2 Explaining Political Transformation in the Soviet Union

Notes

1‘O programme sotsial’nogo razvitiia sela’, Pravda (13 April 1989), 2. 2 Judith Pallot, ‘Rural Depopulation and the Restoration of the Russian Village under Gorbachev’, Soviet Studies, vol. 42, no. 4 (1990), 655–74. 3 Michael Cox, ed., Rethinking the Soviet Collapse: Sovietology, the Death of Communism and the New Russia (London: Pinter, 1998). 4 For a more nuanced account of the literature than space here allows see George Breslauer, ‘In Defense of Sovietology’, Post-Soviet Affairs, vol. 8, no. 3 (1992), 197–238. 5 Carl J. Friedrich and Zbigniew Brzezinski, Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1956) and the 2nd edition, revised by Friedrich (1965); Leonard Schapiro, Totalitarianism (London: Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, 1972); Robert Borrowes, ‘Totalitarianism: the Revised Standard Version’, World Politics, XXI, no. 2 ( January 1969), 272–94; Carl. J. Friedrich, Michael Curtis, and Benjamin J. Barber, Totalitarianism in Perspective: Three Views (London: Pall Mall Press, 1969). 6 The most eloquent representative of the application of pluralist ideas to the Soviet Union was Jerry Hough with his notion of ‘institutional pluralism’. Jerry Hough, ‘The Soviet System: Petrification or Pluralism’, in The Soviet Union and Social Science Theory (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1977). Although Hough later came to disown this term, it received the qualified support of a number of other scholars: Peter Solomon, Soviet Criminologists and Criminal Policy: Specialists in Policy Making (London: Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, 1978) and Stephen Fortescue, The Communist Party and Soviet Science (Basingstoke: Macmillan (now Palgrave Macmillan) in association with the Centre for Russian and East European Studies, University of Birmingham, 1986). See also the notion of ‘bureaucratic pluralism’ in Darrell P. Hammer, USSR: the Politics of Oligarchy (Hilesdale, IL: Holt, Rinehardt and Winston, 1974), pp. 223–56. 7 Martin Malia, ‘From Under the Rubble, What?’ Problems of Communism XLI, 1–2 (January–April 1992), 89–106. 8 Peter Rutland, ‘Sovietology: Who Got it Right and Who Got it Wrong? And Why?’ in Michael Cox, op. cit. (1998), pp. 32–50. 9 Moshe Lewin, The Gorbachev Phenomenon: a Historical Interpretation (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1988). 10 Geoffrey Hosking, The Awakening of the Soviet Union, enlarged edition (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991), p. 5. 11 Jerry F. Hough, Democratization and Revolution in the USSR 1985–1995 (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1997), pp. 41–60. 12 Hillel Ticktin, ‘Soviet Studies and the Collapse of the USSR: in Defence of Marxism’, in Michael Cox, op. cit. (1998), pp. 73–94. 13 Jack Synder, Myths of Empire: Domestic Politics and International Ambition (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991) and William Curtis Wohlforth, The Elusive Balance: Power and Perceptions During the Cold War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993).

198 Notes 199

14 Neil Robinson, Ideology and the Collapse of the Soviet System: a Critical History of Soviet Ideological Discourse (Brookfield, VT: Edward Elgar Publishing Co., 1995). 15 Philip G. Roeder, Red Sunset: the Failure of Soviet Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993). 16 Steven L. Solnick, Stealing the State: Control and Collapse in Soviet Institutions (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998). 17 Valerie Bunce, Subversive Institutions: the Design and the Destruction of Socialism and the State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999) and Ronald Grigor Suny, The Revenge of the Past: Nationalism, Revolution and the Collapse of the Soviet Union (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1993), pp. 110–12. 18 Stephen Kotkin, Armageddon Averted: the Soviet Collapse 1970–2000 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), pp. 1–3. 19 John Gooding, ‘Perestroika as revolutions from within’, Russian Review, vol. 51, no. 1 (January 1992), 36. 20 Kotkin suggests that it was the attempt to reform the system, coupled with the growing freedom of speech and publication that was the system’s undoing. Kotkin, op. cit. (2001). 21 Archie Brown, The Gorbachev Factor (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996). 22 Hillel H. Ticktin, ‘Review of the Gorbachev Factor’, Europe-Asia Studies, vol. 49, no. 2 (1997), 319. 23 Stephen F. Cohen, Rethinking the Soviet Experience (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), p. 134. 24 Vladimir Shlapentokh, A Normal Totalitarian Society: How the Soviet Union Functioned and How it Collapsed (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2001), p. 178. 25 Roeder, op. cit. (1993), p. 19 and Solnick, op. cit. (1998), pp. 17–20. 26 Archie Brown, ed., New Thinking in Soviet Politics (London: Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, 1991). 27 Robert D. English, Russia and the Idea of the West: Gorbachev, Intellectuals and the End of the Cold War (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000), Chapters 1–4. 28 Matthew Evangelista, Unarmed Forces: the Transnational Movement to End the Cold War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999). 29 Stephen G. Brooks and William C. Wohlforth, ‘Power, Globalization, and the End of the Cold War: Reevaluating a Landmark Case for Ideas’, International Security, vol. 25, no. 3 (Winter 2000), 5–53. 30 Dallin has argued that six processes together lead to the collapse of the USSR. Alexander Dallin, ‘Causes of the Collapse of the USSR’, Post-Soviet Affairs, vol. 8, no. 4 (1992), 279–302. 31 Brown has identified different political processes underway in the period, which while interconnected did not necessarily completely overlap – the move from a ‘command polity’ to political pluralism, end of the Cold War, the collapse of the Soviet Union. Archie Brown, ‘Transformational Leaders Compared: Mikhail Gorbachev and Boris Yeltsin’, in Archie Brown and Lilia Shevtsov, eds, Gorbachev, Yeltsin and Putin: Political Leadership in Russia’s Transition (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2001), p. 11. 32 Thomas F. Remington, ‘Sovietology and System Stability’, Post-Soviet Affairs, vol. 8, no. 3 (1992), 240–1. 33 Peter H. Solomon, Jr., ‘Against Premature Closure’, Post-Soviet Affairs, vol. 9, no. 3 (1993), 278. 34 H. Gordon Skilling, ‘Interest Groups and Communist Politics’, World Politics, vol. 18, no. 3 (April 1966), 435–50 and H. Gordon Skilling, ‘Interest Groups and Communist Politics Revisited’, World Politics, vol. 36, no. 1 (October 1983), 1–27. 200 Notes

35 Specialists are understood as those who engaged in activities designed to generate, organise or manipulate advanced technical or social knowledge. The professional and possibly personal identities of specialists are usually defined by their particular relationship to ‘specialised’ knowledge. See also Chapter 5, note 1 and Chapter 8, note 64. 36 V. Bunce and J.M. Echols III, ‘Soviet Politics in the Brezhnev Era: “Pluralism” or “Corporatism”?’, in Soviet Politics in the Brezhnev Era, ed., Donald R. Kelley (New York: Praeger, 1980), pp. 9–12; V. Bunce, ‘The Political Economy of the Brezhnev Era: the Rise and Fall of Corporatism’, The British Journal of Political Science, vol. 13 (1983), 129–58; A. McCain, ‘Soviet Jurists Divided: a Case for Corporatism in the USSR?’, Comparative Politics, vol. 15, no. 4 (July 1983), 443–60; Blair Ruble, The Applicability of Corporatist Models to the Study of Soviet Politics: the Case of Trade Unions (Pittsburgh, PA: Carl Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies, no. 303, 1983); and Charles E. Ziegler, Environmental Policy in the USSR (London: Frances Pinter, 1987). 37 M.P. Gehlen, ‘Group Theory and the Study of Soviet Politics’, in The Soviet Political Process. Aims, Techniques and Examples of Analysis, ed. S.I. Ploss (Ginn, Waltham, MA: 1971), pp. 40–1. 38 Richard Judy, ‘The Economists’, in H. Gordon Skilling and Franklyn Griffiths, eds, Interest Groups in Soviet Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1971), pp. 209–51; Richard B. Remnek, eds, Social Scientists and Policy Making in the USSR (New York: Praeger, 1977); Solomon, op. cit. (1978); and Ronald J. Hill, Soviet Politics, Political Science and Reform (Oxford: Martin Robertson, 1980), Neil Malcolm, Soviet Political Scientists and American Politics (London: Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, 1984). 39 Leslie Holmes, The Policy Process in Communist States: Politics and Industrial Administration (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1981); John Löwenhardt, Decision Making in Soviet Politics (London: Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, 1981); Blair Ruble, ‘Policy Innovation and the Soviet Political Process: the Case of Socio- economic Planning in Leningrad’, Canadian Slavonic Papers, vol. 26, no. 2 (June 1982), 161–74; Peter A. Hauslohner, Managing the Soviet Labor Market: Politics and Policy-Making under Brezhnev, unpublished PhD dissertation (Michigan University, 1984); Fortescue, op. cit. (1986); Jerry F. Hough, The Struggle for the Third World (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1986); Ziegler, op. cit. (1987); Thane Gustafson, Crisis Amid Plenty: the Politics of Soviet Energy under Brezhnev and Gorbachev (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989). 40 Löwenhardt has highlighted the dilemma of those attempting to prove that group activity took place. He notes that while Milton Lodge demonstrated that certain elites could be considered as groups in the sociological sense, he failed to address the problem of their influence. On the other hand, Joel Schwartz and William Keech came close to proving a case for influence and yet failed to address the question of whether influential scientists and so forth really acted as groups. John Löwenhardt, op. cit. (1981), pp. 84–91; Milton Lodge, ‘Groupism in Soviet Politics’, in Frederic J. Fleron ed., Communist Studies and the Social Sciences: Essays on Methodology and Empirical Theory, (Chicago, IL: Rand McNally, 1969), p. 274; Joel Schwartz and William Keech, ‘Group Influence and the Policy Process in the Soviet Union’, American Political Science Review (henceforth APSR), vol. 62 (September 1968), 840–51. Donald R. Kelley, ‘Group and Specialist Influence in Soviet Politics: In Search of a Theory’, in op. cit. Remnek (1977), pp. 111–18. Theodore H. Friedgut, ‘Interests and Groups in Soviet Policy-making: the MTS Reforms’, Soviet Studies, vol. 28 (October 1976), 524–47. Notes 201

41 Hauslohner, op. cit. (1984), pp. 28–33. Those closely involved in the Soviet system have divided into two camps over the role of specialists. One group sees the only legitimate role of intellectuals as an oppositional one based upon ‘heroic’ resis- tance to the political authorities, see Vladimir Shlapentokh, Soviet Intellectuals and Political Power: the Post-Stalin Era (London: I.B. Tauris and Co. Ltd, 1990). Others have pointed out the important role played by ‘within system’ reformers who brought about incremental change from inside the policy-making apparatus. Georgi Arbatov, The System: an Insider’s Life in Soviet Politics (New York: Random House, 1992). 42 Solomon, op. cit. (1978). 43 Thane Gustafson, Reform in Soviet Politics: Lessons of Recent Policies on Land and Water (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981) and Crisis Amid Plenty: the Politics of Soviet Energy under Brezhnev and Gorbachev (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989). 44 The totalitarian paradigm was initially challenged in the 1960s. Skilling and Griffiths, op. cit. (1971). 45 While such a tendency may be found in many studies, particularly in the 1950s and early 1960s, the best examples are T. H. Rigby, ‘Policy-Making in the USSR, 1953–61’, in T.H. Rigby and L.G. Churchward eds, Policy-Making in the USSR, 1953–61: Two Views (Melbourne: Lansdowne Press, 1962), pp. 3–4; Sidney Ploss, Conflict and Decision-Making in Soviet Russia: a Case Study of Agricultural Policy, 1953–63 (Princeton, NJ: 1965). For useful accounts of the various positions held by western experts on the nature of policy-making in the USSR see Solomon, op. cit. (1978), pp. 1–2 and Fortescue, op. cit. (1986), pp. 1–14. 46 As early as the 1960s a variety of scholars had identified similar phenomena, see for example, L.G. Churchward, ‘Policy-Making in the USSR, 1953–61’, in T.H. Rigby and L.G. Churchward, Policy-Making in the USSR, 1953–61: Two Views (Melbourne: Lansdowne Press, 1962), pp. 36–42; Donald D. Barry, ‘The Specialist in Soviet Policy-Making: the Adoption of a Law’, Soviet Studies, XVI, October 1964, no. 2, 152–65; Philip D. Stewart, ‘Soviet Interest Groups and the Policy Process: the Repeal of Production Education’, World Politics, XXII, no. 1 (October 1969), 548–69. Solomon’s study was, however, the first to support such claims through the employment of extensive empirical material. 47 Solomon, op. cit. (1978), pp. 124–5. 48 Solomon, op. cit. (1978), p. 6. 49 Solomon, op. cit. (1978), p. 140. 50 Gustafson, op. cit. (1981), p. xi. 51 Gustafson, op. cit. (1981), p. 93. 52 Gustafson, op. cit. (1981), p. 51. 53 Gustafson, op. cit. (1981), p. 86. 54 Gustafson argues that all resources – industrial authority, scientific knowledge, military expertise and national popularity – were in fact ‘on loan’ from the centre. Gustafson, op. cit. (1981), p. 145. 55 By 1989 Gustafson felt that little had in fact changed and he stood by the findings of his earlier study. He noted that ‘The gradual improvement in the atmosphere for policy debate and advice did not adequately prepare the Soviet system for innovation and reform by supplying it with concrete policy alternatives backed by data and studies’, Gustafson, op. cit. (1989), p. 17. 56 Although it should be noted that whereas the focus of the work on specialists in the 1960s and 1970s was primarily the domestic politics of the Soviet Union, more recent work has sought to explain the end of the Cold War from this perspective. 202 Notes

57 Jeffery T. Checkel, Ideas and International Political Change: Soviet/Russian Behavior and the End of the Cold War (New Haven, CN: Yale University Press, 1997), p. 27. 58 Sarah Mendelson, Changing Course: Ideas, Politics, and the Soviet Withdrawal from Afghanistan (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), p. 10. 59 Checkel, op. cit. (1997), pp. 8–11. 60 Mendelson, op. cit. (1998), p. 35. 61 Breslauer cites the emergence of a reformist agenda in the first years of Gorbachev – George Breslauer, Gorbachev and Yeltsin as Leaders (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), Chapter 3. 62 Mendelson, op. cit. (1998), p. 8, Brown, op. cit. (1996), English, op. cit. (2000). 63 English, op. cit. (2000), p. 183. 64 Checkel, op. cit. (1997), p. 81. 65 Janice Gross Stein, ‘Political Learning by Doing: Gorbachev as Uncommitted Thinker and Motivated Learner’, International Organization, vol. 48, no. 2 (Spring 1994), 155–83. 66 Brown, op. cit. (1996), English, op. cit. (2000), Jerry F. Hough, op. cit. (1997). 67 Dmitry Mikheyev, The Rise and Fall of Gorbachev (Indianapolis, IN: Hudson Institute, 1992) and Anthony D’Agostino, Gorbachev’s Revolution (New York: New York University Press, 1998). 68 Breslauer, op. cit. (2002), p. 41. 69 Kotkin, op. cit. (2001). 70 Brown, op. cit. (1996), p. 2. 71 Brown, op. cit. (1996), p. 89. 72 Breslauer makes a similar point when he argues that one cannot explain ideological and political change over decades of Soviet rule without including the factor of collective learning – ‘a process whereby groups re-evaluate policies, strategies, or even goals, in response to experience’. George W. Breslauer, ‘Soviet Economic Reforms Since Stalin: Ideology, Politics, and Learning’, Soviet Economy, vol. 6 (July–September 1990), 255, 268. 73 Hanson has demonstrated how ideological visions were translated into institutional outcomes at an aggregate level in the early decades of the Soviet Union but the dynamic impact of new ideas and conceptions on existing institutional arrangements is not addressed in his study. Stephen Hanson, Time and Revolution: Marxism and the Design of Soviet Institutions (Chapel Hill, NC: University of Carolina Press, 1997).

3 The Establishment of Official Rural Policy

1 The physical planning of Russian villages began in the 18th century with legislation aimed at fire prevention. By the nineteenth century, rural planning was already being used as an instrument of social engineering. As Judith Pallot points out, prior to the emancipation of the Serfs, the Russian state adopted an increasingly active role in the planning of villages. Behind these plans lay an attempt to copy western urban planning and to get rid of the Russian peasant house – the izba – in favour of European style housing. See Judith Pallot, ‘Continuity and Change in Village Planning from the 18th Century’, in Lutz Holzner and Jeane Knapp, eds, Soviet Studies in Our Time: a Festschrift for Paul E. Lydolph (Milwaukee: The College of Letters and Science and the American Geographical Society, 1987), pp. 319–49; and A.G. Vvedenskaia, ‘Iz istorii planirovki russkoi derevni XVIII i pervoi poloviny XIX vv’, in Trudy gosudarstvennogo statei po istorii SSSR XIXv. Vypusk XV Sbornik statei po istorii SSSR XIX veka. Notes 203

2 M. Lewin, ‘The Social Background of Stalinism’, in Stalinism: Essays in Historical Perspective, ed. Robert C. Tucker (New York: Norton, 1977), p. 126. 3 R.A. Lewis and R.H. Rowland, ‘Urbanisation in Russia and the USSR 1867–1970’, in The City in Russian History, ed. Michael F. Hamm (Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky Press, 1976), pp. 205–21. 4 The Soviet Union was characterised by a wide variety of rural settlement forms, including the large villages of Central Asia and southern parts of Russia, Ukraine and Moldova, the mountain villages of the Caucasus and Central Asia, and the individual, scattered farmsteads of the northern European regions. 5 Peter Hauslohner, ‘Gorbachev’s Social Contract’, Soviet Economy vol. 3, no. 1 (January–March 1987), 54–89. 6 Theodore Friedgut, ‘Integration of the Rural Sector into Soviet Society’, Soviet and Slavic Series (Tel Aviv) no. 3 (Summer 1978), 29–47. 7 For an interesting analysis of the anti-peasant, urban-centric nature of Marxism–Leninism see Esther Kingston-Mann, Lenin and the Problem of Marxist Peasant Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983). 8 V.I. Lenin, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 23 (M.: Gos. Izdat.) p. 341. 9 In the 1920s and 1930s some differentiation had been recognised in the form of ‘rich peasants’ (kulaky). With the ‘extermination’ of this class in the course of the 1930s the peasantry came to be seen as a homogenous mass. 10 Khrushchev’s ideas about the future of the village were probably also strongly shaped by his experience of postwar rural reconstruction in Ukraine where a number of villages were rebuilt as agrotowns. 11 Luba O. Richter, ‘Plans to Urbanise the Countryside 1950–62’, in Soviet Planning: Essays in Honour of Naum Jasny, eds Jane Degras and Alec Nove (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1964), pp. 32–45. 12 Karl-Eugen Wädekin, The Private Sector in Soviet Agriculture (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1973). 13 Medvedev points out the coercive use of village resettlement in the 1930s as part of the drive for domination over the rural sector. Roy Medvedev, Let History Judge: the Origins and Consequences of Stalinism (London: Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, 1972), p. 93. 14 XVIII Sezd Vsesoiuznoi Kommunisticheskoi Partii (b): Stenograficheskii otchet (M.: Gospolitizdat, 1939), p. 299. 15 Ibid., p. 119. 16 Decree of the Central Committee of the VKP(b) and the Council of Peoples Commissars ‘O merakh okhrany obshestvennykh zemel kolkhozov ot razbazarivaniia’, KPSS v rezoliutsiiakh i resheniiakh sezdov, konferentsii i plenumov TsK, Chast 3 (M.: Gospolitizdat., 1954), pp. 396–402. The Plenum also set up an agency for co-ordinating resettlement (pereselencheskoe upravlenie) attached to SNK SSSR and local agencies. 17 Although this decree was the first attempt by the central authorities to tackle the problem of the khutory, Smolensk Oblast had conducted an extensive resettlement programme from the early 1930s, see D. Makovskii and A. Moryganov, Sotsialisticheskaia perestroika khutorskoi derevni (Smolensk: Zapadnoe Oblastnoe Gos. Izdat., 1936). 18 In 1939 it is calculated that there were 801 489 families living on khutory of which 134 000 were in Belorussia, 151 000 in Ukraine, 113 000 in Smolensk Oblast, 52 000 in Kalinin Oblast and 26 000 in Leningrad Oblast. Vyltsan, op. cit. (1970), p. 44. 204 Notes

19 As part of the Stolypin reforms, the khutor had been encouraged as a symbol of the destruction of the commune. Judith Pallot, ‘Khutora and Otruba in the Stolypin Program of Farm Individualization’, Slavic Review, vol. 42, no. 2 (Summer 1984), 242–56. 20 A. Ponomarenko, ‘Krupnyi shag v bolshevikskom ukreplenii kolkhozov Belorussii’, Partiinoe Stroitelstvo, vol. 15 (August 1939), 9. 21 The Komsomol were particularly active, with 2000 brigades sent to help in the resettlement drive. Vyltsan, op. cit. (1970), p. 45. 22 The Secretary of the Rossonskii district committee of the Communist Party, quoted in Ponomarenko, op. cit. (1939), p. 13. 23 Vyltsan, op. cit. (1970), p. 46. 24 Vyltsan, op. cit. (1970), p. 46. 25 B.A. Kovler, Planirovka sovkhozov i kolkhozov (Novosibirsk, 1932). As a result of the resettlement of the late 1940s, a wider literature on rural planning began to appear: Planirovka i stroitelstvo kolkhozov, sovkhozov i MTS (M.: 1940); G.M. Martynov and K.F. Kniazev, Planirovka i blagoustroistvo kolkhoznogo sela (M.: 1948); A.N. Marzeev, Planirovka i rekonstruktsiia kolkhoznogo sela (Kiev: Ukrmedizdat., 1941). 26 M.A. Gendelman, ed., Selskokhoziaistvennaia raionnaia planirovka (Tselinograd: Moskovskii Selskokhoziaistvennyi Institut, 1973), pp. 14–17. 27 The fact that the early rural planning documents were drafted in response to the difficulties of the villages of the northern, particularly Slavic, areas was to prove important in shaping the form of the postwar rural planning regime. The focus on the problems of small, especially khutor, settlements meant that planners tended to perceive the central issue of rural development as that of providing facilities for small, scattered settlements. As a result, little consideration was ever given to other forms of rural settlement in the USSR such as the aul (the mountain village in Caucasus and Central Asia), the kishlak (the Central Asian – usually Uzbek – village) or the stanitsa (the large villages usually of Cossack origin in southern Slavic areas), all of which had different problems to those of the villages of the north. 28 V.I. Vasilchenko, Planirovka i blagoustroistvo kolkhoznogo sela (Minsk: Gos. izd. pri SNK BSSR, 1940). This book grew out of the experience of khutor resettlement in Belorussia in the late 1930s. Vasilchenko calls for kolkhoz villages to become ‘new types of socialist settlements’, fully-equipped with modern conveniences and cultural facilities. 29 Vyltsan, op. cit. (1970), p. 47. There is also a suggestion that a campaign against small rural settlements in Uzbekistan was also undertaken. P.K. Tatur, ‘Likvidirovat khutorskoe rasselenie v Uzbekistane’, Selskoe khoziaistvo Uzbekistana, no. 9 (September 1958), 88–92. 30 The decree of the SNK SSSR and the TsK VKL(b) (29 September 1935). ‘O rabote potrebkooperatsii v derevne’, Pravda (30 September 1935) called for the creation of 500 shops in central rural settlements, while the decree ‘O rabote potrebitelskoi kooperatsii’ (25 January 1939) sought to increase the number of shops further. 31 Robert Conquest, Power and Policy in the U.S.S.R.: the Study of Soviet Dynastics (London: Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, 1961), p. 451. 32 Planirovka i zastroika selskikh naselennykh mest, Vyp. 46 (M.: Moskovskii Institut Inzhenerov Zemleustroistva Nauchnye, 1968), p. 4. 33 Some measures were taken to regulate rural postwar reconstruction: Decree of the SovNarKom SSSR and TsK VKP (b), no. 209 ‘O neotlozhnykh merakh po vosstanovleniiu khoziaistva v raionakh, osvobozhdennykh ot nemetskoi okkupatsii’ (Pravda, 22 Notes 205

August 1943) and ‘O stroitelstve domov kolkhoznikov khoziaistvennykh postroek kolkhozov i kulturno-bytovykh zdanii v raionakh RSFSR, podvergavshikhsiia Nemetskoi okkupatsii’ (M.: 1945). 34 Andreev had been a leading figure in the drive against the khutory in the 1930s. 35 Merle Fainsod, How Russia is Ruled (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1956), pp. 452–6. 36 Decree of the Council of Ministers USSR and the Central Committee VKP(b) of 19 September 1946, ‘O merakh po likvidatsii narushenii ustava selskokhoziaistvennoi arteli v kolkhozakh’, in Reshenie partii i pravitelstva po khoziaistvennym voprosam, 3, 1941–52, ed. E. Tiagai (M.: Gospolitizdat., 1968), pp. 336–41. 37 ‘Vremennye instruktsii po planirovke i zastroike selskikh naselennykh mest’ was published in 1946 by the Committee for Architecture and Construction attached to the Council of Ministers USSR. Drafted by the architects M.S. Osmolovskii and V. Kazimirov, it was an extension of an earlier document produced by Osmolovskii. 38 The idea of building urban-style rural settlements emerged as a powerful idea in Ukraine as part of the postwar reconstruction process. In the Spring of 1947 the management of the Stalin kolkhoz applied to the Central Committee and Council of Ministers of the Ukraine to build an agrotown for 5000 with all the conveniences of urban life and designed by architects and engineers, see V. Moshchil, V. Kravchenko and N. Voklad, ‘Kolkhoznyi gorod’, Pravda (2 January 1950), 2. Khrushchev was closely involved in rural issues in Ukraine after the war, see N.S. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, trans. and edited by Strobe Talbot (Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Co., 1970), pp. 228–44. 39 B.V. Kazimirov, N.M. Lesov and A.F. Shaposhnikov, Blagoustroistvo selskikh naselennykh mest (M.: Gos. Arkh. Izdat., 1949). 40 M.I. Nazaretov and S. Zelentykh, Rukovodstvo po planirovke kolkhoznykh selenii v maliariinykh mestnostiakh Belorusskoi SSR (Minsk, 1948); and Martynov, Kniazev, op. cit. (1948). 41 On 5 August 1949 the Scientific-research Institute of the Architecture of Rural Buildings and Premises, attached to the Academy of Architecture, was founded, see RGAE f. 293, o. 1, d. 583. 42 RGALI f. 674, o. 2, d. 274. ‘O merakh po vostanovleniiu i stroitelstvu zhilykh domov kolkhoznikov, proizvodstvennykh postroek i kulturno-bytovykh zdanii v sele’ (1945). 43 Although there was no support for such an initiative at the very summit of the political system, there are clear signs that at lower levels moves were made to ini- tiate rural development. A draft Council of Ministers decree of 1947 was aimed at radically improving work on the construction and repair of agricultural buildings and housing in the RSFSR. It noted construction in the villages without even ele- mental planning, without reference to standard plans and houses built without modern conveniences. The decree would have established a section for rural and kolkhoz construction attached to the Council of Ministers RSFSR, see ‘Proekt Postanovlenie Sovet Ministrov SSSR O sostoiianii stroitelstva proizvodstvennykh, kulturno-bytovykh pomeshchenii i zhilykh domov v selskikh naselennykh punktakh RSFSR i o merakh uluchsheneniia etogo dela’ (Dek. 1947). RGAE f. 7486, o. 7, d. 412. 44 Alfred Evans and Carol Nechemias, ‘Changes in Soviet Rural Resettlement Policy’, Studies in Comparative Communism, vol. 13, no. 2 (Summer 1990), 125–6. 45 Conquest, op. cit. (1961), p. 456. 46 In a speech delivered to a meeting of kolkhoz chairmen on 21 June and to a meeting of the brigadiers of the tractor brigades and the directors of the machine tractor stations of Moscow Oblast on 24 June, Khrushchev outlined an early form of 206 Notes

his ideas regarding rural development. The speech should therefore be seen as a manifesto for an alternative view of agriculture, see N.S. Khrushchev, Ob ocherednykh zadachakh kolkhozov i MTS v sviazi s ukrunneniem melkikh selskokhoziaistvennykh artelei (M.: Gospolitizdat., 1950). 47 R.E.F. Smith, ‘The Amalgamation of Collective Farms: Some Technical Aspects’, Soviet Studies, vol. 6, no. 1 (1954), 16–32. 48 The growth in the number of Machine Tractor Stations was rapid; in 1928 there were 6, by 1932 the figure had reached 2446, and in 1940 the total stood at 7069. After the war, a further 2000 were constructed, see Roy A. Medvedev and Zhores A. Medvedev, Khrushchev: the Years in Power (New York: Columbia University Press, 1976), p. 25. 49 Speaking at the Nineteenth Party Congress in October 1952 Malenkov claimed that there were 97 000 amalgamated collective farms compared to 254 000 in existence in January 1950, see G. Malenkov, Report to the Nineteenth Party Congress of the Work of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b), 5 October 1952 (M.: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1952), p. 65. 50 In his April 1950 article Khrushchev pointed out that 85 per cent of the kolkhozy of Moscow Oblast had fewer than 60 households in them, see N.S. Khrushchev, ‘O nekotorykh voprosakh dalneishego organizatsionno-khoziaistvennogo ukrepleniia kolkhozov’, Pravda (25 April 1950). 51 There were also important political motivations to the rural reconstruction programme. Whereas the drive against khutors in the 1930s was primarily directed against the private plot, Khrushchev’s programme in 1950–51 had a strong cultural dimension. The transformation programme aimed to project Soviet culture into the countryside. See N.A. Sarkisov, ‘Kolkhoznye kluby dlia selskikh raionov Azerbaidzhanskoi SSR’ (Baku, 1951), RGAE f. 293, o. 3, d. 295. 52 ‘O khode ukrupleniia melkikh kolkhozov’, op. cit., pp. 46–8. Also ‘Otchety oblastykh upravlenii selskogo khoziaistva po ukrupleniiu kolkhozov respulik, kraev i oblastei SSSR za 1950 god i materialy k nim’, RGAE f. 7486, o. 7, d. 1027. For an account of the resettlement of a village in Vladimir Oblast in 1951, see Paul Wohl, ‘A New Address for Chebashikha’, Christian Science Monitor (7 February 1951); see also ‘Experience of Resettlement at a Unified kolkhoz Centre’, Izvestiia (13 April 1951). 53 The fullest account of this initiative is to be found in Richter, in Degras and Nove op cit. (1964), pp. 32–45. 54 Wädekin notes that the plans to transform the countryside in an urban fashion date as far back as the 1930s. He cites the construction of agrotowns such as the sovkhozy Gigant and Zernograd on the lower Don. Karl-Eugen Wädekin, ‘The Countryside’, Problems of Communism, vol. 3 (May–June 1969), 12–20. 55 The lack of realism and idealistic quality of the initial plans for agrotowns are illustrated in one of the first plans for an agrotown, to which the Moscow Oblast party organ devoted a whole page in 1950 (Moskovskaia Pravda, 2 June 1950). This paper may be considered Khrushchev’s mouthpiece for at the time he was Party Secretary of the Moscow Oblast. 56 In fact, agrotowns had been widely discussed in the press from January 1950, with descriptions of newly created agrotowns in Ukraine, as well as others in the Urals and Uzbekistan featuring prominently, see Maurice F. Parkins, City Planning in Soviet Russia (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1953), pp. 118–20. 57 Conquest, op. cit. (1961), p. 121. 58 Richter, in Degras and Nove op. cit. (1964), pp. 33 and 37; ‘Zadachi arkhitektorov na sele’, Izvestiia (2 September 1950). The latter article notes the great opportunities Notes 207

