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Home , Atmometer, Heinrich Wilhelm Dove, Marie Alfred Cornu, William Charles Wells, William Derham

John F. Griffiths A Chronology ol llems of Department of Texas A8cM University Meteorological interest College Station, Tex. 77843

Any attempt to select important events in meteorology The importance of some events was not really recog- must be a personal choice. I have tried to be objective nized until years later (note the correspondence by and, additionally, have had input from some of my Haurwitz in the August 1966 BULLETIN, p. 659, concern- colleagues in the Department of Meteorology. Neverthe- ing Coriolis's contribution) and therefore, strictly, did less, I am likely to have omissions from the list, and I not contribute to the development of meteorology. No would welcome any suggestions (and corrections) from weather phenomena, such as the dates of extreme hurri- interested readers. Naturally, there were many sources canes, tornadoes, or droughts, have been included in this of reference, too many to list, but the METEOROLOGICAL present listing. Fewer individuals are given in the more AND GEOASTROPHYSICAL ABSTRACTS, Sir Napier Shaw's recent years for it is easier to identify milestones of a Handbook of Meteorology (vol. 1), "Meteorologische science when many years have passed. 1 Geschichstabellen" by C. Kassner, and One Hundred i Linke, F. (Ed.), 1951: Meteorologisches Taschenbuch, vol. Years of International Co-operation in Meteorology I, 2nd ed., Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft Geest & Portig, (1873-1973) (WMO No. 345) were most useful. Leipzig, pp. 330-359. (1st ed., 1931.)

B.C. 1066 CHOU dynasty was founded in China, during which official records were kept that in- cluded climatic descriptions. #600 THALES attributed the yearly Nile River floods to wind changes. #550 ANAXIMANDER gave first known correct definition of wind as "a flowing of air." *500 PARMENIDES classified world according to latitude—torrid, temperate, and frigid. Phenological calendar was introduced in CHINA to assist farmers. *450 EMPEDOCLES' theory of universe, that , air, fire, and water constitute the universe, dominated meteorology for 2000 years. *400 HIPPOCRATES' treatise on "Airs, Waters and Places," first expressed idea that weather molds the life of man. Public notices displayed in GREEK cities gave information on wind direction. Rainfall measurements were made in INDIA. #370 EUDOXUS'S book on bad-weather predictions claimed there was a periodicity in weather phenomena. 334 'S Meteorologica, was the first work on the science of the atmosphere. 330 (pupil of Aristotle) wrote treatises "On Winds" and "On the Signs of Rain, Wind, Storms and Fair Weather." 278 ARATUS wrote Book of Signs, concerned with weather lore. 140 HIPPARCHUS used a zonation of the world depending upon day length at summer solstice. *100 ANDRONICUS KYRRHESTES designed the Tower of the Winds in Athens. A.D. 61 SENECA complained of the air pollution in Rome. * 130 PTOLEMY used a climatic classification of 7-day-length zones, extending to 62°N. *400 Liu THIEN CHUN was made Comptroller-General of Crops and Weather in China. * An approximate date. 23 Vol. 58, No. 10, October 1977

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825 DISCUIL (Irish monk) commented on lack of ice around Iceland as being different from the report of PYTHEAS in 300 B.C. 850 AGOBARD (Archbishop of Lyons) railed against those claiming to control the weather in "The Absurd Opinion of the Vulgar Touching Hail and Thunder." 1150 WILLIAM OF CONCHES made many sound deductions concerning humidity and clouds, oceans, and wind currents. *1200 IDRISI (Arab scientist) used 7 climatic zones, each of 10 divisions. 1269-70 A weather diary exists, most likely referring to conditions at OXFORD. 1337-44 REV. WILLIAM MERLE recorded weather conditions at OXFORD and LINCOLN, . 1442 Rain gages were in use in KOREA.

#1450 CARDINAL NICOLAUS DA CUSA noted humidity changes by weighing a bundle of wool.

