DOCSLIB.ORG

Geomorphology and Evolution of Ravenna's Dune System (Italy)

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Geomorphology and Evolution of Ravenna's Dune System (Italy) Herrier J.-L., J. Mees, A. Salman, J. Seys, H. Van Nieuwenhuyse and I. Dobbelaere (Eds). 2005. p. 591-593 Proceedings ‘Dunes and Estuaries 2005’ – International Conference on Nature Restoration Practices in European Coastal Habitats, Koksijde, Belgium, 19-23 September 2005 VLIZ Special Publication 19, xiv + 685 pp. Geomorphology and evolution of Ravenna’s dune system (Italy) Laura Caruso, Beatrice Giambastiani, Giovanni Gabbianelli and Lorenzo Diani CIRSA (Interdepartmental Centre for Environmental Research), University of Bologna, Department of Environmental Sciences, Via S. Alberto 163, 48100 Ravenna, Italy e-mail: [email protected] Abstract During the last few decades coastal dunes, for centuries a distinctive feature of Ravenna’s coastline, have been seriously affected by tourist development and human activities. Considering the importance of these structures as natural defences against beach erosion from sea storms, the main purpose of this work is to characterize the dunes and to reconstruct their recent evolution from both a botanical and a geo-environmental point of view. Another purpose is to evaluate the future natural evolution of dunes in this type of coast. Keywords: Coastal dunes; Phyto-sociological surveys; Fugitive dust model. Introduction Dunes have a great role in the coastal dynamical equilibrium. They are the less expensive and more efficient type of protection against seawater ingression, mostly in the Province of Ravenna where landward areas are generally below the average sea level. Researches on this particular area outlined that, among the human activities which mainly affect the dunes, the most dangerous are: excavation of sand from the riverbeds that reduces sand supply to the beaches; uncontrolled groundwater withdrawal, methane extraction and the construction of buildings along the seaside, all these last factors cause the enhancement of the natural subsidence rates (Comune di Ravenna, 1996). Methods In order to evaluate the recent evolution of this environmental heritage, aerial imageries of the studied area (the coastline from Porto Garibaldi to Cervia in the years 1954, 1972, 1988, 1994 and 2000) have been analysed. A GIS has also been created. Another important aspect considered in this study is the characterization of the vegetation present today and its comparison with the one of the past. Several phyto- sociological surveys (Braun-Blanquet, 1964) have been carried out on some of the most representative dunes of the Province of Ravenna. These surveys have allowed us to calculate the species diversity, to evaluate the degree of naturalness of each dune and to outline the evolution of the vegetation, based on the data collected in the seventies - 591 - L. Caruso et al. (Giacomini,1974; Gerdol and Piccoli, 1984). Moreover, in order to establish dunes efficiency, to work out reliable future scenarios and to define the recovery chances of some dunes, the following features have been evaluated: crest height, steepness index, lateral continuity, conservation state, sedimentological characteristics. In two research cases (Marina di Ravenna and Lido di Classe), a FDM (Fugitive Dust Model) simulation has been carried out to evaluate their hypothetical natural evolution (Hsü, 1974; Kroon and Hoekstra, 1990; Wingers, 1990). The FDM is a software, created by EPA (Environmental Protection Agency), which calculates the aeolian transport and dust deposition. The FDM model, readapted to the dune system, allowed us to outline dune evolutional trends and was a useful tool for a qualitative evaluation and for decision making in the management interventions. Results and discussion The decrease in dunes extension is remarkable: in the year 2000 the area occupied by dunes was one quarter of the total area covered in the year 1954. From the seventies until now, an increasing number of bathing establishments built on the dunes can be observed. This, in the majority of the areas, caused the complete disappearance of dune systems. The observed vegetation communities are not clearly defined, because of the stress caused by tourism, bathing-huts, paths, game fields and bathing establishments. Such a stress had seriously compromised the naturalness of the typical succession, causing the disappearance of some species and the appearance of weeds. Another important result is that the highest diversity of species and the main stability due to the presence of the Tortuleto-Scabiosetum community were observed in the only dune that has been protected. The protection consists of a simple fence, which keeps