available to Soviet architects in the following years for conducting the planning of many thousands of strengthened kolkhoz settlements. In Uzbekistan alone, the article claimed, 5000 kolkhoz settlements of ‘urban type’ were planned. See also V. Demetev, ‘Stroitelstvo v ukrupnennykh kolkhozakh (proektirovanie agrogorodov)’, Kazakhstanskaia Pravda (26 December 1950). 59 Wädekin, op. cit. (1969), pp. 12–20. 60 Malenkov, op. cit. (1952), pp. 74–5. 61 For details of the campaign against Khrushchev’s plans, see Ploss, op. cit. (1965), pp. 49–50. At the Twenty-First Party Congress in 1961 an ally of Khrushchev, the editor of Pravda in 1951, L.F. Ilichev together with P.A. Satiukov identified Malenkov and Molotov as being the chief authors of a closed Central Committee letter (‘O zadachakh kolkhoznogo stroitelstva v sviazi s ukrepleniem melkikh kolkhozov’) circulated to party organisations condemning Khrushchev’s article as anti-Marxist and effectively banning the idea of rural reconstruction. Malenkov had been responding to Stalin’s dislike of the ideas in the article. XXII Sezd Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soiuza: Stenograficheskii otchet 2 (M.: Gospolitizdat., 1962), pp. 183–4 and 355. 62 Medvedev and Medvedev, op. cit. (1976), pp. 52–3. 63 For a more detailed consideration of the architect’s role in this process see Chapter 6. 64 Vremennye ukazaniia po sostavleniiu skhem planirovki selenii ukrypnennykh kolkhozov Moskovskoi Oblasti (Kuibyshev, 1951); Instruktivnaia-poiasnitelnaia zapiska k primernym skhemam planirovki khoztsentrov ukrupnennykh kolkhozov Moskovskoi Oblasti (Momotov, 1950), originally produced separately this document was later incorporated into Vremennye ukazaniia po sostavleniiu skhem planirovki selenii i khoziaistvennykh tsentrov ukrupnennykh kolkhozov Moskovskoi Oblasti (Vologda, 1950); Vremennaia instruktsiia po sostavleniiu proektov planirovki i zastroiki kolkhoznykh selenii obedinennykh selkhozartelei Leningradskoi Oblasti (Leningrad, 1950); Vremennye ukazaniia po organizatsii rabot po planirovke i zastroike selskikh naselennykh mest (Momotov, 1950). 65 B.V. Kazimirov, N.M. Lesov and A.F. Shaposhnikov, Vybor mesta i planirovka proizvodstvennoi zony seleniia kolkhoza (M.: 1950); V.I. Fedyinskii, V.H. Riabov and L.B. Lunts, Gigiena kolkhoznogo sela (M.: Planirovka, Zhilishchnoe stroitelstvo i blagoustroitelstvo, 1952). 66 This institution became obligatory in Russia following a decree of the Council of Ministers RSFSR of 19/3/1950, no. 286. The decree established the raion section for rural and kolkhoz construction which was attached to the ispolkom of the raion soviet. This section was charged with producing and monitoring plans for small settlements. 67 ‘O neotlozhnykh merakh po vosstanovleniiu khoziaistva v raionakh, osvobozhdennykh ot nemetskoi okkupatsii’, Biulleten Stroitelnoi Tekhniki (henceforth BST), no. 6 (June 1967), 9. 68 Ploss, op. cit. (1965), p. 146; and Carl Linden, Khrushchev and the Soviet Leadership: With an Epilogue on Gorbachev (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), Chapters 1–3. 69 Donald W. Treadgold, ‘Soviet Agriculture in the Light of History’, in Soviet Agriculture and Peasant Affairs, ed. Roy D. Laird, Slavic Studies Series 1 (Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas Press, 1963), p. 11. 70 Decree of the September 1953 Plenum of the CPSU, ‘O merakh dalneishego razvitiia selskogo khoziaistva SSSR’, KPSS v rezoliutsiiakh i resheniiakh sezdov, konferentsii 208 Notes

i plenumov TsK, 1941–54, vol. 6, ed. A.P. Kolupaeva (M.: Gospolitizdat., 1971), p. 387. 71 Ibid., p. 386. Following the Plenum there was a strong impetus behind new rural non-production investment. See the letter of A. Kozlov, Minister of Sovkhozy, to the President of Gosplan, M.Z. Saburov, indicating that the amount of housing construction in the sovkhozy was to rise. RGAE f. 7803, o. 1, d. 1701, p. 1. 72 RGAE f. 293, o. 547, d. 547, p. 47. 73 Once a kolkhoz became a sovkhoz the state took responsibility for capital investment in the farm. The conversion of many collective farms to state farms thus provided a backdoor means of increasing state investment into the countryside. 74 Lazar Volin, ‘Khrushchev and the Soviet Agricultural Scene’, in Soviet and East European Agriculture, ed. Jerzy F. Karz (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1967), pp. 6–21. 75 Decree of the Central Committee of the CPSU of 2 March 1954, ‘O dalneishem uvelichenii proizvodstva zerna v strane i ob osvoenii tselinnykh i zalezhnykh zemel’, Kolupaeva, op. cit., vol. 6 (1971), pp. 430–63. 76 Martin McCauley, Khrushchev and the Development of Soviet Agriculture: the Virgin Lands Programme 1953–64 (London: Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, 1976), and ‘Planirovka i stroitelstvo novykh zernovykh sovkhozov’, Arkhitektura SSSR (henceforth Arkh. SSSR), no. 2 (February 1955), p. 48. Some of the designs for new villages are found in ‘The Agrotown’, Central Asian Review, vol. 5, no. 1 (1957), 49–54. Khrushchev was particularly keen to use the Virgin Lands programme to develop industrial construction for the countryside, see N.S. Khrushchev, ‘Stroitel’stvu na tseline – industrialnye metody’, Stroitelstvo Kommunizma v SSSR i razvitiia selskogo khoziatstva (M.: Gospolizdat., 1963), pp. 253–7. 77 RGAE f. 8216, o. 1, d. 2. 78 Selskoe Khoziaistvo SSSR (M.: 1960), p. 50 and (1971), p. 479. 79 A.P. Tiurina, Sotsialno-ekonomicheskoe razvitie sovetskoi derevni, 1965–1980 (M.: 1982), p. 145. 80 For example, in a speech in January 1955 on agricultural development, Khrushchev said that: ‘where funds were available clubs and dwellings too must be built’, Pravda (3 February 1955). 81 However, speaking at the Twentieth Congress of the CPSU, Khrushchev noted: ‘… the time has come when it is necessary of direct the attention of party and state organisations to the questions of construction in the village. It is well known to all of us, that the legacy of centuries of economically and culturally weak villages, as well as the results of the destruction of the last war, continue to make them- selves felt. Much still remains to be done to improve the living standards of the kolkhozniki, a significant part of whom live in poorly built housing. … Now we have thousands of kolkhozy which have secured great economic success and have large incomes. Such kolkhozy may not only develop construction of public kolkhoz buildings … but also give serious help to kolkhozniki in the construction of housing and in the improvement of their daily lives’, in S. Liashchenko, ‘Selskaia arkhitektura za 40 let sovetskoi vlasti’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 11 (1957), 50–4. 82 Following the death of Stalin the situation began to change. In early 1954 the Glavnoe Upravlenie po Kolkhoznomy Stroitelstvy was created for the RSFSR, attached to the Council of Ministers RSFSR. Such a system already existed in Ukraine and Belorussia as a result of postwar reconstruction. RGAE f. 293, o. 1, d. 548, p. 102. 83 M. Osmolovskii, ‘Preodolet otstavanie v proektirovanii i stroitelstve selskikh sooruzhenii’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 2 (February 1954), 1–3. Notes 209

84 In this climate it is not surprising that Khrushchev turned to architects for assistance. Architects had been a leading force in rural development since the 1920s and he had worked with a number of them on the reconstruction of villages in Ukraine after the war. As part of his rural development programme of the early 1950s he had convened a conference on rural and kolkhoz construction in Moscow in January 1950 at which architects gave many of the main reports. Sotsialisticheskoe zemledelenie (19 January 1951). 85 ‘XII Sessiia Akademii Arkhitekturu SSSR’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 3 (March 1954), 38–40. 86 ‘XVI Plenum Pravleniia Soiuza Sovetskikh Arkhitektorov SSSR’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 8 (August 1954), 39–40. 87 M. Osmolovskii, ‘Nasushchnye zadachi planirovki i zastroiki kolkhoznykh sel’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 2 (February 1954), 17–21; and V. Ishchenko, ‘Krupnoblochnoe stroitelstvo v kolkhoze’, ibid., 43–4. 88 These decrees stemmed directly from the construction conference and were drafted by a committee that included various ministries and representatives of the Central Committee as well as specialists. See Protokoly NN 1–8 za dekabr 1954- mart 1955/podlinniki/zasedaniia komissii po podgotovie proekta postanovleniia TsK KPSS i Soveta Ministerov SSSR, ‘O merakh po korennomu uluchsheniiu stroitelstva i stenogrammy po realizatsii predlozhenii Vsesoiuznogo Sovershchaniia po stroitelstvu’, RGAE f. 339, o. 1, d. 1374. 89 Decree of the Central Committee and the Council of Ministers USSR (23 August 1955), ‘O merakh po dalneishei industrializatsii, uluchsheniiu kachestva i snizheniiu stoimosti stroitelstva’, in Resheniia partii i pravitelstva po khoziaistvennym voprosam 1953–61, vol. 4 (M.: Gospolitizdat., 1968), pp. 250–68. Decree of the Council of Ministers USSR (4 November 1955), ‘On the Elimination of Excess in Planning and Construction’, RGAE f. 339, o. 8, d. 710, p. 245. 90 BST, no. 6 (June 1967), 8–13. Ukaz Presidium Verkhovnogo Soveta (4oi Avgusta 1954) ‘Ob obrazovanii soiuzno-respublikanskogo ministerstva gorodskogo i selskogo stroitelstva SSSR’. This became a Council of Ministers decree of 20 August 1954, no. 1746. As part of this decree the Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Sovkhozy SSSR were required to transfer all of their planning organisations for MTS, sovkhozy and rural electrification to the new Ministry. RGAE f. 339, o. 3, d. 132, p. 27. 91 Decree of the Central Committee and Council of Ministers (31 July 1957) ‘O razvitii zhilishchnogo stroitelstva v SSSR’, in op. cit., vol. 7, Kolupaeva (1971), pp. 278–94. The decree stated that between 1951–55, 2.3 million rural homes had been built and in 1956–60, 4 million more were planned, p. 291. 92 RGAE, f. 339, o. 3, d. 269, p. 1. 93 S.F. Nefedor, a firm supporter of rural development, became head of this sector. RGAE f. 339, o. 8, d. 711. 94 The state bodies were not the most natural arena for Khrushchev to develop policy since his power-base lay in the Party. Following Stalin’s death, Khrushchev had moved quickly to enhance the authority of the Party apparatus and to dilute that of the government (in which his political opponents had command). From September 1953 until 1955 Khrushchev was involved in a prolonged struggle to weaken the power of the Ministry of Agriculture, which from March 1953 was headed by a supporter of Malenkov, A.I. Kozlov. Eventually, Khrushchev suc- ceeded in placing his own man in position when his former associate from the Ukraine, Matskevich, assumed the post in October 1955. However, Khrushchev’s administrative reforms were not simply aimed at strengthening his political 210 Notes

position, they also stemmed from his desire to free agriculture from the excesses of bureaucratic interference. His continued attacks on the Ministry of Agriculture after 1955 saw his appointee increasingly ‘going native’, leading eventually to Matskevich’s removal in December 1960. As a result, the Ministry of Agriculture played a secondary role in the development of rural settlement planning and with the final emasculation of the Ministry in 1961, in which its functions were divided between several agencies, it had almost no voice. The Ministry’s main research institute, VASKhNIL, was moved out of Moscow to the sovkhoz Mikhailovskii, see RGAE f. 7486, o. 1, d. 8644, pp. 313–20. The weaken- ing of the Ministry of Agriculture was to have profound affects on the way that rural development policy was defined. See Ploss (1965), op cit., pp. 66–205; Treadgold, in Laird, op. cit. (1963), pp. 11–13, 22–28; and Robert F. Miller, ‘Continuity and Change in the Administration of Soviet Agriculture Since Stalin’, in The Soviet Rural Community, ed. James Millar (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1971), pp. 73–102. 95 RGAE, f. 339, o. 3, d. 269, pp. 56–60. 96 An early form of these guidelines had been worked out in conjunction with the kolkhoz amalgamation drive of the early 1950s by the Institute of Rural and Kolkhoz construction of the Academy of Architecture. The Institute had been established in 1949 and employed the leading rural architects, see ‘Polozhenie o planirovke, zastroike i blagoustroistvu kolkhoznykh selenii/rukopis/(M.: 1950)’; ‘Pravila po planirovke i zastroike kolkhoznykh selenii/rukopis/ M.: 1951’; and ‘Proekt – instruktsii po planirovke zastroike i blagoustroistvu kolkhoznykh selenii/rukopis/ (M.: 1951)’. 97 V.S. Riazanov, Voprosy arkhitekturno-planirovochnoi rekonstruktsii kolkhoznykh selenii, Avtoreferat Dissertatsii Na Soiskanie Uchenoi Stepenii Kandidata Arkhitektury (M.: Stroiizdat, 1953); D.A. Zhmudskii, Planirovka kolkhoznykh selenii v raionakh stroitelstva krupnykh gidroelektrostantsii, Avtoref. Diss. na Soisk. Uch. Step. Kand. Arkh. (M.: Stroiizdat, 1955); N.P. Dikii, Planirovka i zastroika usadeb zernovykh sovkhozov, Avtoref. Diss. na Soisk. Uch. Step. Kand. Arkh. (M.: Stroiizdat, 1956); and V.S. Riazanov, N.E. Shmidt and D.A. Zhmudskii, Planirovka Selskikh Naselennykh Mest (M.: Stroiizdat, 1955). 98 For example, the idea of planning whole rural areas was advocated by specialists three years before its appearance on the policy agenda at the December 1959 Party Plenum. See Ia. Shakhov, ‘Raionnaia planirovka v selskoi mestnosti’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 4 (April 1956), 43–4; and V. Riazanov, ‘Voprosy raionnoi planirovki selskikh mestnosti’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 10 (October 1956), 19–22. 99 Close co-ordination between Gosstroi and the Academy of Construction and Architecture was ensured via a co-ordinating council. RGAE f. 293, o. 5, d. 563. 100 See D. Zhmudskii, T. Liutivinskaia and N. Shmidt, op. cit. 101 Instruktsiia po planirovke, zastroike i blagoustroistvu selskikh naselennykh mest/ proekt/(M.: 1956). RGAE f. 339, o. 8, d. 710, pp. 241–86. 102 These documents were designed to dovetail with the general planning literature emerging at the time and thus create a single, standardised system for all settlements of the USSR, see ‘Osnovye napravleniia i zadachi nauchnoi issledovatelskikh rabot v oblasti stroitelstva na 1954 god’, RGAE f. 7486, o. 1, d. 8236, pp. 176–200. 103 See, for example, Zasedaniia arkhitekturno-tekhnicheskogo soveta Gosstroia RSFSR (13 March 1957) ‘Rassmotrenie proekta Instruktsii po planirovke zastroiki i blagoustroistvu selskikh naselennykh mest’. RGAE f. 339, o. 8, d. 710, p. 25. 104 I.I. Siniagin, O perspektivnom plane razvitiia kolkhoza ‘Rossiia’ (M.: VASKhNIL, 1957). Notes 211

105 Svodka otzuvov i zakliuchenii po proektu, ‘Instruktsii po planirovke, zastroike i blagoustroistvu selskikh naselennykh Mest’ (M.: NII Selskikh Zdanii i Sooruzhenii, 1957). RGAE f. 339, o. 8, d. 710, pp. 401–3. 106 Instruktsiia po planirovke, zastroike i blagoustroistvu selskikh naselennykh mest/ proekt/ (M.: 1958). RGAE f. 7486, o. 1, d. 8348, pp. 5–65. 107 S.V. Liashchenko and V.S. Riazanov, ‘Zadachi po uluchsheniiu planirovki zastroiki blagoustroistva selskikh naselennykh mest’ (M.: 1958). Svodka zamechanii poluchen- nykh ot uchastnikov raboty sektsii planirovki i zastroiki selskhikh naselennykh mest vsesoiuznogo soveshchaniia po gradostroitelstvu, po instruktsii, po sostavleniiu proektov planirovki i zastroiki selskikh naselennykh mest. RGAE f. 339, o. 8, d. 711, pp. 77–9. 108 This document replaced ‘Vremennii instruktsii po planirovke i zastroike selskikh naselennykh mest’ (23 April 1946). Instruktsiia po sostavleniiu proektov planirovki i zastroike selskikh naselennykh mest (SN 107–60) (M.: 1960). The architects Riazanov and Zhmudskii were also involved in developing regulations for rural settlements in the RSFSR at this time. NII selstroi (Min. Agric. RSFSR) ‘Pravila zastroiki selskikh naselennykh punktov RSFSR /proekt/’ (M.: 1960). RGAE f. 339, o. 8, d. 710. 109 RGAE f. 339, o. 8, d. 464. 110 Instruktsiia po sostavleniiu skhem raionnoi planirovki selskokhoziaistvennykh raionov/ proekt/(M.: 1959), pp. 6–7. The draft was produced by the Sector for the Planning of Rural Settlements of NII selstroi led by Riazanov and Zhmudskii. 111 RGAE f. 339, o. 3, d. 269, p. 5. 112 Specialist committees had been created in most ministries. See ‘Materialy po ekspertize proektov dokumentov – ekspertize nauchnogo tekhnicheskogo soveta ministerstva selskogo khoziaistva SSSR po rassmatreniiu alboma “Elementov blagoustroistva zhiloi zony selskikh naselennykh mest razrabatannogo giproselkhozom MSKh SSSR 1959”’, RGAE f. 7486, o. 8, d. 1409. 113 Decree of the Council of Ministers (October 1956) ‘O merakh pomoshi stroitelstvu v kolkhozakh v 1957–1960 gg i perepiske po uluchshenii proektov zhiliykh domov v kolkhozakh, sovkhozakh i MTS’, RGAE f. 339, o. 3, d. 264. 114 While lack of investment prevented extensive reconstruction, there were attempts to discipline any construction that did take place through the require- ment that all new buildings conform to standard plans and practises. ‘Perechen osnovnykh predpriiatii, zdanii i sooruzhenii selskogo khoziaistva, stroitelstvo koto- rykh dolzhno osushchestvliatsia s 1958 g. tolko po tipovym proektam’. RGAE f. 7486, o. 1, d. 8235, pp. 105–9 and d. 8237, pp. 42–6.

4 Radical Urbanism Becomes Orthodoxy

1 Decree of the Central Committee Plenum (26 February 1958), ‘O Dalneishem razvitii kolkhoznogo stroia i reoganizatsii mashinno-traktornykh stantsii’ and ‘O Dalneishem razvitii kolkhoznogo stroia i reoganizatsii mashinno-traktornykh stantsii’, précis of the report of Comrade Khrushchev given at the session of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. Both in Materialy fevralskovo plenuma TsK KPSS (1958 goda) (M.: Gospolitizdat., 1958). 2 Wädekin notes that the construction of urban-style apartments in the countryside carried a hidden agenda: the elimination, discouragement and reduction of private farming. Both the village reconstruction policy and anti-private plot 212 Notes

campaign of 1958–60 formed part of Khrushchev’s broader vision of the future. Wädekin, op. cit. (1973), p. 301. 3 Materialy fevralskogo plenuma TsK KPSS (1958 goda) (M.: Gospolitizdat, 1958), pp. 5–63. 4 Linden, op. cit. (1990), pp. 58–69. Khrushchev himself continued to push for rural construction. Speaking at the May Komsomol Congress he called for the improvement of facilities for young people – clubs, schools – in the villages. ‘XIII Sezd VKh KSM’, Komsomolskaia Zhizn’, no. 2–3 (2–3 May 1958), 21. 5 Ploss, op. cit. (1965), pp. 151–2. 6 Wädekin, op. cit. (1973), p. 300; and Ploss, op. cit. (1965), p. 144. 7‘Nam nado agrogorody’, Leninskaia Znamia (12 December 1958). See also 14 December 1958 and 3 January 1959. It seems that in addition a drive against small villages was underway in parts of the USSR. Tatur, op. cit. (1958), pp. 88–92. 8 T. Novikov, head of the section for rural construction of Kuntsevskii raion of Moscow Oblast. Stenogramma zasedaniia sektsii planirovki i zastroiki selskikh mest vsesoiuznogo soveshchaniia po gradostroitelstvu. RGAE f. 339, o. 3, d. 1043(1), p. 155. 9 Plenum Tsentralnogo Komiteta Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soiuza: Stenograficheskii otchet, 15–19 Dekabria 1958 (M.: Gospolitizdat., 1958), pp. 70–1. 10 N.I. Beliaev in Plenum TsK KPSS 15–19 Dek. 1958, op. cit., pp. 104–5. Beliaev had been used in a similar way to float the idea of the Virgin Lands in 1953. Ploss, op. cit. (1965), p. 150. 11 S.A. Tovmasian in Plenum TsK KPSS 15–19 Dek. 1958, op. cit., pp. 247–8. 12 S.A. Tovmasian in Plenum TsK KPSS 15–19 Dek. 1958, op. cit., pp. 156–7. 13 Z.M. Rosenfeld, head of the architectural studio of Mosproekt, S.E. Leontev, the head of the section for the Management of Local Industry of Mosoblispolkom, A. I. Vasilev, the director of the Moscow Planning Institute and T.A. Voskanian, deputy head of Glavmosoblstroimaterial. In their reports they outlined the new planning regime, techniques of industrial construction and the types of housing – including four-storey apartment blocks – that had been developed for rural areas. Throughout their reports Khrushchev was constantly interjecting with comments. Plenum TsK KPSS 15–19 Dek. 1958, op. cit., pp. 341–9. 14 Decree of the Central Committee Plenum (15–19 December 1958), ‘Itogi razvitiia selskogo khoziaistva za poslednie piat let i zadachi dalneishego uvelicheniia proizvodstva selskokhoziaistvennykh produktov’, op. cit., vol. 7, ed. Kolupaeva (M.: Gospolitizdat., 1971), p. 364. 15 Ploss suggests that there was a major division over the issue of establishing inter- kolkhoz repair shops and reconstructing kolkhoz settlements which was reflected in the secrecy surrounding the draft of the final resolution of the Plenum. Ploss, op. cit. (1965), pp. 151–2. 16 Plenum TsK KPSS (15–19 Dek. 1958), op. cit. (1958). 17 Vneocherednoi XXI Sezd Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soiuza 27 ianvar– 5 fevral: Stenograficheskii otchet, tom 1 (M.: Gospolitizdat., 1959), p. 102. 18 Wädekin, op. cit. (1973), p. 300; and ‘Rech tovarisha P.A. Prozorova’, Pravda (28 December 1959); ‘Vot ono, nashe kolkhoznoe selo!’ Pravda (8 April 1959), p. 3; ‘Planirovat zastroiki dereven, Izvestiia (8 April 1959), 2; ‘Konets khutora Radivilishki, Izvestiia (8 April 1960), 2. 19 N.S. Khrushchev, Stroitelstvo kommunizma v SSSR i razvitie selskogo khoziaistva, vol. 3, pp. 531, 534; vol. 4, pp. 157–8. In 1960, while visiting his home village Kalinovka, Khrushchev referred to the fact that a number of multi-storey buildings had been constructed in the countryside and stressed the need to continue resettling khutory. Pravda (3 September 1960). Notes 213

20 Wädekin, op. cit. (1969), p. 13. 21 Articles on radical rural construction continued to appear in the Central Committee agricultural paper. ‘Budet selo, kak gorod’, Selskaia Zhizn, no. 7 (24 April 1960). 22 V.V. Zhuravlev, XX Sezd KPSS i ego istoricheskogo realnosti (M.: Gospolitizdat., 1991), pp. 122–3. 23 Plenum Tsentralnogo Komiteta Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soiuza, 22–25 Dekabria 1959 g. Stenograficheskii otchet (M.: Gospolitizdat., 1960), pp. 418–19. 24 Ploss, op. cit. (1965), pp. 179–83. 25 Plenum Tsentralnogo Komiteta Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Siouza, 22–25 Dekabria 1959g. Stenograficheskii otchet (M.: Politizdat., 1960), p. 440. Such documents were intended to provide overall co-ordination of development in agricultural districts by channelling all construction decisions through the local Soviet. G. Mishustin, ‘Ob avtoritete selskogo soveta’, Sovety Deputatov Trudiashchikhsia, no. 6 (December 1957), pp. 71–3. 26 Plenum TsK KPSS (22–25 Dekabria 1959g.) (1960), op. cit., pp. 439–41. 27 RGAE f. 7486, o. 1, d. 8529–36. 28 From the mid-1950s Khrushchev had advocated a role for the Ministry of Agriculture confined to propagandising new agricultural techniques. Matskevich sought to use the Ministry to exert tight centralised control over the rural sector. See Volin, op. cit., in Karz (1967), pp. 6–21. 29 Ploss, op. cit. (1965), p. 201. 30 In 1961 the Ministry of Agriculture was demoted to a largely research function and the majority of its – significantly reduced – personnel was moved out of Moscow. In this way, the power base of the Minister of Agriculture was destroyed. Fainsod, op. cit. (1956), p. 220; and H. R. Swearer, ‘Agricultural Administration Under Khrushchev’, in op. cit., Laird (1963), p. 25ff. 31 Plenum Tsentralnogo Komiteta Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soiuza: Stenograficheskii otchet, 10–18 Ianvaria 1961g. (M.: Gospolitizdat., 1962). 32 Kucherenko was, however, made president of the USSR Academy of Construction and Architecture and therefore remained active in encouraging the elaboration of a rural development literature. 33 Pravda (3 September 1960). 34 ‘Programma KPSS’, in XXII Kongress Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soiuza: Stenograficheskii otchet, 17–31 Oktiabria 1961, vol. 3 (M.: Gospolitizdat., 1962), p. 291. 35 Plenum Tsentralnogo Komiteta Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soiuza: Stenograficheskii otchet, 5–9 Marta 1962g. (M.: Gospolitizdat., 1962), p. 91. 36 Khrushchev advised collective farmers to build multi-storey housing and even called for the construction of agrogorody, citing the example of rural settlement Zaria Kommunizma in Moscow Oblast. G. Lopatin, ‘Gorod v derevne’, Izvestiia (15 July 1962), 3. 37 V. Kucherenko, former head of Gosstroi, raised the issue in May 1962. ‘Sovremennoe gradostroitelstvo i arkhitektura’, Kommunist, no. 7 (May 1962), 25–6; and G. Lopatin (deputy head of section at Rosproekt of Gosstroi RSFSR), ‘Gorod v derevne’, Izvestiia (15 July 1962), 3. 38 The prospects of Khrushchev initiating a rural development programme became even more remote when Grishmanov was replaced as head of Gosstroi by I.L. Novikov following the November 1962 Plenum. In addition, as part of the Sovnarkhoz reforms in March 1963, Gosstroi, and four other ministries were placed under the control of D.F. Ustinov, a leader of the defence industry. 214 Notes

39 While the December 1963 Plenum was devoted to developing the Soviet chemi- cal industry, the primary reason for this was to provide artificial fertillisers to raise agricultural production. Plenum Tsentralnogo Komiteta Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soiuza: Stenograficheskii otchet, 9–13 Dekabria 1963g. (M.: Gospolitizdat., 1963). 40 ‘Ob intensifikatsii selskokhoxiaistvennogo proizvodstva na osnove shirokogo primene- nie udobrenii, razvitiia orosheniia, kompleksnoi mekhanizatsii i vnedreniia dostizhenii nauki i peredovogo opyti dlia bystreishego uvelichenie proizvodstve selskokhoziaistvennoi produktsii, Plenum Tsentralnogo Komiteta Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soiuza: Stenograficheskii otchet, 10–15 Fevralia 1964g. (M.: Gospolitizdat., 1964), p. 625. 41 The concept of the policy community forms one part of a picture of a ‘hidden’ and ‘closed’ type of politics in industrial societies, with the focus on extra- constitutional policy-making between ministries and clientelistic groups. The two main elements of this conception of politics are the segmentation of policy- making into specialised policy communities based upon a limited membership and the emergence of regularised relations between interests and officials who are concerned with a certain policy area. This segmentation or ‘sectorisation’ of policy-making is a process whereby the ‘problem solving capacity of governments is disaggregated into a collection of sub-systems with limited tasks, competencies and resources’. K. Hanf, ‘Introduction’ in Inter-organizational Policy-Making, eds K. Hanf and F. W. Scharpf (London: Sage, 1978), p. 1. Such sub-systems are con- ventionally bounded by substantive policy names, for example, health, welfare, transportation and so forth. These policy areas, or ‘policy sectors’, should thus be conceived of as one of the main arenas in which public policies are decided and implemented. The sectorisation of policy is due to two factors: the necessity of developing effective policies in an increasingly complex and technically based society; and a desire by the top leadership to avoid overt societal conflict. Faced by the intellectual overload of attempting to weigh up all the possible policy options, modern governments have disaggregated policy-making from the centre to policy sectors. A. Grant Jordan, ‘Iron Triangles, Woolly Corporatism and Elastic Nets: Images of the Policy Process’, Journal of Public Policy, vol. 1 (1981), 118. Complexity is handled by the development of ‘loosely coupled’ and ‘decom- posed’ systems that compensate for a lack of central capacity. The pursuit of policy-making through relatively closed arrangements of close consultation also has considerable advantages. In particular, it allows the development of a common language and the improvement of problem definition. With decisions that are complex, technical and specific, an awareness of particular circumstances is all-important. By developing understandings, uncertainty is reduced and societal conflict diminished. Grant Jordan, ‘Policy Community Realism versus “New” Institutional Ambiguity’, Political Studies, XXVIII (1990), 470–84; A. G. Jordan and J. J. Richardson, Government and Pressure Groups in Britain (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1987), p. 92; Jeremy Richardson, ‘Convergent Policy Styles in Europe’, in Policy Styles in Western Europe, ed. Jeremy Richardson (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1982), p. 201. A. Grant Jordan and Jeremy Richardson, ‘The British Policy Style or the Logic of Negotiation’, in op. cit., Richardson (1982), p. 83; and John W. Kingdon, Agendas, Alternatives and Public Policy (Boston: Little, Brown, 1984); Hugh Heclo, ‘Issue Networks and the Executive Establishment’, in The New American Political System, ed. Antony King (Washington, DC: American Enterprise Inc., 1979). Notes 215