#1500 LEONARD DA VINCI invented and designed a pressure-plate . 1535 Estimates of annual rainfall for VALPARAISO-SANTIAGO, CHILE, exist from this date. 1555 LEONARD DYGGES wrote a book on weather prognostician (how to judge the weather for ever!!).

# 1580 GIAMBATTISTA DELLA PORTA reported on simple oat-beard hygroscopes he had seen in use (see 1665). 1586 SIMON SEVINUS'S book Statics and Hydrostatics was published. 1593 GALILEO GALILEI (or his pupil SANTORIO) invented the air . 1611 MARCO DE DOMINUS published a scientific explanation of the rainbow. 1632 JEAN RAY constructed a water thermometer. 1637 RENE DESCARTES'S appendix "Les Meteores" to his famous work Discours de la Methode led to the break from Aristotle's influence in meteorology. 1639 Rainfall was measured in ITALY, the gage being invented by CASTELLI (pupil of Galileo). *1640 GASPARO BERTI experimented with vacuums and pressure devices. 1643 EVANGELISTA TORRICELLI invented the and with VINCENZIO VIVIANI developed a hygrometer. 1644 First weather records in America were made near WILMINGTON, DEL., by REV. JOHN CAMPANIUS. 1648 BLAISE PASCAL designed experiment in which PERIER ascended the Puy-de-Dome, , and registered decrease of pressure with height. 1653 FERDINAND II OF TUSCANY created a network of observing stations. 1659 ROBERT BOYLE propounded his law of the relationship between volume and pressure. *1660 Dew point hygrometer was constructed in FLORENCE. 1660 VON GUERICKE noted that a severe storm follows a sudden drop in barometric pressure. 1661 JOHN EVELYN published Fumifugium, a discussion of air pollution in . 1662 SIR CHRISTOPHER WREN invented a self-recording, tipping bucket rain gage. 1664 Rainfall observations began in PARIS. 1665 ROBERT BOYLE described a hygroscope made of an oat beard. 1667 published details of an anemometer. JOHN LOCKE began thermometric readings at OXFORD. * 1670 Mercury replaced water or spirit in . 1670 Weather observations began in CHARLESTON, S.C. 1683 EDMUND HALLEY published first comprehensive map of winds.

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1686 EDMUND HALLEY (called Father of Dynamical Meteorology) explained trade wind and monsoon circulations. 1687 ISAAC NEWTON developed his three laws of motion. 1690 CHRISTIAN HUYGENS'S treatise on theory of was published (written in 1678). 1693 WILLIAM DAMPIER began collecting information on the distribution of winds. 1694 EDMUND HALLEY conducted experiment showing the effect of sun and wind on evapora- tion. 1697 Monthly precipitation records exist from this date for KEW, ENGLAND, although 1717- 1723 has been estimated. -1716 WILLIAM DERHAM took temperature and rainfall readings at UPMINSTER, ENGLAND. 1710 GABRIEL DANIEL FAHRENHEIT developed his 32°-212° temperature scale. 1716 EDMUND HALLEY described the great auroral display of 6 March and advanced theories for the causes. 1722 First description of daily fluctuations of pressure was made. 1723 JAMES JURIN proposed that the Royal Society collect yearly weather data worldwide. 1725 Rainfall figures exist from this date for PADUA, ITALY, and LENINGRAD, U.S.S.R. 1727 JOHANN DANIEL PERLICKY published a paper on the development of a dew meter. 1729 PIERRE BOUGUER wrote treatise entitled "Optical Essay on Measurement of Light." 1730 RENE ANTOINE FERCHAULT DE REAMUR developed his 0°-80° temperature scale. 1731 JEAN-JACQUES DORTOUS DE MAIRAN published the Physical and Historical Treatise on the Aurora Borealis. 1735 GEORGE HADLEY developed his theory linking the earth's rotation and the trade winds. 1736 ROBERT MARSHAM began phenological records near NORWICH, ENGLAND. >6-98 THOMAS BARKER took meteorological records at LYNDON, ENGLAND. 1737 ANDERS CELSIUS developed his 100°-0° temperature scale. 1738 First systematic instrument records in America were taken at CHARLESTON, S.C. 1742 Celsius scale revised to 0°-100° by CARL VON LINNE (LINNAEUS), DANIEL EKSTORM, or JEAN PIERRE CHRISTIN. 1743 BENJAMIN FRANKLIN deduced the progressive movement of a hurricane. 1746 J. H. WINKLER propounded idea that lightning is an electric discharge. 1749 ALEXANDER WILSON and MELVILLE took first upper air observations using a minimum thermometer on a kite in . 1750 CARL VON LINNE established network of 18 phenological stations in SWEDEN. GEORGE WILHELM RICHMANN observed phenomenon of depression of wet bulb. 1751 CHARLES LE ROY recognized dew point temperature as point of saturation of the air. 1752 BENJAMIN FRANKLIN demonstrated that lightning is an electrical phenomenon. 1755 LEONARD EULER used Newton's second law and the concepts of partial differential equa- tions to develop equations of fluid motion. 1760 JOSEPH BLACK formulated the concept of latent . 1774 LOUIS COTTE wrote Treatise on Meteorology. 1777 MATHEW DOBSON measured evaporation and analyzed data in LIVERPOOL, ENGLAND. 1780 Meteorological Society of MANNHEIM established 39 weather observing stations, using standardized equipment, in various countries (4 in America). Systematic weather records began at NEW HAVEN, CONN.

