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Durham E-Theses Touching the Gods: physical interaction with cult statues in the Roman world WEDDLE, POLLY How to cite: WEDDLE, POLLY (2010) Touching the Gods: physical interaction with cult statues in the Roman world, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/555/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk Polly Weddle Durham University Touching the Gods „Touching the Gods: physical interaction with cult statues in the Roman world‟ explores different forms of physical interaction with cult statues in the many cults and beliefs evident across the Roman world, and proposes wide-ranging implications of this for the understanding of Roman religions and Roman art. Despite the theoretical detachment of the cult statue in the Roman world, an ideological language of close physical interaction was developed, which manifested itself through both „regular‟ (for example, ritual decoration and washing) and „irregular‟ (such as sexual and violent) contact. Although modern scholarship accepts that cult statues formed part of religious worship within which physical interaction took place, they are generally treated as passive objects. This research addresses the implications of physical interaction for the active role of the statue within Roman societies, through the assessment of the anthropological, social and psychological functions the statue could embody. It establishes a socio-cultural definition of the cult statue in the Roman world, supported by an assessment of Greek and Latin vocabulary for statuary and an assessment of the physical evidence for cult images. The thesis separately considers the different types of interaction, including washing and clothing, verbal communication, transportation, embrace, violence and feeding. The conclusions drawn from these separate types are based partly on a broad study of the full range of interactions, with an additional focus on the points in the ancient dialogue at which their limitations are placed. The cumulative effect of the evidence, across the whole empire and across all interactions possible, illuminates the vast complexity and vast potential of images of the gods in forming, informing and being influenced by human relationships with the divine. Polly Weddle Durham University Touching the Gods Touching the Gods: physical interaction with cult statues in the Roman world Polly Georgina Weddle University College, Durham University Submitted for the degree of PhD in the Department of Classics and Ancient History June 2010 The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged. Polly Weddle Durham University Touching the Gods Contents Acknowledgements Introduction 1 i. Matters of definition 1 i.a. The cult statue 1 i.b. The Roman world 18 i.c. Interactions 22 ii. Everything to everyone? General attitudes (ancient and modern) towards cult images 23 iii. Modern boundaries? „State-cult‟, „private-cult‟ and the emperors 39 iv. Speaking of statues: the evidence 41 v. A note on the structure and content of the thesis 43 1 Chapter One: Adornment and Ablution 45 1.1 The context of bathing and decorating cult images 45 1.2 The daily routine 47 1.3 Dress codes: the symbolism of decoration and bathing 57 1.4 Dressing to impress? The literal potential of adornments and ablutions 62 1.5 Conclusions on the adornment and ablution of cult statues 70 2 Chapter Two: Talking Heads 74 2.1 A stony silence? An introduction to speaking with statues 74 2.2 The listening image 75 2.3 Speaking statues: voices of gods 89 2.4 Speaking statues: voices of men 105 2.5 A note on the written voices of images 115 2.6 Conclusions on verbal interactions with cult statues 118 3 Chapter Three: Walking the Earth 121 3.1 Static or mobile? An introduction to the movements of cult images 121 3.2 Images in transit: temporary transport during festivals, processions and embassies 128 3.3 Statues in transition: the theft, transport and migration of cult images 132 3.4 A note on fettered images and clipped wings 146 3.5 Statues in transgression: animated images, magic, miracles, and movement 152 3.6 Conclusions on movement and cult statues 160 4 Chapter Four: Holding On 162 4.1 The boundaries of physical interaction 162 4.2 Kissing and touching 162 4.3 Sanctuary‟s embrace 166 4.4 For the love of gods 171 4.5 Conclusions on the tactility of cult images 179 5 Chapter Five: The Violent Worshipper and Violent Gods 182 5.1 Violence and transgression 182 Polly Weddle Durham University Touching the Gods 5.2 Sanctioned violence 185 5.3 The hands of men 188 5.4 Acts of gods 194 5.5 Reparation and retribution 197 5.6 Conclusions on the harming of cult statues 202 6 Chapter Six: Hungry Gods? 205 6.1 Sacrifice as interaction 205 6.2 Theories of sacrifice 206 6.3 Visibility and invisibility 212 6.4 Priests and permissions: public cult 219 6.5 Home and country: domestic and rural cult 227 6.6 Eating out: theoxenia, lectisternia and sellisternia 230 6.7 Blurred images: imperial cult, miracle statues and consecration 235 6.8 Conclusions on sacrifice and cult statues 238 7 Conclusions 241 Illustrations 245 Abbreviations 246 Bibliography 248 Polly Weddle Durham University Touching the Gods Acknowledgements All journeys to completing a PhD have their challenges, and I have been tremendously fortunate in the number of people and organisations who have helped along the way. I am grateful to more people than I can possibly name here, and those I do share all responsibility for this thesis‟s successes, and for none of its shortcomings, which are mine alone. My supervisor, Dr Ted Kaizer, has been a constant source of inspiration, support, kindness and ideas. I doubt I have always made his role easy, but he has consistently given me all the time and energy at his disposal to be a constructive and challenging sounding board. I left every supervision feeling both that my work was of value, and that I was the right person to be researching it, without which I could never have reached this final stage. Similarly, Dr Clemence Schultze, who was on my supervisory team for my PhD and for my Masters, has given me much of her time, energy and support, and I am very much indebted to her. The support of the Arts and Humanities Research Council, in its financial provision as well as its validation of my subject, made this thesis possible, and even their infamous application process provided me with skills I have since found vital. A bursary from the Department of Classics and Ancient History at Durham University also made a significant contribution to the first year of my research. The Classical Association, the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies, the Faculty of Arts and Humanities and the Department of Classics and Ancient History at Durham University all funded the conference „Image as Boundary‟, which provided me with excellent experience, as well as the opportunity to engage with scholars from around the world who offered invaluable insights into this research. Those academics who gave me their time and thoughts at that conference must also receive thanks, for it is only really ever through the exchange of ideas that those of your own can take shape. In particular, Professors Peter Rhodes and Tony Birley were kind enough to chair panels and listen to my thoughts, in conversations from which I benefitted significantly. Numerous scholars have provided me with time, suggestions and kind pointers, and sadly they are again too numerous to mention. Professors Henk Versnel and Fergus Millar receive special note, because they pushed me with their questions and were so generous with their immense knowledge. Other academics, particularly those at the University of Oxford, the Courtauld Institute, the University of Chicago and Columbia University, have made suggestions, passed on knowledge and generally given over their valuable time, and I hope that the personal thanks I aim to offer them will compensate for the lack of names here. Polly Weddle Durham University Touching the Gods The same must be true of the academics and students in the Department of Classics and Ancient History at Durham University, so many of whom have helped that I cannot list them in full. Exceptional mention must go to Dr Leanne Hunnings, Dr Rosie Wyles, Charles MacDougall and Felicity Oates, without whom I would barely have reached the end of the first week, let alone be submitting. Professor George Boys-Stones has been a kind and patient Director of Postgraduate Studies and Head of Department, and Dr Johannes Haubold has been of great help since succeeding him as Director of Postgraduate Studies. Dr Barbara Graziosi also provided me with opportunities and opened doors, which improved my time at Durham considerably. Many at Durham inspired and assisted me; my thanks to all is sincere.
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