42 The relationships that characterised policy-making in the area of rural settlement policy were neither exclusively hierarchical and command-based nor inherently conflictual and based on interest articulation, and it is important to stress that these relationships were far from static. The type of relationships that existed between policy actors meant that power was diffused in a number of locations and exercised in a variety of ways. Indeed, it seems that the idea of ‘dependence’ should be stressed as much as the concept of power for it acknowledges a reci- procity amongst the relationships within the policy process. R. Rhodes, ‘Analyzing Intergovernmental Relations’, European Journal of Political Research, vol. 8 (1980), 289–322. The decentralisation of power should not simply be conceived of as the transfer of hierarchical policy-making to a lower level. Instead, writers characterise policy sectors as ‘clusters’ or ‘complexes’ of organisations connected to each other by resource dependencies. Resources are conceived of as elements that an organisation requires if it is to meet the performance conditions laid down for its survival. This phenomenon has been termed by Rhodes the ‘power-dependence relationship’, see Rhodes, ‘Power Dependence, Policy Communities and Intergovernmental Networks’, Public Administration Bulletin, no. 49 (Dec. 1985), 14. See also J.K. Benson, ‘A Framework for Policy Analysis’, in Inter-Organizational Co-ordination, ed. David L. Rogers, David A. Whetten and Associates (Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1982), p. 148. Any organisation is dependent upon other organisations for resources. In order to achieve their goals, organisations have to exchange resources. R. Rhodes, ‘Can there be a Natural Community of Local Government?’ Local Government Studies, 9, no. 6 (1981), 4. It is on the basis of these resource dependencies that the symbiotic relationships characteristic of policy communities and networks form. 43 In response to the December Plenum, the Presidium of VASKhNIL created a special section in April 1959 ‘for fulfilling the goal of transforming kolkhoz villages into well-equipped settlements of urban type’. Led by D.G. Muratov of VASKhNIL and specialists from a variety of other institutes (V.P. Trotskii of the Moscow Institute of Land Engineers and members of expert commission of the Academy of Architecture and Construction USSR), the section began to apply the largely theoretical principles of rural planning to test areas. VASKhNIL, Perspektivy razvitiia selskogo khoziaistva Khomutovskogo raiona Kurskoi oblasti v sviazi s raionnoi planirovkoi naselennykh punktov na 1959–1980gg (M.: 1960). 44 With the demise of the Ministry of Agriculture in 1961, all questions connected with rural settlement fell into the hands of planners working within the town planning structures of Gosstroi (the so-called gradostroitely). 45 Of a total of 480 participants, 12 were from Central Committees of Union Republics, Krai, Oblasty and Gorispolkomy; 3 from sovnarkhozy; 46 from Union and Republican ministries and departments, 28 from Gosplan SSSR and Gosstroi SSSR; 30 from State and inter-kolkhoz construction organisations, 75 from research institutes, 176 from planning institutes, 29 from the Academy of Construction and Architecture of the USSR and Ukraine; and others 58. RGAE, f. 339, o. 3, d. 1043. 46 BST 1960–62 contains a plethora of articles on the new rural planning regime. 47 ‘Novaia vystavka v VDNKh “Selskoe stroitelstvo”’ , BST, no. 1 (January 1963), 46–8. 48 Rural raion and settlement planning was begun in the RSFSR with the decree of the Central Committee and the Council of Ministers RSFSR, no. 917 (18 June 1960) ‘O merakh po uluchsheniiu selskogo stroitelstva’. 216 Notes

49 In the rural construction section of the 1960 Construction Conference there were frequent speeches about the necessity of raion planning and a general sense of urgency about the need for rural reconstruction. RGAE f. 7486, o. 1, d. 8572, pp. 76–8. 50 Decree of the Council of Ministers, no. 774 (24 August 1961), point 10. 51 RGAE f. 339, o. 3, d. 1378. 52 Decree of the Central Committee and the Council of Ministers of the USSR (1962) ‘O merakh po povysheniiu effektivnosti ispolzovaniia kapitalnykh vlozhenii i uporiadocheniiu proektirovaniia v selskom stroitelstve’, RGAE f. 339, o. 3, d. 1378, pp. 19–63. 53 In 1959 the institute Minselstroi published ‘Instructions for Compiling Schemes of District Planning’. In 1962 Gosstroi published ‘Methodological Directions for Determining Out Schemes of District Planning of Agricultural Areas’ which was produced by institutes of the Ministry of Agriculture and the Academy of Architecture and Construction in the course of 1960–61. Finally, in 1965 ‘Rekomendatsii po sostavleniiu skhem planirovki selskokhoziaistvennykh raionov’, produced by the Central Scientific-Research and Project Institute for Urban Construction (TsNIIPgradostroitelstvo) of Gosgrazhdanstroi went into force. 54 ‘Rekomendatsii …’, op. cit. (1965), p. 37. 55 The commitment to rural planning was clearly signalled when state funding for district planning work was ensured by a decree of the Council of Ministers of 20 January 1960. RGAE f. 339, o. 3, d. 1043, p. 14. According to the writer, Chetunova, the state devoted 3–3.5 million rubles annually to the preparation of such plans, that was approximately 3000 rubles per plan. N. Chetunova, ‘Dom v derevne: Kakim emu byt?’ Literaturnaia Gazeta (henceforth Lit. Gaz.), 34 (1967), 10–11. 56 B. Khorev, ‘I malomu poseleniiu zhit!’, Lit. Gaz. (30 May 1984), 11. 57 For example, G.G. Oshchenkov, ‘Kniga o planirovke selskokhoziaistvennykh raionov’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 5 (May 1964), 62, see also the volume produced by a team of workers at TsNIIPgradostroitelstvo (henceforth TsNIIPgrad.). Rekomendatsii po sostavleniiu skhem planirovki selskokhoziaistvennykh raionov (M.: 1964). 58 For example, P. Adkhamov, the director of Azgiproselstroi attacked ‘some of the architectural kandidaty’ who proposed the concentration of the rural population in a single settlement. RGAE f. 339, o. 3, d. 1043, p. 149. 59 ‘O razvitii nauchno-issledovatelskikh i eksperimentalnykh rabot’-decree of the Central Committee and Council of Ministers USSR, no. 51 (11 January 1963); ‘O sovershenstvovanii upravleniia kapitalnym stroitelstvom’, BST, no. 3 (March 1963), 3–5; and ‘Ob osushchestvlenii edinoi tekhnicheskoi politiki v oblasti grazhdanskogo stroitelstva’, BST, no. 5 (May 1963), 4–5. 60 Thus the Union of Architects and the Institute Glavselstroiproekt of Gosstroi organised a conference on new standard plans for rural housing, public and production buildings. ‘Problemy proektirovaniia dlia sela,’ Arkh. SSSR, no. 2 (February 1963), 62–3. 61 ‘Otdely kapitalnogo stroitelstva pri raiispolkomakh’, BST, no. 5 (May 1964), p. 40. 62 ‘Polozhenie o glavnom inzhenere, glavnom arkhitektor proekta’, BST, no. 5 (May 1970), 7–9. 63 ‘O povyshenii urovenia tekhnicheskogo rukovodstva selskim stroitelstvom’, BST, no. 1 (January 1962), 41–2. 64 Op. cit., BST, no. 3 (March 1963), 3–5. 65 ‘Ob uprazdnenii Akademii Stroitelstva i Arkhitektury SSSR i Akademii Stroitelstva i Arkhitektury Ukrainskoi SSR’, BST, no. 10 (October 1963), 34–5. Notes 217

66 General coordination of rural development was conducted by the agricultural construction section of Gosstroi. This section brought together not only the top personnel in Gosstroi but also representatives of the Ministry of Agriculture and research and planning institutes. ‘Protokoly soveshanii v otdel selskokhoziaistvennogo stroitelstva’. RGAE f. 339, o. 3, d. 1281. 67 ‘Novye perechni tipovykh proektov dlia selskogo stroitelstvo’, BST, no. 8 (August 1965), 29–31. 68 ‘Perechen’ deistvuiushchikh obshcheobiazatelnykh normativnykh dokumentov po proektirovaniiu i stroitelstvu po sostoianiiu na 1 aprelia 1964 g’, BST, no. 4 (April 1964), 2–23. In 1965 Gosstroi produced Stroitelnye normy i pravila: Planirovka i zastroika naselennykh mest (normy proektirovaniia SN.P P-K. 2-62) (M.: Stroiizdat., 1965) which incorporated a section on rural issues into the purely urban SNIP of the 1950s. RGAE f. 339, o. 8, d. 1075. 69 Op. cit., BST, no. 5 (May 1963), 4–5. This reorganisation was reinforced by a Council of Minister’s decree, no. 371 (29 April 1964), which placed with Gosgrazhdanstroi responsibility for developing technical policy in the area of construction. ‘Polozhenie o Gosudarstvennom Komitete po Grazhdanskomu Stroitelstvu i Arkhitekture pri Gosstroe SSSR’, BST, no. 7 (July 1964), 1–3. 70 For a description of the Gosstroi research and planning institute structure see United Nations Economic and Social Council (Economic Commission for Europe), Directory of Bodies Concerned with Urban and Regional Research: Union of Socialist Republics (21 February 1985). 71 ‘Zadachi nauchno-issledovatelskikh organizatsii v oblasti stroitelstva i arkhitektury’, BST, no. 10 (October 1964), 2–3. 72 In the early 1950s several kolkhozy had begun to combine their construction capa- bilities for the construction of electric facilities and public buildings. 73 A.I. Mogilnyi ‘Tasks of Construction and Planning Organisation in the Fundamental Improvement of Rural Construction’. ‘Soveshchanie po industrializatsii i mekhanizatsii selskogo stroitelstva’, BST, no. 9 (September 1963), 47. 74 Council of Ministers decree, no. 133 (6 June 1963) and of Gosstroi (22 June 1963) ‘O vedenii industrialnykh metodov v stroitelstvo zhivotnovodchiskikh pomeshshenii i drugikh zdanii i sooruzhenii v sovkhozakh i kolkhozakh’, BST, no. 9 (September 1963), 1–3. 75 F.S. Faradzhev, Opyt raboty mezhkolkhoznykh stroitelnykh organizatsii latvaiiskoi SSR (M.: TsNIIEP selstroi otdel nauchno-tekhnicheskoi informatsii, 1969). 76 ‘Peredvizhenye mekhanizirovannye kolonny dlia selskogo stroitelstva’, BST, no. 1 (January 1967), 10. 77 RGAE f. 7486, o. 1, d. 9245. 78 ‘O vnedrenii industrialnykh metodov v stroitelstvo zhivotnovodchiskikh pomeshchenii i drugikh zdanii i sooruzhenii v sovkhozakh i kolkhozakh’, BST, no. 9 (September 1963), 1–3. 79 ‘Rasshirenie prav gosstroev respublik v oblasti selskogo stroitelstva’, BST, no. 5 (May 1965), 1–3. 80 ‘Poriadok osushchestvleniia avtorskogo nadzora proektnykh organizatsii za stroitelstvom predpriiatii, zdanii i sooruzhenii’, BST, no. 12 (December 1963), 7–8. 81 For example, in the late 1960s Gosstroi ordered the establishment of the position of raion architect in Belorussia, no. 84 (15 December 1966) ‘Polozhenie o raionnom arkhitektore’, BST, no. 6 (June 1967), 40; and in Georgia, ‘Polozhenie o raionnom arkhitektore’, BST, no. 11 (November 1967), 38–9. 218 Notes

82 ‘Novaia ekspozitsiia pavilona ‘Selskoe stroitelstvo’’, BST, no. 10 (October 1969), 45–7. 83 Exhibitions such as this were frequent at the VDNKh, in this case Gosstroi was highlighting the merits of 2–3 storey rural housing. ‘Novaia ekspozitsiia pavilona ‘Selskoe stroitelstvo’, BST, no. 1 (January 1963), 46–8. 84 ‘Itogi konkursa na luchshuiu peredvizhnyiu mekhanizirivannuiu kolonnu po selskomu stroitelstvu’, BST, no. 6 (June 1967), 13–14. 85 In 1967 Gosgrazhdanstroi and the Union of Architects began the competition for the best designed villages of the USSR. The winning ‘model’ villages for each republic were published in the series ‘Luchshie sela nashei rodiny’. See Shapshi (M.: Stroiizdat., 1977) for the RSFSR; Saku, Vinni and Kurtna (M.: Stroiizdat., 1977) for Estonia; and Vertelishchki (M.: Stroiizdat., 1974) for Belorussia. 86 An early experimental village was the sovkhoz ‘Dawn of Communism’ which was built from scratch in 1960. This settlement proved to be the basis for a number of other sovkhoz settlements in the 1960s. Another example was the state farm ‘Victory’ of Moscow Oblast which was set up to test the principles of planning 2–3 storey buildings, new production complexes and cultural–public buildings. RGAE f. 339, o. 3, d. 1378, pp. 64–5. 87 For example, a conference of 200 specialists on rural issues at the VDNKh in November 1965, ‘Na VDNKh ‘Vsesoiuznaia konferentsiia po ekonomike selskogo stroitelstva’, BST, no. 1 (January 1966), 44–7. 88 In 1964 a scientific-technical council (nauchno-tekhnicheskii sovet) was established within Gosstroi. The council was to prepare preliminary questions and put together draft decisions, organise the multitude of materials to be examined, put together directives (rasporiazheniia), orders (prikazy), and instructions (ukazaniia) for Gosstroi. The council consisted of various sections including agricultural construction and irrigation, which also examined issues of rural settlement and construction. For example, in the course of 1965 this section examined ‘Instruktsiia po planirovke i zastroike selskikh naselennykh mest’, Protokol 85/6 -skh (9.7.65) and ‘Soobshchenie po voprosy eksperimentalnogo stroitelstva selskokhoziaistvennykh obektov, zakonchennykh v 1963–64gg’, Protokol no. 80/5 skh (28.6.65). RGAE f. 339, o. 10, d. 88. 89 In the Ministry of Urban and Rural Construction a collegia was set up to tackle the issue of construction in the Virgin Lands which brought together the various agencies involved in the programme. ‘Stenogramma zasedaniia kollegii Ministerstva Gorodskogo i Selskogo Stroitelstva SSSR’ (20 Dek. 1954). RGAE f. 8216, o. 1, d. 1, pp. 200–14; ‘Protokoly zasedanii tekhnicheskogo soveta ministerstva gorodskogo i selskogo stroitelstva SSSR’, f. 8216, o. 1, d. 111, pp. 15 and 101–20; and a letter from the leading rural architect M.S. Osmolovskii to the Ministry of Urban and Rural Construction showing the close links between architectural bodies and the ministries. RGAE f. 8216, o. 1, d. 222. The Virgin Lands scheme also highlighted some of the difficulties that faced rural development. Construction ministries frequently complained that there was a lack of scientific literature on how to undertake rural construction, and there were considerable problems in coordi- nating those involved in the programme. 90 Materialy po voprosam kapitalnogo stroitelstvo 1959. RGAE f. 7486, o. 1, d. 8493. 91 Links were also being established between the centre and regions during this period, for example, in 1960 a team from Gosstroi SSSR visited planning institutes in Cheliabinsk Oblast to share experience on industrialising rural construction. RGAE f. 339, o. 3, d. 1097, pp. 111–31. Notes 219

92 Management of the Virgin Lands programme displayed many of the characteristics that were to become regularised in the 1960s. Note the close consultations between the Union of Architects, the Scientific-Research Institute of Agricultural Buildings and Structures of the Academy of Architects USSR, Giprosovkhozstroi of the Ministry of Urban and Rural Construction and Rosgiprosovkhozstroi of the Ministry of State Farms RSFSR. ‘Planirovka i stroitelstvo novykh zernovykh sovkhozov’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 2 (February 1955), 48; and Protokoly zasedanii tekhnicheskogo soveta ministerstva gorodskogo i selskogo stroitelstva SSSR. RGAE f. 8216, o. 1, d. 111. Standard plans were also developed for the construction of new farms. RGAE f. 7803, o. 1, d. 1753. 93 Evans and Nechemias, op. cit. (1990), p. 131. 94 For a review of the improvements in agricultural production and changes in the provision of rural facilities, such as electrification and the construction of rural schools and clubs during the 1950s, see N.S. Ivanov, Kolkhoznoe krestianstvo 1953–58 gg. (M.: 1983). 95 Although the terminology is different, there is also evidence that the policy of radical village reconstruction was sporadically pursued in the 1950s, with the construction of several sovkhoz settlements of ‘urban type’. ‘Dawn of Communism’ in Moscow Oblast; ‘Moritsy’ in Ukraine and ‘Afresh’ in Belorussia. I. Vinnichenko, Duma o kommunizme (M.: Molodaia gvardiia, 1959), p. 3. 96 This rise in expenditure was partly due to the Virgin Lands scheme but also reflected additional responsibilities taken on by the state as a result of the begin- ning of the second round of farm amalgamation in the latter half of the 1950s. RGAE f. 7803, o. 1, d. 1701, p. 1; ibid., d. 1764; and f. 7486, o. 1, d. 8388, pp. 46–81. There was also indirect support for rural housing construction with increases in credit and the supply of construction materials for kolkhozniki to build their own houses from 1956. In 1956 there were 8 million rubles of credit for construction and by 1959 the figure had reached 252 million. Narodnoe khoziaistvo SSSR v 1960g. (M.: 1961), p. 809. 97 During the Sixth Five-Year Plan (1956–60), according to official statistics, collective farms built very little rural housing, with the private sources providing 81 per cent and the state/co-operative sector the remaining 19 per cent of investment. It was only in the Seventh Plan (1961–65) that kolkhozy first began to build housing (3 per cent) and the state took on greater responsibility for construction in the countryside (30 per cent). Evans and Nechemias, op. cit. (1990), p. 131. 98 Stenogramma zasedaniia sektsii planirovki i zastroiki selskikh mest vsesoiuznogo soveshchaniia po gradostroitelstvu. RGAE f. 339, o. 3, d. 1043(1).

5 The Onset of Rural Transformation

1 Policy communities and networks are populated by networks of specialists and policy professionals who are scattered both ‘inside’ and ‘outside’ government. These specialists include those who staff government agencies, planning and evaluation officers, academics and consultants or analysts for particular interests. Although these specialists and policy professionals constitute a diverse body, they are united by a shared concern with one area of policy. These specialists also have in common their interactions with each other. They are aware of each other’s ideas, proposals and research and frequently they know each other personally. The participation of specialists within the policy process makes it extremely difficult to delineate between ‘inside’ and ‘outside’ government. As Laumann and 220 Notes

Knoke indicate, ‘the intimate consulting and lobbying relationships, frequent employment interchanges and open communication channels create inseparably intertwined institutions’. Edward O. Laumann and David Knoke, ‘The Increasingly Organisational State’, Society, vol. 25, no. 2 (January–February 1988), 24. 2 Plenum Tsentralnogo Komiteta Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soiuza: Stenograficheskii otchet, 24–26 marta 1965 (M.: Gospolitizdat., 1965). 3 For a description of the formation of the consensus regarding the necessity of constructing a new agricultural policy and its relationship to the Khrushchev period, see Gustafson, op. cit. (1981), pp. 15–32. 4 Roy D. Laird, ‘The Political Economy of Soviet Agriculture under Brezhnev’, in op. cit., Kelley (1980), p. 59. 5 Gustafson, op. cit. (1981). 6 For details of the programme see Alec Nove, ‘Soviet Agriculture under Brezhnev’, Slavic Review, no. 3 (September 1970), 379–410. 7‘Utverzhdenie plana meropriiatii po realizatsii reshenii fevralskogo (1964g.) Plenuma TsK KPSS’, BST, no. 5 (1964), 1–3. 8 George W. Breslauer, Khrushchev and Brezhnev as Leaders: Building Authority in Soviet Politics (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1982). 9 Thane Gustafson, ‘The Roots of Brezhnev’s Agricultural Policy’, Problems of Communism, 28 (January/February 1979). The change of attitude towards the countryside may also have been a reflection of the fact that increasing numbers of the political elite were from a peasant background. Löwenhardt points out that by 1971 there were only 7 ‘urbanites’ in the Politburo. John Löwenhardt, The Soviet Politburo, trans. Dymphna Clark (Edinburgh: Canongate, 1982), p. 57. 10 An integral part of this learning was the information regarding the countryside being produced by academics and specialists, particularly in respect to out- migration of rural youth. Uncontrolled emigration from the villages provided the basic economic and social motivation for introducing the rural modernisation programme. Alexander Vucinich, ‘The Peasants as a Social Class’, in op. cit., Millar (1971), pp. 307–24. See also David Powell, ‘The Rural Exodus’, Problems of Communism, vol. 6 (November–December 1974), 1–13. 11 Stefan Hedlund, Crisis in Soviet Agriculture (Lund Economic Series, no. 28, 1983), p. 94. 12 One of the first actions after Khrushchev’s demise was the repeal of the restrictions on the private plot. Wädekin, op. cit. (1973), p. 311. 13 Breslauer, op. cit. (1982), p. 149. 14 George W. Breslauer, ‘On the Adaptability of Soviet Welfare-State Authoritarianism’, in Soviet Society and the Communist Party, ed. Karl W. Ryavec (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1978), pp. 222–31. 15 Laird, op. cit., in Kelly (1980), pp. 55–69. 16 ‘Zadachi stroitelei v novoi piatiletke’, BST, no. 4 (April 1966), 1–6. 17 L.I. Brezhnev, ‘O neotlozhnykh merakh po dal’neishemu razvitiiu sel’skogo khoziaistva SSSR’, in Plenum TsK KPSS (Mart 1965), op. cit., p. 32. Brezhnev re-emphasised his commitment to rural development at the Twenty Third Party Congress. ‘XXIII Sezd Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soiuza: Stenograficheskii otchet, 29 Marta– 8 Aprelia 1966 goda., vol. 1 (M.: Gospolitizdat., 1966), pp. 73–5. 18 Plenum TsK KPSS (Mart 1965), op. cit., p. 78. 19 V.V. Grishin, Plenum TsK KPSS (Mart 1965), op. cit., p. 112; V.Iu. Akhunov, First Secretary of Azerbaizhan, pp. 124–5; A.Ia. Pelshe, First Secretary of Latvia, who stressed the need for rural construction and the problems of the resettlement of Notes 221

khutory, which was going very slowly, pp. 138–9; T. Usubaliev, First Secretary of Kirgizia, p. 161; S.P. Pavlov, First Secretary of the Komsomol, who stressed the need for rural clubs to stop youth migration, pp. 166–7; and P.F. Lomako, the President of Gosplan, who noted how existing construction agencies were under-fulfilling construction plans in the countryside, p. 196. 20 Werner Hahn, The Politics of Soviet Agriculture 1960–1970 (London: Johns Hopkin’s University Press, 1972), pp. 178–81. 21 Decree of the Council of Ministers and the Central Committee (21 February 1967), ‘Ob uluchshenii organizatsii upravleniia stroitelstvom’, in op. cit., vol. 9, Kolupaeva (1972), pp. 210–14. Shortly after the creation of the new Ministry the head of the Central Committee Construction Section A. Biryukov, was removed and became deputy to the Russian Premier Voronov, who had been a firm opponent of creating rural construction ministries. The post was vacant for a further two years, presumably reflecting a struggle at the top over construction strategy, and was only filled when Voronov was demoted in the Politburo hierarchy in mid-1969. Hahn, op. cit. (1972), p. 188. 22 ‘Ob uluchshenie organizatsii upravleniia stroitelstvom’, BST, no. 5 (May 1967), 1–3. 23 ‘Povysit tekhnicheskii uroven selskogo stroitelstva’, BST, no. 4 (April 1968), 23–6. 24 A prototype of the 1967 programme had been applied in Belorussia in the course of 1965. Hahn, op. cit. (1972), p. 200. Gosstroi SSSR issued an order on 4 November 1967 (No. 199) instructing the Union Gosstroi organisations and the Rural Construction Administrations to accelerate the creation of PMK. 25 With Brezhnev leading the coalition, the ministries involved were Gosstroi, under the leadership of I.T. Novikov, and its affiliate Gosgrazhdanstroi, headed by G. Fomin, D. Polianskii, the first deputy chairman with responsibility for agriculture, supported by the agricultural daily of the Central Committee, Selskaia Zhizn and had strong regional support from Belorussia. Hahn, op. cit. (1972), pp. 179–213. In October 1967 Polianskii appealed for funds for the new programme in the party’s main ideological journal. D. Polianskii, ‘O roli soiuza rabochikh i krestian v pereustroistve derevni’, Kommunist, no. 15 (October 1967), 15–31. 26 Breslauer, op. cit. (1978), pp. 3–32 and pp. 178–82. 27 For example, Gosstroi RSFSR ‘Rosglavniistroiproekt’, Soveshchanie-seminar predstavitelei proektnykh institutov Gosstroi RSFSR po obemu opytom proektirovaniia selskokhoziaistvennogo stroitelstva v zone tsentra i iuga (Volgograd, 1966); Moskovskaia oblastnaia nauchno-tekhnicheskaia konferentsiia po stroitelstvu i arkhitekture – sektsiia “gradostroitelstvo proektirovanie i zastroika selskikh naselennykh mest Moskovskoi Oblasti (M.:1968); Materialy k respublikanskomu seminar po zastroike i blagoustroistvu sel, 17 iunia–1 iulia 1968 (Kishinov: Izdat. TsK KP Moldavii, 1969). Specialists also conducted lectures within the ministries as a means to pass on the latest information. This mechanism had started in the late 1940s. See the lecture by S. Cheremushkin on the importance of intra-kolkhoz planning. RGAE f. 7486, o. 7, d. 560, p. 3. 28 See Chapter 6 for greater detail. 29 The profession of zemleustroitel has no real equivalent in English. Zemleustroitely had first come to the countryside in the early twentieth century as part of the Stolypin reforms. From 1906–14 they carried out land settlement (zemleustroistvo), which was designed to reorganise farming based on narrow strips of land into larger, wider plots. Trained in land-use planning faculties of agricultural institutes, in the late 1920s their role was to establish the borders of the new farms following collectivisation and to determine land-use within these farms. Bolshaia 222 Notes

Sovetskaia Entsiklopediia, 3rd edn (M.: 1976). See also George L. Yaney, ‘Agricultural Administration in Russia from the Stolypin Land Reform to Forced Collectivisation: an Interpretive Study’, in op. cit., Millar (1971), pp. 3–35. 30 A.P. Astashkin, “Osnovnye voprosy razmeshcheniia selenii i proizvodstvennykh tsentrov v kolkhozakh Estonskoi SSR, Trudy Mosk. in-ta inzhenerov zemleustroistva, Vyp. 8 (1959); and A.P. Astashkin, Osnovnye usloviia, vliiaiushchie na razmeshchenie kolkhoznykh selenii i proizvodstvennykh tsentrov v Estonskoi SSR., Trudy Mosk. in-ta inzhenerov Zemleustroistva, Vyp. 9 (1960). 31 Ethnographers had been employed to provide information on rural areas as part of the kolkhoz consolidation drive in Moscow Oblast in the early 1950s. In 1951 the Institute for Rural and Kolkhoz Construction commissioned an ethnographic expedition to look at changes in rural settlement construction in the Moscow region. G.S. Maslova, ‘Seleniia i postroiki kolkhozov Moskovskoi Oblasti’, Sovetskaia Ethnografiia, no. 2 (1951), 46–7. 32 S.A. Kovalev, Materialy I Mezhduvedomstvennogo Soveshchaniia po Geografii Naseleniia (Ianvar’–Fevral’ 1962), sektsiia selskogo rasseleniia, 4 (Moscow–Leningrad: Geog. Obshch. Soiuza SSR, 1962); and Iu. V. Arutiunian, ed., Sotsiologicheskoe izuchenie sela: Kul’tura, byt, rasselenie, Vyp. 2 (Material k Vsesoiuznomu Simpoziumu po Sotsiologicheskii Problemam Sela v g. Krasnodare), (M.: 1968). 33 Blair A. Ruble, Soviet Research Institutes Project: the Policy Sciences 1 (Washington, DC: Kennan Institute, 1980) and Alexander Vucinich, Empire of Knowledge: The Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1917–1970) (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984). 34 For example, in 1969 the State Committee for the Use of Labour Resources of the Council of Ministers of the RSFSR and the Ministry of Agriculture of the RSFSR commissioned a sociological study of migration from the villages of the Non- Black-Earth-Zone of the RSFSR. The sociologists found heavy out-migration from the smallest villages and concluded that this was due to the better educational opportunities in urban areas and lack of modern facilities in these villages. The report was sent to Gosplan and the Central Committee Section for Construction. APRF f. 5, o. 62, d. 237. 35 What social scientists could say about the countryside remained restricted and those who crossed the boundaries of ‘constructive’ proposals faced severe sanc- tions. For example, as part of the drafting process of the Council of Ministers’ decree on improving the planning and construction of rural settlements, Gosgrazhdanstroi instructed the Institute of the Theory, History and Future Problems of Soviet Architecture to prepare a briefing paper on the issue of rural development. The three researchers charged with this project (Candidate of Architecture E.P. Putintsev, and the architects O.G. Smirnov and O.I. Zhurin) produced a paper – ‘The General Social Preconditions for the Planning and Construction of Rural Settlements’ – that was highly critical of Soviet agricultural practices. They claimed that agricultural production had in fact not risen as the Soviet official sources stated, and that the sovkhozy were far less efficient than kolkhozy. They argued ‘contemporary theory of settlement and the planning of settlements is based upon these theses about the high and growing efficiency of our agricultural production. The time has come for science to speak out about the error of these basic theses’. They suggested that there was only one solution to the problems of the countryside: the restoration of the Russian peasant commune. The authors of the paper were accused of being ‘anti-Marxist’ and Putintsev and Smirnov were purged from the Party. All lost their positions at the Notes 223

Institute, although Smirnov and Zhurin were given planning positions in Gosgrazhdanstroi. APRF f. 5, o. 59, d. 161. 36 ‘Povysit effektivnost kapitalnykh vlozhenii v selskom stroitelstve’, BST, no. 4 (April 1967), 27–9. 37 V.S. Riazanov, ‘Rural Planning and Construction in the USSR’, in World Health Organisation Inter-Regional Seminar on Health and Sanitation Aspects of Town Planning in the USSR (M.: 1968). 38 ‘Vsesoiuznoe soveshchanie po peredovomu opytu raboty peredvizhnykh mekha- nizirovannykh kolonn’, BST, no. 3 (March 1967), 45–6. 39 The president of the architect’s union of Uzbekistan gave an account of rural construction of new sovkhozy. He noted that in the 1960s large apartment blocks with small private plots had been created but the village population had refused to live in them. Later 1 and 2 family units had been built, BST, no. 10 (October 1968), 3–4. 40 In 1968 Stroibank SSSR conducted a check on the quality of rural construction and found it to be of a generally very low level. RGAE f. 7486, o. 1, d. 9171, pp. 184–92. 41 ‘Uluchshit kachestvo selskogo stroitelstva’, BST, no. 4 (April 1969), 26–8. 42 A few critics even challenged the undemocratic way in which policy was implemented. Speaking at a conference in Volgograd in 1966 one speaker suggested ‘the business is this, for reasons unknown to us schemes of raion planning are secret for the rural labourers – they simply liquidate facilities’. Sovershchanie- seminar predstavitelei proektnykh institutov Gosstroi RSFSR po obemu opytom proektirovaniia selskokhoziaistvennogo stroitelstva v zone tsentra i iuga (Volgograd: Gosstroi RSFSR, Rosglavniistroiproekt, 1966). 43 G.P. Maikov, Voprosy planirovki i zastroiki ukrupnennykh selskikh naselennykh mest (primenitelno k usloviiam severnykh oblastei RSFSR), Avtoref. Diss. (Leningrad, 1968). 44 S.A. Kovalev and V.S. Riazanov, ‘Paths of Evolution of Rural Settlements’, from Nauchnye Problemy Geografii Naseleniia (M.: MGU, 1967), trans. in SG, no. 8 (October 1968), 651–64. 45 S.A. Kovalev, ‘Problems in the Soviet Geography of Rural Settlement’, from Geografiia Naseleniia v SSSR (M.: Nauka, 1964), trans. in SG, no. 9 (September 1968), 643–4. 46 Indeed, an important component of many of the studies were suggestions on how to make policy more effective, for example W.S. Ginzburg, ‘A Micro-Geography of Settlement in the Pamir Highlands’, Geografiia Naseleniia i Naselennykh Punktov SSSR (Leningrad: Nauka, 1967), pp. 252–81, trans. in SG XXVII, no. 6 (June 1986), 398–435. 47 Murray Yanowitch, Social and Economic Inequality in the Soviet Union (London: Martin Robinson and Company, 1977), p. 9. 48 Hahn reveals the strong opposition to the idea of radical rural reconstruction. Hahn, op. cit. (1972). 49 Boris Mozhaev, ‘Gde komu zhit’, Lit. Gaz., no. 8 (1968), 10. 50 N. Chetunova, ‘Kakim dome zhit?’, Lit. Gaz., no. 34 (1968), 10. 51 Hahn, op. cit (1972), pp. 200–2. 52 The meeting was attended by B. Mozhaev (a creative writer); P.B. Vainstein (a jour- nalist); A.I. Kukhovarenko (an agronomist); F.N. Fomin (Head of Gosgrazhdanstroi): I.K. Koziulia (First Deputy Minister of Rural Construction); D.F. Dubrovin (Deputy Minister of Agriculture USSR); L.F. Alekseev (Chief Editor of Selskaia Zhizn); V.N. Chuprina (Head of the central directorate of the Ministry of Agriculture USSR); 224 Notes

I.S. Gutsalenno (Head of the rural section of Gosstroi RSFSR); and members of the editorial committee of Literaturnaia Gazeta, ‘Kak zastraivat nashe selo, Lit. Gaz., no. 12 (20 March 1968), 1. 53 G.N. Fomin, Selskaia Zhizn (5 and 6 June 1968); P.B. Vainstein, Selskaia Zhizn (7 June 1968); and A.F. Dubrovin, ‘Derevnia stroitsia’, Lit. Gaz. (17 April 1968), 10. 54 In the September 1968 decree on construction in the villages the radical rhetoric of rural transformation was largely absent and the timetable for rural reconstruction had slowed. 55 ‘Soveshchanie-seminar po obmenu opytom raboty po pereustroistvu sel i dereven’, BST, no. 9 (September 1968), pp. 5–8; and Karl-Eugen Wädekin, ‘The Countryside’, Problems of Communism, XVIII (May–June 1969), pp. 15–18. 56 Pereustroistvo selskikh naselennykh mest v svete reshenii XXIII Sezda KPSS: Materialy soveshaniia-seminare (Minsk, Iiul 1968) (M.: Stroiizdat., 1969). 57 ‘… Itogakh i rekomendatsiiakh soveshchaniia-seminar po obemu opytom raboty po perestroistvu sel i dereven v svete reshenie XXIII sezda KPSS so cpravkami otdela …’, APRF. f. 5, o. 60, d. 206. The recommendations of the conference that were sent to the Central Committee and the Council of Ministers were signed by the leaders of the rural development policy community: I. Novikov (Minister of Construction), S. Khitrov (Minister of Rural Construction), V. Matskevich (Minister of Agriculutre), G. Fomin (Head of Gosgraxhdanstroi), Ia. Zhemerov, S. Sukhin and A. Tiutiunnikov. 58 ‘Vazhneishie zadachi razvitiia selskogo stroitelstva’, BST, no. 9 (September 1968), 1–5. 59 Chetunova, op. cit., Lit. Gaz., no. 34 (1968), 10. 60 Although the leadership of the policy community was on the defensive, the conference was also designed to harness criticism to improve the planning and imple- mentation of rural policy. Gosstroi used the conference to introduce revised rural planning documents prepared by the sector for the planning of small settlement places, headed by V. Riazanov, of Gosgrazhdanstroi. ‘Instruktsii po razrabotke proektov planirovki i zastroiki selskikh naselennykh mest (SN 000-68)/proekt’ and ‘Instruktsiia po sostavleniiu skhem raionnoi planirovki selskokhoziastvennykh raionov’, in Materialy k Vsesoiuznomu sovershchaniiu-seminaru po obemu opytom raboty po pereustroistvy sel i dereven v svete reshenii XXIII Sezda KPSS (M.: Gosstroi, 1968). 61 ‘Vazhneishie zadachi razvitiia selskogo stroitelstva’, BST, no. 9 (September 1968), 1–5. 62 ‘O uporiadochenii stroitelstva na sele’, BST, no. 12 (December 1968), pp. 7–10. 63 At the October 1968 Central Committee Plenum Brezhnev secured a significant rise in investment for agriculture, restoring cuts that had been made to the 1965 programme following the record harvest of 1966. ‘O khode vypolneniia reshenii XXIII Sezda i plenumov TsK KPSS po voprosam selskogo khoziaistva. Doklad Generalnogo Sektretaria TsK KPSS Tov. L. I. Brezhnev na plenume TsK KPSS, 30 Okt. 1968g’, Pravda (31 October 1968). See also Pravda (11 December 1968). 64 ‘Soveshchanie-seminar po obmenu opytom raboty po pereustroistvu sel i dereven’, BST, no. 9 (September 1968), 5–8. In February 1968 the Minister of Rural Construction USSR, S. Khitrov, wrote to the Council of Ministers USSR pointing out the ‘major shortcomings’ of rural construction. Minselstroi had prepared a draft decree to tackle some of the difficulties that faced rural construction. Khitrov called on the Council of Ministers to examine the draft decree and take the ‘appropriate decision’. ‘Proekty postanovleniia TsK KPSS Soveta Ministrov SSSR O merakh po dalneishemu uluchsheniiu organizatsii i povysheniiu tekhnicheskogo Notes 225

urovnia selskogo stroitelstva’ RGAE f. 7486, o. 1, d. 9170, pp. 94–6. These recommendations formed the basis of the September 1968 decree on the Soviet village. 65 Chetunova, op. cit., Lit. Gaz., no. 55 (30 August 1967), 10.