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1782 JAMES SIX invented his maximum-minimum thermometer. 1783 JACQUES ALEXANDER CESAR CHARLES made hydrogen balloon flight measuring temperature and pressure in PARIS. HORACE BENEDICT DE SAUSSURE published "Essai sur l'Hygrometrie" and invented the hair hygrometer. *1784 Concept of variation of temperature with height was suggested. 1785 Rainfall records were started at EDINBURGH, SCOTLAND. 1787 RICHARD KIRWAN published paper on latitudinal distribution of temperature. 1787-1844 JOHN DALTON'S rain gage network was operative in northwestern ENGLAND. 1788 HORACE BENEDICT DE SAUSSURE described diaphanometer for measuring the visibility of the air. 1793 JOHN DALTON'S meteorological observations were published. 1800 SIR WILLIAM HERSCHEL discovered energy transfer in the infrared. 1801 JAMES CAPPER'S book Observations on the Winds and Monsoons was published. 1801-03 JOHN DALTON developed his laws of pressure of vapors. 1802 LUKE HOWARD classified cloud types. 1804 JOSEPH LOUIS GAY-LUSSAC made balloon ascents to study weather. 1805 PIERRE SIMON LAPLACE developed his law of pressure variation with height. 1806 SIR FRANCIS BEAUFORT developed the wind scale. 1813 JOHN LESLIE developed the porous clay atmometer. 1814 Weather observations were taken on a regular basis by hospital surgeons in the United States. WILLIAM CHARLES WELLS'S classical essay on dew and its formation was the first correct explanation. 1816-26 First synoptic charts were made based on the published Mannheim observations of 1783-95. 1817 prepared map of mean annual isotherms for much of the Northern Hemisphere. JOSIAH MEIGS (Commissioner of General Land Office) requested land office registrars to take three weather observations daily to assist interests of agriculture. 1820 ANGELO BELLANI perfected atmometer. 1820-50 First systematic weather observations (U.S. Surgeon General's Office) and first synoptic maps were made. 1821 IGNATZ VENITZ put forward his evidence of changes in glaciers (not published until 1833). 1825 E. F. AUGUST developed the psychrometer. SIR WILLIAM HERSCHEL developed the black-bulb actinometer. NEW YORK established State Climatological Network. 1827 HEINRICH WILHELM DOVE propounded idea of air currents (polar and equatorial) bring- ing weather patterns; also developed the kinetic theory of cyclones. 1830 THEODORE DE SAUSSURE published a paper concerning the variation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. 1831-36 LUDWIG FRIEDRICH KAMTZ published Lehrbuch der Meteorologie and revised Humboldt's map of 1817. 1831-46 WILLIAM C. REDFIELD wrote papers on storms and hurricanes. 1833 LUKE HOWARD'S comprehensive third edition of of London was published (first edition in 1818).

