger, E. 179 Thomson, W., see Kelvin, von Laue, M. 173 Schwarz, K. L H. 233 Lord von Mayer, J. R. 203 Schwarzenbach, G. 235 Thorpe, T. E. 189, 190 von Rontgen, W. K. 164, Seaborg, G. T. 265 Thoth 17 168 Seebeck, T. 222 Tiselius, A. W. K. 265 Segre, E. 188 Todd, A. R 266 Semenov, N. N. 266 Tollens, B. 152 Waage, P. 74, 210, 212 Sheehan, J. C. 255 Torricelli, E. 42 Wallach, o. 261 Sidgwick, N. V. 182 Tower, O. 240 Walsh, A. 240 Siegbahn, K. 175 Traube, M. 216 Warltire, J. 55 Sklodovska, M., see Curie, Travers, M. W. 136 Watson, J. D. 225 M. Trefouel, J. 254 Watt, J. 51, 214 Slater, J. C. 183 Tremaine, J. 199 Welzein, C. 122 S0rensen, S. P. L 221, 238, Tswett, M. S. 235 Wenzel, C. 209 241 Werner, A. 193, 194,262 Socrates 8 Whewell, W. 103 Soddy, F. 168, 170, 208, Ure, A. 234 Whytlaw-Gray, R. 168 262 Urey, H. 263 Wieland, H. o. 263 Solvay brothers 248 Wilhelmy, L. F. 209 Sommerfeld, A. 178, 184 Wilkins, M. 225 Stahl, G. E. 47 Valentine, B. 30 Wilkinson, G. 268 Stanley, W. M. 265 Vanden Broek, A. J. 173 Williamson, A. W. 107, Stas, J. S. 127 Van der Waals, J. D. 208 116, 117, 118 Staudinger, H. 256, 265 Van Eckenstein, W. A. 154 Willstiitter, RM. 262 280 Name Index

Wilson 178 229 Windaus, A. O. R. 263 Woodward, R. B. 156, Zeeman, P. 178 WisIicenus, J. A. 150 267 Zeise, W. C. 198 Wittig, G. F. K. 157, 268 Wundt, W. 217 Zeno 14 Wohler, F. 105, 106, 111, Wurtz, C. A. 107, 116, Ziegler, K 200, 266 112, 113, 115, 200 120,211 Zosimos 17 Wollaston, W. H. 84, 103, Wyckoff, R. W. G. 198 Zsigmondy, R. A. 263 Subject Index

Absolute zero 206 manufacture of 247 Atomic weights 81-2, 86-9, Academy of , Alkaloids 105 90 French 42,61-3 scattering inversions in 132, 136, Acetic acid 106, 113 172 175 Acid-base theory 221 Alpha particles (rays) 166 Atomicity, see Valency Acids Alums 4 Atoms, electronic structures fatty 105 Ambix 20 of 176 mineral 27 Ammonia-soda process 248 Avogadro number 209 organic 104-5 Analysis Avogadro's hypothesis 86 137 dry methods 228 Actinium 165 gravimetric 230 Addition, anti-Markownikoff optical methods 237-40 Babylon 6 157 organic 107, 230-1 Bain Marie 20 Affinity 74, 95-6, 99, 209 qualitative 230 Bakelite 256 tables of 49 quantitative 77, 230 Balances 77, 228 Air titrimetric 231-5 Balmer series 177 dephlogisticated 56, 59 wet methods 229 Barium 97 as element 7, 10 Annales de Chimie 73 Beer-Lambert law 238 fixed 52-3, 66 255 101 inflammable 53, 59, 68-9 Antimony 30 structure of 139-42, 182, phlogisticated 59 Arceuil, Society of 75 224 Air pressure 80 Archaeus 28 Benzene derivatives, Air pump 42 60, 135 structural formulae Alchemists, fraudulent 33- Aristotelianism 35 for 142-3 4, 106 Assaying 28 Berthollide compounds 78 Alchemy 16-34 Astatine 188 Berthollimeter 231 Alexandrian 16-22 , relative 172 Beta particles (rays) 166 Chinese 22 172 Bhopal 258 early European 25-7 174 Bikos 20 Islamic 23-5 Atomic spectroscopy 125, Bleaching 74, 249 later European 30-3 177,239 Blowpipe 229 26, 104 Atomic symbolism 82, 86 Bond Alembic 20 chemical 179-181 Alexandria 14 chemical 77 coordinate 182 Alkalimeter 232 Greek 8 hydrogen 182 Alkalis 24 Atomic volume 132 pi 185 282 Subject Index