6 The Formation of the Policy Community: Rural Architects

1 Stuart S. Blume, ‘Policy as Theory: a Framework for Understanding the Contribution of Social Science to Welfare Policy’, Acta Sociologica, vol. 20, 3 (1977), 247–62; Giandomenico Majone, ‘Policies as Theories’, Omega, vol. 8 (1980), 151–62. 2 Demographic studies also had an important affect on rural policy. For a useful description of the destruction and reconstitution of demography and its institutions see Dmitry Shelestov, Demography in the Mirror of History, trans. Paula Garb (M.: Progress, 1987). 3 See S. Frederick Starr, ‘The Revival and Schism of Urban Planning in Twentieth Century Russia’, in op. cit., Hamm (1976), pp. 222–42; James A. Bater, The Soviet City: Ideal and Reality (London: Edward Arnold, 1980), pp. 20–6; and William C. Brumfield, ed., Reshaping Russian Architecture: Western Technology, Utopian Dreams (Cambridge: Woodrow Wilson Center for Scholars and Cambridge University Press, 1990). 4 For histories of rural architecture and planning in the 1920s and 1930s see V.N. Kalmykova, ‘Proidennyi put, chapter in Arkhitektura sovetskogo sela (M.: Stroiizdat, 1975), pp. 11–100; I.A. Vinshu, Arkhitekturno-planirovochnaia organizatsiia selskikh naselennykh punktov (M.: 1986), pp. 6–18; and the section ‘Selskaia arkhitektura’, in Bolshaia Sovetskaia Entsiklopediia 38 (M.: 2nd edn, 1955), pp. 424–9. 5 V.P. Moiseenko, Kollektivnoe zhilishche na Ukraine 1923–1933 gg. (Kiev: 1967). 6 I.I. Verezubov, Blagoustroistvo selenii i kooperatsiia (M.: Novaia Derevnia, 1925) and E.A. Bratin, Planirovka i zastroika selenii (M.: Narkomzdrava, 1927). In the 1920s and 1930s Ukraine led the way in rural planning. G.E. Stelmakh, Istoricheskoe razvitie selskikh poselenii na ukraine istoriko-ethnograficheskoe issledovanie, Avtoref. Diss. na Soisk. Uchen. Step. Doktora Istoricheskikh Nauk (Kiev: 1969). 7 It was the plans for two of these state farms – ‘Gigant’ and ‘Zernograd’ in Rostov Oblast – which gave birth to the notion of the agrogorod. See the section ‘Arkhitektura kolkhoznogo sela’ in Problemy arkhitektury 1, book 2 (M.: Vsesoiuznoi Akad. Arkh., 1936). 8 Kovler, op. cit. (1932); Vasilchenko, op. cit. (1940); and Marzeev, op. cit. (1941). 9 In 1929 the Scientific-Research Centre for the Organisation of Agricultural Territory (VNIIOT) and the State Scientific-Research Institute for Planning Agricultural Construction (Giproselkhoz), attached to the People’s Commissariat for Land Planning (Narkomzem), were created. In 1934 the Academy of Architecture created the Office of Agricultural Architecture. M.S. Osmolovskii, ‘Selskaia arkhitektura za 50 let sovetskoi vlasti,’ in Planirovka i zastroika selskikh naselennykh mest, eds. M.S. Osmolovskii and V.M. Stern (M.: Moskovskii Institut Inzhenerov Zemleustroistva, Nauchnye Trudy, no. 46, 1968), p. 3. Both institutes were involved in developing the first standard plans and technical specifications for rural construction. See for example, Albom proektov dlia kolkhozov (M.: Knigsoiuz, 1929). 10 A.F. Zhukov, Arkhitektura vsesoiuznoi selskokhoziaistvennoi vystavki 1939 g. (M.: Vsesoiuznoi Akademii Arkhitektury, 1939), p. 68. 11 M. Ginzburg, Uzlobye voprosy selskoi arkhitektury (M.: 1974). 12 Kovler, op. cit. (1932). 226 Notes

13 Vasilchenko, op. cit. (1940), p. 5. 14 Vinshu, op. cit. (1986), pp. 7–18. 15 The fact that many architects gained their formative experiences during the radical period of the 1930s may be one of the main reasons why rural development took such a radical form in the 1950s. 16 In 1934–35, while working for Narkomzem, Osmolovskii led the brigade that produced the plan for one of the first agrotowns in the kolkhoz Kirov in Kabardino- Balkarii ASSR. In 1939, working with N. Kolli and L. Budenyi, he also organised the first all-union conference on village architecture. This conference had a formative influence on Soviet rural architecture. V. Riazanov, ‘Arkhitektor M.S. Osmolovskii’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 6 (June 1974), 36–8. In the early 1940s, Osmolovskii was employed in a planning institute of the People’s Committee for State Farms and while here, he drafted the first comprehensive guidelines for rural planning. M.S. Osmolovskii, Osnovnye pravila zastroiki i blagoustroistva zhilykh poselkov v sovkhozakh Narkomsovkhozov (M.: Sovkhozstroiproekt, 1941). 17 Planirovka i Stroitelstvo Kolkhozov, Sovkhozov i MTS. Materialy Sozvannogo Soiuzom Sovetskikh Arkhitektorov Sovmestno s Narkomzemom, Narkomsovkhozov i Akademiei Arkhitektury SSSR (M.: 1940). 18 M.S. Osmolovskii, Osnovnyi pravila po planirovke i zastroike selenii kolkhozov, MTS i sovkhozov v osvobozhdennykh ot okkupatsii raionakh (M.: Gos. Arkh. Izdat., 1944), with a print run of 7000 copies; and M.S. Osmolovskii and B.V. Kazimirov, Vremennaia instruktsiia po planirovke i zastroike selskhikh naselennykh mest (Razrabot. otd. planirovki i zastroiki selskikh. mest kom-ta po delam arkhitektury pri Sovete Ministrov SSSR. Ust. 23/4/1946) (M.: Gos. Arkh. Izdat., 1946) with 30 000 copies printed. 19 The members of the section were drawn from a range of architectural and planning organisations: M.S. Osmolovskii (The Committee for Architecture of the Council of People’s Commissars USSR); B.V. Kazimirov (The Committee for Architecture of the Council of People’s Commissars RSFSR); Iu. M. Martinov and K.F. Kniazev (The Academy of Architecture); V.I. Nikandrov (The Rural Construction Planning Institute – selkhstroiproekt – of the People’s Commissariat for Land). Riazanov was also a member. It was members of this group of architects who dominated rural architecture until the early 1970s. 20 RGALI f. 674, o. 2, d. 143, Protokoly zasedanie sektsii selsko-khoziaistvennoi arkhitek- turi pri pravlenie SSA. Protokoly obsuzhdenie osnovnykh pravil po planirovke i zastroike selenii kolkhozov, MTS and sovkhozov v osvobozhdennykh ot okkupatsii raionakh. 21 RGALI f. 674, o. 2, d. 236. Protokoly zasedaniia sektsii selsko-khoziaistvennoi arkhitektury (11 Dek. 1945). Obsuzhdenie knigi ‘Planirovka i blagoustroistvo kolkhoznogo sela’. The authors of this book were two members of the section: Iu. Martynov and K.F. Kniazev. 22 RGALI f. 674, o. 2, d. 236. Stenogramma zasedaniia sektsii selsko-khoziastvennoi arkhitektury po obsuzhdeniiu proektov kolkhoznogo zhilishchnogo stroitelstva, vypol- nennykh po zakazu komiteta po delam arkhitektury (16 Apr. 1946), p. 55 and Stenogramma zasedaniiaselsko-khoziastvennoi arkhitektury sovmestno s sektsei teorii i kritiki MOSSA po obsuzhdeniiu proektov zastroiki ordera lenina sovkhoza ‘Karavaevo’ (14 Fevral. 1945), pp. 68–84. 23 The most important wartime conference on rural reconstruction was the conference for the architectural renewal (vosstanovlenie) of collective farms in 1944. RGALI f. 674, o. 2, d. 124, pp. 14–62. 24 RGALI f. 674, o. 2, d. 143, pp. 13–18. Notes 227

25 RGALI f. 674, o. 2, d. 124, p. 6, ‘O zadachakh sovetskikh arkhitektorov po vosstanovlen- lomu stroitelstvu v kolkhozakh v svete vypolneniia ukazaniia M.I. Kalinin’. 26 M.S. Osmolovskii, Planirovka, zastroika i blagoustroistvo kolkhoznykh selenii (v pori- adke obsuzhdeniia) (Upravlenie po delam arkhitektury pri Sovete Ministrov BSSR K sovershchaniiu v TsK KP(b) po voprosam kolkhoznogo stroitelstva v Beloruskoi SSR) (Minsk: Gos. Izdat. BSSR, 1951). 27 RGALI f. 674, o. 2, d. 143, pp. 48–53. The main elements of the approach to rural planning were set out in a meeting of the group in 1947 in which eight theses on planning and construction of rural places were set out by B.V. Kazimirov. ‘Tezisy doklada “Arkhitekturniia praktika proektirovaniia selskikh naselennykh mest”’. 28 It was from this nucleus of architects that rural architecture grew in the 1950s. One of the foremost was V. Riazanov, who planned the reconstruction of the village Nekrasii in Kalinin Oblast. ‘Arkhitektor V.S. Riazanov’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 12 (December 1971), 46–7. 29 See N. Ia. Koppli’s report at the Union of Architects meeting on rural construction in December 1944. Stenogramma tvorcheskogo sovershchaniia po voprosam selskogo i kolkhoznogo stroitelstva (M.: Soiuz Sovetskikh Arkhitektorov, 1944); M. Ostapenko, Planirovka i zastroika selskikh naselennykh mest USSR (Kiev: 1946); and Kazimirov, Lesov, Shaposhnikov, op. cit. (1949). 30 ‘Poiski progressivnykh struktur agroposelenii’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 9 (September 1973), 45–8. 31 Architects were closely involved in the planning of new villages in several parts of the USSR. M.S. Osmolovskii, V.S. Riazanov, Iu. M. Martynov, N.Z. Levinskii and T.K. Liutivinskaia, Soobshchenie Postoiannoi Komissii po Arkhitekture Selskikh Zdanii i Sooruzhenii, Planirovke i Zastroike Selskikh Naselennykh Mest (M.: 1967), p. 9. 32 RGALI f. 674, o. 2, d. 273/4/5. Stenogramma mezhrespublikanskogo tvorcheskogo sovershchanie po voprosam planirovki, arkhitektury i blagoustroistva kolkhoznykh selenii, gorod Minsk 23–25 Apr. 1948. 33 Osnovnyi polozheniia po planirovki i zastroike kolkhoznykh selenii oroshaemykh raionov Rostovskoi Oblasti (1950); Albom proektov selskogo i kolkhoznogo stroitelstva (M.: Gos. Arkh. Izdat., 1950); Rukovodstvo po planirovke selskikh naselennykh mest (Kolkhozov, MTS i Sovkhozov) (1951); and Proekt pravila po planirovke i zastroike kolkhoznykh selenii (1951). 34 RGALI f. 674, d. 3, o. 1684, ‘O podgotovke vsesoiuznogo sovershchanie po arkhitekture i stroitelstvu v ukrupnennykh kolkhozakh’. 35 The most important advocate of developing rural areas was Osmolovskii. See his book on the rural development experience of Belorussia: M.S. Osmolovskii, Planirovka, zastroika i blagoustroistvo kolkhoznykh selenii (Minsk: Gos. Izdat. BSSR, 1951). Scattered examples of the work of other rural architects could also be found outside the European areas of the USSR. N.A. Sarkisov, ‘Kolkhoznyi kluby dlia selskikh raionov Azerbaizhanskoi SSR’ (Baku: Azerbaizhanskii Politekhnicheskii Institut Kafedra Arkhitekturnogo Proektirovaniia, 1951). RGAE f. 293, o. 3, d. 295. 36 Osmolovskii was an academic supervisor for all the leading architectural students of the period: N.E. Schmidt, Ozelenenie kolkhoznykh sel, Diss. na Soisk. Uch. Step. Kand. Arkh. (M.: Akademiia Arkhitektury SSSR Nauchno-Issledovatelskii Institut Selskogo i Kolkhoznogo Stroitelstva, 1952); V.S. Riazanov, Voprosy arkhitekturno- planirovochnoi rekonstruktsii kolkhoznykh selenii (po materialam evropeiskoi chasti RSFSR), Diss. na Soisk. Uch. Step. Kand. Arkh. (M.: Akad. Arkh. SSSR NII Sel. i Kolkh. Stroit., 1953); A.S. Peremyslov, Voprosy razvitie arkhitektury kolkhoznogo sela v poslevoennyi period, Diss. na Soisk. Uch. Step. Kand. Arkh. (M.: Akad. Arkh. SSSR NII Sel. i Kolkh. Stroit., 1953); D.A. Zhmudskii, Planirovka kolkhoznykh selenii v raionakh 228 Notes

stroitelstva krupnykh gidroelektrostantsii, Diss. na Soisk. Uch. Step. Kand. Arkh. (M.: Akad. Arkh. SSSR NII Arkh. Sel. Zdanii i Sooruzhenii, 1954); N.P. Dikii, Planirovka i zastroika usadeb zernovykh sovkhozov, Diss. na Soisk. Uch. Step. Kand. Arkh. (M.: Akademiia Stroitelstva i Arkhitektury SSSR, 1956). 37 V.S. Riazanov, N.E. Shmidt, D.A. Zhmudskii, Planirovka selskikh naselennykh mest (M.: 1954). 38 K. Ivanov, ‘O materialisticheskoi ponimanii prirody i spetsifiki arkhitektury’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 10 (October 1955), 32. 39 G. Gradov, ‘Sovetskuiu arkhitekturu na uroven novykh zadach’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 2 (February 1955), 7–8; ‘Razvivat tvorcheskuiu kritiky i samokritiky’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 6 (June 1955). 40 ‘Kompleksnost issledovanii – glavnoe v razvitii arkhitekturno-stroitelnoi nauki’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 3 (March 1954), 38–40. 41 Stenogramma zasedanii 12oi Sessii Akademii Arkhitektury SSSR (12 Ian. 1954). RGAE f. 293, o. 1, d. 547 and 548. 42 ‘XII Sessiia Akademii Arkhitekturu SSSR’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 3 (March 1954), 38–40. 43 ‘XVI Plenum Pravleniia Soiuza Sovetskikh Arkhitektorov SSSR’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 8 (August 1954), 39–40. 44 M. Osmolovskii, ‘Nasushchnye zadachi planirovki i zastroiki kolkhoznykh sel’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 2 (February 1954), 17–21. 45 Arkh. SSSR, no. 1 (January 1956). 46 The Institute of Rural Architecture had become part of the Academy of Construction and Architecture in 1954. 47 Led by V. Riazanov, and consisting of D. Zhmudskii, T. Liutivinskaia and N. Shmidt, most of the group had begun work on rural issues in the postwar period under Osmolovskii’s guidance. See also note 36. 48 Osmolovskii notes that planning only really got going after the December 1959 Plenum but indicates that up to 1959, he had discussed the issue extensively within the Central Committee and Government. RGALI f. 864, o. 4, d. 200, p. 34. 49 The idea of the concentration of investment was developed in the planning institute, Mosoblproekt. RGALI f. 74, o. 3, d. 1703, p. 7. 50 The experience of rural planning and construction as part of the Virgin Lands scheme fed back directly into rural architecture in the late 1950s. N. Dikii, ‘Opyt planirovki i zastroiki tsentralnykh usadeb novykh zernovykh sovkhozov v severnom Kazakhstane’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 5 (May 1957), 31–5; and ‘Planirovka i stroitelstvo novykh zernovykh sovkhozov,’ Arkh. SSSR, no. 2 (February 1955), p. 48. From the mid- 1950s architects began to draft plans for new agro-industrial centres. V. Alimov, V. Riazanov and N. Shmidt, ‘Stroitelstvo v kolkhoze “Rossiia” Stavropolskogo Kraia’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 6 (June 1958), 55–62; and P. Volchok, ‘Gorodok sovkhoz “Zaria Kommunizma’”, Arkh. SSSR, no. 1 (January 1962), 37–41. 51 Architects were also used to support Khrushchev’s vision, with articles on rural reconstruction appearing at strategic times. Ia. Kravchuk, ‘Cherty goroda budushchego’, Izvestiia (2 December 1959), 3. 52 Liashchenko and Riazanov, op. cit. (1958). 53 In 1961 the Union of Architects in Kazakhstan was strongly criticised for not planning ‘a single serious measure to help rural construction and not even par- ticipating in the conferences on rural construction in Tselinograd and Alma-Ata’. ‘Tretii Vsessoiuznyi Sezd Sovetskikh Arkhitektorov’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 7 (June 1961), 10–11. 54 Ruble, op. cit. (1981), p. 35. Notes 229

55 ‘Tretii Vsessoiuznyi Sezd Sovetskikh Arkhitektorov’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 7 (July 1961), 10–11. 56 ‘Zadachi arkhitektorov po dalneishemu uluchsheniiu selskogo stroitelstva v svete reshenii XXII Sezda KPSS (materialy IV Plenuma Pravleniia Soiuza Arkhitektorov SSSR, 17–19 Dek. 1963g.), Soiuz Arkhitektorov SSSR Informatsionnyi Biulleten’, no. 19 (M.: Stroiizdat, 1965), p. 214. 57 ‘Zadachi arkhitektorov …’ op. cit. (1965), pp. 10–11. 58 With the abolition of the Academy of Architecture and Construction, Osmolovskii became the President of the Commission for Rural Construction of the Governing Council of the Union of Architects, and Riazanov moved to head the raion planning section of TsNIIEPgradostroitelstvo, the main research- planning institute of Gosgrazhdanstroi. 59 Riazanov also noted that the meeting was convened on instructions from the Governing Council of the UA and on the request of the construction section of the Central Committee of the CPSU. Stenogramma sovershchaniia po voprosam planirovki sel. nas. mest. (13 January 1964). Archive of the Russian Union of Architects f. 5, d. 96, p. 10. 60 V.N. Belousov, V.V. Vladimirov, E.E. Leizerovich, N.I. Naimark and D.G. Khodzhaev, Komplekshaia raionnaia planirovka, (Moscow: Stroiizdat, 1960). 61 In 1964 a team led by V.S. Riazanov produced ‘Rekomendatsii po sostavleniiu skhem planirovki selskokhoziaistvennykh raionov’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 5 (May 1964), 62. V.S. Riazanov, Metodika vybora perspektivnykh poselkov kolkhozov i sovkhozov (M.: TsNIIIPgrad., 1966); and V.S. Riazanov, ‘Metodika vybora poselkov kolkhozov i sovkhozov dlia perspektivnogo razvitiia’, in Sovershchanie-seminar predstavitelei proektnykh institutov Gosstroi RSFSR po obemu opytom proektirovaniia selskhoziaistvennogo stroitelstva v zone tsentra i iuga (Volgograd: Gosstroi RSFSR, Rosglavniistroiproekt, 1966), pp. 5–7. 62 Gosstroi RSFSR, Obobshchenie opyta i rekomendatsii po naibolee ratsionalnoi planirove i zastroike selskikh naselennykh punktov sovkhozov i kolkhozov RSFSR (M.: 1966). This booklet stated that the RSFSR was to have a list of all the viable settlements in the Republic by 1968 and was an attempt to generalise the work of Riazanov et al. 63 Belousov et al., op. cit. (1960). It was from this literature that the first signs of the difficulties that the rural programme would be facing began to emerge. Various authors pointed out that the general principles that had been worked out for raion planning were often inappropriate for many local conditions. V. Riazanov and N. Solofenko, ‘O printsipakh planirovki selskokhoziaistvennykh raionov’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 7 (July 1964), 22–4. 64 Riazanov, op. cit. (1966). In Ukraine it was decided that all villages with a population of less than 1000 should be liquidated and their populations moved to strengthened settlements with 8–12 000 residents. M.A. Zhembrovskoi, ‘O razmer- akh budushchikh poselkov kolkhozov i sovkhozov Ukrainskoi SSSR’, in Planirovka selskikh naselennykh mest (Kiev: Budivelnik, 1964). 65 V.I. Kopyrin, ‘Gradostroitelnye voprosy rasseleniia i pereustroistva i planirovki selskikh naselennykh mest (na primerakh zapadnykh oblastei Evropeiskoi Chasti RSFSR)’ Diss. na Sois. Uch. Step. Kand. Arkh. (M.: Moskovskii Arkhitekturnyi Institut, 1966); A.E. Balyko, ‘Osobennosti formirovaniia i rekonstruktsii selskikh naselennykh mest Belorusskoi SSR’, Diss. na Sois. Uch. Step. Kand. Arkh. (Minsk: Belorusskii Politekhnicheskii Institut, 1971); G.P. Maikov, ‘Voprosy planirovki i zastroike ukrupnennykh selskikh naselennykh mest (primenitelno k usloviiam severnykh oblastei RSFSR)’, Diss. na Sois. Uch. Step. Kand. Arkh. (Leningrad: Leningradskii Inzhenerno- Stroitelnyi Institut, 1968). 230 Notes

66 ‘Puti dalneishego uluchsheniia podgotovki i ispolzovaniia arkhitekturnykh kadrov v narodnom khoziaistve (materialy soveshchaniia)’, Soiuz Arkhitektorov SSSR Informatsionnyi Biulleten, no. 9 (M.: Stroiizdat, 1965). 67 Mikhailov, op. cit., p. 133. 68 Zadachi arkhitektorov po dalneishemu uluchsheniiu selskogo stroitelstva v svete reshenii XXII Sezda KPSS: Materialy IV Plenuma Pravleniia Soiuza Arkhitektorov SSSR (17– 19 December 1963), Informatsionnyi Biulleten 7: Soiuz Arkhitektorov SSSR (M.: Stroiizdat., 1965); Rol arkhitektorov v reshenii zadachi pereustroistva selskikh naselennykh mest, Materialy VII Plenuma Pravleniia Soiuza Arkhitektorov SSSR (9–12 October 1968), Informatsionnyi Biulleten 19: Soiuz Arkhitektorov SSSR (M.: Stroiizdat., 1969). 69 A. Kondukhov, ‘Voprosy planirovki i zastroiki sel (po materialam konkursa)’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 1 (January 1969), 53–8. 70 Archive of the Russian Union of Architects f. 5, o. 99, d. 890–95. Stenographic report of the meeting of the Committee for the Creative Questions of Planning Settlements of Sovkhozy and Kolkhozy (28–29 March 1967). 71 Archive of the Russian Union of Architects f. 5, o. 100, d. 896. pp. 154–72. 72 ‘Problemy arkhitektury sela’, Soiuz Arkhitektorov Ukrainy (materialy V plenum Soiuza Arkhitektorov Ukrainy Apr. 1968) (Kiev: Budivelnik, 1970) and ‘Kakim dolzhno byt podmoskovnoe selo?’ Arkh. SSSR, no. 6 (June 1968), 48–9. 73 T.M. Orlov, the First Secretary of the Governing Council of the UA, called for architects to play a central role in the programme of rural transformation. T.M. Orlov, ‘O povyshenii tvorcheskoi aktivnosti arkhitektorov v reshenii zadach pereustroistva sela’, in Pereustroistvo selskikh naselennykh mest v svete reshenii XXII Sezda KPSS: Materialy soveshchaniia-seminare (Minsk: Stroiizdat., 1968), pp. 221–33. 74 RGAE f. 7486, o. 1, d. 9244. 75 Archive of the Russian Union of Architects f. 5, o. 100, d. 907 ‘Rekomendatsii koordi- nationogo sovershchaniia rukovoditelei sektsii selskoi arkhitektury respublikanskikh soiuzov i otdelenii RSFSR’ (M.: 13–14 Fev. 1969). 76 M.S. Osmolovskii, ‘Rol arkhitektorov v reshenii zadachi pereustroistva selskikh naselennykh mest (materialy VII Plenuma Pravleniia Soiuza Arkhitektorov SSSR, 9–12 Okt. 1968 g.), Soiuz Arkhitektorov SSSR Informatsionnyi Biulleten’, no. 19 (M.: Stroiizdat., 1969), p. 110. 77 B.P. Balezin, Pravovoi rezhim zemel selskikh naselennykh punktov (M.: MGU, 1972). 78 For example, the series Nauchno-tekhnicheskii tematicheskii sbornik ‘V pomosh proektirovshchiku-gradostroitelstvo’, produced by Gosgrazhdanstroi of the Ukraine. See particulary ‘Planirovka i zastroika selskikh naselennykh mest’, no. 1 (Kiev: Budivelnik, 1968); ‘Voprosy rasseleniia i formirovaniia naselennykh mest’, no. 3 (Kiev: Budivelnik, 1971); and ‘Planirovka i zastroika selskikh naselennykh mest’, no. 8 (Kiev: Budivelnik, 1971). 79 For example, Vsesoiuznoe sovershchanie-seminar po eksperimentalno-pokazatelnomu stroitelstvu poselkov sovkhozov i kolkhozov (Kiev: Oktiabr’ 1971) (M.: 1972). 80 Gosstroi UzSSR i Soiuz Arkhitektorov Uzbekistana, Rekomendatsii respublikanskogo seminara-soveshchaniia po kompleksnomu pereustroistvu sel v svete reshenii Iiulskogo (1978g.) Plenuma Tsk KPSS i X Plenuma Tsk KP Uzbekistana (Tashkent: Gosstroi UzSSR, 1979). 81 Archive of the Russian Union of Architects f. 5, o. 101, d. 913. 82 G. Kazantsev, ‘Seminar po proektirovaniiu sel RSFSR’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 11 (November 1974), 60–1. 83 A.N. Kondukhov, ‘Osnovy arkhitekturno-planirovochnoi struktury poselkov kolkhozov, sovkhozov i drugikh selskokhoziaistvennykh predpriiatii (s naseleniem do 4 tr. zhitelei), Diss. na Sois. Uch. Step. Kand. Arkh. (M.: 1977). Notes 231

84 For example, in order to assist in policy development for the Non-Black-Earth Zone, an expert commission was established in 1974 as part of the rural architectural commission. The members of the commission included geographers and sociologists. The point of view that they suggested on rural issues was very different from the assumptions that had informed the original planning documents on rural settlements, notably the complex way in which rural settlement was viewed. 85 Archive of the Russian Union of Architects f. 5, d. 101, pp. 908–15. Stenographic report of the conference on rural construction, 5 February 1970, p. 9. 86 A notable exception was L.A. Krants who was in charge of section for rural planning of the commission for rural architecture and co-authored some of the public articles with Khorev and Belenkii, two of the leading critics of Soviet policies toward the villages in the 1970s, that appeared in popular publications. 87 I. Medovoia, ‘Plenum Pravleniia Soiuza Arkhitektorov’, Sovetskaia Kultura (25 December 1978), 2. 88 G.N. Rogozin, ‘Ukrainskoe selo vchera, segodnia i zavtra’, and Z.V. Moiseenko, ‘Napravlennost’ razvitiia selskikh zhilykh domov,’ in Stroitelstvo i Arkhitektura (the journal of Gosstroi and the Union of Architects of Ukraine), no. 6 (June 1978), 14–16 and 17–19; L.M. Staviskaia, ‘Uchet mneniia naseleniia pri pereustroistve sel’, Stroitelstvo i Arkhitektura, no. 8 (August 1978), 18–19. 89 Arkhitektura sela i tvorcheskie zadachi arkhitektorov: IX Plenum Pravleniia SA SSSR (Moskva 20–21 Dek. 1979) (M.: Soiuz Arkhitektorov SSSR, 1980). F. Vyshkind criticised the construction industry for building houses that were simply boxes (korobki) ‘Ob organichnosti arkhitektury industrialnykh domov dlia sela’, Arkh. SSSR., no. 4 (1982), 51–3. Even V. Magidin, Deputy President of the Commission for the Architecture of the Village, was forced to concede that there was a certain tension between industrial construction and the specific needs of rural architecture, ‘Industrializatsiia selskogo zhilishcha: Problemy svoebraziia’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 4 (1982), 41. 90 Petrova, op. cit. (1985). 91 K. Kolodin, ‘Derevnia soprotivliatsia’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 6 (November–December 1989), 80–7; Andrei Prokhorenko and Valerii Mostovich, ‘Vozvrashchenie k istokam’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 2 (February 1991), 22–5.

