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Home , Acarnania, Achaea (constituency), Actia, Actium, Aegae (Achaea), Aegae (Euboea)

(Avdira). A city in (northern ); situated on Cape ra (a corruption of the medieval Polystylon), eleven miles northeast of iver .According to , the foundation of the city went to ,whose eighth labor was the capture of the man-eatinghorses iomedes,king of the neighboringBistonians. However, the first attempt to Abdera, accordingto ,was made in the seventhcentury nc by ists from Clazomenae(Klazumen) in led by Tynisias,but they were n backby the Thracians.In 545nc the peopleof anotherIonian city, rk), frnding Persiandomination intolerable,placed settlers on the site (in- ing the poet Anacreon)and reconstructedthe town. It controlled an exten- 2pgs-6s6veredwith vineyards and fertile,' accordingto . An ear of in is shownon its fine .However, the Abderanswere constantly at pains protect their territory from Thracian incursions.Nevertheless, their city was a centerfor trading with the Thracian (Odrysian)rulers of the hinterland, d provided a harbor for the commerce of upper Thrace in general. \\'hen the came to Thrace in 5131512they took control of Abdera, did so once againtn 492.In 480 it was one of the halting placesselected Xerxesas he marchedthe Persianarmy along the northern shoresof the Ae- n toward Greece. As a member of the first Athenian Alliance (Delian ue) establishedafter the end of the PersianWars, it contributed (from 454 a sum of betweenten and fifteen talents,indicating its position as the third- hestcity in the League.ln 431,at the beginningof the PeloponnesianWar inst , tltook the lead in an endeavor to enroll Thrace (under the Odry- ruler Sitalces)and Macedoniain the Athenian cause.Although'Abderite' becamea synonym for stupidity, Abdera producedtwo fifth-century think- of outstandingdistinction, Democritusand . In376 the city was destroyedby the Thracian tribe of the Triballi, and c 346 its remaining inhabitants were incorporated by Philip II in his Macedonian kingdom. After the death of , Abdera fell successivelyinto the hands of IGng Lysimachusof Thrace, the Seleucids,the ,and then, once again,the ,whose possession ended iri 196 when the Abkhazia

fircL Themormmml Romans declaredit a free state.In 170,however, it was besiegedand sacked hre boen th nard by Roman and Pergamenesoldiers, and neverreally recovered,-although in Ro- fors l -un imperial timelit remained,officially speakiflg,o'free city,'-uttdin the early the Trojan Srr- Ahpq Middle Ageswas a small Byzantinetown and the seatof a bishopric. T5 r Nfilerus€sriltrq The recent excavation of a cemetery@alf-a-mile from the site) dating back I tc 6ti-65-r- fhbld to the secondhalf of the seventhcentury ec confirmsthe city's foundationdate 'House the rnesern dofLt gi,..n by Herodotus.The uncoveringof a Hellenistic of the Dolphins' )bn-which Xerxcsl@ has now beencompleted. Other finds are on show in the museumat Kavalla. . it_ioined t-ile Delim Lq 4- to the Athenim. Ab{ Abkhazia seeColchis Fnans-.{ilrens'ql i a deiba: off rhe o&rl- h I Abonutichus,Abonou Teichos(Wall of Abonos),later Ionopolis (Inebolu)._A bg' ,tueran&r the Grcr r small port on the (Black) coast of (northern Mi- minedny against Philb Yd nor), ut t6. mouth of the ikiEay. Abonutichus started to issuecoinage in R]-euus later it temporarityl the first century sc and achievedciiy statusin the-timeof the Roman us III. Tne LrngdomdE (from onward, rmdg'E ijO u.; or lateri), first under that name and then a troe state- and . u time; a. iotropglis. It was the birthplace of one of the most outrageous il gold rnriner it bm,m r I charlatansof the aniient world, Alexanderof Abonutichus,whose career in the todal'. since it form ft ol secondcentury eo is ruthlesslydisplayed in 'sAlexander, or the False trings and rnalls nilRrclcpaq prophet.A suicessfulexploiterof women, Alexanderclaimed to control a new rir-ed. I (depict- -unif..tution ofthe godAsclepius, in the form ofa snakecalled Glycon The place atnined tfucrery ( .J on the city's coinlge), witli whose assistancehe uttered oraclesand staged ich rl as told by- the G'raek p( mysteries.His circular shrinehas beenidentified' s back t0 an .rrlexandrier { was priestessot'Apfuut: der. u-ho lir-ed at -{hrqfu. I Abrittos (Razgrad).A stronghold Lower (northea_st9rn Abrit(t)us, _in the strait to r.istt hcr- C| on the.oud from Marcianopolis(Reka Devnia) to the Danube.origi- ), ich she euided hirn acrm. d aThracian settlement,it becamea Roman fortressin the first century AD nall"y tire sea. and attained urban statusin the second.Extensive fortifications have survived, probably dating from the Gothic incursions of the mid-third century. In 25i, theseattacks made Abrittus the sceneof one of the most catastrophic see holen'lals battlesin Roman history. After the king of the , Kniva, had invaded Low- province and tried to er Moesia, the .-p.toi Trajanus Decius arrived in the us, -{.kanthos{tremssosf- r Decius and his son -'- cut off the Goths'ietreat. ln the ensuingbattle, however, the three promontorles of were trapped (as the fiftlt- , following initial successes, lnland. Acanthus uas tounfi partiality for Decius, had to admit) in ;;;tr;y historian Zosimus, deipite his n ed prosperitl'from agicil never recovered.This was the first ; bo;, *h... they were killed an-dthe bodies nith the inr-aders during the h by a foreign,foe.The greater time a Roman .*p.ror had been slain in battle donius (492\ and then Kilng Xc walls,'erectedsoon afterward, part of the imperiai ur-y was destroyed.The city the isthmus (though his camelsr bombine towers of three different shapes. eganga bull on the ci4''s ertensi oithe (contnoMnd Abu Serai seeCircesium sided u-ith in ttre Peilop from their oligarchic pary soeil Under the Peaceof \icias {41tr}l Abydus (Na[ara Point). A city in (northwesternAsia Minor); on the Asi- t0 resume the pa)'ment of tr,lhn atii bank oithe Hellespont (bardanelles),at the narrowestpoint of the strait. \facedonia in the fourth cenrur1 lUVO"r, which lies awiy from the main current and possessesthe best harbor its port remained of some slgnn in itre Fiellespont,was first mentioned in the lliads catalogof the ships in the