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1835 GUSTAV GASPARD DE CORIOLIS demonstrated quantitatively the effects of rotational forces. 1837 CLAUDE-SERVAIS MATHIAS POUILLET invented the pyrheliometer and introduced the term; also measured the solar constant. 1838 HEINRICH W. BERGHAUS prepared isobaric charts. 1839 JAMES POLLARD ESPY suggested the possibility of artificial rainfall introduction. T. B. JORDAN invented first photographic . LAMBERT ADOLPHE JACQUES QUETELET began phenological observations in BRUSSELS; he is best known for combining meteorology and statistics during this period. = 1840 SAMUEL FINLEY MORSE invented the telegraph. 1840 JOSEPH ATKINSON prepared world's first tentative rainfall map, based on Dalton's work (see 1793).

JAMES GLAISHER was appointed Superintendent of Meteorological Observation, GREEN- WICH, ENGLAND. 1841 JAMES POLLARD ESPY published work on convection theory of cyclonic energy, Philosophy of Storms. WILHELM MAHLMANN prepared charts of annual isotherms and also of some selected months. 1842 JAMES POLLARD ESPY was appointed first official federal government meteorologist and pre- pared first historical synoptic weather charts for the United States and southern Canada. 1843 Sunspot cycle was discovered. 1844 LUCIEN VIDIE invented aneroid barometer; ZEIHER (1763) and CONTE (1797) had tried earlier. 1845 REV. THOMAS ROMNEY ROBINSON revised the "cup" anemometer, improving on VON WHEWELL'S model of 1837. 1846 JAMES HENRY COFFIN collected wind data for >500 stations. 6-60 MATTHEW FONTAINE MAURY prepared wind charts for ocean areas. 1848 HEINRICH WILHELM DOVE made first maps of mean monthly temperature. LORD KELVIN (WILLIAM THOMPSON) determined the temperature of absolute zero. First telegraphic weather report was published in ENGLAND by JAMES GLAISHER in the Daily News. A GERMAN Meteorological Service was formed. 1849 Prof. JOSEPH HENRY received first meteorological observations by telegraph in the United States. GEORGE JAMES SYMONS was also collecting telegraphic observations in ENGLAND. 1850 The Royal Meteorological Society was founded in ENGLAND. 1851 Weather maps, using 22 stations, were sold at the Great Exhibition in LONDON. AUSTRIAN Meteorological Service was formed. 1852 CHRISTOPH HENDRIK DIEDERIK BUYS-BALLOT compiled daily weather maps of a large part of EUROPE. JOHN WELSH developed an aspirated psychrometer. "Smithsonian Meteorological Tables" were first published. 1853 First truly international meteorological meeting, CONFERENCE ON MARITIME METEOROL- OGY, was held in BRUSSELS. JAMES HENRY COFFIN constructed a series of wind charts of the Northern Hemisphere. GEORGE ADOLF ERMAN recognized relations of isobaric gradients to wind speed and direc- tion.