tourists from approaching dunes. Thus, some protections, less invasive than the artificial introduction of stabilizing species, would surely be more effective and less hazardous. Results from the FDM simulations show that the heaviest and most hazardous destructions occurred in the foredunes. In many cases dunes become thinner and lower and they are damaged by many wide gaps which, in the future, as following FDM simulations show, won’t be able to brim and close naturally. Such damages will deeply affect the backdune areas, too: evident episodes of vegetation destruction caused by marine aerosol can occur. Conclusions Management of coastal endangered areas must therefore consider dunes, backshore and foreshore as three united elements of the same environment: dealing with only one of them would imply accepting consequences on the other two. The dunes area of Ravenna became very touristic and the present huge economic interest seems not to allow any recovery of the original naturalness. Indeed, a good compromise between protection needs and beach use can be found. Measures must be planned on a long term and space scale, because many different factors such as coastal erosion, beaches use, vegetation naturalness, presence of buildings and dune position in relation to pinewood need to be evaluated. - 592 - Geomorphology and evolution of Ravenna’s dune system Acknowledgement It is with pleasure that we acknowledge the collaboration of Servin (Servizi Integrati Gestionali Ambientali) from Ravenna (Italy) and especially of Dr Giuseppe Patrizi for his helpful availability in placing the Fugitive Dust Model at our disposal and for having readapted the FDM to the beach-dune system conditions. We sincerely thank Prof. Carlo Ferrari who led the work for the characterization of the vegetation. References Braun-Blanquet J. 1964. Pflanzensoziologie. (3rd Ed.). Berlin, Wien, New York: Springer. Comune di Ravenna. 1996. Studio su valutazione e conseguenze delle variazioni del livello marino medio nella costa ravennate dovute a subsidenza e ad effetti climatici. Rapporti Tecnici A-D. Ravenna. Gerdol R. and F. Piccoli. 1984. Sand dune vegetation in the Po Delta (N. Italy). Ecologia Mediterranea X(3-4):119-131. Giacomini V. 1974. Il paesaggio vegetale. p.187-210. In: Influenza di insediamenti industriali sul circostante ambiente naturale. a cura di R.E. Scossiroli, Ed. Compositori. Bologna. Hsü S.A. 1974. Computing eolian sand transport from routine weather data. p.1619-1626. In: Prof. 14th Conference on Coastal Engineering. ASCE, New York. Kroon A. and P. Hoekstra. 1990. Eolian sediment transport on a natural beach. Journal of Coastal Research 6(2):367-379. Wingers K.D. 1990. User’s guide for the fugitive dust model (FDM). Region 10, US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington. - 593 - .
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Multivariate Analysis of Water Quality Data for Drinking Water Supply Systems
    water Article Multivariate Analysis of Water Quality Data for Drinking Water Supply Systems Mario Maiolo and Daniela Pantusa * Department of Environmental Engineering, University of Calabria, I-87036 Arcavacata di Rende, Italy; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: Vulnerability of drinking water supply systems (DWSSs) depends on different factors such as failures, loss of security, man-made threats, and the change and deterioration of supply-water quality. Currently, the lifespan of several DWSSs worldwide has been exceeded, exasperating these issues. The monitoring activity and the transparency of information on water availability and quality are becoming increasingly important in accordance with the national regulations and standards, and with guidelines of the World Health Organization (WHO). These activities can be considered as support and guidance tools for identifying health-related risks, for building a safe management of drinking water supply systems, and for improved user confidence in the consumption of tap water. In this context, in the present work an analysis of the quality monitoring data of DWSSs was carried out using multivariate techniques. The analysis considered several chemical–physical parameters collected in the period 2013–2020 for some DWSSs in the Emilia-Romagna region, Italy. Principal component analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis (CA) methods were used to process and reduce the dimensionality of the data, to highlight the parameters that have the greatest influence on the qualitative state of the supplied water and to identify clusters. Keywords: drinking water supply systems; water quality; multivariate analysis; principal component analysis; cluster analysis; k-means clustering Citation: Maiolo, M.; Pantusa, D.