2 Acanthus

D\\iler. it was besieged and sacked n fleet.The mountainsto the southeastcontained gold mines,which were ;er r:al11-recovered,although in Ro- to have been the sourceof King Priam's wealth, and the was also pea{rng.a'free city,,'and in the early in horses. lnc the seat of a bishopric. After the , Abydus was said to have been settled by Thracians, rit-a-mile from the site) dating back 1lc 675 nc establisheda colony there,by agreementwith King Gyges :cont-lrmsthe city's foundation date L1'(c 685-657).Darius I of Persiaburned the city down in 5l2,btt in 480 'House Heiienistic of the Dolphins' formed the westernend of the double bridge (replacinganother destroyedby tn s.rou'in the museum at Kavalla. ) by which XerxesI crossedover the Hellespontto .Shortly after- . it joined the Delian League, which became the Athenian . Never iendly to the Athenians,Abydus revolted in 411, providing a naval baseto Spartans-Athens' enemyin the PeloponnesianWar (43l-404)-who suf- a defeatoffthe coast.In 386 the city passedinto Persianhands, urrtil - rcnos). later Ionopolis (Inebolu). A ion by Alexander the Great in 334. In 200 the people of Abydus fought of Paphlagonia (northern Asia Mi- rminedly againstPhilip V of ,but were compelledto surrender. nu::chus started to issue coinage in reeyears later it temporarily becamean outpost of the Seleucidmonarch An- in ihe time ofthe Roman Principate us III. The kingdom of Pergamum,and the Romans, officially regarded hen i:iom Marcus Aurelius onward, as a free state,and under the , despitethe exhaustionof the lace oi one of the most outrageous al gold mines,it becamean important customsstation. Abydus is inaccessi- of,-{lonutichus, whose career in the - today, since it forms part of a Turkish military ;extensive remains of in Lucian's .llexander, or the False ildings and walls were reported by earlier travelers,but have not apparently Alerander claimed to control a new ived. rtrn ;,ia snake called Glycon (depict- The place attained literary fame through the story of and Leander, [ance he uttered and staged r-hich was told by the Greek poet Musaeusin the fifth or sixth century Ro, but ntil-::d. goesback to an Alexandrian tale originating many hundreds of years earlier. Hero waspriestess of at Sestus,on the other bank of the Hellespont. rlc .n Lo*'er Moesia (northeastern Leander,who lived at Abydus, fell in love with her and usedto swim by night S.eiia Der-nia) to the Danube. Origi- acrossthe strait to visit her. One night, however, a storm put out the light by )mal tbnress in the first century AD n'hich sheguided him across,and he wasdrowned; whereupon she threw herself Iensi\ - fortihcations have survived. into the sea. rs o: the mid-third century. cen. oione of the most catastrophic Abydus seePtolemais he Gr-rths.Kniva, had invaded Low- r:l.rr:d in the province and tried to Acanthus, ().A city on the isthmus that links Acte (4v),one ntiie. horvever, Decius and his son of the three promontories of the peninsulaof Chalcidice,with the Macedonian cessis. \\'ere trapped (as the fifth- mainland. Acanthus was founded by colonistsfrom the island of , and ua,rti for Decius, had to admit) in derived prosperity from agriculturalproduce exported from its harbor. It sided s ner er recovered. This was the first rvith invaders PersianWars, first their generalMar- battie b1' a foreign foe. The greater the during the supporting (492) whom it helped his re cirl n'alls, erected soon afterward, donius and then King , to dig canal across the isthmus(though his camelswere set upon by lions nearby;a lion is seensav- aginga bull on the city's extensivecoinage). The Acanthians later formed part of the Delian League(controlled by Athens)and Athenian empire, and initially sided with Athens in the PeloponnesianWar (431-404),but under pressure from their oligarchic party went over to the Spartangeneral in 424. rnhs.esternAsia Minor); on the Asi- Under the Peaceof (421)the city wasconceded autonomy but compelled at the narrowestpoint of the strait. to resume the payment of tribute to Athens. Taken over by the kingdom of rrent and possessesthe bestharbor Macedoniain the fourth century, it was plunderedby the Romans in 200; but he lliads catalogof the shipsin the its port remained of some significance,and the town continued to survive in