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1853 JEAN CHARLES HOUZEAU wrote popular treatise on climatology. MATTHEW FONTAINE MAURY published Physical Geography of the Sea and Its Meteorology. 1854 D. REUTOVITCH'S book Agricultural Meteorology was published. 1855-75 Many European meteorological services were formed. 1856 WILLIAM FERREL proposed a scheme of the general circulation, improving on HADLEY'S (1735) model, using three cells. 1857 LORIN BLODGET published Climatology of the United States. CHRISTOPH HENDRIK DIEDERIK BUYS-BALLOT propounded his famous law. HERMANN HOFFMAN published his book Grundzuge der Pflanzen-Klimatologie. 1858 ELIAS LOOMIS deduced the nature of storm circulation. C. PIAZZI-SMYTH measured temperature inversion and humidity lapse rate at TENERIFE, CANARY ISLANDS. 1859 GUSTAV KIRCHHOFF developed his law of emission and absorption. 1861 Daily weather reports and forecasts were given in GREAT BRITAIN. 1862 JAMES GLAISHER and COXWELL ascended 7 km in a balloon. 1863 SIR FRANCIS GALTON'S theory of anticyclones appeared in his Meteorographica. URBAIN LEVERRIER began publishing daily weather maps in FRANCE. 1864 JAMES CROLL published paper on "Physical Cause of the Change of Climate during Glacial Epochs." 1866 AUGUST HEINRICH RUDOLF GRISEBACH made first world maps of vegetation zones. THOMAS STEVENSON'S (father of Robert Louis Stevenson) instrument screen was introduced at GREENWICH, ENGLAND. 1867 CARL LINSSER noted relationships between plants and climate, including evapotranspira- tion. 1869 CLEVELAND ABBE in CINCINNATI prepared first regular weather maps for part of the United States. ALEXANDER BUCHAN prepared first isobaric charts, for January, July, and the year. 1870 Weather Service of the United States was inaugurated as part of Signal Service under the War Department. E. J. LOWE published a book, Natural Phenomena and Chronology of the Seasons, listing events from earliest times to 1753. 1872 METEOROLOGICAL CONGRESS, LEIPZIG, prepared the groundwork for the next Congress (1873); there were 52 participants. * 1872 LORD RAYLEIGH (JOHN WILLIAM STRUTT) derived the volume scattering coefficient of the atmosphere; later he propounded the theory of polarization of sky light. 1873 FIRST METEOROLOGICAL CONGRESS, VIENNA, called by HEINRICH WILD and CARL JELINEK, was the first real foundation of international meteorology; 32 representatives from 20 governments attended. ERNST WILHELM F. EBERMAYER did pioneer work on forest meteorology. published a paper on equations of motion of turbulent exchange. N. HOFFMEYER produced first daily charts of Atlantic weather. Daily forecasts for farmers were displayed at rural post offices. 1873-79 Northern Hemisphere charts were published by Cleveland Abbe (U.S. Signal Corps).

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1875 JAMES HENRY COFFIN prepared first wind charts for the world. PAUL JOHN COULIER'S papers on nuclei in the atmosphere and their role in condensation predate work of JOHN AITKEN in 1880s. JAMES CROLL'S book Climate and Time in Their Geological Relations was published. LEONARD SOHNCKE wrote paper on the law of the variation of temperature in ascending currents of moist air. 1878 CLEMENT LEY published an empirical model of a cyclone. Conference of Directors of Institutes and Observatories, UTRECHT, set up the Interna- tional Meteorological Committee. JOSEPH STEFAN developed his law of radiative emission. 1879 Second International Meteorological Congress, ROME, formed the INTERNATIONAL METE- OROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION (IMO). SIR GEORGE STOKES improved on the sunshine recorder of JOHN CAMPBELL (1853). ALEXANDER SUPAN published first world maps of temperature regimes. 1880 International Conference on Agricultural and Forestry Meteorology was held in AUSTRIA. 1882 JOHN P. FINLEY produced table detailing and analyzing 600 tornadoes. ELIAS LOOMIS produced first world maps of precipitation using annual isohyets. 52-83 FIRST INTERNATIONAL POLAR YEAR. 1883 JULIUS HANN'S first edition of Handbuch de Klimatologie was published. OSBORNE REYNOLDS published a significant paper in the field of turbulence theory. 1884 HENRY F. BLANDFORD published an important paper on snowfall in the Himalayas related to dry winds and drought in India. LUDWIG BOLTZMANN derived STEFAN-BOLTZMANN law on the basis of thermodynamic theory. ALEKSANDR IVANOVICH VOEIKOV'S book Climates of our Globe, and Particularly Russia was published. VLADIMIR KOPPEN prepared world map of temperature regions (five in number). ALEXANDER SUPAN suggested 35 climatic subdivisions (geographical names). 1885 RALPH ABERCROMBY'S book Principles of Forecasting by Means of Weather Charts was an attempt to develop a classification of the weather types based on air flow. H. MCLEOD described photographic sunshine recorder of Pers type. 1886 ARTHUR KAMMERMAN published a paper on predicting night minimum temperatures. LEON TEISSERENC DE BORT prepared first world maps of annual and monthly cloudiness. 37-89 LEON TEISSERENC DE BORT prepared maps of upper air pressures. 1888 HERMANN VON HELMHOLTZ published two basic papers on atmospheric motions. 1889 WILLIAM FERREL gave first full treatment of the general circulation. HERMANN VON HELMHOLTZ and JOHN FRIEDRICH WILHELM VON BEZOLD used the concept of potential temperature; von Bezold later used adiabatic temperature lapse rate and pseudoadiabat. OLIVER L. FASSIG (U.S. Signal Service) was the editor of a bibliography of meteorology. MIKHAIL MIKHAILOVICH POMORTSEV wrote one of the first books on synoptic meteorology. 1890 OSCAR DRUDE studied the relationship between Koppen's temperature belts and the world's floral kingdoms.