    [Show full text]
  • Stability and Numerical Modelling of the “King Tiberius” Cave at Riolo Terme (Ravenna-IT)
    Risk Analysis VII PI-273 Stability and numerical modelling of the “King Tiberius” cave at Riolo Terme (Ravenna-IT) N. Sciarra1, M. Mangifesta1, A. Fanti1 & R. Margutti2 1Department of Geotechnology, Chieti-Pescara University, Italy 2Saint-Gobain BPB Italia S.p.A - Cinisello Balsamo, Italy Abstract This paper deals with the geo-mechanical characterization and the numerical modelling of the “King Tiberius” natural cave. The so named “Grotta di Re Tiberio”, located near the gypsum quarry of “Monte Tondo”, in Borgo Rivola in the village of Riolo Terme (Ravenna Province – north-east Italy) is the most famous and celebrated natural cavity of the Regional Park of the Vena del Gesso, because of archaeological evidence attesting to the presence of man over several millennia (Age of Copper). The cavity, which is due to karsts phenomena occurring in the Gypsum formation, is more than 4 km long and is easily explored only for a stretch of about 60 m up to the astonishing “Gothic Chamber”. The underground mining of gypsum, which happens within the “Monte Tondo” for more than 20 km, has caused, below the natural cavity, the collapse of a portion of pavement affected by archaeological remains. This has involved the structural analysis of the rock and the stability of the system (natural and anthropic cavities) in correspondence of the “Re Tiberius” cave. The conducted tests have involved the difficult reconstruction of the underground physical model and a numerical modelling of a significant portion of rock mass in order to propose some remedial works to safeguard and preserve the area. The modelling was implemented using a numerical code (FLAC_3D) at finite differences.
    [Show full text]
  • Comecer Group
    Comecer Group Address Via Maestri del Lavoro, 90 48014 Castel Super Sector Industrial Goods & Services Bolognese Emilia - Romagna Sector Industrial Engineering Country Italy Phone +39 0546/656375 Website http://www.comecergroup.com ELITE member 12/04/2012 since ELITE Stage GET Value About ELITE Alessia Zanelli, Managing Director “Joining ELITE is an important step for us to take in order to realize our dream of being listed on Borsa Italiana Markets.” Strengths Research & development Internationalization Market Niche and quality certification Company overview Comecer SpA, an Italian company from Castel Bolognese (Province of Ravenna) founded in the mid 1970s by Carlo Zanelli, is a world leader in the field of nuclear medicine and it specialises in management, processing and dispensing systems for radiopharmaceuticals. Our mission is to design and manufacture high-technology systems in the field of nuclear medicine, isolation technology and nuclear power plant equipment, with the aim to continuously increase the accuracy and the safety of technicians, researchers, and patients. In fact, “Safety First” is the philosophy which distinguishes and identifies all Comecer policies and actions. Our vision is to contribute to progress and preserve life through the development of highly innovative technologies and sustainable solutions, according to the latest GMP (Good Manufacturing Practice) regulations. Comecer operates in the field of nuclear medicine through the production of shielding systems and equipment for special applications, both for large industrial groups and for research organisations. We also operate in the isolation technology sector, developing tailored projects for the production of isolators for the treatment of toxic substances to be used in hospitals, universities and pharmaceutical companies.
    [Show full text]
  • Light As Innovation
    light as innovation Public lighting systems, in tunnels, sports lighting, maintenance, distribution board, road signs, civil and industrial electrical installations GAMIE S.r.l. - Public lighting systems, in tunnels, sports lighting, maintenance, distribution board, road signs, civil and industrial electrical installations Lugo Office Piazza Martiri - Lugo Gamie S.r.l. is a company founded in 1974 in Lugo di Romagna, Ravenna following the merger of four artisan firms operating in the Work and services: electrical installation industry. Since its founding, the company has seen a gradual and steady Design and construction of public lighting systems development, which has led to an increase in business, staff, number using state-of-the-art technical components, high quality of branches and evolving company know-how. standards and new ecological solutions in accordance Today, the company operates in Italy’s installation and maintenance with relevant regulations and reducing lighting pollution industry, providing services such as a 24-hour repair service, public and controlling energy consumption. lighting systems, technological systems, traffic light systems, road safety, intruder alarms, video surveillance, photovoltaic and eolic Design and construction of lighting systems for systems, as well the design work, professional technical-legislative sports areas such as football pitches, baseball fields, advice on lighting pollution, energy saving and Green Energy. cricket pitches, rugby pitches, tennis courts, volley and The company employs 50 specialised staff provided with continuous beach volley courts directly supervising inspections training: including engineers, industrial experts, installation and carried out before and after installation. maintenance technicians of electrical systems as well as managers, executives and office staff.Gamie S.r.l.