imperial times. Although excavationshave not been extensive,imposing re- The historical Acha@-r mains of the walls are still to be seen.Moreover, the line of Xerxes' Peloponnesebetween S canal can be traced, starting at a village a mile and a half to the southeastof of , was known as Ierissos. migrants from the Argolid The name of the city is also that of a herbaceousplant, belongir-rgto the pe- ists to south and rer rennial family of the Acanthaceae,that was reproducedin stylized.formon Co- 'thorny,' rinthian capitals (spinosus, preferred by the.; mollis, 'soft,' ) An ancient Achaeancotr favored by the Romans). to which the remainir[ joined in 251 by Sic-von( Acarnania. A region of northwesternGreece, bounded by , Arcadian cities, including il the ,and the Gulf of Ambracua.The lower reachesof the Achelous Eventually including almt werebordered by a fertile plain, but otherwisethe territory wasringed by moun- Greece as well, the Achr tains. The inhabitants ranked as Greeksbut (unlike those of neighboringAm- , until conflict with the philochia) long remained relatively uncivilized. In the fifth century, if not ignment of its territory to I earlier, the Acarnaniansformed their own cantonal league,with its capital at (a) In 27 sc +xtel Stratuson right portraying the bank of the Achelous,which issuedcoinage the Greece-became a senatui personifiedriver-god and his daughter the spring-goddessCallirhoe, mother of betweenep 15and 44 wl the mythical Acatnan. announcedthe'liberati{ The Acarnanians were originally called Cephallenians,from the island of later by Vespasian.Epiru that name (),and were subjectto Odysseusof , accordingto a, the former to becomc . Corinthian colonieshad beensettled in the most favorablecoastal loca- part tions from an early date,and during the mid-fifth century Corinthian and Athe- of Macedonia. In fi nian commercial interests came into conflict in the area. In 432/31 the also taken away from Ar membersof the AcarnanianLeague invoked the aid of Athens againstAmbra- cia () and other colonies,and then rn 429/26,after the outbreakof the Pelo- Agrigentum (Aerigcil ponnesianWar, they renewedthe appeal.About 400a federalcoinage made its earlier occupation by' nm appearance.In 390, however,the Acarnanianswere subjugatedby King Agesi- river on its eastside, while t laus II of Sparta,remaining under Spartancontrol until fifteen yearslater, when t-was founded c 580 Bc b they becamemembers of Athens' SecondLeague. They backed Thebesin its n origin from led successfulassertion of power againstSparta, but joined Athens in resistingKing ised by ) occnpia Philip II of Macedonia(359-336), of which country, however,they subsequent- surrounded on three sidef, ly becamedependants. ridge rising to two peakr o In 314, prompted by one of Alexander the Great's successors,- was ruled by an oligarc the ruler of Macedonia and most of Greece-they supersededtheir Leagueby of the otyrant' Phalarir wl a new federationof recentlyfounded cities.Amid continuousfrontier disputes, native towns in the interiq Acarnaniawas partitioned in 263/255between and , but after the ts alive in a hollow brazen collapseof the Epirote monarchy quarter a of a centurylater it regainedits inde- becamerich from thef pendenceand acquired the island of Leucas,which became the 's ;hich were sent to Carthagp" principal mint. In 200 the Acarnanianstook the losing sideof Philip V Mace- of ing of cattle. donia againstthe Romans, and lost Leucasin 167,but were allowed to retain The great period of the city their confederacyuntil the time of (31 sc-eo l4). Seealso , Stratus. of 100,000,was the reign of T hr as the north coast of - rhaglnians,who controlled the Ace, Acre seePtolemais historic, decisive defeat by thc (480).The yearsthar fo Achaea, Akhaia. (l) A name derived from Akhaioi, employed in the lliad to grandiose building for the Acr 'Greeks,' mean with particular referenceto the followers of and Aga- clared the place to be the'faires memnon. ides of Ceos, too, was a visiu