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1891 U.S. WEATHER SERVICE was removed from the Signal Service and placed under the De- partment of Agriculture. 1893 KNUT ANGSTROM invented the electrical compensation pyrheliometer. RICHARD ASSMANN constructed first aerological sonde (pressure-temperature-humidity). ROLLO RUSSELL made a comprehensive survey "On Hail" and developed theories on hail formation. 1894 Barothermograph was suspended from a kite at the BLUE HILL OBSERVATORY in BOSTON. JOHN FRIEDRICH WILHELM VON BEZOLD used the concept of equivalent temperature. WILHELM WIEN developed the displacement law of radiation. 1895 ALEXANDER MCADIE published an article on precipitation formation and the triggering of condensation by ice and snow. T. RUSSELL published one of the earliest forecast techniques that did not use a prognosis of pressure patterns. 1896 November 16 became first INTERNATIONAL AEROLOGICAL DAY. J. B. COHEN wrote Air of Towns, a comprehensive summary of urban air pollution problems. HILDEBRAND HILDEBRANDSON published memoirs concerning centers of action in the atmosphere and edited first International Cloud Atlas. THEODOR HOMEN made classical soil temperature studies in FINLAND. ALEXANDER STEPANOVICH POPOV described first thunderstorm or sferics recorder. 1897 MARIE ALFRED CORNU published paper concerning the limits of ultraviolet radiation, especially as affected by altitude. 1898 SIR ARTHUR SCHUSTER introduced the periodogram analysis to meteorology. 1900 VLADIMIR KOPPEN introduced the first real climatic classification. MAX PLANCK developed the spectral energy density function. Measurements of global solar radiation began in WASHINGTON, D.C. 1902 LEON TEISSERENC DE BORT used the troposphere and stratosphere divisions of the atmo- sphere. 1904 VILHELM BJERKNES suggested the method of numerical forecasting. 1905 KNUT ANGSTROM developed instrument for measuring long-wave radiation. VAGN WALFRID EKMAN developed the theoretical approach to vector forms in a homogeneous fluid on a rotating earth. 1906 VILHELM BJERKNES and J. W. SANDSTROM introduced the term "bar." M. MARGULES determined the slope of a front by consideration of wind and temperature conditions. 1907 Weather Bureau established solar radiation observatory at Mt. Weather, Va. 1908 GUSTAV MIE developed the mathematical-physical theory of scattering of electromagnetic radiation by spherical particles. 1910 FELIX M. VON EXNER published papers on tropospheric models, cyclone structures, and constant pressure charts. 1912 WILLIAM HENRY DINES showed the relationship of pressure to temperature of the tropo- sphere. 1916 for measuring global radiation was developed. 1917 VILHELM BJERKNES formulated POLAR FRONT THEORY.