    [Show full text]
  • Longevity Pattern in Emilia Romagna (Italy) in a Dynamic Perspective
    XXVI IUSSP International Population Conference Marrakech, (Morocco) 27 September, 2 October Session P-4: - Poster Session 4: health and ageing Thursday, October 01 12:00 PM - 1:30 PM P 102 -Longevity pattern in Emilia Romagna (Italy) in a dynamic perspective Giulia Roli, RossellaMiglio, Alessandra Samoggia University of Bologna, Italy Draft version, please do not quote 1. Introduction In recent years, the development of human longevity has continued to draw the attention of researchers belonging to different fields of analysis. Indeed it is widely recognized that the length of life is influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. In various studies performed in different Italian regions (Sardinia, Calabria, Sicily and Emilia Romagna) it has been found that there exists areas in which the prevalence of oldest olds is higher than in other areas, regions or countries. High prevalence and a low female/male ratio for centenarians are observed in a specific area in Sardinia, characterized by exceptional male longevity (Poulain et al 2004). A significant negative correlation between surname abundance and index of longevity has been detected in Calabria (Southern Italy) showing that mostly some isolated zone of male longevity present a high level of inbreeding (Montesanto et al. 2008). By comparing the results of different spatial scan statistic methods, combined solution that allows the identification of longevity “clusters” and their persistence has been detected for Emilia – Romagna region (Miglio et al. 2009). The explanatory analysis of disparities in the frequencies of the oldest-old population reminds of environmental and genetics features differently spread at a geographical level.
    [Show full text]
  • Bologna FUA Report
    WPT1: D.T1.2.7 FUA REPORT INCLUDING SULPiTER TOOL Final FEEDING & CALIBRATION IN BOLOGNA 05 2018 Table of Contents 1. INTRODUCTION 2 2. THE TERRITORIAL CONTEST 2 3. CURRENT FREIGHT MOBILITY IMPACT 5 4. ANNEXES 26 CMBO Authors: Status (F: final; D: draft; RD: revised draft): Final Template for Tool reporting | Page 1 1. Introduction This document arise from the FUA reports of each involved city and will provide the inputs for the deliverable T1.2.11 “understanding Freight behaviour and impact on FUA”. It is essential to arrive to a harmonized description of each FUA and to provide a suitable comparison among them. Each FUA is required to fill in the following form starting from the surveys and tool implementation. Please note that this template includes the minimum requirements for the SULPiTER project. The information included in this template will be used for the transnational report (D.T1.2.11) and for the final output of the work package O.T1.7. Please, do not answer as a questionnaire (i.e.: yes, no, maybe…) but use the template for elaborating the results of your interviews. As an example, we expect a deep and exhaustive qualitative report. Each component of the survey should be analysed and reported here with comments and interpretation of the results. Once you completed the report, please format the document removing the tables for a better readability. 2. The territorial contest The information included in this chapter, are general. Please include also some specific information even if not requested by the template, in order to better focus the area of study.
    [Show full text]
  • ICZM Pilot Actions in the Coastal Area of Ferrara, Ravenna, Forlì-Cesena & Rimini - IT
    ICZM pilot actions in the coastal area of Ferrara, Ravenna, Forlì-Cesena & Rimini - IT ICZM pilot actions in the coastal area of Ferrara, Ravenna, Forlì-Cesena & Rimini - IT 1. Policy Objective & Theme ADAPTATION TO RISK: Integrating coherent strategies covering the risk-dimension (prevention to response) into planning and investment SUSTAINABLE ECONOMIC GROWTH: Balancing economic, social, cultural development whilst enhancing environment 2. Key Approaches Integration Knowledge-based 3. Experiences that can be exchanged An integrated and cross-sectoral approach to define principles for all coastal activities and positively address factors affecting coastal areas, considering both the land and sea side. 4. Overview of the case According to the objectives of the EU Recommendation on ICZM, the Council of the Emilia Romagna Region adopted ICZM Guidelines by Act n.645 of 20 January 2005. These Guidelines aim to address the activities affecting the physical coastal system towards economic, social and environmental sustainability. To this end the Regional Council approved 18 pilot projects, presented by the following provinces: Ferrara, Forlì-Cesena, Ravenna and Rimini. 5. Context and Objectives a) Context The Emilia Romagna coastline measures about 130 km in length from the mouth of the Tavollo stream to the mouth of the Po di Goro, and is characterised by several sandy and low beaches. The coastal dynamics are strictly related to the complex interaction among different factors such as sea level rise, meteo-climatic changes, fluvial sediment supply, subsidence, and strong human activities. It is a very important area both from a socio-economic and an environmental point of view. The fragmentation and low co-ordination between planning instruments and territorial competences is a relevant problem to solve, especially regarding the coastal and marine areas.