4 Acragas ot been extensive,imposing re- The historical Achaea,which was a narrow territory on the north coast r- \Ioreover, the line of Xerxes' Peloponnesebetween and (southeasternThessaly, across the e and a half to the southeastof of Corinth, was known asAchaea ). Descendedfrom Late Bronze rrigrants from the Argolid, the Achaeansof the northern Peloponnesesent rous plant, belongiggto the pe- niststo south Italy and remainedneutral in the Persianand Peloponnesian roduced in stylized-formon Co- 'soft,' il bl the Greeks; mollis, An ancientAchaean confederacy was revived in 280 by the union of four to which the remaining Achaeancommunities were soon added. They joined in 251 by Sicyon (the birthplace of the statesmanAratus) and then bounded by the river Achelous, Arcadian cities,,including Megalopolis(the birthplace of the historian Polyb- e lorr er reachesof the Achelous Eventually including almost the whole of the and part of cen- heterritory wasringed by moun- Greece as well, the Achaean confederacy became the principal power in mlike those of neighboringAm- , until conflict with the Romans resultedin its dissolution (146)and the Ed. In the fifth century, if not ignment of its territory to the of Macedonia. rtonal league,with its capital at (a) In 27 sc Achaea-extended in significanceto comprise the greaterpart ch issuedcoinage portraying the Greece-became a senatorialprovince on its own account (apart from the ng-goddessCallirhoe, mother of betweeneo 15 and44 when it was temporarily reunited with Macedonia). announcedthe 'liberation' of Greece(67), but this was cancelleda few phalienians,from the island of later by Vespasian.Epirus and Thessalywere subsequentlydetached from X1'sseusof lthaca, accordingto the former to becomea province on its own account and the latter to favorablecoastal loca- , r the most part of Macedonia. In the later empire and the (Insulae) century Corinthian and Athe- ftfi also taken away from Achaeato become separateprovinces. ct in the area. In 432131the [e ard of Athens againstAmbra- 6. a:ter the outbreakof the Pelo- , Agrigentum (). A city near the southwesterncoast of Sicily. nt -$[u,ra federal coinagemade its r earlier occupationby native Sicans,the Greek city-taking its name from $ere subjugatedby King Agesi- river on its east , while the river Hypsas (SantaAnna) bounded it to the rol until fifteen yearslater, when t-was founded c 580 sc by colonistsof Rhodian and (in smaller numbers) gue. They backed in its an origin from Gela, led by Aristonoos and Pystilos. The extensive site n jornedAthens in resistingKing ised by Polybius) occupied a large, basin-like plateau two miles from the rntrf'. however,they subsequent- . surroundedon three sidesby low cliffs, and dominated from the north by ridge rising to two peaks,one of which was the acropolis. In its early years Great'ssuccessors, Cassander- wasruled by an oligarchy,which wassuperseded c 57| by the autocratic thel supersededtheir Leagueby of the otyrant', who vigorously extendedhis territory, ove{power- rid continuousfrontier disputes, native towns in the interior. He was said to have roastedhis political oppo- Aetolia and Epirus,but afterthe ts alive in a hollow . From the latter part of the century creorur)'laterit regainedits inde- becamerich from the production ofgrain, the export ofwine and rxhich became the federation's 'hich were sent to ,according to Timaeus and Diodorus), and the e losingside of Philip V of Mace- ing of cattle. n6-. but were allowedto retain The great period of the city, when its population may have reacheda total [3] ec-ro l4). Seea/so Actium, 100,000,was the reign of Theron (488-472),wtro expandedits territory as r as the north coastof Sicily. In so doing, he came into conflict with the Car- aginians,who controlled the westernpart of the island; but they sufferedan historic, decisive defeatby the forces of Acragasand Syracuseat the battle of Himera (480).The yearsthat followed were a period of conspicuouswealth and khaioi,employed in the lliad to grandiosebuilding for the Acragantines.Pindar, who lived at their court, de- e followers of Achilles and Aga- claredthe placeto be the'fairest'ofmortal cities,'andeulogized its ruler.Simon- ides of Ceos, too, was a visitor, and repaired relations between Acragasand Acre