7 The Expansion of Participation: Geographers, Sociologists and Writers

1 S.V. Kalesnik and I.P. Gerasimov, ‘The Geographic Society: Its Past, Present and Future’, SG, VI, no. 3 (March 1965), 3; and A.A. Grigoryev, ‘Russian Geography’, in Soviet Geography: Accomplishments and Tasks, ed. Chauncy Harris (New York: American Geographic Society, 1962), pp. 9–13. 2 Kalesnik and Gerasimov, op. cit. (1965), p. 5. 3 O.A. Konstantinov, ‘On the Thirtieth Anniversary of the Department of Economic Geography of the Geographical Society USSR’, SG, VI, no. 7 (September 1965), 8. 4 Ian M. Matley, ‘The Marxist Approach to the Geographical Environment’, Annals: Association of American Geographers, vol. 56, no. 1 (1966), 97–111. 5 Istoriia Vsesoiuznoi Kommunisticheskoi Partii (Bolshevikov) (M.: Gospolitizdat, 1942), p. 113. 6 In 1945, the State publishing house for geographic literature (Geografgiz) began to operate. Of particular importance was the publication from 1946 of a series of 232 Notes

books entitled ‘Questions of Geography’ (Voprosy Geografiia) that consisted of collections of articles, often on human geography. The series was published by the Moscow branch of the Geography Society, on the initiative of the father of Soviet economic geography, N.N. Baranskii. 7 Harris, op. cit. (1962). 8 V.V. Pokshishevskii, ‘Geografiia naseleniia i naselennykh punktov’, in Sovetskaia Geografiia: Itogi i zadachi, ed. I. Gerasimov (M.: Gosizdatgeoglit., 1960), pp. 232–42. 9 R.M. Kabo, ‘Priroda i naselenie v ikh vzaimodeistvii kak predmet geografii’, Voprosy Geografii, no. 5 (M.: 1947), 5–32. Even before the war, Kabo had attacked the orthodoxy that had suppressed geography from the end of the 1920s. R.M. Kabo, ‘Elementy geograficheskogo izucheniia naseleniia SSSR’, Geografiia v Shkole, no. 3 (1941). 10 Foremost amongst these pioneering studies was Pokshishevskii’s doctoral dissertation. V.V. Pokshishevskii, ‘The Geography of Population Movement in Russia’ (M.: 1949). 11 O.A. Konstantinov, ‘125 Years of the Geographical Society’, SG, XXII, no. 4 (April 1971), 226–37. 12 B.S. Khorev, ‘Obzor raboty Komissii Geografii Naseleniia i Gorodov Moskovskogo Filiala Geograficheskogo Obshchestva Soiuza SSSR (1945–1957gg.)’, Voprosy Geografii, no. 45 (1959), 227–45. 13 O.A. Konstantinov, ‘The History of the Formation of a Geography of Cities as a Separate Sub-field of Geography in the USSR’, Materialy po geografii naseleniia, no. 1 (Leningrad: Leningrad Geographical Society, 1962), 109–51. 14 Iu. G. Saushkin, ‘Geograficheskoe izuchenie selskikh naselennykh punktov Sovetskogo Soiuza’, Voprosy Geografii 5 (M.: 1947), 53–66; S.A. Kovalev, ‘Voprosy terminologii v geograficheskom izuchenii selskogo rasselenia’, Voprosy Geografii, 14 (M.: 1949), 29–42; and ‘Ob ekonomiko-geograficheskom polozhenii selskikh poselenii i ego izuchenii’, Voprosy Geografii, 41 (M.: 1957), 134–76. See also Khorev, op. cit. (1959), pp. 232–4 and Abraham Melezin, ‘Trends and Issues in the Soviet Geography of Population’, Annals: Association of American Geographers, vol. 53 (1963), 155–6. 15 Pokshishevskii attributes the development of population geography to a range of ‘negative’ factors, including restrictions on industrial and agriculture data, which left population geography as virtually the only area for which some quantitative data was available. V.V. Pokshishevskii, Geografiia Naseleniia v SSSR (M.: VIINTI, 1966). Konstantinov, on the other hand, argues there was an ‘inner logic’ to population geography’s development. O.A. Konstantinov, ‘Some Results of the 2nd National Interagency Conference on Population Geography’, SG, VIII, no. 8 (October 1967), 652–60 and ‘Controversial Aspects of Population Geography’, SG, VIII, no. 8 (October 1967), 669–73. 16 Iu. Saushkin, op. cit., SG, VII, no. 10 (October 1966), 50. 17 In 1956, Gosplan and Gosstroi invited geographers at Moscow University to join several research institutes in studying the rational geographic location of the construction industry. Iu. Saushkin, ‘An Introductory Lecture to 1st Year Geography Students’, SG, VII, no. 12 (December 1966), 54. 18 The contract system involved state agencies contracting research projects to university departments. A.M. Ryabchikov, ‘Geography at Moscow University Over the Last 50 years (1917–67)’, SG, IX (1968), 347–58. 19 In 1961, the Academy of Construction and Architecture employed 262 specialists; of these, 42 were geographers, the only group that was bigger being chemists. RGAE f. 339, o. 3, d. 1291. In 1963 the Department of Geography at Moscow Notes 233

University graduated 144 students; 70 (49 per cent) were assigned to government planning and production organisations. I.F. Antonova, ‘Placement of Moscow University Geography Graduates’, SG, V, no. 1 (January 1964), 60. 20 See the career profiles of Soviet geographers in SG, XVIII, no. 7 (October 1977) and XXIX, no. 3 (March 1988). 21 I.P. Gerasimov, ‘A Book About the Origins and an Article about the Prospects of Constructive Geography in the Soviet Union’, SG, V, no. 2 (February 1964), 51–6; ‘The Past and Future of Geography’, SG, 7, no. 7 (September 1966), 3–14; ‘Constructive Geography: Aims, Methods and Results’, SG, IX, no. 9 (November 1968), 739–55; and I. Gerasimov, ‘Geografiia na novykh rubezhakh’, Pravda (22 October 1972). 22 I.P. Gerasimov, ‘Geography in the Soviet Union’, in op. cit., Harris (1962), p. 1. 23 D.J.M. Hooson, ‘Methodological Clashes in Moscow’, Annals: Association of American Geographers, vol. 52 (1962), 469–75. 24 Matley, op. cit. (1966), p. 106. 25 ‘L.F. Ilichev’s Remarks About a Unified Geography’, SG, V, no. 4 (April 1964), 32–4. 26 Matley, op. cit. (1966), pp. 106–8; V.A. Anuchin, ‘The Problem of Synthesis in Geographical Science’, SG, V, no. 4 (April 1964), 34–46; ‘A Sad Tale About Geography’; D.L. Armand, ‘Let’s Not!’; and V.M. Gokhman, M.B. Gornung and V.P. Kovalevskii, ‘Not for the Sake of the Honour of the Uniform’, SG, VI, no. 7 (September 1965), 27–31, 32–6 and 42–6. 27 I.P. Gerasimov, ‘Has Geography “Disappeared”?’ SG, VI, no. 7 (September 1965), 38–41. 28 ‘On the Work of the Institute of Geography’, SG, VI, no. 7 (September 1965), 36–8. 29 Following direct intervention from the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences in 1966, Gerasimov was forced to broaden the original definition of constructive geography to embrace non-physical issues. I.P. Gerasimov, op. cit. (September 1965), 3–14; Gerasimov, ‘Scientific-Technical Progress and Geography’, SG, XII, no. 4 (April 1971). 30 A.V. Korobov, ‘4th Congress of the Geographic Society USSR: Geography and the Economy Seminar USSR’, SG, V, no. 9 (November 1964), 11. 31 The expansion of geographic activity in the 1960s can be seen in the rapid growth in membership of the Geographical Society; from 11 000 in 1960, to 15 000 in 1965, and 18 000 in 1971. ‘Resolution of the 5th Congress of the Geographical Society USSR’, SG, XII, no. 8 (October 1971), 533–53. 32 Materialy Pervogo Mezhduvedomststvennogo Soveshchaniia po Geografii Naseleniia (sektsii selskogo rasseleniia) Ian.–Fev. 1962 (Moscow-Leningrad: 1962); and V.G. Davidovich and V.V. Pokshishevskii, Review of Research in Population Geography in the USSR (Moscow–Leningrad: 1962). 33 ‘Voprosy terminologii v geograficheskom izuchenii selskogo rasseleniia’, Voprosy Geografii, 14 (M.: Geografgiz., 1979), pp. 29–42. 34 ‘Tipy selskikh poselenii’, Voprosy Geografii: Statei dlia XVIII Mezhdunarodogo Geograficheskogo Kongressa (M.: Geografgiz., 1956), pp. 261–72. 35 S.A. Kovalev, Geograficheskoe izuchenie selskogo naseleniia (M.: MGU, 1960); Selskoe rasselenie (M.: MGU, 1963); ‘Problemy sovetskoi geografii selskogo rasseleniia’, Materialyl mezhduvedomstvennogo sovershaniia po geografii naseleniia (Ianvar–Fevral’, 1962 g.), 1 (Moscow–Leningrad: Geograficheskoe Obshchestvo SSSR, 1961), pp. 59–70; Izuchenie selskoi mestnosti v ekonomicheskoi i sotsialnoi geografii (M.: Mysl, 1980). 234 Notes

‘Raboty S. A. Kovaleva po problemam selskogo rasseleniia i geografii sfery obsluzhivaniia’, Voprosy Geografii, pp. 132 (M.: Mysl’, 1988), pp. 224–32. 36 S.A. Kovalev, ‘Voprosy terminologii v geograficheskom izuchenii selskogo rasseleniia’, in Voprosy geografii: Geografiia naseleniia, no. 14 (M.: Gosizdatgeoglit., 1949), 29–42. 37 The development of raion planning literature was primarily carried out by architects and economic geographers. The leading geographers involved in developing the methodology of raion planning were D.L. Davidovich, S.A. Kovalev, V.V. Pokshishevskii and E.N. Pertsik. 38 E.N. Pertsik, Raionnaia planirovka (geograficheskie aspekty) (M.: Mysl, 1973). 39 Materialy 1 mezhduvedomstvennogo soveshchaniia po geografii naseleniia (Sektsii selskogo rasseleniia) (Ian.–Fev. 1962), no. 4 (Moscow–Leningrad: 1962). 40 V.V. Vavlov, ‘Changes in the Geography of Rural Settlement in the Old Settled Areas of the Virgin Lands’, SG, IX, no. 9 (November 1963), 16–26; N.S. Ginzburg, ‘A Micro-Geography of Settlement in the Pamir Highlands’, SG, XXVII, no. 6 (June 1986), 398–435 (originally published in 1967); A.M. Lola, ‘The Formation of Future Types of Rural Places in the Kuban-Stavropol Plain’, SG, IX, no. 8 (October 1968), 689–98; V.V. Vladimirov, ‘Settlement in Lumber Industrial Regions of the USSR’, SG, IX, no. 8 (October 1968), 710–25; G.G. Burmantov, ‘The Formation of Functional Types of Settlement in the Southern Tayga’, SG, IX, no. 10 (December 1968), 112–19. 41 S.A. Kovalev, ‘Selskoe rasselenie i sotsiologicheskie problemy’, in Sotsiologicheskoe izuchenie sela: Kultura, byt, rasselenie, 2 (M.: 1968), pp.3–23; and A.I. Igudina, Sotsialno-geograficheskie faktory dinamiki selskogo naseleniia na territorii Nechernozemnoi Zony RSFSR (1959–1979gg.), Avtoref. Diss. na Soisk. Uch. Step. Kandidata Geograficheskikh Nauk (M.: 1982). 42 S.A. Kovalev, ‘Problemy geografii selskogo rasseleniia’, in Geografiia naseleniia: Osnovnye problemy (M.: 1964), pp. 131–43; and S.A. Kovalev and R.S. Riazanov, ‘Puti razvitiia selskikh poselenii’, in Nauchnye problemy geografii naseleniia (M.: 1966), pp. 164–77. 43 Rural geographers attained important positions, for example, S.A. Kovalev became Professor of Population Geography at Moscow State University. 44 ‘The Second Interagency Conference on Population Geography’, SG, VIII, no. 8 (October 1967), 613. 45 In 1966 the Technical Council for Systems of Settlement was created in the Ministry of Higher and Specialised Education. Shortly after its creation, geographers were brought into the Council to advise on developing training for rural planning specialists. In the 1970s, Boris Khorev came to head the Council and thereafter it served as an institutional base – outside the main policy community structures – for a campaign against official rural policy. A variety of works on settlement issues were published by the Council and in 1983 it was used as the institutional basis for an attack on the General Scheme of Settlement being pro- moted by Gosgrazhdanstroi. Khorev was protected by his head of department, D. Balentoi, and the Geographical Society. The Ministry of Higher and Specialist Education served as a bridge between the universities and specialised education. Ruble, op. cit. (1980), p. 10. 46 One can see, for instance, the evolution of definitions for ‘rural settlements’ in geographic dictionaries: S.V. Kalesnik, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar geograficheskikh ter- minov (M.: Sovetskaia Entsiklopediia, 1968); E.V. Alayev, Ekonomiko-geograficheskaia terminologiia (M.: Mysl(Geografgiz), 1977); E.V. Alayev, Sotsialno-ekonomicheskaia geografiia: Poniatiyno-terminologicheskii slovar (M.: Mysl (Geografgiz), 1984). Notes 235

47 See ‘Selected Soviet Institutions Employing Geographers (Part 1)’, SG, XVIII, no. 7 (September 1977) and ‘Part 2’, SG, XVIIII, no. 8 (October 1977), 540–8; ‘Directory of Soviet Geographers 1946–1987’, SG, XXIX, no. 3 (March 1988). 48 Officials from Gosgrazhdanstroi were in frequent, though not regularised, contact with geographers at the Institute of Geography and Moscow University from the late 1960s. Interviews with Khorev, op. cit. and A.I. Alekseev (Moscow: 10 January 1990). Kovalev also indicates that he was a regular participant of meetings within the Architectural Union. Interview with S.A. Kovalev (Moscow: 23 May 1990). 49 N.D. Sauchenko, ‘Commuting Links at Lower Levels of Rural Settlement’, SG, XX, no. 5 (May 1979), 297–304; L.M. Denisyuk and L.G. Chernyuk, ‘Rural Commuting in the South-West Region (Ukraine)’, SG, XXII, no. 7 (September 1981), 419–28; and V.V. Pokshishevskii, ‘Differences in the Geography of Services and the Characteristics of Population Structure’, SG, XVI, no. 6 (June 1975), 353–66. 50 S.A. Kovalev, ‘Regional Peculiarities in the dynamics of rural settlement in the USSR (1959–70)’, SG, XV, no. 1 (January 1974), 1–12; A.M. Lola and T.M. Savina, ‘Regularities and Prospects of Transformation of Rural Settlements in the Non-Chernozem Zone of the RSFSR’, SG, XX, no. 3 (March 1979), 170–84; A.I. Alekseev, I.A. Danilova, N.V. Zubarevich and E.I. Nikulin, ‘Urban–Rural Migration in the Non-Chernozem Zone of the RSFSR’, SG, XXI, no. 5 (May 1980), 301–7; A.I. Alekseev, N.V. Zubarevich and T.M. Regent, ‘The Cost Effectiveness of Resettling Residents of Rural Places in the Non-Chernozem Zone of the RSFSR’, SG, XXII, no. 6 (June 1981), 377–80; A.I. Alekseev, Puti kompleksnogo geograficheskogo izucheniia selskoi mestnosti Moskovskogo regiona: Geograficheskie issledovaniia v Moskovskom regione (M.: MGU, 1987); T.V. Raitviir, ‘Obraz zhizni naseleniia Estonskoi SSR and ego regionalnye razlichiia’, in Opyt izucheniia sotsialno- ekonomicheskikh territorialnykh kompleksov (Tartu: 1979). Their work was supple- mented by the regional studies of sociologists: M.D. Spektor, Puti perestroistva selskogo rasseleniia i rekonstruktsii sel v severnykh oblastiakh Kazakhstana (Tselinograd: Min. Sel. Khoz. SSSR, 1972); T.I. Zaslavskaia and V.A. Kalmyk, ‘Social and Economic Problems in the Development of Siberia’, Problems of Economics, XXV, no. 5 (September 1982), 53–74; and ‘Problemy zonalnoi differentsiatsii tselevykh programm razvitiia sela’, in Sovetskaia sotsiologiia: Sotsiologicheskaia teoriia i sotsialnaia praktika (M.: Nauka, 1982), p. 118. 51 A.R. Bernvald, ‘Sotsialno-ekonomicheskie problemy “neperspektivnykh” selskikh poselenii v vostochnykh raionakh RSFSR’, in Problemy derevni i goroda: Materialy k Vsesoiuznomu nauchnomu seminaru problemy preodaleniia sushchestvennykh razlichii mezhdu gorodom i derevnei, 2 (Tallin-Tartu: 1979), 54–60. 52 F.M. Listengurt, ‘Ways of Perfecting the Pattern of Settlement in the USSR’, Iz. Ak. Nauk SSSR, ser. geog., no. 2 (1985), 68–76. 53 For an excellent overview of the various elements of Soviet rural geography in the 1980s see A.I. Alekseev, Mnogolikaia derevniia (M.: Mysl, 1990). 54 Elizabeth-Ann Weinberg, The Development of Sociology in the Soviet Union (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1974), pp. 10–11. For a Soviet description of the development of sociology in the USSR see G.V. Osipov, ‘Vozrozhdenie sotsiologicheskogo myshleniia ot ‘Otterpeli k Zastoiu’, in Sotsiologiia i sotsialism (M.: Nauka, 1990), pp. 23–30. 55 Weinberg, op. cit. (1974), pp. 11–12. 56 Vladimir Shlapentokh, The Politics of Sociology in the Soviet Union (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1987), p. 115. 236 Notes

57 F.V. Konstantinov was a professional ideologist of high standing, director of the Institute of Philosophy of the USSR Academy Sciences and a candidate member of the Central Committee. A.M. Rumiantsev was a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences and a full member of the Central Committee and extended his personal protection to the discipline. Mervyn Matthews and T. Anthony Jones, Soviet Sociology, 1964–75. A Bibliography (London: Praeger Publishers, 1978), p. 5. 58 G. Osipov was a central figure in the establishment of sociology in the Soviet Union. Having travelled abroad, he sought to transplant western sociological techniques to the USSR. In 1966 he replaced Konstantinov as the president of the SSA. With the creation of the Institute of Social Research in 1968, he was appointed to head the rural section. 59 Alex Simirenko, ‘Sociology in the Soviet Union’, in The Soviet Union in Multi- disciplinary Perspectives, ed. Simon McInnes, William McGrath and Peter Potichnyj (Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic, 1978), p. 101. 60 I.M. Slepenkov, Metodologicheskiie printsipy i metodika konkretno-sotsiologicheskogo issledovaniia (M.: MGU, 1974). 61 Jeffery Hahn, ‘The Role of Sociologists in the Making of Social Policy’, in op. cit., Remnek (1977), p. 38. 62 Cox notes the differing official requirements of sociology in the 1920s and after 1956. In both periods social research was expected to play an active and com- mitted role in the building of socialism. In the 1920s Soviet officials recognised the existence of class struggle in society and accepted that social research required a critical edge to help in the pursuit of that struggle. In the later period, however, as it was considered that the basis of socialism was already laid and that such struggle had ended, research was expected to perform a supporting role in the development of policies to help society to communism. Terence M. Cox, Rural Sociology in the Soviet Union (London: C. Hurst and Co., 1979), p. 3. 63 Edward Beliaev and Pavel Butorin, ‘The Institutionalization of Soviet Sociology: its Social and Political Context’, Social Forces, vol. 61 (December 1982), 422. 64 Zemtsov claims sociological laboratories were set up in the Ministry of the Interior, the Public Prosecutors Office, the KGB and the Ministry of Defence in the early 1960s. Ilya Zemtsov, Soviet Sociology: a Study of Lost Illusions in Russia under Soviet Control (Fairfax, VA: Hero Books, 1985), p. 19. 65 Z. Iargina, ‘Zadachi sotsiologii v gradostroitelnoi nauke i proektirovanie’, and O. Ianitskii, ‘Konkretnye sotsiologicheskie issledovaniia v gradostroitelstve’, in Arkh. SSSR, no. 2 (February 1967), 13–18 and 18–24. 66 ‘O merakh po dalneishemu razvitiiu obshchestvennykh nauk i povysheniiu ikh roli v kommunisticheskom stroitelstve’, Pravda (22 August 1967), pp. 1–2. 67 Sovetskaia sotsiologiia: Sotsiologicheskaia teoriia i sotsialnaia praktika, vol. 1 (M.: Nauka, 1982), p. 6. 68 Dimitrii Shalin, ‘The Development of Soviet Sociology, 1956–1976’, Annual Review of Sociology, vol. 4 (1978), 176–9. 69 Prior to this, sociological publications had tended to be produced jointly by a number of institutions. For example, Sotsialnye Issledovania, which was published by the Institute of Philosophy and the Scientific Council for Problems of Concrete Social Research of the Soviet Sociological Association between 1965–1971. 70 Shalin, op. cit. (1978), pp. 183–4. 71 Yanowitch, op. cit. (1986), p. vii. 72 Official encouragement for rural subjects in the early development of sociology meant that many of the founders of the discipline began their careers with work Notes 237

on the villages. G.V. Osipov and Iu. V. Arutiunian, and later T.I. Zaslavskaia were notably engaged in innovative, often critical, work that pushed back the boundaries of academic analysis. 73 For a history and importance of rural sociology in the 1920s see Cox, op. cit. (1979), pp. 3–12; Susan Gross Solomon, The Soviet Agrarian Debate: a Controversy in Social Science, 1923–1929 (Boulder Co: Westview Press, 1977), pp. 30–3; and Iu. V. Arutiunian, Iz istorii sotsiologicheskikh issledovanii sela’, Sots. Issled., no. 2 (1968a), 197–210. 74 Early in 1955, G. Osipov enlisted the support of academician F. Konstantinov, a recently appointed Central Committee secretary who was sympathetic to sociology, to convince Khrushchev to approve a sociological study of the factors responsible for the mass exodus of young people from the Virgin Lands. Khrushchev proved to be in favour, and in late 1955 approved sociological research in the areas of labour problems and demography. Zemtsov, op. cit. (1985), pp. 9–10; and Matthews, op. cit. (1978), p. 6. 75 L.A. Anokhina, M.N. Shmeleva, Kultura i byt kolkhoznikov Kalininskoi Oblasti (M.: Nauka, 1964); Stephen Dunn and Ethel Dunn, The Peasants of Central Russia (New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1967); and L.A. Anokhin, V. Iu. Krupianskaia, M.N. Shmeleva, Stephen P. Dunn and Ethel Dunn, ‘On the Study of the Russian Peasantry’, Current Anthropology, vol. 14 (1973), 143–57. 76 G.E. Gelmakh, Istoricheskoe razvitie selskikh poselenii na Ukraine istoriko ethogra- ficheskoe issledovanie, Avtoref. Diss. na Soisk. Uch. Step. Doktora Istoricheskikh Nauk, Spetsialnost’ no. 576 ethnografiia (Kiev: 1969); and I.V. Chkoniia, ‘The Family and the Family Life of Kolkhozniks in the Georgian SSR’, in Introduction to Soviet Ethnography, eds. Stephen Dunn and Ethel Dunn (Berkeley, Ca: Highgate Road Social Science Research Station, 1974), pp. 273–89. 77 Dunn and Dunn, op. cit. (1974), p. 33. 78 Dunn and Dunn, op. cit. (1974). 79 V. Ermuratskii, G. Osipov, V. Shubkin, Kopanka 25 let spustia (M.: Nauka, 1965) and V. Shubkin, Sotsiologicheskiie opyty (M.: Mysl, 1970). 80 Sotsialno-ekonomicheskoe razvitie sela i migratsiia naseleniia (Novosibirsk: 1972) and Ia. Porietis, Migratsiia selskogo naseleniia i ee vzaimosviaz s protsessom preodoleniia sushchestvennykh razlichii mezhdu gorodom i derevnei (Riga: 1973). 81 A. Kalmyk, ‘Changes in the Conditions and Structure of the Rural Population’s Employment During the Process of Urbanization in the Countryside’, Sots. Issled. (3 July–August–September 1976), trans. in CDSP XXVII, no. 49 (1976), 5–6. 82 For good bibliographies of Soviet rural sociology see Slepenkov and Knyazev, op. cit. (1977), pp. 111–14; Matthews and Jones, op. cit. (1978), pp. 65–76, 88–9, 99–104 and 164–5; Cox, op. cit. (1979), pp. 100–3; and V.I. Staroverov, ‘Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniia sela na etape razvitogo sotsializma’, in Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniia v SSSR: sbornik analiticheskikh obzorov (M.: Akademiia Nauk SSSR, 1978), pp. 194–9. 83 Iu. V. Arutiunian, Mekhanizatory selskogo khoziaistva SSSR v 1929–1957gg. (formirovanie kadrov massovykh kvalifikatsii) (M.: Nauk, 1960); Iu. V. Arutiunian, ‘Sotsialnaia struktura selskogo naseleniia’, Voprosy Filosofii, no. 5 (1966), 55–61; Opyt sotsiologicheskogo izucheniia sela (M.: MGU, 1968); Iu. V. Arutiunian, Sotsialnaia struktura selskogo naselenie SSSR (M.: Mysl, 1971); Z.I. Monich, Intelligentsiia v strukture selskogo naseleniia (Minsk: 1971); Z.I. Monich, I.V. Prudnik and V.G. Izokh, Rabochii klass v strukture selskogo naseleniia (Minsk: 1975); G.S. Entelis, Preobrazovaniia sotsialno-klassovoi struktury selskogo naseleniia (Kishenev: 1974); 238 Notes

M. Kadyrtaeva, ‘K voprosu ob issledovanii sotsialnoi struktury krestianstva na sovre- mennom etape’, Izvestiia Akademii Nauk Kazakhskoi SSR, Seriia Obshchestvennykh Nauk, no. 2 (1978), 19–25. 84 V. Ryvkina, ‘Zhilishchneye uslovia i obraz zhizni selskogo naseleniia’, Sots. Issled., no. 4 (1975), 95–6; and B.I. Staroverov, A.I. Timysh and N.V. Tsurkanu, Derevniia v usloviiakh integratsii (M.: 1979). 85 Sociological work also identified a variety of socio-economic regions of the countryside and sought to produce typologies of different rural communities. ‘Problemy zonalnoi differentsiatsii tselevykh programm razvitiia sela’, in Sovetskaia sotsiologiia: Sotsiologicheskaia teoriia i sotsialnaia praktika 1 (M.: Nauka, 1982), p. 118. 86 S.A. Kugel’, Zakonomernosti izmeneniia sotsialnoi struktury obshchestva pri perekhode k kommunizmy (M.: Ekonomizdat, 1963), especially Chapter 4. 87 P.I. Simush, ‘The Collective Farm as Social Institution’, Sots. Issled., no. 3 (July–August–September 1976), 41–9. Trans. in CDSP XXVIII, no. 49 (1976), pp. 4–5. 88 T.I. Zaslavskaia and I.B. Muchnik, eds, Razvitie selskikh poselenii (M.: 1977). 89 T. Zaslavskaia and R. Ryvkina, ‘Sibirskaia derevnia: Sotsialnyi portret’, Sel. Nov., no. 11 (November 1981), 10–12; and no. 12 (December 1981), 7–9. 90 The centres at the forefront of rural research were: the Institute of Sociological Research (ISI) in Moscow which concentrated on the Non-Black-Earth-Zone; the Institute of Economics and Industrial Production (IEiPPO) in Novosibirsk which examined the rural areas of western Siberia; and a host of smaller institutes in Sverdlovsk, Tomsk, Tallin, Kishinev, Kiev and Vilnius. While these institutes initially worked on the rural areas in their locale, they soon began to generalise their study to the regional and all-union level. 91 A.I. Gavrilov, G.M. Domrachev, G.A. Gabinskii and I.T. Levykin, Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniia (sbornik aspirantskikh rabot), Vyp. 1 (Kursk: Kurskii Gosudarstvennyi Pedagogicheskii Institut, 1971). 92 See her chapter in P.I. Simush, Kolkhoz-shkola kommunizma dlia krestianstva (kompleksnoe sotsialnoe issledovanie kolkhoza ‘Rossiia’) (M.: Mysl’, 1965). 93 Working with Osipov as her supervisor in Moscow, Raisa Gorbachev received her doctoral degree, entitled ‘On the Formation of a New Pattern of Life for the Kolkhoz Peasantry Based on Material Obtained through Sociological Research in the Stavropol Region’, in 1967. Urda Jürgens, Raisa, trans. Sylvia Clayton (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1990), pp. 69–91; and Raisa Gorbachev, I Hope: Reminiscences and Reflections, trans. David Floyd (London: Harper Collins, 1991), pp. 93–102. Her thesis was published as a book: R. Gorbacheva, Byt kolkhoznogo krestianstva: Sotsiologicheskii ocherk (Stavropol: Knizhnoe izdat., 1969). 94 Iu. V. Arutiunian, ‘Sotsialnaia struktura selskogo naseleniia’, Voprosy Filosofii, no. 5 (1966), 51–61; and V.I. Staroverov, ‘Sovetskaia sotsiologia derevni: Dostizheniia i problemy’, Sotsiologicheskie Issledovaniia, no. 3 (1976), 33–40. 95 Izmenenie sotsialnoi struktury sotsialisticheskogo obshchestva: materialy Vsesoiuznoi Teoreticheskoi Konferentsii v Minske (Sverdlovsk: 1965). 96 T.I. Zaslavskaia, ed., Doklady Vsesoiuznomu Simpoziumu po Sotsiologii Sela (Novosibirsk: Sibirskoe Otdelenie Institut Ekonomiki i Organizatsii Promyshlennogo, 1968), and Iu. V. Arutiunian, ed., Sotsiologicheskoe izuchenie sela: Kultura, byt, rasselenie (material k Vsesoiuznomu Simpoziumu po Sotsiologicheskii Problemam Sela v g. Krasnodare) Vyp. 2 (M.: 1968b). Notes 239