    [Show full text]
  • EGU06-A-02571 © European Geosciences Union 2006
    Geophysical Research Abstracts, Vol. 8, 02571, 2006 SRef-ID: 1607-7962/gra/EGU06-A-02571 © European Geosciences Union 2006 Study on the state of microtoxics in Ravenna Province A. Buscaroli, C. Matteucci, D. Zannoni Environmental Science - University of Bologna, Italy ([email protected] / Phone: +39-544-937310 / Fax: +39-544-937303) Heavy metals content, usually present in lithological matrix and also in soils, is now increasing due to anthropic activities. In 2004, Ravenna Province funded a project on ‘Study on the state and dynamics of microtoxics in the Province of Ravenna’, in order to investigate the presence and distribution of some metals (Ag, Cd, Ni, Pb, Pd, Pl, Rh, Sn, Tl) produced from the anthropic activity in soils of a representative area of the provincial territory. This area was marked as ‘zone probably subject to the atmospheric fall-out from the Ravenna industrial complex’ by the Regional Environmental Protection Agency (ARPA Emilia-Romagna). Dealing mainly with cultivated land, the adopted depth of sampling has been fixed to 30 cm. An upper sampling depth, like that adopted in other studies, would have involved non comparable results between natural zones and cultivated zones. The re- sulting sampling density has been 0.29 points per Km. After mineralization and extraction, soil samples have been analyzed by ICP-OES in their total and assimilable amount. The resulting data were compared with the law thresholds and the existing bibliographical data. The results are shown through diagrams, tables and points regionalization using the distribution model (kriging). A further objective of this study was to estimate the inci- dence and intensity of industrial activity on the heavy metals pollution.
    [Show full text]
  • Seismic Vulnerability and Old Towns. a Cost-Based Programming Model
    geosciences Article Seismic Vulnerability and Old Towns. A Cost-Based Programming Model Salvatore Giuffrida 1,* , Maria Rosa Trovato 1,* , Chiara Circo 1,*, Vittoria Ventura 2, Margherita Giuffrè 3 and Valentina Macca 2 1 Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Catania, 54, 95125 Catania CT, Italy 2 University of Catania, 54, 95125 Catania CT, Italy; [email protected] (V.V.); [email protected] (V.M.) 3 Institute of Environmental Geology and Geoengineering (IGAG) of the National Research Council (NRC), 00185 Rome, Italy; mar.giuff[email protected] * Correspondence: sgiuff[email protected] (S.G.); [email protected] (M.R.T.); [email protected] (C.C.) Received: 26 August 2019; Accepted: 7 September 2019; Published: 2 October 2019 Abstract: Vulnerability is a big issue for small inland urban centres, which are exposed to the risk of depopulation. In the climate of the centre-northern part of Italy, and in the context of the recent concentration of a high number of earthquakes in that area, seismic vulnerability can become the determinant cause of the final abandonment of a small town. In some Italian regions, as well as in Emilia Romagna, municipalities are implementing seismic vulnerability reduction policies based on the Emergency Limit Condition, which has become a basic point of reference for ordinary land planning. This study proposes an approach to seismic vulnerability reduction based on valuation planning for implementation within the general planning framework of the Faentina Union,
    [Show full text]
  • Status Quo Country Report Italy
    D.T .1.2.3 Status Quo Country Report Version 1 Italy 31 August 2020 Page 1 Content 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................3 2. Methodology .................................................................................................................4 3. Ceramic and design – secondary data overview .......................................................................6 4. Survey results – primary data overview .............................................................................. 14 5. Strengths and weaknesses .............................................................................................. 19 6. Annexes .................................................................................................................... 