Syracuse,which had deterioratedsince Himera. After expelling Theron's son m( Thrasydaeus,Acragas adopted a semi-aristocraticand then a democratic form it$ of government,under the guidanceof its most famouscitizen, the philosopher" rTa scientist,poet, orator, statesman, mystic and supposedmiracleworker Empedo- *ilLl cles.The chariotsof Acragaswere victorious in the major Greekgames; in 412 the Olympic sprint winner Exaenetuswas escortedinto the city by three hun- d_t dred chariots,and honored by magnificentcoins. t Neutral in the strugglebetween Athens and Syracusein the Peloponnesian del War, Acragaswas besiegedand sackedby the Carthaginiansin 406,a disaster I from which it did not fully recover.Refounded by (sentby the Corin- tolirl thians to Sicily) in 338,it regaineda certain local importanceunder the autocrat nffihc Phintias (289-279)but soon afterwardit fell a victim to the rivalry betweenthe b&c Romans and Carthaginians,who sackedthe city in succession(26211,25514); the Romans sold 25,000of its inhabitantsinto slavery.Finally, in 2ll/210, it was once more besiegedand occupied by the Romans (who againsold many of its peopleas slaves)and disappearedfrom the political scene.However, after repopulation by Roman colonists under the name of Agrigentum (197), it - joyed a considerableeconomic recovery.By the time of 's speeches NffidT (70), people againstVerres, the former governor of the island its had regained G@ from vine- - much of their wealth. Diodorus emphasizesthe richesthey derived rflfr period yards, olives and racehorses;and in the imperial they developedtextile dAmi and sulphur industries,and possessedan important commercial harbor. ' Atil Tracesof a settlementgoing back to pre-colonialtimes have come to light. The splendorof the city in the classicalGreek epoch is displayedby a seriesof fiircr Doric temples,forming an almost continuous sacredarea (now an archaeologi- cal zone)lining the ridge at the southernend of the site. No lessthan nine such Anto shrineswere built between480 and 400,a figure exceededonly by Athens. The ftRmen r best preserved is a temple conventionally, though inaccurately, ascribed to mtothF Concord;its correctdesignation is unknown.It owesits survival to conversion llmy:ndO into a church (St. Gregory of the Turnips) in early Christian times; similarly, rdprtiml the fourth century Ro church of SantaMaria dei Greci was built over a temple ffihhfrefoll,or attributed to . \ecent excavationshave revealeda shrine of the under- ilrhosp world ()divinities, and a temple of Asclepiuswas erectednear mineral mu$Fatiq springsoutside the walls. lile comm gndl. andl Acre seePtolemais Ace (Judaea) &e ee Aanizn era srus Acropolis seeAthens -w Tropeum Tn Acte, Akte (Athos), Mount. The easternmostof the three promontories of the peninsula of Chalcidice, in northern Greece,which extend'sdownward from ruAsnria Macedoniato the AegeanSea. Acte is thirty miles long and six-and-a-halfmiles wide at its broadestpoint, and has a mountainous spine culminating in apyra- AilriN mid-shapedpeak that risessheer from the seato a heightof 6,667feet. Accord- ing to ,the was sacredto . One legendrecounts that it was the stone flung at Poseidonby a giant named Athos; another story tells -w Hadnanopolir how Poseidonseparated it from the peninsulain his strugglewith the giant. As