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1917 B. ROLF made one of the first attempts to break away from synoptic forecasting and used probabilities. 8-36 VLADIMIR KOPPEN developed his famous classification of climates. 1919 LEONARD HILL developed the katathermometer. CARL KASSNER made the first weather film. 1920 MILUTIN MILANKOVITCH developed the theory of global thermal phenomena of the past produced by solar radiation patterns. 1921 JACOB BJERKNES and H. SOLBERG defined an occlusion. AUGUST SCHMAUSS studied and used the term "equatorial front." 1922 LEWIS FRY RICHARDSON published the text Weather Prediction by Numerical Process. PHILIPPE SCHERESCHEWSKY and PHILIP WEHRLE published memoir on first major synoptic- scale study of cloud systems. 1923 F. C. HOUGHTEN and C. P. YAGLOU introduced concept of effective temperature, modi- fied in 1950s to temperature-humidity index simplification. 1924 Louis BESSON developed the coefficient of persistence. 1925 CARL W. H. DORNO and RUD THILENIUS developed the Frigorimeter. J. DURWARD noted the jet stream above northwestern Europe. 1926 I. A. BOWEN introduced the ratio of the flux of sensible heat to the heat used in evapora- tion. H. JEFFREYS conceived the idea of linking poleward transport of angular momentum to eddy circulation. EMMANUEL DE MARTONNE suggested a temperature/rainfall aridity index. SIR NAPIER SHAW introduced the tephigram. 1927 P. IDRAC and ROBERT BUREAU received signals from a transmitter sent into the strato- sphere. B. STUVE devised T vs. log p diagram. 1928 P. A. MOLTCHANOFF developed the first . 1931 C. WARREN THORNTHWAITE evolved temperature efficiency, precipitation effectiveness climatic classification. AUGUST W. VERAART experimented with cloud seeding in the . 1933 TOR BERGERON published paper on " of Cloud and Precipitation." 1937 CARL-GUSTAF ROSSBY introduced first isentropic map analysis and developed techniques for forecasting upper westerly waves. 1940 U.S. Weather Bureau moved from Department of Agriculture to the Department of Commerce. First attempts at 5-day forecasts using the ROSSBY circulation model were made. J. COULOMB and J. LOISEL published comprehensive work on cloud physics. 1941 J. W. RYDE published paper on radar reflection from weather. *1942 was developed. 1943 J. S. FORREST published paper on radar storm detection. 1944 HURD CURTIS WILLETT produced time cross sections showing the jet stream. 1945 PAUL A. SIPLE and C. F. PASSEL introduced the concept of the wind-chill factor, which was later refined by ARNOLD COURT (1948).

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1946 VINCENT J. SCHAEFER and IRVING LANGMUIR performed the first cloud-seeding experiment, 13 November, SCHENECTADY, N.Y. JOHN VON NEUMANN began mathematical modeling of weather. 1947 First successful use of to obtain photographs of earth occurred on 7 March, 160 km out. Conference of Directors of IMO was held in Washington, D.C., prepared detailed plan and treaty for the World Meteorological Organization, which would replace it (see 1950). 1948 Rocket probing of the upper atmosphere was begun. C. WARREN THORNTHWAITE used potential evapotranspiration and water budgets in a climatic classification. 1949 DELMAR L. CROWSON discussed meteorological use of cloud pictures secured from space. 1950 First successful numerical integration of the barotropic vorticity equation was performed. WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION was established, 23 March. 1951 JACOB BJERKNES published analysis of synoptic weather derived from Aerobee rockets in 1948. 1953 Ability of baroclinic models to forecast cyclonic development via numerical integration methods was demonstrated. 1956 NORMAN A. PHILLIPS proposed numerical approach to problems of the general circulation. 1957-58 INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL YEAR. 1959 EXPLORER-6 obtained cloud photographs of large areas through TV in August. EXPLORER-7 made preliminary measurements of solar radiation in October. 1960 TIROS (Television and Infrared Observation Satellite) was launched on 1 April, a great advance in weather satellites. 1963 First successful hemispheric circulation experiments in numerical type studies were performed. 1964 NIMBUS-1 was launched in August; camera always points toward earth. 1967 GARP (Global Atmospheric Research Program) was initiated. 1969 BOMEX (Barbados Oceanic and Meteorological Experiment), first project of GARP, was begun. 1972 Numerical climatic models for the atmosphere were first developed. 1974 GATE (GARP Atlantic Tropical Experiment), in the eastern tropical Atlantic, was begun. *

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