22 Page 2 1. Introduction According to the Green paper – Unlocking the potential of cultural and creative industries (European Comission, 2010): “Cultural industries are those industries producing and distributing goods or services which at the time they are developed are considered to have a specific attribute, use or purpose which embodies or conveys cultural expressions, irrespective of the commercial value they may have. Besides the traditional arts sectors (performing arts, visual arts, cultural heritage – including the public sector), they include film, DVD and video, television and radio, video games, new media, music, books and press. This concept is defined in relation to cultural expressions in the
    [Show full text]
  • Bilancio Sostenibilita 201
    OUR HISTORY COMPANY PROFILE 1966 Consorzio Acque is founded Work begins on for the provinces of Forlì the Ridracoli Dam. and Ravenna. 1976 1982 The Romagna water mains The Dam is finished. begins distributing water. 1987 Romagna Acque 1994 becomes the owner of all local water sources and Consorzio Acque changes acquires the name to Romagna Acque S.p.A.. Romagna Acque - Società delle Fonti S.p.A.. 2004 Romagna Acque - Società Construction work begins 2008 delle Fonti S.p.A. is not on the new Standiana only the owner of the local purification plant water sources but in Ravenna. also becomes their 2013 sole operator. The Company celebrates its fiftieth anniversary. The Standiana purification 2015 Publication of the book plant is completed and “Il governo dell’acqua”. begins operating. The Ridracoli Dam receives The Santa Giustina treatment an award in China at the plant in Rimini is also opened. ICOLD world congress, the 2016 International Commission On Large Dams. 1 ABOUT US COMPANY PROFILE WATER IS A SOURCE OF VITALITY AND A UNIQUE RESOURCE THAT BRINGS WITH IT A WORLD OF VALUES, WHILE ITS NATURE IS REFLECTED IN OUR IDENTITY. In fact, owning and running all the drinking water OUR SHAREHOLDERS sources in Romagna, as a limited company with As of 31/12/2016, Romagna Acque has 49 wholly public capital, means being a source of Shareholders. The structure includes, either values for people and the region. directly or through publicly controlled com- This is the essence of our mission: panies, the Municipalities and Provinces of the three relevant regional areas - Forlì-Cesena, Ravenna and Rimini - and meets the require- “TO GUARANTEE THE RIGHT ments of totally public share capital.
    [Show full text]
  • Strada Della Romagna Folder
    uffici turistiCi - TOURIST POINTS it from extinction. The resulting wine is the Bûrson, characterized from a powerful intensity and structure. and intensity powerful a from characterized Bûrson, the is wine resulting The extinction. from it Federazione Provinciale Coltivatori Diretti Ravenna save to and vine these of potential the in believe to merit the had fifty years the over who family Longanesi 1. Agriturismo Ca’ Marina via Cura, 63 - Ravenna - 0544 210211 the to given nickname the from comes name whose variety, grape native unique and ancient an grape, Longanesi via Adda, 3 - Savio - 0544 939575 - 340 4929640 [email protected] WWW.RAVENNA.COLDIRETTI.IT the discovery: oenological important an make was Fusignano and Cotignola Godo, Russi, Lugo, Bagnacavallo, of [email protected] - www.agriturismovalentini.it anthropological itinerary on the traces of the civilizations of the valleys and the marsh grass. On the territory territory the On grass. marsh the and valleys the of civilizations the of traces the on itinerary anthropological www.prolocofaenza.it with a profusion of Romanesque Parish Churches dotting the plains and offering a historical, artistic and and artistic historical, a offering and plains the dotting Churches Parish Romanesque of profusion a with 24. Ferrucci Stefano Az. Agricola 25231 0546 2. Agriturismo Ca’ Ridolfi to Byzantium until the conquest of the Longobards in 751, documenting the roots of original Christianity Christianity original of roots the documenting 751, in Longobards the of conquest the until Byzantium to via Casolana, 3045/2 Castel Bolognese - 0546 651068 - 338 4692627 2 Molinella, Voltone via del Dottore, 33 - Gambellara - 0544 551051 - 338 9779804 still follow the Roman centuriation and then wane to the marshes near the shore line.
    [Show full text]