6

But, aboveall, it was Athensthat resistedthe commercialsupremacy of the Aeginetans.Already in the early yearsof the sixth centuryits statesmanSolon passedlaws designedto restrictAeginetan trading, which causedthe island to ally itselfin turn with Spartaand Thebesin the hopeof checkingthe Athenians' risingpower; and in 506the longstruggle against them began.In 490the Aegine- tans took no part in the Greekresistance to Darius I culminatingin the , and two years later they won a naval victory againstAthens. (They also constructeda new port at about this time.) Indeed,the greatAthe- nian fleet that defeatedXerxes I at Salamisin 480 had ostensiblybeen raised to deal with the Aeginetans,because of the sympathythey had shown toward the Persians.In the event,however, the Aeginetansdid contributea squadron to the Greek fleet that confrontedXerxes at Salamis,and their bravery in the battlewon them 'the hrst prizefor valor.' In the followingyear, too, they fought besidetheir Athenianrivals at Plataea.But Aegina'sspecial glory wasits inspi- ration of at leastseven of the finestodes of Pindar,including the eighthPythian. 'eyesore Nevertheless,the Athenian statesmanPericles called the island the of the ,'and war broke out betweenthe two statesin 459.It endedwith the captureof Aeginaby the Athenians,followed by its compulsoryenrollment in the Athenian confederation(Delian League)to which it was obligedto con- tribute thirty talentsannually. But resentmentremained strong, and the Aegine- tans playeda substantialpart in persuadingSparta to enterthe againstAthens (431). As a result,the Atheniansdeported the island'sentire population and apportionedthe land among their own people,while Sparta gavea new home to the exiledinhabitants at ;though in 424 the Athe- nians capturedthat town too, and transferredthe refugeesto Athens.In 405, however,when the PeloponnesianWar had finally gonein favor of the Spar- tans,they were allowedback to their island under a Spartangovernor. From 322 to 229 Aegrnawas under Macedoniancontrol, and then belonged to the AchaeanLeague until 2l l, when it was taken over by the Romans and attachedto the (which enslavedits inhabitants),only to be sold,in the following year,to Attalus II of Pergamum-a transferwhich intro- duceda new period of prosperity.After the Pergamenekingdom was annexed by (133),Aegina went with it. During the 30s,, assignedthe islandto the Athenians.In Ro 267 thecity suffereda destructivesiege from Ger- man (Herulian)invaders. Tracesof ThessalianBronze Agesettlement have come to light on the slopes of Mount Elia. But the principal monument of the island is the temple of (a pre-Greekgoddess, assimilated to Athena),on the highestpoint of CapeColonna, a pine-cladhill abovethe sea.The building, of which part sur- vives today includinga number of columnsand fine pedimentsculptures in va- rying styles(now to be seenin the and Athens museums),dates from 520-478nc (startinga decadeafter a fragmentaryTemple of ). In the late Roman period it was destroyedand replacedby a massivefortress. Remains of two earliershrines on the site have alsobeen discovered, and portions of all three altarscan be seen.The sacredarea also containsa theaterand stadium. A further sanctuary,in the district of Mesagro,was built over a Mycenaeansite in the seventhcenturv.

10

Adriatic Sea. The term was usedinterchangeably with'Ionian Sea'to denote the watersbetween Italy and the Balkan peninsula.Later,it becameconvenient to call the northern and southernparts of this gulf the Adriatic and Ionian respectively,with their division at the Straitsof (althoughthe Adriatic coast north of that point was also describedas the Ionian Gulfl.

Aea seeColchis

Aegae, (). In the region of in Macedonia,south of the river Haliacmon. Aegaewas said to have been a residenceof the god ,and the surrounding area was known as the Garden of Midas-an historical being proverbial for his wealth, and worshipped at the foot of Mount Bermion- becauseof its vines, orchardsand roses.The city replacedLebaea, the capital of the kings of Macedonia until Archelaus(41 3-399 nc) establishedhimself at instead. has now beenconvincingly identified with Vergina,where, in addition to a largeprehistoric necropolis, an imposing number ofrectangular and bartel-vaultedtombs of c 340-320have come to light. Their grandeurand artislic excellencesuggest that they werebuilt to housethe ashesof the Macedo- nian royal family, and one graye,theGreat Tomb, is believedto have contained the remainsof the ruler Philip II (359-336):a conclusionconfirmed by exami- nation of the skull, which revealsa gravehead-wound corresponding to Philip's known lossof an eye.(The tomb also coversa smallermound housingaddition- al graves.) Some of these burial places were adorned by wall paintings-including a Rape of Persephoneand a Lion Hunt-that provide a unique contribution to our knowledgeof this rarely preservedancient . The grave goodsin- clude a ceremonial parade-shield,ornamented with ivory (and now restored), in addition to casketssheathed in gold and silver plate (one containing rem- nants of cloth), and a superblyexecuted crown of gold leaves.Ivory headi from the same site representAlexander the Great and, apparently,his father Philip II and his mother Olympias. The ruins of an ancientcity extendbetween Vergina and the town of Palatit- sa,about a mile and a halfto the west.On a small plateaubetween the acropolis and a cemeterystand the remainsofa royal palaceofthe third century,contain- ing largeperistyle courts, double-storeyed colonnades and circular halls.A hun- ft dred yards north of the palace,the theater in which Philip II was murdered lm (336) has now been located; a statue-baseis inscribed with the name of his eil mother Eurydice.A three-aisledearly Christian came to light in 1982. ET