97 Compare the sophistication of the study Riazanskoe selo korablinovo (istoriia, ekonomika, byt, kultura, liudi sela), (Riazan: 1957), with V.M. Yermuratskii, ed., Kopanka 25 let spustia (M.: 1965), and P.I. Simush, Kolkhoz-shkola kommunizma dlia krestianstva (konkretno-sotsialisticheskoe issledovanie kolkhoza ‘Rossiia’) (M.: 1965). 98 S. Voronitsyn, ‘A Compendium of Opinion Polls Conducted in the USSR 1960–75’, Radio Liberty Research (2 May 1975). In 1967 IEiOPP and the Statistical Agency of the RSFSR (TsSU RSFSR) conducted a survey on rural migration among 10 000 village residents in Novosibirsk Oblast. Zaslavskaia reported the findings of the survey to the conference in Krasnodar in 1968. V. Kamyshov, ‘Migratsiia selskogo naseleniia’, Voprosy Ekonomiki, no. 12 (1969), 148–50. 99 V.S. Kondratev, ‘Izuchenie sotsiologicheskikh problem sela v Polshe’, and S.V. Tiugiukin, ‘Panorama sovremennoi amerikanskoi selskoi sotsiologii’, chapters. in op. cit., Arutiunian (1968b). 100 Hahn, op. cit. (1977), p. 41. 101 Shlapentokh, op. cit. (1987), p. 49. 102 The institutional infrastructure of sociology continued to serve as an important basis for the production of new work. Although controlled by Staroverov, the Sector of the Social Development of the Village of the Institute of Sociological Research, founded in 1972, continued to foster the development of rural studies. By the early 1980s, the sector had published 6 monographs, 11 collected works, 14 brochures and numerous articles on rural issues. In particular the sector was responsible for important works such as: Sotsialnaia struktura selskogo naseleniia (vyp. 1 – 1976; vyp. 2 – 1978; vyp. 3 – 1981); Sovremennaia sovetskaia derevnia: Tezisy, dokladov sovetskikh uchenykh na IV Vsemirnoi kongress po sotsiologii derevni, Polsha (1976); and Sotsialnykh oblik srednerusskoi derevni (M.: 1982). 103 Shlapentokh, op. cit. (1987), p. 87. 104 ‘VIII Vsemirnyi Sotsiologicheskii Kongress’, Sotsiologicheskie Issledovaniia, no. 2 (1974), 172–89; ‘Osnovnye napravleniia raboty po koordinatsii sotsiologicheskogo issledovaniia v strane’, ibid., pp. 189–97; Arutiunian, Staroverov, op. cit. (1976), and Iu. V. Arutiunian, ‘Vsemirnyi Kongress Selskikh Sotsiologov’, ibid., no. 3 (1977), pp. 137–8. 105 A meeting at the VDNKh in October 1980 was designed to serve as a forum for discussing the experience and results of sociological research in villages and its relationship to planning. In attendance were sociological researchers, specialists from kolkhozy and sovkhozy, and representatives from Union and republican ministries of Agriculture. ‘Planirovanie sotsialnogo razvitiia kolkhozov i sovkhozov’, Sotsiologicheskie Issledovaniia (henceforth Sots. Issled.), no. 2 (1981), 193–5. 106 P.I. Simush, ‘Sotsialnye preobrazovaniia na sele’, Kommunist, no. 16 (1976), 61–73, T.I. Zaslavskaia and R.P. Ryvkina, ‘Sibiri’: Sudba maloi derevni’, Sovetskaia Rossiia (12 September 1980), 2; T.I. Zaslavskaia interviewed in Pravda (20 May 1979), trans. CDSP XXX, no. 20, 12–13, Viktor Perevedentsev, ‘Labor Resources Today and Tomorrow’, Zhurnalist, no. 5 (May), 20–1. 107 V.I. Staroverov, V.I. Perevedentsev, Zh. A. Zaionchkovskaia, T.I. Zaslavskaia, V.P. Belenkii, M.V. Kuznetsovoi, M.N. Rutkevich and Iu. V. Arutiunian. 108 V.I. Vladimirov, ‘Problemy i perspektivy sotsialno-ekonomicheskogo razvitiia derevni’, Sots. Issled., no. 1 (1974), 185–9. 109 B.P. Tobilevich, ed., Vsesoiuznoe Soveshchanie-Seminar po Peredovomu Opytu Kompleksnoi Zastroiki Poselkov Sovkhozov i Kolkhozov: Tezisy Dokladov (Gorkii: Gosstroi, 1976). 240 Notes

110 T.I. Zaslavskaia, ‘K metodologii sistemnogo izucheniia derevni’, Sots. Issled., no. 3 (1975), 31–9; and T.I. Zaslavskaia and I.B. Muchnik, Razvitie selskikh poselenii (lingvisticheskii metod tipologicheskogo analiza sotsialnykh obektov) (M.: Statistika, 1977). 111 For an example of changes in rural and urban populations as result of commuting, see N.F. Timchuk, Z.V. Melnik and N.T. Shcherbak, ‘Opyt izucheniia osoben- nostei maiatnikovoi migratsii’, Sots. Issled., no. 4 (1979), 99–103. 112 V.I. Staroverov, ‘Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniia sela na etape razvitogo sotsializma’, in Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniia v SSSR: sbornik analiticheskikh obzorov (M.: Akademiia Nauk SSSR, 1978), pp. 174–99. 113 N.I. Salnikova, ‘Sociologists and Architects Comment on What the Soviet Countryside Should be Like’, Sots. Issled., no. 3 (July–September 1978) CDSP XXX, no. 42 (1978), 3–4. 114 For bibliographies of village prose see Rosalind J. Marsh, Soviet Fiction Since Stalin (London: Croom Helm, 1986), pp. 320–6; Klaus Mehnert, The Russians and Their Favorite Books (Stanford, CA.: Hoover Institution Press, 1983), pp. 261–6; and Yitzhak M. Brudny, Reinventing Russia: Russian Nationalism and the Soviet State, 1953–1991 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998), Chapters 2 and 3. 115 N. Richards, ‘The Town-Country Dichotomy in Some Recent Soviet Fiction and the Literary Press’, Co-existence, vol. 18, no. 1 (1981), 65. 116 Gleb Zekulin, ‘The Contemporary Countryside in Soviet Literature: a Search for New Values’, in op. cit., Millar (1971), p. 383. 117 One notable exception is perhaps the only peasant utopian novel in Soviet history. Written, under a pseudonym, by Alexandr Chaianov in 1920, it foresees a society in 1984 where ‘there are no towns at all, there are only nodal points at the nexus of social relations’. Ivan Kremnev, ‘The Journey of My Brother Alexei to the Land of Peasant Utopia’, in The Russian Peasant 1920 and 1984, ed., R.E.F. Smith (London: Frank Cass, 1977), pp. 63–116. 118 Ploss, op. cit. (1965), and Erich Strauss, Soviet Agriculture in Perspective (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1969), Chapter 8. 119 Valentin Ovechkin produced a series of documentary sketches between 1952 and 1956 which was headed by Raionnye budni, while Efim Dorosh’s Derevenskii Dnevnik was published in Novyi Mir in 1956 and appeared there until 1970. Gleb Zekulin, ‘Aspects of Peasant Life as Portrayed in Contemporary Soviet Literature’, Canadian Slavic Studies, vol. 1, no. 4 (Winter 1967), 552–65. 120 For details of how the Ovechkin school of writers broke with the previous socialist realist approach to the countryside, see Kathleen Parthe, ‘Images of Rural Transformation in Russian Village Prose’, Studies in Comparative Communism, no. 2 (Summer 1990), 162–4. 121 In 1962 Ovechkin is said to have submitted a memorandum to the CPSU Central Committee recommending that the kolkhozy be reformed on the ‘Yugoslav model’. It was rumoured that he was put in a mental hospital. 122 Zekulin, op. cit. (1971), p. 376. 123 Geoffery Hosking, Beyond Socialist Realism (London: Granada, Elek, 1980). 124 Hosking, op. cit. (1980), p. 404. 125 Odin den Ivana Denisovicha, Novyi Mir, no. 11 (1962), 8–74; ‘Sluchaina stantsii krechetoska’ and ‘Matrenin dvor’, Novyi Mir, no. 1 (1963), pp. 9–63; ‘Dlia polzy dela’, Novyi Mir., no. 7 (1963), 58–90. 126 Brudny, op. cit. (1998), Chapter 2 and Geoffrey Hosking, ‘The Russian Peasant Rediscovered: “Village Prose” of the 1960s’, Slavic Review, no. 4 (December 1973), 709–10. Notes 241

127 Geoffery A. Hosking, ‘Vasilii Belov – Chronicler of the Soviet Village’, Russian Review, no. 2 (1975), 163–85. 128 While the rise of rural writing may be traced to Ovechkin’s Raionnye Budni in 1952 and Dorosh’s Derevenskii Dnevnik in 1956, it was Soloukhin’s Vladimirskie Poselki of 1957 that first focused on many of the themes that would be developed by Russian nationalists during the next two decades. Demming Brown, ‘Nationalism and Ruralism in Recent Soviet Russian Literature’, Review of National Literature, vol. 3, no. 1 (Spring 1972), 183–209. 129 In the late 1960s, Molodaia Gvardia was captured by a group of militant Russian nationalists who began to publish work by Soloukhin. The activities of the edi- tors were discussed at a session of the Politburo in November 1970. The editor Anatolii Nikonov was removed. Following this, Nash Sovremmenik increasingly became the focus for the nationalists, although they also published in Literaturnaia Gazeta, Voprosy Literatury, Novyi Mir, Moskva and Oktyabr. Yitzhak M. Brudny, ‘The Heralds of Opposition to Perestroyka’, in Milestones in Glasnost and Perestroyka: Politics and People, ed., Ed A. Hewitt and Victor H. Winston (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1991), pp. 153–9. 130 Circulation rose dramatically from 70 000 in the late 1960s to 200 000 in 1979, before finally peaking at 300 000 in 1980. 131 John Dunlop, The New Russian Nationalism (New York: Praeger, 1985), p. 10. 132 With Mikhail Suslov’s death, in January 1982, a campaign against the nationalists began. As part of the campaign, the Central Committee issued a decree in late July 1982 explicitly directed at the derevenshchiki. See ‘V Tsentralnom Komitete KPSS’, Pravda (30 July 1982), 1; and ‘Mesto pisatelia v dushche zhizn’, Pravda (5 August 1982). Soloukhin and the editor of Nash Sovremennik were forced to disavow their past activities in Kommunist, 18 (1982), 128. For discussion of Suslov’s role as the protector of Russian nationalists, see Roy Medvedev, ‘The Death of the “Chief Ideologue” ’, New Left Review, no. 136 (November–December 1982), 55–65. 133 Indeed, Soloukhin, Abramov, Rasputin, Belov and Shukshin all received important state literary awards. 134 Iu. Maltsev, Promezhutotochnaia literatura: Kriterii podlinnosti, Kontinent, no. 25 (1980). 135 For a broader discussion of the potential for a limited form of autonomy within the literary establishment, see Geoffrey Hosking, ‘The Institutionalisation of Soviet Literature’, in Perspectives on Literature and Society in Eastern and Western Europe, ed. Geoffrey Hosking and George F. Cushing (London: Macmillan, 1989), pp. 55–75. 136 It was in works which dealt with the life of collective farmers that a pronounced active moral element was to be found, for example, Vasilii Belov’s novella, ‘Plotnitskie rasskazy’, Novyi Mir, no. 7 (1968), 7–56. 137 Vladimir Shubkin, ‘The Ever-Burning Bush’, Nash Sovremennik, 12 (1981), 118–22. 138 Dunlop, op. cit. (1985), p. 112; and Abramov, op. cit. (1976), p. 172. 139 Hosking, op. cit. (1973), p. 712. 140 V. Chalmaev, ‘Ozhivayushchie rodniki’, Moskva, no. 8 (1965), 186 quoted in Philippa Lewis, ‘Peasant Nostalgia in Contemporary Russian Literature’, Soviet Studies, vol. 28, no. 4 (October 1976), 558–9. 141 ‘Speeches by Congress Participants: Fyodor Abramov’, CDSP XXVIII, no. 26 (1976), 15–16. 142 CDSP XXIX, no. 11 (1977), 3–5. 242 Notes

143 Dunlop, op. cit. (1985), p. 10. 144 L. Ivanov, ‘V rodnykh mestakh’, Novyi Mir, no. 3 (1963). 145 Lewis, op. cit., p. 567. 146 V. Shukshin, Articles (M.: Raduga, 1986), pp. 219–20. 147 Vniz i vverkh po techeniiu: povesti (Downstream, Upstream: novellas) (Moscow: Sovetskaia Rossiia, 1972) and Proshchanie s Materoi (Farewell to Matyora). Published in Povesti (Novellas) (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1976). 148 For example, Poslednyi srok: povest i rasskazy (Borrowed Time: a novella and short stories) (Irkutsk: Vostochno-Sibirskoe knizhnoe izd-vo, 1970). 149 Pozhar (The Fire). Published in Poslednii srok; Proshchanie s Materoi; Pozhar: Povest (Borrowed Time; Farewell to Matyora; The Fire: Novellas) (Moscow: Sovetskai Rossiia, 1986), pp. 327–83. 150 In 1969 ‘countryside writers’ were attacked for idealising ‘old world simpletons’ and promoting them to the rank of saints; for propagating a kind of Christian humanism by putting ‘abstract moral values’ above that of the Communist code of morals; and, for being too interested in the ‘old’ sources of Russian culture and, either by implication, or directly, rejecting the modern complex, life of progressive Soviet society. V. Bershchukov, ‘V zashchitu istorizma’, Lit. Gaz. (2 January 1969). 151 Vasileev, op. cit. (1979); and op. cit. (1981). 152 Shukshin directed a number of lighthearted sketches of rural life, while in the early 1980s the director Klimov produced a powerful version of Rasputin’s Proshchanie Matoria that was subsequently suppressed by Soviet censors. 153 The print run (tirazh) for the writings of the main derevenshchiki in the 1970s were: Rasputin – 1 427 000; Soloukhin – 2 850 000; Shukshin – 2 744 000; Abramov – 2 629 000; and Belov – 2 598 210. Mehnert, op. cit. (1983), p. 268. For data on the 1980s, see Brudny, op. cit. (1998), p. 128. 154 Paradoxically, at the time when the ideas of the derevenshchiki became politically most influential, the literary movement as a whole entered decline. Katerina Clark, ‘The Centrality of Rural Themes in Postwar Soviet Fiction’, in op. cit., Hosking and Cushing (1989), p. 86. 155 Fedor Abramov, ‘O khlebe nesushchnom i o khlebe derkhovnom’, Nash Sovremennik, no. 9 (1976), 170–2. 156 Abramov, op. cit. (1979), p. 3. 157 Brudny identifies two types of Russian nationalists writing in Novyi Mir in the 1960s: ‘liberal-nationalist’ – the Ovechkin school (Fyodor Abramov, Efim Dorosh, Boris Mozhaev and Sergei Zalygin) and ‘conservative-nationalist’ (Vasilii Belov and Alexander Solzhenitsyn). Brudny, op. cit. (1998). 158 ‘How can Folk Art and Rural Culture be Fostered’, Lit. Gaz. (3 December 1964), 2. Trans. in CDSP 17, no. 16 (1965), 20–1; and ‘Creator or Spectator?’, Lit. Gaz. (25 February 1965), 3. Trans. in CDSP 17, no. 16 (1965), 24–5. Soloukhin received support in two articles by A. Laptev, ‘The Inexhaustible Well’, Lit. Gaz. (21 January 1965), 2–3. Trans. in CDSP 17, no. 16 (1965), 24; and Gernady Gorodnik, ‘In my view V. Soloukhin is Right’, Lit. Gaz. (28 January 1965), 2. Trans. in CDSP 17, no. 17 (1965), 24. 159 ‘Let’s Continue the Dialogue’, Lit. Gaz. (24 December 1964). Trans. in CDSP 17, no. 16 (1965), 21. Mozhaev was supported by Alexander Borshchagovsky, ‘Round Dance and the Present’, Lit. Gaz. (24 December 1965), 2. Trans. in CDSP 17, no. 16 (1965), 22–3; and Georgy Maryagin, ‘Revival of Tradition – or Restoration of Antiquity’, Lit. Gaz. (14 January 1964), 3. Trans. in CDSP 17, Notes 243

no. 16 (1965), p. 23. Literaturniia Gazeta concluded that Soloukhin was right to object to the simple equation of technical progress with spiritual culture. ‘Concluding the Debate’, Lit. Gaz. (11 March 1965), trans. in CDSP 17 (1965), pp. 25–6. 160 Marsh, op. cit. (1986), p. 191. 161 Dunlop, op. cit. (1985), p. 112. 162 Dunlop, op. cit. (1985), p. 37. 163 Dunlop, op. cit. (1985), p. 37. 164 Hahn, op. cit. (1972), pp. 220–2 and Chapters 2 and 3. These opportunities included access to mainstream publications, such as Pravda, and official organisations and debates. For example, Mozhaev in ‘From Remarks at the Round Table. Rural Culture and the Writers Role in its Development’, Literaturnoe Obozrenie, no. 5 (11–14 May 1981), trans. in CDSP 23, no. 38 (1981), pp. 15–16. 165 Some creative writers did still write about rural issues of course. See B. Cheshegorov, a Siberian writer, who discussed changes from viable to non- viable villages in 1983. Op. cit. (1983); and Y. Muchnik discusses the decline in moral standards among the peasants due to Party authorities and bureaucrats. ‘Bez shabashnikov kolkhoznye mekhanizatory stroiat doma’, Lit. Gaz. (23 April 1986), 10. 166 The influence of rural writing is evident in the language used by the Moscow Obkom First Secretary, Konotop, when announcing the decision to abandon the viable/nonviable policy in Moscow Oblast. ‘You see the depths of the countryside (glubinka) were and remain the roots (korni) of Russian rural life!’, op. cit. (1982), p. 6. 167 The degree to which some of the derevenshchiki came to be seen as important spokesmen for parts of Soviet – or more usually Russian – society can be seen in the 1980s when leading members of the movement, particularly Rasputin and Belov, came to play high profile, national political roles. 168 Interview with Mikhail Shatrov (21 October 1992, Cambridge, MA).

8 The Disintegration of Policy-making Capacity

1 Initially, the broadening of participation had been structured and contained through a set of relationships and institutions that has been termed a policy community. As participation was further broadened and new knowledge was generated, the discipline and consensus that had underpinned policy-making arrangements began to disintegrate. Policy-making arrangements came more to resemble a network, with a disaggregation of policy-making to different clusters of interests and policy actors, and conflict rather than agreement characterising the sector. For a discussion of policy communities and issues networks see David March and R.A.W. Rhodes, ‘Policy Communities and Issue Networks: Beyond Typology’, in David Marsh and R.A.W. Rhodes, Policy Networks in British Government (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1992), pp. 248–68. 2‘Uskorenie tekhnicheskogo progressa selskogo stroitelstva – vazhneishaia zadacha’, BST, no. 2 (February 1969), 5–8. 3 Decree of the Central Committee and the Council of Ministers, no. 390 (28 May 1969) ‘Ob uluchshenii proektno-smetnogo dela’. Gosgrazhdanstroi produced a ministerial decree on this subject, no. 261 (19 December 1969) ‘Vremennaia instruktsiia po razrabotke proektov i smet dela zhilishchno-grazhdanskogo stroitelstva’ (SN 401–69). 244 Notes

4 Decree of the Central Committee and Council of Ministers USSR (28 May 1969) ‘O merakh po uluchsheniiu kachestva zhilishchno-grazhdanskogo stroitelstva’, BST, no. 7 (July 1969), 10. 5‘Novye normy po planirovke i zastroike gorodov, poselkov i selskikh naselennykh punktov’, BST, no. 12 (December 1975), 10–13. 6‘Obespechit vypolnenie zadanii po uporiadocheniiu stroitelstva na sele’, BST, no. 7 (July 1970), 32–3. Following the Twenty Fifth Party Congress, there were further changes in rural construction and planning. ‘Povyshat’ tekhnicheskii uroven stroitelstva na sele’, BST, no. 12 (December 1971), 3–6. 7‘Nomenklatura tipov zhilykh domov dlia stroitelstva v selskoi mestnosti na 1971–75gg.’, BST, no. 5 (May 1970), 32–4. 8‘Plan preobrazovaniia derevni – v deistvii na vystavke ‘Selskoe stroitelstvo SSR’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 2 (February 1970), 59–60. 9‘Nomenklatura tipov zhilykh domov dlia stroitelstva v selskoi mestnosti’, BST, no. 6 (June 1976), 6–20. 10 G. Fomin, ‘Po leninskim zavetam’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 4 (April 1970), 46–50. In Belarus, of the 38 000 small settlements, 4000 were to be developed. ‘Rol stroitelstva v realizatsii leninskikh idei perestroiki sel’skogo khoziaistva’, BST, no. 5 (May 1969), 13–16. In Moscow Oblast’, of the 7300 settlements, 700 were to be developed and the rest liquidated. ‘Selskoe grazhdanskoe stroitelstvo na iubileinoi vystavke’, BST, no. 10 (October 1970), 45. 11 ‘V Gosstroi Moldavskii SSR’, BST, no. 1 (January 1969), 34; and ‘V Gosstroi Ukrainskoi SSR’, BST, no. 3 (March 1969), 34–5. At the end of 1968, a conference- seminar for improving rural construction in Kazakhstan was conducted on the initiative of the Central Committee and Council of Ministers of the republic. ‘Povyshit tekhnicheskii uroven’ selskogo stroitelstva v Kazakhstane’, BST, no. 3 (March 1969), 42–4; and ‘Industrializatsiia selskogo stroitelstva v Kazakhstane’, BST, no. 9 (September 1969), 43–7. 12 For example the All-Union Technical Seminar on the Problems of Providing Progressive Industrial Construction Plans for the Villages of Kalinin Oblast’ (June 1972). ‘Industrialnomu stroitelstvu na sele – progressivnye proekty’, BST, no. 9 (September 1972), 46–7. 13 Instruktsiia po sostavleniiu skem raionnoi planirovki selskokhoziaistvennykh raionov Tadzhikskoi SSR (Dushanbe: Gosstroi Tadzhikiskoi SSR/ Tadzh. gos. proektnyi institut po zemleustroistvu ‘Tadzhikgiprozem’, 1969); Pravila zastroiki selskikh naselennykh punktov RSFSR, introduced by a decree of the Council of Ministers, no. 280 (6 May 1970); Instruktsiia po sostavleniiu proektov planirovki i zastroiki selskikh naselennykh punktov Belorusskoi SSR (RSN 01–70) (Minsk: Gosstroi BSSR, 1970); ‘Instruktsiia po razrabotke proektov planirovki i zastroiki selskikh naselennykh punktov USSR (RSN 168–72) (Kiev: Gosstroi USSR, 1972). 14 ‘Mezhkolkhoznye stroitelnye organizatsii Kazakhstana’, BST, no. 1 (January 1973), 31–2; ‘Smotr-konkurs na luchshuiu zastroiku i blagoustroistvo sovkhoznykh i kolkhoznykh poselkov’, ibid., 32–3; and ‘Novoe v selskom stroitelstve Belorussii’, BST, no. 8 (August 1973), 27–30. 15 ‘Povysit uroven’ proektirovaniia dlia zhilishchno-grazhdanskogo stroitelstva’, BST, no. 2 (February 1970), 30–2. 16 RGAE f. 7486, o. 1, d. 9244. 17 Balezin, op. cit. (1972). 18 ‘Polozhenie o glavnom inzhenere, glavnom arkhitektore proekta’, BST, no. 5 (May 1970), 7–9. Notes 245

19 ‘Polozhenie ob avtorskom nadzore proeknykh organizatsii za stroitelstvom predpriiatii, zdanii i sooruzhenii’, BST, no. 4 (April 1974), 11–14. 20 ‘Polozhenie o proektnoi organizatsii – generalnom proektirovshchike’, BST, no. 4 (April 1970), 44–5; ‘Rol proektnykh organizatsii v industrializatsii stroitelstva’, BST, no. 5 (May 1970), 19–22. 21 ‘Novoe v selskom stroitelstve Belorussii’, BST, no. 8 (August 1973), 27–30. B.P. Tobilevich, M. Kh. Atabaev, Zastroika i blagoustroistvo sovkhoznykh i kolkhoznykh poselkov (M.: Stroiizdat., 1974). 22 ‘Razvitie selskogo stroitelstva-vazhneishaia zadacha’, BST, no. 10 (October 1970), 1–3. 23 ‘Puti industrializatsii selskogo stroitelstva’, BST, no. 3 (March 1970), 31–4. 24 Osnovnye napravleniia v planirovke i zastroike selskikh naselennykh mest, proektirovanii selskikh zhilykh i obshchestvennykh zdanii/soobshchenie Gosgrazhdanstroi/ (M.: Stroiizdat, 1974). 25 Khrushchev’s idea of the agrogorod lived on until 1975, although by this time it had transmuted into the ‘agro-industrial settlement’ ‘Poselok sovkhoza-zavoda’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 9 (September 1975), 29–32. 26 ‘Povyshat industrializatsiiu selskogo stroitelstva’, BST, no. 1 (January 1977), 2–7. 27 George Breslauer, op. cit. (1982), pp. 179–83. 28 Hahn, op. cit. (1972), pp. 236–7. 29 Sovetskaia Rossiia (29 July 1969). 30 During 1970 there was a struggle between ministerial heads in the Council of Ministers over the issue of increasing resources to the countryside and particularly to rural construction in the Ninth Five-Year Plan. The leaders of the faction supporting increased resources were the Minister of Agriculture, Matskevich, and his deputy, A. Dubrovin, Minister of Construction, G. Fomin, Minister of Rural Construction, S. Khitrov and Deputy President of the Council of Ministers D.S. Polianskii. See the letter from A. Dubrovin to D.S. Polianskii. ‘Pismo MSKh SSSR ob obespechenii kolkhozov stroitelnymi materialami na 1971g.’, RGAE f. 7486, o. 1, d. 9322, pp. 44–5. 31 In 1970, Polianskii continued to advocate the merits of the programme arguing that it was the way to stem the massive outflow of rural youth to the cities. D.S. Polianskii, Sovety Deputatov Trudiashchikhsia (20 March 1970) and Pravda (4 June 1970). 32 ‘O novom primernom ustave kolkhoza doklad tovarishcha D.S. Polianskogo’, Kommunist, no. 17 (November 1969), 23. 33 ‘Rech Generalnogo Sekretaria TsK KPSS tovarishcha L. I. Brezhneva’, Kommunist, no. 17 (November 1969), p. 17. 34 T.I. Sokolov’s appointment as deputy chairman with responsibility for agriculture in Gosplan, just as the Ninth Five-Year Plan was being drafted, was particularly important. Hahn, op. cit. (1972), p. 238. 35 ‘Ocherednye zadachi partii v oblasti selskogo khoziaistva doklad generalnogo sekretaria TsK KPSS Tov. L.I. Brezhneva na plenume TsK KPSS 2 Iulia 1970g.’, Kommunist, no. 10 (July 1970), p. 23. 36 S.I. Polovenko, Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta, seriia ekonimika, no. 4 (1971), 10–11. 37 Sovetskaia Rossiia (9 December 1971). 38 ‘Ukrepliat industrialnuiu bazu selskogo stroitelstva’, BST, no. 9 (September 1973), 2–5. 39 ‘Vyshe tempy tekhnicheskogo progressa v selskom stroitelstve’, BST, no. 9 (September 1970), 1–3. 246 Notes

40 F.D. Kulakov was appointed head of the Central Committee Agricultural Department in November 1964 and became a Central Committee Secretary in September 1965, remaining in this post until his death in 1978, when Mikhail Gorbachev replaced him. At the 24th Party Congress in 1971, Kulakov was made a full member of the Politburo along with Brezhnev’s two main proteges, V. Kunaev and V. Shcherbitsky, and the like-minded V. Grishin. 41 Hahn, op. cit. (1972), pp. 225–51; and Gustafson, op. cit. (1981), pp. 25–9. 42 Decree of August 1971, ‘Ob uluchshenii proektirovaniia i stroitelstva selskokhoziaistvennykh obektov i ukrepleniia proizvodstvennoi bazy selskikh stroitelnykh organizatsii’. 43 ‘Ukrepliat’ industrialnuiu bazu selskogo stroitelstva’, BST, no. 9 (September 1973), 2–5. By 1971 the Minselstroi had grown extensively and employed almost 900 000 workers. The head of Minselstroi claimed that in 1970 36 per cent of the housing it built was 4–5-storey and only 14 per cent was of the one-storey type. He also claimed that between 1967–70, 40 per cent of the ministry’s work was on cultural- service buildings and housing – 42 000 houses, 2 340 schools, 1580 pre-school institutions and 250 cinemas. S. Khitrov, ‘Stroitelstvo na sele – neoslavnoe vnimanie’, Partiinaia Zhizn’, no. 4 (February 1971), 9–16. 44 ‘O merakh po dalneishemu razvitiu selskogo khoziaistva Nechernozemnoi Zony RSFSR’, Pravda and Izvestiia (3 April 1974). 45 ‘Novostroiki Nechernozemlia’, BST, no. 7 (July 1976), 2–5. 46 ‘O merakh po dalneishemu razvitiu selskogo khoziaistva Nechernozemnoi Zony RSFSR’, BST, no. 7 (July 1974), 16–17; and ‘Proekty dliia zhilishchno-grazhdanskogo stroitelstva v Nechernozemnoi Zone RSFSR’, BST, no. 12 (December 1974), 34–8. 47 B. Tobilevich, ‘Vazhneishaia gosudarstvennaia zadacha’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 8 (August 1974), 1–2. 48 On 20 December 1968 the head of Gosgrazhdanstroi, G.N. Fomin, wrote to Minister of Agriculture Matskevich in response to the September 1968 decree proposing that steps be taken to improve co-ordination between Gosstroi and the Ministry of Agriculture. He proposed that a special council be created attached to the committee for interdepartmental co-ordination (sovet po planirovke, zastroike, blagoustroistvu i inzhenernom oborudovaniiu selskikh naselennykh punktov i raionnoi planirovke selskokhoziaistvennykh raionov) which would include the heads of departments and main specialists within the ministry structures. RGAE f.7486, o. 1, d. 9244, pp. 3–4. 49 Conferences usually served as a mechanism for introducing new ideas to other sections of the policy community. These ideas would then be given an official stamp of approval in the form of ‘recommendations’. ‘Rekomendatsii vsesoiuznoe soveshchanie-seminar po ekspertimentalno-pokazatelnomu stroitelstvu poselkov sovkhozov i kolkhozov’, Kiev, Okt. 1971 (M.: Gosstroi SSSR, Gosgrazhdanstroi, Minselkhoz SSSR, Minselstroi SSSR, Soiuz Arkhitektorov SSSR, Gosstroi USSR, 1972). 50 ‘Obespechit’ vypolnenie zadanii po uporiadocheniiu stoitelstva na sele’, BST, no. 7 (July 1970), 33. 51 ‘Institut – selskomu stroitelstvu’, BST, no. 4 (April 1973), 44–7; and ‘Perestroistvu sel – nauchnuiu osnovu (o rabotakh TsNIIEPgrazhdanselstroi)’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 1 (January 1970), 27–32. 52 ‘Sozdanie sistemy institutov po proektirovaniiu selskokhoziaistvennykh proizvodstvennykh obektov’, BST, no. 5 (May 1973), 7–9. 53 For example Tobilevich, Atabaev, op. cit. (1974). 54 ‘Ukrepliat’ i rasshiriat’ sviazi nauki s proizvodstvom (opyt raboty Instituta Kazorgtekhselstroi)’, BST, no. 8 (August 1976), 43–6. Notes 247