sigma 185 Comparator 237 Earth, as element 7, 10 Boron 98 Computers 158, 224 6 Brackett series 177 Condensation reactions, base Einsteinium 188 90, 208 catalysed 144 Eka-aluminium 132, 134 Bunsen burner 115, 126 Conductivity, electrical 195, Eka-boron 132, 134 Burette 232, 234 219 Eka- 132, 134 Configuration, absolute 150 92-7 Conformational analysis 150 Electrode potential 220 Caesium 126 Conservation of mass, law of Electrodes 241 Calcination 44, 47, 65 72 Electrolysis, laws of 102 Calcium 97 Constant composition, law of Electromers, see , Caloric 71, 80, 202 78 electronic Carbonyls, metal 199 Constant heat summation, Electron 163 Carnot cycle 214 law of 204 Electron diffraction 151 Castner-Kellner process Contact process 248 Electron energy levels 176 249 Coordination theory 193-8 Electron sub-levels 178 Catalysis 87 Countercurrent distribution Electron-deficient com- Catalysts 200, 248-9 235 pounds 200 Cathode rays 160 Covalency 181 Electrophilic reagents 214 Cave paintings 4 Crystal field theory 186 Electrovalency 181 Chain reactions 159 Cupellation 2, 228 Element, modem definition Charles's law 206 Cyclohexane, conformations of 71 Chemistry of 151 Elements analytical 228-43 classification of 126-35, bioinorganic 198 136-7 coordination 190-8 discovery of 54, 78, derivation of word 22 Daltonism 79 96-99, 125-6, 135-6, inorganic 187-201 Davy lamp 94 164-5, 187-9 organic 104-21, 138-59 Decay series 169 rare earth 136, 188 organometallic 116, Definite proportions, law of transuranium 188 198-200 82 Elixir of 22, 27 physical 202-227 Deoxyribonucleic acid Energy physical organic 183 (DNA) 225 of activation 212 as a profession 244-6 Diels-Alder reaction 157 concept of 203 teaching of 244-5 Diffusion, gaseous 206 conservation of 203, 205, 57, 71, 98, 101, Dilution law 219 215 249 Diseases, molecular 184 215 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Disintegration hypothesis Epicureans 13 258 169 Equilibria 209-13 Chromatography 155, 235-6 Dissenting academies 54, Equilibrium constant 212 78 79,245 Equivalent weights 84, 103 Clusters, metal 199 Distillation 20, 25, 45 Exclusion principle 178 Colligative properties 217 Double decomposition 113 Exhalations 10, 17 Colorimeter 238 Drugs, synthetic 254 Explosives 260 Combining power 116 Dualistic theory 86, 99-100, Combining volumes, law of 113 85-6 Dyes Fats 105 43, 44, 63-8, natural 4-5, 253 Fermium 188 259 synthetic 242, 250-4 199 Subject Index 283

Fibres 256 latent 51, 72 Lassaigne test 231 Fire 1,41 nature of 202 Le Chatelier's principle 213 as element 6, 7, 10 specific 51 Lead, atomic weight of Fission, nuclear 177 136, 167 170-1 Fluorine 98, 187 Hermetic writings 17, 36 Lead chamber process 248 Formulae Hydrides Leblanc process 247 double type 118 boron 200 Leucosis 20 four-volume 110 silicon 200 Leyden papyrus 16 graphic 120, 121 Hydroboration reaction 157 field theory 186 organic 107-10, 113-14 Hydrogen 44, 53, 69 Loschmidt number 207 structural 138, 142-3, Lyman series 177 152-3, 155-6 two-volume 114 28, 38, 48 type 117 Ice calorimeter 203-4 Macrocosm/microcosm 38 Four-element theory 7, Indicators 44, 231-2, 235 Magic 36 10-12, 36, 71 Indigo 4, 254 Magnesia Alba 52 Fourier analysis 224 Indium 126 Magnesium 97 Francium 188 Induction, electromagnetic Manures, chemical 242 Fraunhofer lines 125 101 Mass, law of conservation of Free energy 216 Inductive effect 214 72 Free radicals 114, 158 Industrial Revolution 247 Mass action, law of 74, 210 French Revolution 54, 62, Industry, chemical 246-50, Mass spectrograph 172 73 253-7 Mass spectroscopy 155, 222 172,225-7 258 Matrix mechanics 179 Gallium 133 Invisible College 42 Mean free path 207 Gamma rays 167 Iodine 99 Mechanical philosophy 36, Gas thermometers 206 exchange 236 41 Gases Ionian science 6 Melanosis 19 diffusion of 206 Ionic theory 217 Mercury 29 ideal 208 Iosis 20 Mesomeric effect 214 kinetic theory of 206-9 Isomerism 105, 110, 149, Mesomerism 183 liquefaction of 101, 208 180 199 permanent 208 in coordination compounds Metals rare 135-6 195-8 extraction of 2, 28, 29 real 208 Isomers, electronic 180 planetary symbols for 19 Glass 4 Isomorphism 88 Minamata disease 258 Gnosticism 17 Isotopes 137, 170, 177 Models, molecular 139 Greece 6 Molarity 234 Greek fire 22 Molecular 225 Greenhouse effect 218, 259 Molecular compound theory Group displacement laws Jabirian corpus 23 189 170 Molecular diseases 184 Molecular orbital theory 185 Molecular weight 217 249, 259 congress 122-5, Mordants 4, 253 Haemoglobin 224 137 Multiple proportions, law of Hafnium 188 Kerotakis 20 82, 87 Heat 136 Myoglobin 224 284 Subject Index