Aegates (Egadi) off the western extremity of Sicily. The principal is- lands were Aegusaor Bucinna (Favignana)-the easternmostof the islands- and Phorbantia ()and Hiera (Marettimo). t'ft In24l nc, during the twenty-third year of the , a newly raised Roman fleet under the consul Gaius Lutatius Catullus defeateda new Cartha- ginian fleet under Hanno in the watersbetween Aegusa and Hiera. Hanno's ves- sels,carrying mercenaries,foodstuffs and money, had setsail from north to westernSicily early in March, beforethe winter storms ended.Anchoring off

I Aegina 'Ionian Hngeablywith Sea'to denote rninsula. Later,it becameconvenient ited a favorablewind to enablehim to crossover to Sicilv. where 'this gulf the Adriatic and Ionian Seas to land his soldiers(under the command of the experiencedHamil- airs of Otranto (althoughthe Adriatic they could engagethe Romans in battle. Meanwhile Lutatius, learn- bed as the Ionian Gulfl. Dno's arrival and correctly conjecturing what he had in mind, isrs own fleetlleet offAegusa.oil Aegusa. Onun Marchvlarcn lOth,lutn, thetne CarthaginianLannagrnlan squadronsquaoron of two hundred and fifty ships according to Diodorus, four hundred lo Eutropius and Orosius)set sail for the Sicilian shore.Lutatius, de- vorable wind, confronted them, and the Carthaginians,weighed )iena in Macedonia,south ofthe river ir heavy cargo,were overwhelmed.Fifty of their ships were sunk proved victory a residenceof the god poseidon,and capturedwith their crews.This the decisive that at ught the First Punic War to an end. The peaceterms that Carthage iarden of Midas-an historical being to included of Sicily, which thus became ed at the foot of Mount Bermion- accept the evacuation overseasprovmce. The cit-vreplaced Lebaea, the capital s (-1i3-399 nc) establishedhimself at Aigaion (Turkish The and Asia Minor singli identified with Vergina,where, 'urkey), Ege). seabetween Greece s. an imposingnumber of rectangular with Creteas its southernmostpoint. It includesa remarkable t\"ecome to light. Their grandeurand islands,including, especially,the Cyclades,Northern and Southern ullt to housethe ashesof the Macedo- and largeislands adjoining Greece() and westernAsia Minor t Tomb. is believedto have contained , to the south: Samosand to the southeast;while Crete Cretan The name Aegeanis variously derived from the city of 6):a conclusionconfirmed by exami- Sea). (Nemrud Kalesi) or from the Amazonian queenAegea or The- €,ad-rr,oundcorresponding to philip's Aegeus,both of whom were believed to have drowned themselves rs a smallermound housingaddition- The term AegeanCivilization is sometimesused for the BronzeAge of the region (Minoan, Cycladic, Helladic [including Mycenaean]and rned b-".-wall paintings-including a ffrojanl). rat provide a unique contribution to clent Greek art. The grave goodsin- :nted with ivory (and now restored), Aegialeia seeSicyon nd silver plate (one containing rem- oun of gold leaves.Ivory headsfrom Aigrna. A mountainous, volcanic Greek island in the , at and, apparently,his father philip betweenAttica and the Peloponnese.This geographicalposition is the its importancein Mediterraneancommerce from the earliestperiods. reenVeryina and the town of palatit- ieved that the island, formerly known as ,was colonized suc- r small plateaubetween the acropolis b-vArgives, Cretans and Thessalians(, after whom it took I paiaceof the third century,contain- Myrmidonia); the last-namedsettlement seems to have been estab- :olonnadesand circular halls. A hun- lbout the thirteenth century nc, then abandoneda century or two later. r in which Philip II was murdered folandwas supposedlyconquered c 1100nc by the Dorian Greeksunder I is inscribed with the name of his a descendantof Heraclesin the fifth generation.But then we are per- istianbasilica came to light in 1982. after a period of abandonment,it receivedfurther immigrants, ;their settlementmay be attributed to c 950-900. Aegina ber of the Amphictyony of Calauria(), a maritime council rep- rtremity of Sicily. The principal is- the principal cities on the Saronic and Argive Gulfs; and under the Fthe easternmostof the islands- a stablemercantile oligarchy, it became,in the seventhcentury, a Greek rettimo). rer