55 ‘Realizovat novoe polozhenie o proektnykh organizatsiiakh’, BST, no. 8 (August 1976), 25–7. 56 ‘Ulushat informatsionnoe obespechenie proektirovshchikov’, BST, no. 10 (October 1976), 45–6; ‘Vsesoiuznoe soveshchanie-seminar po selskomu stroitelstvu’, BST, no. 12 (December 1971), 27–9. 57 ‘Smotr-konkurs na luchshuiu zastroiku i blagoustroistvo selskikh naselennykh punktov’, BST, no. 2 (February 1973), 35–8; ‘Ob itogakh vsesoiuznogo smotra-konkursa na luchshuiu zastroiku i blagoustroistvo sovkhoznykh i kolkhoznykh poselkov’, BST, no. 3 (March 1976), 43–5. 58 ‘Blagoustroistvo kolkhoznogo sela’, BST, no. 6 (June 1970), 27–30. 59 ‘Selskoe grazhdanskoe stroitelstvo na iubileinoi vystavke’, BST, no. 10 (October 1970), 45–7. 60 The series ‘For the Aid of Planners’, produced in Ukraine, was particularly important, acting as a forum for debate among many of the most important policy actors. See the section ‘Exchange of Opinions’ with articles by G.N. Fomin, V.S. Riazanov, V.P. Belenkii, A.M. Lola, V.P. Tobilevich, G.M. Lappo, in Planirovka i zastroika selskikh naselennykh mest (Kiev: Gosgrazhdanstroi SSSR, 1968); Planirovka i zastroika selskikh naselennykh mest, no. 8 (Kiev: Gosgrazhdanstroi SSSR, 1971); Voprosy rasseleniia i formirovaniia naselennykh mest, no. 1 (Kiev: Gosgrazhdanstroi USSR, 1971); Planirovka i zastroika selskikh naselennykh mest, no. 3 (Kiev: Gosgrazhdanstroi SSSR, 1971). 61 For example the October 1971 ‘All-Union Conference-Seminar on the Experimental Construction of Settlements for Sovkhozy and Kolkhozy’ in Kiev. In attendance were I.T. Novikov (Deputy President of the Council of Ministers and President of Gosstroi); I.N. Dmitriev (Head of the Construction Section of the Central Committee); G.N. Fomin (President of Gosgrazhdanstroi); D. Dubrovin (Deputy Minister of Agriculture USSR – he was in charge of rural construction in Minselkhoz); D. Breslavtsev (Deputy Minister of the Ministry of Rural Construction); D. Vasilov (President of Gosstroi RSFSR); B. Tobilevich (Head of the Rural Settlement Sector of Gosgrazhdanstroi, Secretary of the Governing Body of the SA, and Head of the Commission of Village Architecture of the SA); and a host of lesser state and Party figures. Arkh. SSSR, no. 1 (January 1972), 55–9. Regional conferences served a similar function of co-ordination, but at a lower level. See for example the regional conferences on rural development organised by the Ministry of Agriculture of Latvia for the Baltic republics and Belorussia in 1973 and 1978: Perspektivnoe stroitelstvo selskikh poselkov i sotsialno-ekonomicheskie problemy sela, vyp. 138 (Eltava: Min. Sel. Khoz. SSSR Latviiskaia Selskokhoziaistvennaia Akademiia, 1978); ‘Problemy sotsialno-ekonomicheskogo razvitiia i rekonstruktsii sela v usloviiakh industrializatsii selskogo khoziaistva’, ibid., vyp. 147 (Eltava: Min. Sel. Khoz. SSSR Latviiskaia Selskokhoziaistvennaia Akademiia, 1978). 62 For example G.N. Fomin, the head of Gosgrazhdanstroi, and B.P. Tobilevich, the head of the sector for the planning and construction of rural settlements of Gosgrazhdanstroi, both were members of the Secretariat of the Governing Council of the Union of Architects. ‘O sostoianii i perspektivakh razvitiia Sovetskoi Arkhitektury’, in O sostoianii i perspektivakh razvitiia Sovetskoi Arkhitektury, (M.: Stroiizdat, 1976), pp. 9–36. 63 Decree of the Central Committee CPSU, no. 760 (24 September 1968) ‘O meropri- iatiiakh po povysheniiu effektivnost raboty nauchnykh organizatsii i uskoreniiu ispolzovaniia v narodnom khoziaistve dostizhenii nauki i tekhniki’ aimed to tie ministries into the scientific-research establishment. Gosstroi and Gosgrazhdanstroi responded with an internal decree in late 1968. ‘Povyshit effektivnost raboty nauchnykh organizatsii’, BST, no. 12 (December 1968), 1–6. 248 Notes

64 I divide those gaining access to the policy process on the basis of their expertise into two main categories: policy professionals and specialists. Policy professionals used expert knowledge of rural issues and were directly involved in policy management (e.g. architects, land-use planners). Their expertise was of a narrow, technical sort. Specialist expertise, on the other hand, was of a more abstract, academic type, and while always related to the regime’s policy agenda did not necessarily have a direct policy application (e.g. sociologists, geographers). It should, however, be noted that the policy professions did have a specialist element, for example, those who taught rural architecture and planning in agricultural and rural planning institutes. Some specialists also sought to play roles closer to that of policy professionals on occasion. 65 Tobilevich claimed that in 1979 more than 200 scientific-research institutes were working on the transformation of the village. B.P. Tobilevich, Kompleksnaia zastroika selskikh naselennykh mest (M.: Znanie, 1979), p. 17. 66 Of the 3064 rural districts in the USSR in 1973, only 2661 had architects, while engineer-inspectors could be found in only 1440. Gosarkhstroikontrol’ was particularly weakly developed in the Kirgizia, Tadzhik and Kazakh republics and many areas of RSFSR. ‘Ukrepliat industrialnuiu bazu selskogo stroitelstva’, BST, no. 9 (September 1973), 2–5. 67 ‘O rabote raionnogo arkhitektora’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 3 (March 1969), 7–10. 68 Academic journals such as Sotsiologicheskie Issledovaniia, Voprosy Ekonomiki and numerous geographic journals provided the opportunity to publish new research. 69 See ‘Teoreticheskie osnovy gradostroitelstva’, in Osnovy gradostroitelstva i planirovka selskikh naselennykh mest, eds A.B. Ikonnikov, B.B. Artemenko and G.I. Iskrzhitskii (M.: Vysh. Shkola, 1982), pp. 5–39; and V.V. Vladimirov, N.I. Naimark, G.V. Subbotin and others, Raionnaia planirovka (M.: Stroiizdat, 1986); and compare the three editions of the main text-book for teaching the course zemleustroistvo G.A. Kuznetsova, Selsko-khoziaistvennaia raionnaia planirovka (M.: Kolos, 1st edn, 1962, 2nd edn, 1971, 3rd edn, 1981). See also I.M. Starotopzhskaia, ed., Planirovka selskikh naselennykh mest (M.: Kolos, 1980); and Vinshu, op. cit. (1986). The latter was written for the course ‘Architectural planning of rural settlements’. 70 ‘Konkretno-sotsiologicheskoe issledovanie i formirovania zhiloi sredy’, Arkh. SSSR, no. 9 (September 1969), 27–9. This article aimed to acquaint architects with the work of the Novosibirsk sociologists. 71 At the conference a variety of speakers called for a policy of restricting all future construction to just one central settlement per farm. The population from the surrounding smaller villages would be resettled in this village. Eventually this process would lead to the emergence of a far more ‘rational’ rural settlement system consisting of a greatly reduced number of rural settlements (agrotowns) with all the modern facilities. RGAE f. 339, o. 3, d. 1043, p. 17. 72 For a detailed account of the different perspectives on rural development see Chapter 7. 73 ‘Organizatsiia lichnogo podsobnogo khoziaistva pri proektirovanii selskikh naselennykh mest/obzor/(M.: Tsentr nauchno-tekhnicheskoi informatsii po grazhdanskomu stroitelstvu i arkhitekture, Gosgrazhdanstroi, 1974). 74 In 1964 a small group of economists with no rural expertise had given economic backing to the push to build multi-storey housing in the countryside by suggest- ing that this was the cheapest form of rural construction. Reflecting the work of rural economists in the late 1960s, which called into question these earlier assumptions, the leaders of the policy community were forced to reassess the costs of using urban construction techniques in the villages in the 1970s. This Notes 249

reassessment reduced the urbanist pressure on the villages. See the letter from the Ministers G. Fomin, V. Matskevich and S. Khitrov to the Council of Ministers in September 1970. ‘Pismo v SM SSSR o stoimoste stroitelstva v selskoi mestnosti’, RGAE f. 7486, o. 1, d. 9321, 204–19. 75 ‘Selskim poselkam – novye proekty’, BST, no. 12 (December 1976), 39–43. In 1973 Gosstroi introduced a new version of ‘Instruktsiia po sostavleniiu skhem i proektov raionnoi planirovki (SN 446–721)’, and in 1975 the new construction norms and regulations ‘Planirovka i zastroika gorodov, poselkov i selskikh naselennykh punktov (Snip P-60–75)’ (M.: Stroiizdat., 1976) which incorporated a ‘complex approach to rural areas’. 76 Plans of the 1960s proposed that only 120 to 130 000 settlements be retained. By the mid-1970s this figure had risen to 300 to 320 000. V. Belenkii, ‘Neperspektivnoe selo’, Zhurnalist (31 March 1975), 11–13. 77 ‘On Measures for the Further Development of Agriculture in the Non-Black- Earth-Zone of the Russian Republic’, CDSP XXVI, no. 14 (1974), 5–7. 78 Individual plans within this programme also reflected the ‘complex’ approach. See the plans of Kalinin Oblast below and ‘Proekty dlia zhilishchno-grazhdanskogo stroitelstva v Nechernozemnoi Zone RSFSR’, BST, no. 12 (December 1974), 34–8. 79 ‘O neotlozhnykh merakh po sozdaniiu vazhneishikh predpriiatii proizvodstvennoi bazy stroitelstva, osushchestvliaemogo v selskoi mestnosti Nechernozemnoi Zony RSFSR’, BST, no. 9 (September 1976), 7–8. 80 ‘Skhema raionnoi planirovki Kalininskoi Oblasti. Osnovnye polozheniia’, Approved by Kalinin Oblispolkom 26.06.1978. 81 ‘Perspektivnye naselennye punkty Kalininskoi Oblasti’. Approved by Kalinin Oblispolkom 28.03.1977. 82 Sociologists argued the importance of sociological research in addressing rural problems. A.M. Lola and R.M. Ustinova, ‘O sotsiologicheskikh issledovaniiakh selskogo rasseleniia’, in Planirovka i zastroika selskikh naselennykh mest (Kiev: Gosstroi USSR, 1968), pp. 33–5; and A.L. Tereshina, ‘Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniia podvizhnosti selskogo naseleniia (na primere Skvirskogo Raiona Kievskoi Oblasti)’, in Planirovka i zastroika selskikh naselennykh mest, no. 8 (Kiev: Gosstroi USSR, 1971), pp. 26–30. 83 In 1973, the sociologist T. Zaslavskaia was able to establish a commission to report on the future of the village. Working for three years, the commission organised conferences on rural development and sent 30 reports to Gosgrazhdanstroi. These reports were critical of the distinction viable/non-viable. Zaslavskaia summarised the findings of the commission in her report ‘Problemy i perspektivy sotsial no ekonomicheskogo razvitiia sovetskoi derevni do 1990g.’, Materialy rabochei komissii po koordinatsii issledovanii, tendentsii izmeneniia demograficheskoi struktury i sotsialnogo razvitiia selskogo naseleniia do 1990g. (Novosibirsk: 1975). See also T.I. Zaslavskaia, ‘Perspektivy sotsialno-ekonomicheskogo demograficheskogo razvitiia sovetskoi derevni’, in ‘Vsesoiuznoe soveshchanie-seminar po peredovomu opytu …’, pp. 3–17; The Commission on Questions of the System of Settlement was led by the economic geographer B. Khorev and was able to challenge many of the basic concepts that underlay Soviet settlement policies in the early 1980s. B.S. Khorev, op. cit., Lit. Gaz. (May 30 1984), 11. 84 The first article was written by V.P. Belenkii and L.A. Krants, ‘Agrogorod: Proizvodstvo i byt’, Sel. Nov, no. 12 (December 1973), 30–1. 85 V. Perevedentsev, ‘Derevnia, god dvukh tysiachnyi’, Sel. Nov., no. 2 (February 1974), 32–4; ‘Selo. Kakim emu byt’?’, Sel. Nov., no. 10 (October 1974), 29–31; and ‘Kto? Otkuda? Pochemu?’, Sel. Nov., no. 7 (July 1976), 10–12. 250 Notes

86 T.I. Zaslavskaia, ‘Predvidenie bez prikras’, Sel. Nov., no. 9 (September 1976), 9–11; ‘Pochemu uezzhaiut iz Smorodinki?’, Sel. Nov., no. 3 (March 1979), 22–3. 87 V.P. Belenkii and L.A. Krants, op. cit., Sel. Nov., no. 12 (December 1973), 30–1; and ‘Nazvav selo neperspektivnym’, Sel. Nov., no. 3 (March 1974), 28–30. 88 B. Khorev, ‘Planiruetsia zavtrashniaia derevnia’, Sel. Nov., no. 6 (June 1981), 12–13. 89 Belenkii, op. cit., Sel. Nov. (1974). 90 M.M. Baranov and Iu.F. Solomin, ‘Pust selo ostanetsia selom’, Sel. Nov., no. 12 (December 1974), 29. 91 I.I. Marchenkov, ‘V garmonii s prirodoi’, Sel. Nov., no. 12 (December 1974), 27. 92 G.N. Rogozhin, ‘Prichiny i sledstviia’, Sel. Nov., no. 12 (December 1974), 25. 93 ‘Tvoe selo, tvoi dom, krestianin’, Sel. Nov., no. 4 (April 1975), 33–7; ‘A doroga dalshe mchitsia …’, Sel. Nov., no. 3 (March 1977), 28–31. 94 ‘Dom, derevnia i raionnaia planirovka’, Sel. Nov., no. 7 (July 1974), 32–5. 95 Describing one plan in Siberia, which involved the resettlement of the population of 65 villages, Tobilevich admitted that the inhabitants who were forced to leave their homes ‘did not comprehend the utility or necessity of change’ and that ‘administrative measures’ had to be employed. B.P. Tobilevich, Problemy pereustroistva sela (M.: Stroiizdat, 1979). 96 ‘Ukrepliat industrialnuiu bazu selskogo stroitelstva’, BST, no. 9 (September 1973), 2–5. 97 ‘Bolshe vnimaniia stroitelstvu na sele’, BST, no. 9 (September 1978), 2–4. 98 Vsesoiuznoe sovershchanie-seminar po peredovomu opyty kompleksnoi zastroiki poselkov sovkhozov i kolkhozov: tezisy i dokladov (Gorkii: Gosstroi SSSR, Gosgrazhdanstroi, Minselkhoz SSSR, Minselstroi SSSR, Minvodkhoz SSSR, Gosstroi RSFSR, 5–7 October 1976). 99 In the Russian Federation the number of viable villages was to be reduced from 216 000 to 48 800 (see the speech of D.P. Vasilov, President of Gosstroi RSFSR, ‘Opyt proektirovaniia i stroitelstva selskogo poselkov Nechernozemnoi Zony i drugikh avtonomnykh respublik, kraev i oblastei RSFSR’, in ‘Vsesoiuznoe Soveshchanie- Seminar po Peredovomu …’, p. 74) and in Belorussia the number of viable settlements was reduced from the figure of 5500 outlined in the Ninth Five-Year plan to 3000–3500 (see B.P. Tobilevich, ‘O merakh po povysheniiu arkhitekturnogo urovnia planirovki i zastroiki selskikh naselennykh punktov’, Vsesoiuznoe Soveshchanie- Seminar po Peredovomu …, p. 102). 100 Author’s interviews with B. Khorev (Interview 27 May 1991, Moscow), V. Belenkii (27 August 1990, Moscow) and B. Tobilevich (20 August 1990, Moscow). 101 ‘Za dalneishee preobrazovanie sel’, BST, no. 2 (February 1975), 6–8. 102 ‘Eksperimentalno-pokazatelnoe stroitelstvo selskikh poselkov’, BST, no. 4 (April 1978), 43–5. 103 Krugalevich claimed that in Brest Oblast’ efforts had been made to resettle the local khutory since 1956, but the annual resettlement plans had never been even half fulfilled. V.A. Krugalevich, Formirovanie selskogo poseleniia novogo tipa (Minsk: Nauka i Tekhnika, 1977), p. 210. 104 In his speech Brezhnev was strongly critical of rural planning and construction. He argued that the needs of the rural dwellers were paramount but frequently they were not being considered, that planning did not suit local conditions and that construction was of poor quality. L.I. Brezhnev, ‘O dalneishem razvitii selskogo khoziaistva SSSR: Doklad na plenume TsK KPSS, 3 Iulia 1978g.’ (section IV: Usilit vnimanie stroitelstvu na sele) in Leninskaia agrarnaia politika KPSS: Sbornik Notes 251

dokumentov mart 1965g. – Iiul 1978g, M.S. Smirtiukov and K.M. Bogoliubov, eds (M.: Gospolitizdat., 1978), pp. 65–99. 105 CDSP XXX, no. 27 (1978), 1–15. Pravda (4 July 1978), p. 3. 106 ‘Central Committee Meets on Agriculture’, Pravda (5 July 1978), p. 1, in CDSP XXX, no. 27 (1978), 27; and ‘Twelve Resolutions on Agriculture’, Pravda and Izvestiia (11 July 1978), 1–2. In CDSP XXX, no. 28 (1978), 17. 107 Theodore H. Friedgut, ‘The Persistence of the Peasant in Soviet Society’, paper presented to the symposium on ‘Discipline and Profession: the Social Sciences in Rural and Regional Planning and Development’ (26–8 January 1986), pp. 15–19. 108 The new approach was indicated in a decree of 14 September 1977, and in later decrees of 8 January and 5 and 6 February 1981. 109 ‘On the Further Development of the Prefabricated Wood-Panel Houses and of Complete Sets of Wooden Housing Components Made From Local Materials for Rural Housing Construction’, CDSP XXXI, no. 46 (1979), 12. See also ‘O dalneishem razvitii stroitelstva individualnykh zhilykh domov na sele’, BST, no. 10 (October 1978), 11. 110 As early as 1978, Gorbachev wrote a letter to the Central Committee that implic- itly criticised several ministries for their approach to agricultural issues, including the reconstruction of the villages. He called for raising investment in the non-productive spheres of housing, services and roads and for better planning. ‘O nekomerakh posledovatelnogo osushchestveniia agrarnoi politiki KPSS na sovre- mennom etape: Iz zapiski v KPSS, Mai 1978 goda’, in M.S. Gorbachev, Izbrannyi i rechi i stati, vol. 1 (M: Politizdat, 1987), pp. 187–90. 111 V. Belenkii, ‘Neperspektivnoe’ selo’, Zhurnalist (31 March 1975), 11–13; T. Zaslavskaia and R. Ryvkina, op. cit., Pravda (19 May 1975), 2; R. Ryvkina, ‘Paradoksy selskogo doma’, Znanie-sila, no. 12 (December 1975), 31–3; P. Simush, ‘Sotsialnye preobrazovaniia na sele’, Kommunist, no. 16 (1976), 61–73; S. Lavrov, B. Khorev and V. Belenkii, ‘Meniaia privychnyi uklad’, Pravda (22 October 1978), 2; V. Belenkii ‘Bez chetkikh rekomendatsii’, Pravda (27 May 1980), 3; T.I. Zaslavskaia and R.V. Ryvkina, op. cit. (12 September 1980), p. 2; B. Khorev, ‘Volnovakhskii eksperiment’, Pravda (20 October 1980), 3; Victor Perevedentsev, ‘The Non-Black-Earth Zone’s Everyday Concerns’, Sovetskaia Rossiia (25 August 1982), CDSP XXXIV, no. 36 (1982), 13–14. 112 V. Perevedentsev noted that in western countries many scattered rural settlements had modern facilities. The USSR had simply opted to transfer the urbanist model of concentration to the countryside and abandoned all that was ‘rural’. V. Perevedentsev, ‘Izmereniye peryemen’, Nash Sovremennik, no. 3 (March 1974), 139–41. 113 Ivan Vasilev, ‘Derevenskii zhitel’, Volga, no. 4 (April 1979), 124–36; and ‘Zemlia Russkaia’, Nash Sovremennik, no. 12 (December 1981), 18–76. 114 Parthe, op. cit. (1990), 161–75. 115 F. Abramov, ‘Chem zhivem – kormimsia’, Pravda (17 November 1979), 3. 116 The decision to reject the policy of viable/non-viable was taken in the Ukrainian Politburo on the initiative of the Poltavskii Obkom First Secretary Morgun following a meeting with two of the leading specialist opponents of the village concentration policy, Khorev and Belenkii. Ukraine was the first to abandon the policy partly because of its more independent Politburo and also because, along with Belorussia and Russia, it was the only republic where official policy was actively being applied. Interview with Khorev, op. cit. (1991). 252 Notes

117 The opposition was considerably strengthened by the fact that in 1979 I.T. Novikov, the head of Gosstroi, and G.N. Fomin, the head of Gosgrazhdanstroi, left their positions. It is quite likely their departure was a result of the pressure building against official rural policy and an effort to quieten the opposition. 118 Belenkii, op. cit., Pravda (27 May 1980), 2. 119 ‘Ob ustranenii nedostatkov v proektakh raionnoi planirovki v chasti rasseleniia v selskoi mestnosti’, no. TF. 2–2294, (13 August 1980). Personal archive. See also B. Khorev, op. cit., Sel. Nov. (1981). 120 The new categorisation appeared in planning documents of the 1980s. ‘Rukovodstvo po sostavleniiu skhem vnutrikhoziaistvennoi planirovki Moskovskoi Oblasti’, (M.: Mosoblispolkom Glavapu Mosgiproniiselstroi, 1985), 8; ‘Pravila zastroiki gordov, poselkov gorodskogo tipa, selskikh naselennykh punktov i zon otdykha Moldovskoi SSR’ (Kishinev: 1985), 11; and ‘Pravila zastroiki selskikh naselennykh punktov Turkmenskoi SSR’ (Ashkhabat: 1985), p. 4. 121 The strength of the leadership of the policy community was also revealed when Belenkii was dismissed shortly after his article appeared in Pravda. At the time he was head of the rural planning sector of TsNIIEPgrazhdanselstroi. Following the article, the head of Gosgrazhdanstroi circulated a note arguing that there was parallelism in the work of TsNIIEPgradostroitelstvo and TsNIIEPgrazhdanselstroi. The result was that Belenkii’s sector was abolished and its staff, except for Belenkii himself and another opponent of the plans who lost their positions, transferred. Belenkii was also denied the chance to defend his doctoral degree. 122 Authors showed how the policy of resettlement had in fact often fostered rural out-migration: A.I. Alekseev, N.V. Zubarevich and T.M. Regent, ‘Opyt izucheniia effektivnosti sseleniia zhitelei selskikh naselennykh punktov v Nechernozemnoi zone RSFSR’, Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta, seriia geografiia, no. 1 (1980), 97–100, while some academics indicated how cities had acted as a ‘pump’ that recircu- lated the population from their surrounding areas to south-western and central areas of the USSR: T.I. Zaslavskaia and V.A. Kalmyk, ‘Sotsialno-ekonicheskie problemy razvitiia Sibiri’, Voprosy Filosofii, no. 8 (1981), 48–51. 123 Khorev and Belenkii wrote to the Central Committee in 1979 attacking the policy toward the Non-Black-Earth-Zone, arguing that the area was being drained of investment for industrial and other areas. In response to the letter the two authors were summoned to a meeting of the Central Committee Agricultural Department, Section for the Socio-economic Problems of Reconstruction of Villages, to discuss the letter. The outcome of these discus- sions was a decree on rural roads. Pravda (29 April 1980). Interview with Khorev op. cit. (1991) and Belenkii, op. cit. (1990). 124 S. Deshkov, ‘Kakoi poselok stroit?’, Pravda (27 October 1980), p. 7. 125 V. Sasayeva, A. Golovyakshin and T. Sokolova, ‘And the Village was Dubbed “Futureless” ’, Izvestiia (15 May 1981); V. Shchutkevitch, ‘Village on the Far Shore’, Komsomolskaia Pravda (29 March 1981) and also (29 April 1981), 2 in CDSP XXIII, no. 20 (1981), 5–6; D. Novoplyanskii used readers letters to discuss the issue of rural resettlement, ‘Neglect of “Futureless” Villages Charged’, Pravda (25 October 1978); ‘What Should Our Villages be like? – Its Worth Consulting the Residents on This’, Izvestiia (7 July 1983), 2 in CDSP XXXV, no. 27 (1983), 21; ‘A Letter from People’s Deputies About the Fate of Small Villages’, CDSP XXXIII, no. 20 (1981), 4–5. 126 The meeting of the Ekspertnaia komissiia was presided over by the head of Gosplan Baibakov; also present were the President of the Central Statistical Notes 253

Agency and a variety of ministers. Although Khorev had participated in the activity of this committee prior to this meeting – notably, he and Belenkii had attended the meeting in 1978 that had rejected the original General Plan – he became a full member of the committee in 1981. An important ally of Khorev was D.G. Khodzhaev, the head of the settlement sector of Gosplan, who while disagreeing on some theoretical issues supported Khorev on practical issues. The two had written together on settlement issues since the early 1970s. D.G. Khodzhaev and B.S. Khorev, ‘Kontseptsiia edinoi sistemy rasseleniia i planovoe regulirovanie rosta gorodov v SSSR’, in Problemy urbanizatsii v SSSR (M.: MGU, 1971), pp. 19–31. With Khodzhaev’s backing, Khorev was able to gain access to Gosplan meetings. Interviews with Khorev, op. cit. (1991) and Belenkii, op. cit. (1990). 127 Interview with T.I. Zaslavskaia conducted by Professor Archie Brown, Oxford, November 1988. Personal notes. 128 Decree of the Central Committee of the CPSU ‘O merakh po dalneishemu uluchsheniiu zhilishchnykh, kommunalno-bytovykh i sotsialno-kulturnykh uslovii zhizni selskogo naseleniia and ‘Three New Resolutions on Agriculture’, Pravda (15 April 1981), in CDSP XXXIII, no. 15 (1981), 1–4; ‘The USSR Food Programme – I’, Pravda and Izvestiia (27 May 1982), pp. 1–4, in CDSP XXXIV, no. 21 (1982), 9–23 and ‘The USSR Food Programme – II’, Pravda and Izvestiia (27 May 1982), pp. 1–4, in CDSP XXXIV, no. 22 (1982), 7–15; ‘Brezhnev Explains Food Programme’s Goals’, Pravda (25 May 1982) in CDSP XXXIV, no. 21 (1982), 3–8; ‘Resolutions Implement Food Programme – III’, Pravda (30 May 1982) in CDSP XXXIV, no. 25 (1982), 13–14. See also V Tsentralnom Komitete KPSS i Sovete Ministrov SSSR’, Pravda (30 May 1982), pp. 1–2. 129 Sbornik normativnykh dokumentov po planirovke i zastroike selskikh naselennykh punktov RSFSR (M.: Stroiizdat, 1982). 130 M.S. Strongina, Sotsialnoye problemy razvitiia i rekonstruktsy sela (M.: Agropromizdat, 1985), p. 5. 131 V.I. Konotop, ‘Vypolnenie predovolstvennoi programmy delo vsekh i kazhdogo’, Leninskoe Znanie (3 June 1982). 132 See the decrees of the February 1983 Plenum of the Mosgorkom KPSS and the March Ispolkom meeting of the Mosoblsovet, which launched the ‘Programme for the Social Reconstruction of Rural Settlements in Moscow Oblast, including Remote Villages’. V.I. Konotop, ‘Obnovliaetsia selo’, Pravda (26 April 1983), 2, and Konotop, ‘Dorozhit zemlei’, Novyi Mir, no. 9 (September 1982), pp. 3–14. Subsequently a planning document was released, ‘Rukovodstvo po sostavleniiu skhem genplanov malykh selskikh naselennykh punktov Moskovskii Oblasti, (M.: 1985), which required that general plans be produced for all settlements of the oblast, as opposed to earlier when such plans were only produced for central viable settlements. 133 The geography department provided such advice via a contract from MosgiproNIIselstroi. S. Fedulov, ‘Sotsialno-geograficheskii analiz rekonstruktsii “Neperspektivnykh selskikh poselenii Moskovskoi Oblasti, in Predplanovye i proekt- nye issledovaniia rasseleniia (M.: Moskovskii Filial Geograficheskogo Obshchestva SSSR, 1987), pp. 57–66. 134 B. Khorev, ‘Tak kto zhe nazval derevniu “Neperspektivnoi”?’, Sel. Nov., no. 1 (January 1990), 22. Although this nominally left the bulk of the USSR operating under the old system, in fact it also became increasingly clear, again through the work of social scientists, that in large parts of the USSR rural transformation had only been very weakly pursued. This was particularly the case in Central Asia and the 254 Notes

Caucases. A.I. Alekseev, ‘Selskoe rasselenie: Kontseptsii i realnost ’, in Sovremennoe selo: Puti razvitiia, Voprosy Geografii no. 132 (M.: Mysl’, 1988), 144–82. 135 Letter from Belenkii and Khorev to General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU Yurii Andropov (1982). Personal archive in Moscow. 136 B.S. Khorev, ‘I malomu poseleniiu zhit’ ’, Lit. Gaz. 22 (30 May 1984), 11. Khorev claimed that opponents of the village transformation programme had received support from the RSFSR and Non-Black-Earth-Zone sector of the Central Committee of the CPSU. 137 N.T. Agafonov, S.B. Lavrov and B.S. Khorev, ‘On Some Faulty Concepts in Soviet Urban Studies’, Izvestiia Vsesoyuznogo Geograficheskogo Obshechstva, no. 6, 533–9. Trans. in SG 24, (March 1983), 179–85; A.V. Dmitriyev and M.N. Mezhevich, ‘Socialist Urbanisation and the Limitation of Growth of Large Cities’, Sotsiologicheskiye Issledovaniya, no. 4 (1981) and M.N. Mezhevich, Sotsialnoye razvitiye i gorod (Leningrad: 1979); and S. Smidovich, ‘Politika rasseleniia v SSSR: K probleme vybor tselei’, in Rasselenie i demograficheskie protsessy, Vyp. 41 (M.: M-vo vysh. i sred. obrazovaniia SSSR. nauch. tekhn. sovet sektsiia narodonasele- nie, statistika, 1983), pp. 3–17. 138 V. Cheshegorov, ‘Iskliuchit iz chisla neperspektivnykh … ’, Lit. Gaz., no. 44 (2 November 1983), 12. 139 ‘City Dwellers’ Rural Home’, Sovetskaia Rossiia (2 August 1987). In the mid-1980s the empty villages were the subject of a major discussion – increasingly the abandoned houses were being bought up as dachas. ‘Houses with Boarded-up Shutters’ and ‘Summer Residents in the Village’, Izvestiia, no. 152 and 153; 237 and 238 (1983) in CDSP XXXV, no. 42 (1983), 21; Z. Zlobin, ‘Illegal Dacha Construction in Saratov Area’, Sovetskaia Rossiia (27 March 1983), 3 in CDSP XXXV, no. 22 (1983), 16. 140 By 1985 even elements of the architectural profession, which hitherto had been supportive of the programme of rural transformation, were voicing strong criticism of the rural development programme. N.I. Petrova, ed., Aktualnye problemy arkhitektury sela (po materialam soveshchanii v Kalinine, Saratove, Gorkom i dr.) (M.: Soiuz arkhitektorov SSSR, 1985). 141 Khorevs ideas of the General Settlement Strategy of the USSR were applied in Altai. Khorev, op. cit. (1990).