Natural products 104-5, 152 Philosophical Transactions Retrosynthesis 158 Neo-Platonism 17, 36, 37 42 Rhenium 188 Neolithic revolution 1 Phlogiston theory 47-8 Royal Institutiof!. 93, 99, 136 Pigments 4, 242, 250 139,208 Nemst equation 220 255-6 Royal Society 34, 42, 44, Nessleriser 237 Pneuma 14, 17, 19 128 176 Pneumatic chemistry 50-60 Rubidium 126 Nitre 27 Pneumatic Institute 93 59 Polarography 241 Nitrous 93 Polonium 164 Sandwich compounds 1~9 Nobel prize 118, 146, 153, Polymers 255-6 SclrrOdinger wave equation 157, 166, 211, 255, Positive rays 171 179 260-70 Potassium 96 Scientific revolution 35 Nomenclature 69-70, 201 Pottery 3 Silk Road 22 Normality 234 Promethium 188 Simplicity, principle of 81, Nuclear magnetic resonance , 84 155,225 determination of 155, Societies, Chemical 245-6 Nucleophilic reagents 214 224 Sodium 96 Nucleus, atomic 172 Proteins 154 Solubility product 221 Number, atomic 174 Proto hyle 10, 90 Solutions, chemistry of 216 66 256 Proton 175 Solvay process 199, 248 Protyle 90 Spectrophotometers 239 Prout's hypothesis 89, 127, Spectroscopy Octaves, law of 128 135 atomic 125, 177, 239 Optical activity 146-8 Prussian blue 190 infrared 222 Orbitals 179 Purines 154 mass ISS, 172, 225-7 Organometallic compounds nuclear magnetic resonance 116, 198-200 155,225 Osmosis 216 179 X-ray 136, 173-5, 188 Ouroboros 18, 19 Quantum numbers 178 Spinthariscope 166 , discovery of 54-8 Quantum theory 176 Stereochemistry 149-52 Oxygen theory of Quintessences 26 papyrus 16 combustion 66-8 Stoics 13 Ozone layer 258 Strain theory 150 Racemates 150 Strontium 97 Radical theory 110 Structure theory 138 Parkesine 256 Radicals 67, 71, 90 Substitution 101, 112 Partial pressures, law of 80, Radioactivity 164, 187 Sugars 105, 152 206 Radium 165 Sulphur-mercury theory 23, Paschen series 177 170 25 156, 224, 255 Rare gases 135, 170 Sulphuric acid, manufacture Peptides 155 Rare-gas compounds 201 of 248 Periodicity 129-35, 136-7 Reaction kinetics 209-12 Superconductivity, high Pfund series 177 Reaction mechanisms 213 temperature 184 pH 221, 238, 241 Reaction order 214 Synthesis pH meter 241 Recrystallisation 4 organic 107, 143-6, Phase rule 216 Resonance 141, 183 155-9 Philosopher's stone 27 Respiration 44, 57, 204 solid phase 158 Subject Index 285

Taoism 22 Types 184 Tartaric acid 146 new theory of 116 Voltaic pile 92 Technetium 188 theory of 112 Temperature, critical Tyrian . purple 4 Water 208 composition of 59 Tetrahedral carbon as element 6, 10 149,224 Uncertainty principle mineral 229 Tetravalent carbon atom 179 Wave mechanics 179 118, 138 78 Weapons, chemical 257 Thalidomide 257 Urea 105 Whole-number rule 172 Thallium 126 157 Thermochemistry 203-5 Thermodynamics bond theory 183 first law 215 Valency 119 X-radiation 164 second law 215 variable 189 X-ray diffraction 151, third law 181 Van der Waals equation 155, 173, 184, 198, Tintometer 237 208 199, 219, 223-5 Titrirnetry 231-5 Van't Hoff isochore 216 X-ray spectroscopy 136, potentiometric 240 Vapour density 109 173-5, 188 Traite Elemetaire de Chimie Vapour pressure lowering Xanthosis 20 70-3, 92, 93, 107, 126 217 136 Tria prima 29 Vat dyeing 4 Triads 127 Vitalism 105 Zirconium 78 Trichloroacetic acid 113 Vitamin B12 156, 224 Zwitterion 182

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