of the first order. Its silver coinage(from c 550),with the designof f the First Punic War, a newly raised circulatedextremely widely; and the Aeginetansalso developed the old- ius Catullus defeateda new Cartha- of weightsand measuresknown to the classicalworld, and produced een Aegusaand Hiera. Hanno's ves- and bronzeware which becamewell-known throughout the Mediterra- loney, had setsail from north Africa There was often rivalry betweenAegina and ,notably at the r*inter stormsended. Anchoring off port of (Kom Gieif) in . Adrianople r Himera. After expellingTheron's son reports,Acte was colonizedby in Euboea(probably in the -aristocraticand then a democratic form nc), though its non-Greek population remained considerable. its nrost famous crtizen,the philosopher, Persianfleet invading Greeceunder Mardonius was wrecked off ic and supposedmiracleworker Empedo- by a storm, with the loss of three hundred ships and twenty thou- orious in the major Greekgames; tn 412 Beforehis campaignof 480 to avoid the passagearound this danger- s'as escortedinto the city by three hun- Xerxes dug a canal, from sixty-five to a hundred feet in breadth and Ecentcoins. ftet deep,through the narrow neck of the promontory, which at this hensand Syracusein the Peloponnesian a mile and a half across.Deinocrates of Rhodes subsequently I b1 the Carthaginiansin 406,a disaster carve the mountain into a giganticbust of Alexanderthe Great. Dur- lounded by Timoleon (sentbythe Corin- le AgesChristian hermits cameto the peninsula,and the theocratic rtain local importance under the autocrat of monks, which has given Athos the name of the Holy Mountain it fell a r.ictim to the rivalry betweenthe Oros), began to take shape(the monastery of the Grand Lavra dates ed the city in succession(262/1,255/4); e63). antsinto slavery.Finally, in 2ll/210, it I b1 the Romans (who again sold many lfrom the political scene.However, after seeAttica. Chalcidice er the name of Agrigentum(197), it en- 'erf . B)' the time of Cicero's 'the speeches Aktion (Akra Nikolaos). A flat, sandypromontory on the coastof Ac- island(70), its peoplehad r-egained ia in northwester.nGreece, on the southernside of the strait leadingfrom sizes the richesthey derived from vine- Ionian Seainto the . Actium belongedoriginally to the Co- e imperial period they developedtextile hian an important commercial harbor. colonists of , who founded the worship of Apollo Actius l pre-colonialtimes have come to light. the Games named the before 575 nc. By the early third century the ple lGreek epochis displayedby a seriesof was the federal shrine of the Acarnanians.The harbor was used to ex- inuous sacredarea (now an archaeologi- t local pearl fisheries. n end of the site.No lessthan nine such When Antony (MarcusAntonius) and Octavian (the future Augustus)disput- )-a t-rgureexceeded only by Athens. The the mastery of the Roman world in 31 nc, Actium was the site of Antony's nall1. though inaccurately,ascribed to p, and gaveits name to the naval battle (September2nd) foughtjust outside Do\\rr.It owesits survival to conversion gulf in which Antony and Cleopatraweredecisively defeated. After breaking ips) in early Christian times; similarly, with only a small portion of their fleet, they escapedto Egypt, where they Haria dei Greci was built over a temple mmitted suicidein the following year.Actium was,in consequence,celebrat- ns har-erevealed a shrine of the under- by Augustusand all who supportedhim-notably and -as the h of .{sclepiuswas erectednear mineral isive landmark inaugurating the empire-wide principate that he now pro- ceededto establish.He commemorated his victory by founding on tte other side of the strait, and establishingActian Gamesthere, a quadriennial festival that transformedthe earlier Actia and ranked equally with the Olympic Games.A new Actian era was also introduced.

klissi seeTropaeum Trajani nmostof the threepromontories of the ireece.which extends downward from seeAssyria rinl miles long and six-and-a-halfmiles runtainousspine culminating in pyra- a a see Atrta he seato a heightof 6,667feet. Accord- red to Zeus.One legendrecounts that giant named Athos; another story tells see insuia in his strugglewith the giant. As