9 Power and Institutional Decay in Soviet Politics

1 Nina P. Halpern, ‘Policy Communities in a Leninist State: the Case of the Chinese Economic Policy Communities’, Governance, vol. 9, no. 1 (January 1989), 23–41 and Mark Bassin, ‘The Evolution of Policy Communities in Socialist Yugoslavia: the Case of Worker Migration Abroad’, Governance, vol. 9, no. 1 (January 1989), 67–85. 2 Timothy J. Colton, The Dilemma of Reform in the Soviet Union (New York: Council of Foreign Relations Books, 1986), p. 14. 3 Jerry Hough, ‘Pluralism, Corporatism and the Soviet Union’, in Pluralism in the Soviet Union, Susan Gross Solomon, ed. (London: Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, 1983), p. 52. 4 Hough, op. cit. (1986), p. 264. 5 Paul Cocks, ‘Rethinking the Organisational Weapon: the Soviet System Within the Systems Age’, World Politics, vol. 32 (January 1980), 251. 6 Archie Brown, ‘Political Science in the USSR’, International Political Science Review, vol. 7, no. 4 (October 1986), 443–81. Notes 255

7 The point is not that Gustafson believes that the Soviet leadership was uncon- strained; indeed, he suggests that technological, economic and social problems meant that the Soviet leadership was increasingly restricted, but in political terms they were, if anything, less constrained. Gustafson, op. cit. (1981), pp. 137–8 and 156. 8 Solomon, op. cit. (1978) footnote 32 on page 156. 9 There is a third variant of the model found in other works on specialists: the empirical model. This was also the dominant understanding of the relationship between social knowledge and policy held in the Soviet Union. The ‘empirical’ model assumed that the growth of academic disciplines and the expansion of specialist participation would lead to the direct and simple transfer of new knowledge into policy. For a discussion of the various models see Martin Bulmer, The Uses of Social Research: Investigation in Public Policy-Making (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1982), pp. 30–49. 10 Gustafson, op. cit. (1981). 11 Solomon, op. cit. (1978), p. 148. 12 Gustafson, op. cit. (1989). 13 Solomon, op. cit. (1978), pp. 157–8. 14 Otto Singer, ‘Policy Communities and Discourse Coalitions: the Role of Policy Analysis in Economic Policy Making’, Knowledge: Creation, Diffusion, Utilization, Vol. 11, No. 4 (June 1990), 428–58; Jack L. Walker, ‘The Diffusion of Knowledge, Policy Communities and Agenda Setting: the Relationship of Knowledge and Power’, in J. Tropman et al. (eds), New Strategies on Social Policy (New York: Pergamon, 1981), pp. 75–96; Paul A. Sabatier, ‘An Advocacy Coalition Framework of Policy Change and the Role of Policy-Oriented Learning Therein’, Policy Sciences, 21 (1988), 129–68 and Paul A. Sabatier and Hank C. Jenkins-Smith, Policy Change and Learning: an Advocacy Coalition Approach (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993). 15 Stuart S. Blume, ‘Policy as Theory: a Framework for Understanding the Contribution of Social Science to Welfare Policy’, Acta Sociologica, vol. 20, no. 3 (1977), 247–62. 16 Robert Axelrod, ed., Structure of Decision: the Cognitive Maps of Political Elites (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976). 17 In its strongest form, this version of the sociology of knowledge suggested that all knowledge, including scientific knowledge, is ‘ideological’, that is, that knowledge is dependent on the social conditions within which it is produced; that knowledge is in fact a sociological construction. Edward Shils, ‘Knowledge and the Sociology of Knowledge’, Knowledge: Creation, Diffusion, Utilization, vol. 4, no. 1 (September 1982), 10–11. 18 Burkart Holzner, ‘The Sociology of Applied Knowledge’, Sociological Symposium, no. 21 (Winter 1978), 11–12. 19 Alfred Schultz, The Phenomenology of the Social World (Evanston, IL: Washington University Press, 1967). See also Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckman, The Social Construction of Reality: a Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge (New York: Doubleday, 1989), Burkart Holzner, Reality Construction in Society (Cambridge, MA.: Schenkman, 1968) and Burkart Holzner and John H. Marx, Knowledge Application: The Knowledge System in Society (Boston, MA.: Allyn and Beacon, 1979). 20 Holzner, op. cit. (1968), p. 14. 21 Holzner, op. cit. (1968), p. 14 and Joseph R. Gusfield, The Culture of Public Problems: Drink-Driving and the Symbolic Order (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1981). 256 Notes

22 Terence Ball, James Farr and Russell Hanson, ‘Preface’, in Political Innovation and Conceptual Change, ed. Terence Ball, James Farr and Russell Hanson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989). 23 William E. Connolly, ‘Essentially Contested Concepts’, The Terms of Political Discourse (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), p. 6. 24 Peter A. Hall, ed., The Political Power of Economic Ideas: Keynesianism Across Nations (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990). 25 As Meyer has pointed out, students of communist politics generally differ in their views as to whether ideology played primarily an initiating/guiding role (inspir- ing action and policies) or an ex post facto, legitimating role. A.G. Meyer, ‘The Functions of Ideology in the Soviet Political System’, Soviet Studies, no. 3 (1966), 275. See also Terry L. Thompson, Ideology and Policy: the Political Uses of Doctrine in the Soviet Union (London: Westview Press, 1989). Robinson has argued that official ideology was integral to the Soviet system of power because its categories alone defined and animated the social world. He argues that it also gave the Communist Party its very identity because it constructed it as the sole repository of truth and knowledge. Robinson, op. cit. (1995). 26 ‘The authority structure is functionally central for any collectivity. It organizes the group’s powers for collective decision-making and enables the mobilisation of its collective energies in the actual pursuit of those goals decided upon’. Holzner and Marx, op. cit. (1979), p. 148. 27 Peter H. Juviler and Henry W. Morton, eds, Soviet Policy-Making: Studies of Communism in Transition (London: Pall Mall Press, 1967) p. 16. 28 Blume, op. cit. (1977), pp. 247–62; Majone, op. cit. (1980), pp. 151–62. 29 Charles E. Lindblom and David K. Cohen, Usable Knowledge: Social Science and Social Problem Solving (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1979), p. 50. A particularly important concept for such theorists is that of ‘framing’. Rein and Schon suggest that framing is ‘a way of selecting, organising, interpreting and making sense of a complex reality so as to provide guideposts for knowing, analysing persuading and acting. A frame is a perspective from which an amorphous, ill-defined problematic situation can be made sense of and acted upon’. When people disagree about a policy issue, they may be able to examine the facts of the situation and determine who is right; policy disagreements arise within a common frame and can be settled in principle by appeal to established rules. But policy controversies cannot be settled by recourse to facts, or indeed by recourse to evidence of any kind; because they derive from conflicting frames, the same body of evidence can be used to support quite different policy positions. Martin Rein and Donald Schon, ‘Frame-reflective Policy Discourse’, in Peter Wagner, Carol Hirshon Weis, Bjorn Wittrock and Hellmut Wollman (eds), Social Sciences and Modern States: National Experiences and Theoretical Crossroads (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), p. 265. 30 Aaron Wildavsky, Speaking Truth to Power: the Art and Craft of Policy Analysis (Boston, MA: Little, Brown, 1979) and David Dery, Problem Definition in Policy Analysis (Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas Press, 1984). 31 Gusfield, op. cit. (1981) p. 31. 32 Lindblom and Cohen, op. cit. (1979), p. 179. 33 Taken together, these institutional developments marked a considerable diversifi- cation of the organisation and geographic location of scientific research and the emergence of a national scientific infrastructure. The expansion of the Soviet research community began in the 1930s with the spread of republican-level academies of science and continued in the 1950s with the creation of regional level Notes 257

academies, notably at Novosibirsk. The growth of the academy structure was also accompanied by an expansion of the university system. In addition, there was also an expansion of the research network of the State Committee for Science and Technology and State Planning Committee (Gosplan). The expansion was particularly dramatic in the post-Stalin years. In 1950, 714 000 people were employed in Soviet science and scientific services, or 1.8 per cent of the people employed by the Soviet state. By 1975, the figure had reached 4 046 000 or 4 per cent, most of this increase took place prior to 1965. While the largest growth took place in technical and engineering sciences, employment multiplied by a factor of five in the social sciences and humanities, and the percentage of employees with advanced degrees rose by nearly 10 per cent. Blair A. Ruble, ‘The Expansion of Soviet Science’, Knowledge: Creation, Diffusion, Utilization, vol. 2, no. 4 (June 1981), 529–53. See also Alexander Vucinich, Empire of Knowledge: the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1917–1970) (London: University of California Press, 1984), pp. 284–313. 34 Middle-range theories may be considered as conceptual constructions that involved important reinterpretation of elements of Soviet society but which did not constitute a comprehensive critique of official ideology. A leading example of middle-range theory was the development by Soviet sociologists of the theory of intra-class differences within Soviet society. Murray Yanowitch, ed., The Social Structure of the USSR: Recent Soviet Studies (Armont, NY: M.E. Sharpe., 1986). 35 Eugene Huskey, ‘Specialists in the Soviet Communist Party Apparatus: Legal Professionals as Party Functionaries’, Soviet Studies, XL, no. 4 (October 1988), 538–55. 36 M.P. Gehlen, ‘Group Theory and the Study of Soviet Politics’, in Ploss, op. cit. (1971), pp. 40–1. 37 Unfortunately, too often the conclusion of such studies – that interest groups were indeed to be found in the USSR – was a reflection not of Soviet reality but of a fundamental tendency in North American political science of the period to view complex social structures in terms of group behaviour. Susan Gross Solomon, ‘ “Pluralism” in Political Science: the Odyssey of a Concept’, in op. cit., Solomon (1983), p. 21. 38 Hough, ‘The Soviet System: Petrification or Pluralism’, in op. cit. (1977) and Hammer, op. cit. (1974), pp. 223–56. For studies that employ various forms of corporatist theory see Bunce and Echols in Kelley, op. cit. (1980), pp. 9–12; Bunce, op. cit. (1983), pp. 129–58; McCain, op. cit. (1983), pp. 443–60; Ruble, op. cit. (1983); and Charles E. Ziegler, ‘Issue Creation and Interest Groups in Soviet Environmental Policy: the Applicability of the State Corporatist Model’, Comparative Politics, vol. 18, no. 2 (January 1986), 171–92. 39 Eugene Huskey, ‘The Limits of Institutional Autonomy in the Soviet Union: the Case of the Advokatura’, Soviet Studies, XXXIV, no. 2 (April 1982), 200–27 and William Odom, ‘A Dissenting View of the Group Approach to Soviet Politics’, World Politics, vol. 28, no. 4 (July 1976), 542–67. 40 Donald R. Kelly, ‘Group and Specialist Influence in Soviet Politics: In Search of a Theory’, in Remnek, op. cit (1977), pp. 111–18. 41 According to Dahl, power is defined in the terms: A has power over B to the extent that he/she can get B to do something that B would not otherwise do. Robert A. Dahl, ‘The Concept of Power’, Behavioural Science, vol. 52 (1958), 463–9. 42 Solomon relies on a definition of power provided by Clark that rests on an actor’s ability to attain his values, goals or preferences. Solomon, op. cit. (1978) footnote 31 p. 156. Gustafson, op. cit. (1981), pp. 144–6. 258 Notes

43 Although rejecting the idea that specialists had power, the notion of the policy process that informed such accounts drew directly on the work of Bachrach and Baratz. Bachrach and Baratz argued that political power is not simply about conflict and decision-making but about what issues reach the decision-making stage. In this view, power has ‘two faces’ and a thorough analysis involves examining both decision-making and non-decision-making, that is, what is excluded from the decision-making agenda. Peter Bachrach and Morton S. Baratz, ‘The Two Faces of Power’, American Political Science Review, vol. 56 (1962), 947–52. 44 Such an understanding of power is close to the view of Lukes that power must be understood as a ‘three dimensional’ phenomenon. Lukes challenges the focus on ‘actual and observable conflict’ in definitions of power arguing ‘ … it is highly unsatisfactory to suppose that power is only exercised in situations of such conflict. To put the matter sharply, A may exercise power over B by getting him to do what he does not want to do, but he may also exercise power over him by shaping influencing, shaping or determining his very wants. Indeed, is it not the supreme exercise of power to get another or others to have the desires you want them to have – that is, to secure their compliance by controlling their thoughts and desires’. Steven Lukes, Power: A Radical View (London: Macmillan, 1974), p. 23. 45 Clarissa Rile Hayward, De-Facing Power (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 35. 46 Hayward, op. cit. (2000), p. 30. 47 Foucault calls into question the idea that power is directed by agents who ‘have’ or ‘use’ it and he suggests that power should not be understood as something that is ‘acquired, seized or shared, something that one holds on to or allows to slip away’. Instead, power is understood in terms as sets of relations and as something that is exercised from innumerable points simultaneously. ‘The omnipresence of power is not because it has the privilege of consolidating everything under its unity, but because it is produced from one moment to the next, at every point, or rather in every relations from one point to another.’ Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, Volume I: An Introduction, trans. Robert Hurley (Harmondsworth: Penguin 1987), pp. 92–4. 48 Habermas notes that particular power relations should be conceived in terms of the degree to which they enable those they position to act in ways that affect their constitutive boundaries. Jürgen Habermas, Between Facts and Norms, trans. William Rehg (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998). 49 Robert F. Rich, ed., The Knowledge Cycle (London: Sage, 1981). 50 In a far-sighted study published in 1974, Lewin highlighted the way in which the emergence of new economic and social concepts challenged the Soviet elite’s understanding and approach to key policies. Moshe Lewin, Stalinism and the Seeds of Soviet Reform: the Debates of the 1960s (London: Pluto Press, 1991) with new Introduction. References and Sources Consulted

This list of sources consulted is divided into six categories: archives; books and articles; selected documents; interviews; unpublished materials; main periodical publications and newspapers. The list is extensive but does not represent an exhaustive account of the literature in this area. With the exception of particularly important articles, shorter articles from Russian periodicals are not noted here (although they appear in the endnotes). A list of those publications employed most extensively is included at the end of the list of sources consulted. During research for the study I also undertook a number of research visits to rural areas in various parts of the former Soviet Union including: Yaroslavskaia, Moskovskaia, Leningradskaia, Kalininskaia, Pskovskaia, Vladimirskaia, Kostromskaia, Rostovskaia oblasts and Dagestan in the Russian Federation; Kievskaia oblast in Ukraine; Estonia; Lithuania; Latvia, Georgia, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan.

Archives

Russian State Archive of the Economy (RGAE). Russian State Archive of Literature and Art (RGALI). Archive of the President of the Russian Federation (APRF). Archive of the Russian Institute of Architecture.

Books and articles

Albom proektov dlia kolkhozov. Moscow: Knigsoiuz, 1929. Albom proektov selskogo i kolkhoznogo stroitelstva. Moscow: Gos. Arkh. Izdat., 1950. Alekseev, A.I. Mnogolikaia derevniia. Moscow: Mysl, 1990. Arbatov, Geogri. The System: an Insider’s Life in Soviet Politics. New York: Random House, 1992. Arkhitektura sela i tvorcheskie zadachi arkhitektorov: IX Plenum Pravleniia SA SSSR, Moskva 20–21 Dek. 1979. Moscow: Soiuz Arkhitektorov SSSR, 1980. Arutiunian, Iu. V. Mekhanizatory selskogo khoziaistva SSSR v 1929–1957gg (formirovanie kadrov massovykh kvalifikatsii) Moscow: Akademiia Nauk, 1960. Arutiunian, Iu.V. ‘Sotsialnaia struktura selskogo naseleniia’. Voprosy Filosofii, no. 5 (1966), 51–61. Arutiunian, Iu.V. ‘Iz istorii sotsiologicheskikh issledovanii sela’. Sotsialnye Issledovania, no. 2 (1968a), 197–210. Arutiunian, Iu.V., ed. Sotsiologicheskoe izuchenie sela: Kultura, byt, rasselenie (material k Vsesoiuznomu Simpoziumu po Sotsiologicheskii Problemam Sela v g. Krasnodare). Vyp. 2. Moscow, 1968b. Arutiunian, Iu.V. Opyt sotsiologicheskogo izucheniia sela. Moscow: MGU, 1968c. Arutiunian, Iu.V. Sotsialnaia struktura selskogo naseleniia SSSR. Moscow: Mysl, 1971.

259 260 References and Sources Consulted

Arutiunian, Iu.V, V.I. Staroverov, eds. Sovremennaia sovetskaia derevnia: Tezisy dokladov sovetskikh uchenykh na IV Vsemirnyi Kongress po Sotsiologii Derevni. Moscow: Institut Sotsiologicheskikh Issledovanii, 1976. Astashkin, A.P. ‘Osnovnye usloviia, vliiaiushchie na razmeshchenie kolkhoznykh selenii i proizvodstvennykh tsentrov v Estonskoi SSR’. Trudy Mosk. in-ta inzhenerov Zemleustroistva, Vyp. 9 (1960). Astashkin, A.P. ‘Osnovnye voprosy razmeshcheniia selenii i proizvodstvennykh tsentrov v kolkhozakh Estonskoi SSR’. Trudy Mosk. in-ta inzhenerov zemleustroistva, Vyp. 8 (1959). Axelrod, Robert, ed. Structure of Decision: The Cognitive Maps of Political Elites. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976. Bachrach, Peter and Morton S. Baratz. ‘The Two Faces of Power’. APSR, 56 (1962), 947–52. Balezin, B.P. Pravovoi rezhim zemel selskikh naselennykh punktov. Moscow: MGU, 1972. Ball, Terence, James Farr and Russell Hanson, eds. Political Innovation and Conceptual Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. Barry, Donald D. ‘The Specialist in Soviet Policy-Making: The Adoption of a Law’, Soviet Studies, vol. XVI, no. 2, October 1964, 152–65. Bassin, Mark A. ‘The Evolution of Policy Communities in Socialist Yugoslavia: The Case of Worker Migration Abroad’. Governance, 9, no. 1 (January 1989), 67–85. Bater, James H. The Soviet City: Ideal and Reality. London: Edward Arnold, 1980. Belousov, V.N., V.V. Vladimirov, E.E. Leizerovich, N.I. Naimark, D.G. Khodzhaev. Komplekshaia raionnaia planirovka. Moscow: Stroiizdat, 1960. Berger, Peter L. and Thomas Luckman. The Social Construction of Reality: a Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge. New York: Doubleday, 1989. Blair A. Ruble. ‘The Expansion of Soviet Science’. Knowledge: Creation, Diffusion, Utilization, vol. 2, no. 4 (June 1981), 529–53. Blume, Stuart S. ‘Policy as Theory: a Framework for Understanding the Contribution of Social Science to Welfare Policy’. Acta Sociologica, vol. 20, no. 3 (1977), 247–62. Borrowes, Robert. ‘Totalitarianism: the Revised Standard Version’. World Politics, XXI, no. 2 (January 1969), 272–94. Boykov, N.N. Razlichiia mezhdu gorodom i derevnei i materialnaya osnova ikh preodoleniia. Novosibirsk, 1969. Bratin, E.A. Planirovka i Zastroika Selenii. Moscow: Narkomzdrava, 1927. Breslauer, George W. Khrushchev and Brezhnev as Leaders: Building Authority in Soviet Politics. London: George Allen and Unwin, 1982. Breslauer, George W. ‘Soviet Economic Reforms Since Stalin: Ideology, Politics, and Learning’. Soviet Economy, vol. 6 (July–September 1990), 252–80. Breslauer, George. ‘In Defense of Sovietology’. Post-Soviet Affairs, 8, 3 (1992), 197–238. Breslauer, George. Gorbachev and Yeltsin as Leaders. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Brooks, Stephen G. and William C. Wohlforth. ‘Power, Globalization, and the End of the Cold War: Reevaluating a Landmark Case for Ideas’, International Security, vol. 25, no. 3 (Winter 2000), 5–53. Brown, Archie. ‘Political Science in the Soviet Union’. International Political Science Review, vol. 7, no. 4 (October 1986), 443–81. Brown, Archie. The Gorbachev Factor. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. Brown, Archie and Lilia Shevtsova, eds. Gorbachev, Yeltsin and Putin: Political Leadership in Russia’s Transition. Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2001. References and Sources Consulted 261

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Selected documents

Main Party meetings XVIII Sezd Vsesoiuznoi Kommunisticheskoi Partii (b): Stenograficheskii otchet. 10–21 Marta 1939g. Moscow: Gospolitizdat., 1939. Malenkov, G. Report to the Nineteenth Party Congress of the Work of the Central Committee of the CPSU (B). 5 October 1952. Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1952. Materialy fevralskovo plenuma TsK KPSS (1958 goda). Moscow: Gospolitizdat., 1958. Plenum Tsentralnogo Komiteta Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soiuza: Stenograficheskii otchet. 15–19 Dekabria 1958g. Moscow: Gospolitizdat., 1958. Vneocherednoi XXI Sezd Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soiuza: Stenograficheskii otchet. 27 Ianvar–5 Fevral 1959g., 2 vols. Moscow: Gospolitizdat., 1959. Plenum Tsentralnogo Komiteta Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soiuza: Stenograficheskii otchet. 22–25 Dekabria 1959g. Moscow: Gospolitizdat., 1960. Plenum Tsentralnogo Komiteta Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soiuza: Stenograficheskii otchet. 10–18 Ianvaria 1961g. Moscow: Gospolitizdat., 1962. XXII Sezd Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soiuza: Stenograficheskii otchet. 17–31 Oktiabria 1961g., 3 vols. Moscow: Gospolitizdat., 1962. Plenum Tsentralnogo Komiteta Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soiuza: Stenograficheskii otchet. 5–9 Marta 1962g. Moscow: Gospolitizdat., 1962. ‘Programma KPSS’ in XXII Kongress Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soiuza: Stenograficheskii otchet. 17–31 Oktiabria 1961g., vol. 3. Moscow: Gospolitizdat., 1962. Plenum Tsentralnogo Komiteta Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soiuza: Stenograficheskii otchet, 9–13 Dekabria 1963g. Moscow: Gospolitizdat., 1963. Plenum Tsentralnogo Komiteta Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soiuza: Stenograficheskii otchet, 10–15 Fevralia 1964g. Moscow: Gospolitizdat., 1964. Plenum Tsentralnogo Komiteta Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soiuza: Stenograficheskii otchet. 24–26 Marta 1965g. Moscow: Gospolitizdat., 1965. XXIII Sezd Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soiuza: Stenograficheskii otchet. 29 Marta–8 Aprelia 1966g., 2 vols. Moscow: Gospolitizdat., 1966. XXIV Sezd Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soiuza: Stenograficheskii otchet. 30 Marta–9 Aprelia 1971g., 2 vols. Moscow: Gospolitizdat., 1971.

Planning documents Vremennye instruktsii po planirovke i zastroike selskikh naselennykh mest. Moscow, 1946. Instruktivnaia-poiasnitelnaia zapiska k primernym skhemam planirovki khoztsentrov ukrupnennykh kolkhozov Moskovskoi Oblasti. Molotov, 1950. Vremennye ukazaniia po sostavleniiu skhem planirovki selenii i khoziaistvennykh tsentrov ukrupnennykh kolkhozov Moskovskoi Oblasti. Vologda, 1950. Vremennaia instruktsiia po sostavleniiu proektov planirovki i zastroiki kolkhoznykh selenii obedinennykh selkhozartelei Leningradskoi Oblasti. Leningrad, 1950. Vremennye ukazaniia po organizatsii rabot po planirovke i zastroike selskikh naselennykh mest. Molotov, 1950. Vremennye ukazaniia po sostavleniiu skhem planirovki selenii ukrypnennykh kolkhozov Moskovskoi Oblasti. Kuibyshev, 1951. Stroitelnye normy i pravila: Planirovka i zastroika naselennykh mest (normy proektirovaniia SN.P P-K. 2–62). Moscow: Stroiizdat., 1965. Instruktsiia po sostavleniiu skem raionnoi planirovki selskokhoziaistvennykh raionov Tadzhikskoi SSR. Dushanbe: Gosstroi Tadzhikiskoi SSR/ Tadzh. gos. proektnyi institut po zemleustroistvu ‘Tadzhikgiprozem’, 1969. 274 References and Sources Consulted

Pravila zastroiki selskikh naselennykh punktov RSFSR. Moscow, 1970. Instruktsiia po sostavleniiu proektov planirovki i zastroiki selskikh naselennykh punktov Belorusskoi SSR, (RSN 01–70). Minsk: Gosstroi BSSR, 1970. Instruktsiia po razrabotke proektov planirovki i zastroiki selskikh naselennykh punktov USSR, (RSN 168–72). Kiev: Gosstroi USSR, 1972. Osnovnye napravleniia v planirovke i zastroike selskikh naselennykh mest, proektirovanii selskikh zhilykh i obshchestvennykh zdanii/soobshchenie Gosgrazhdanstroi. Moscow: Stroiizdat.,1974. Kalinin Oblispolkom. Skhema raionnoi planirovki Kalininskoi Oblasti. Osnovnye polozheniia (26.06.1978). Kalinin Oblispolkom. Perspektivnye naselennye Kalininskoi Oblasti (28.03.1977). Sbornik normativnykh dokumentov po planirovke i zastroike selskikh naselennykh punktov RSFSR. Moscow: Stroiizdat., 1982. Instruktsii po sostavleniiu skhem raionnoe planirovki selsko-khoziaistvennykh raionov. Moscow, 1965.

Interviews

Alekseev, Alexandr. Professor of Geography Moscow State University. Interviewed by author, 10 January 1990, Moscow. Belenkii, V.P. Head of the Social Infrastructure of the Village Sector of the All-Union Research Institute of Agricultural Economics (VNIESKh). Interviewed by author, 27 August 1990, Moscow. Ioffe, G.V. Senior Researcher, the Institute of Geography, Academy of Sciences USSR. Interviewed by author, 18 October 1989, Moscow. Khorev, B.S. Professor of Geography, Head of the Sector for the Problems of Settlement, Moscow State University. Interviewed by author, 27 May 1991, Moscow. Kovalev, S.A. Professor of Geography, Moscow State University. Interviewed by author, 23 May 1990, Moscow. Kovalev, Zh. Lecturer in Geography, Tver University. Interviewed by author, 15 March 1990, Moscow. Mirov, Boris. Chief Architect Gosstroi ESSR. Interviewed by author, 18 February 1990, Tallinn. Pentinen, Victor Andreevich. Former oblast architect for Kalinin Oblispolkom. Interviewed by author, 6 December 1989, Kalinin. Reier, Vello Petrovich. Deputy Head of the Planning Section of Estgiproselstroi, Gosstroi. Interviewed by author, 18 February 1990, Tallinn. Razumov, D.M. Head of the Sector for Planning Rural Settlements of Goskomarkhitektura of Gosstroi. Interviewed by author, 27 September 1990, Moscow. Shatrov, Mikhail. Creative writer. Interviewed by author, 21 October 1992, Cambridge, MA. Smirnova, Olga. Raion architect for Pechorskai raion, Pskov oblast. Interviewed by author, 8 December 1989, Pechoria. Tobileevich, V.P. Former Head of the Sector for Small Settlements of Gosgrazhdanstroi SSSR. Interviewed by author, 20 August 1990, Moscow. Voiteiukas, Stasis. Professor of Geography at Vilnius University. Interviewed by author, 23 February 1990, Vilnius. References and Sources Consulted 275

Unpublished materials

Arutiunian, Iu. V. Vozniknovenie i razvitie massovykh industrialnykh kadrov selskogo khoziaistva SSSR. (1929–1958gg). Dissertatsiia na Soiskanie Uchenoi Stepeni Istoricheskikh Nauk. Moscow, 1963. Balyko, A.E. Osobennosti formirovaniia i rekonstruktsii selskikh naselennykh mest Belorusskoi SSR. Dissertatsiia na Soiskanie Uchenoi Stepeni Kandidata Arkhitektury. Minsk: Beloruskii Ordena Trudovogo Krasnogo Znameni Politekhnicheskii Institut, 1971. Dikii, N.P. Planirovka i zastroika usadeb zernovykh sovkhozov. Dissertatsiia na Soiskanie Uchenoi Stepeni Kandidata Arkhitektury. Moscow: Akademiia Stroitelstva i Arkhitektury SSSR, 1956. Friedgut, Theodore H. ‘The Persistence of the Peasant in Soviet Society’, paper presented to the symposium on ‘Discipline and Profession: the Social Sciences in Rural and Regional Planning and Development’ (26–28 January 1986). Gelmakh, G.E. Istoricheskoe razvitie selskikh poselenii na Ukraine istoriko ethnograficheskoe issledovanie. Avtoreferat Dissertatsiia na Soiskanie Uchenoi Stepeni Doktor Istoricheskikh Nauk. Kiev, 1969. Hauslohner, P.A. Managing the Soviet Labor Market: Politics and Policy-Making under Brezhnev. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1984. Igudina, A.I. Sotsialno-geograficheskie faktory dinamiki selskogo naseleniia na territorii Nechernozemnoi Zony RSFSR (1959–1979gg.). Avtoreferat Dissertatsiia na Soiskanie Uchenoi Stepeni Kandidata Geograficheskikh Nauk. Moscow, 1982. Kondukhov, A.N. Osnovy arkhitekturno-planirovochnoi struktury poselkov kolkhozov, sovkhozov i drugikh selskokhoziaistvennykh predpriiatii (s naseleniem do 4 tr. Zhitelei). Dissertatsiia na Soiskanie Uchenoi Stepeni Kandidata Arkhitektury. Moscow, 1977. Kovalev, E.V. Geograficheskii analiz vzaimodeistviia gorodov i selskom mestnosti v starosvoennom Nechernozeme. Dissertatsiia na Soiskanie Uchenoi Stepeni Kandidata Geograficheskogo Nauky. Moscow: MGU, 1990. Kopyrin, V.I. Gradostroitelnye voprosy rasseleniia i perestroistva i planirovki selskikh naselennykh mest (na primerakh zapadnykh obalstei evropeiskoi chasti RSFSR). Dissertatsiia na Soiskanie Uchenoi Stepeni Kandidata Arkhitektury. Moscow: Moskovskii Arkhitekturnyi Institut, 1966. Maikov, G.P. Voprosy planirovki i zastroike ukrupnennykh selskikh naselennykh mest (primenitelno k usloviiam severnykh oblastei RSFSR). Dissertatsiia na Soiskanie Uchenoi Stepeni Kandidata Arkhitektury. Leningrad: Leningradskii Ordena Trudovogo Krasnogo Znameni Inzhenerno-Stroitelnyi Institut, 1968. Peremyslov, A.S. Voprosy razvitie arkhitektury kolkhoznogo sela v poslevoennyi period. Dissertatsiia na Soiskanie Uchenoi Stepeni Kandidata Arkhitektury. Moscow: Akademiia Arkhitektury SSSR Nauchno-Issledovatelskii Institut Selskogo i Kolkhoznogo Stroitelstva, 1953. Riazanov, V.S. Voprosy arkhitekturno-planirovochnoi rekonstruktsii kolkhoznykh selenii (po materialam evropeiskoi chasti RSFSR). Dissertatsiia na Soiskanie Uchenoi Stepeni Kandidata Arkhitektury. Moscow: Akademiia Arkhitektury SSSR Nauchno-Issledovatelskii Institut Selskogo i Kolkhoznogo Stroitelstva, 1953. Shmidt, N.E. Ozelenenie kolkhoznykh sel. Dissertatsiia na Soiskanie Uchenoi Stepeni Kandidata Arkhitektury. Moscow: Akademiia Arkhitektury SSSR Nauchno-Issledovatelskii Institut Selskogo i Kolkhoznogo Stroitelstva, 1952. Stelmakh, G.E. Istoricheskoe razvitie selskikh poselenii na ukraine istoriko-ethnograficheskoe issledovanie. Avtoreferat Dissertatsiia na Soiskanie Uchenoi Stepeni Doktora Istoricheskikh Nauk. Kiev, 1969. 276 References and Sources Consulted

Zhmudskii, D.A. Planirovka kolkhoznykh selenii v raionakh stroitelstva krupnykh gidroelektrostantsii. Dissertatsiia na Soiskanie Uchenoi Stepeni Kandidata Arkhitektury. Moscow: Akademiia Arkhitektury SSSR Nauchno-Issledovatelskii Institut Arkhitektury Selskikh Zdanii i Sooruzhenii, 1954.

Main periodical publications and newspapers

Arkhitektura SSSR. 1954–91. Biulleten Stroitelnoi Tekhniki. 1964–88. Current Digest of the Soviet Press. Izvestiia. Kommunist. 1955–90. Pravda. Problems of Economics. Sotsialnye Issledovania. 1965–71. Sotsiologicheskie Issledovaniia. 1974–91. Voprosy Geografii. 1946–90. Selskaia Nov. 1966–91. Soviet Geography. 1960–91. Index

Aganbegian, Abel 134 and policy process 126–7, 136 agricultural lobby 154–5 population geography 119, 123 agrotown (agrocity) 5, 47 rural geography 115–16, 123–4 architects 48, 50–1, 80 Geographical Society 117–18, 125 origins of Soviet architecture 96–8 Commission of Population and Urban and policy process 112–13 Geography 118 post-war reconstruction 100–1 Gerasimov, I.P. 121 raion architect 109–10, 153, 161 Gorbachev, Mikhail 16, 23 Second World War 98–9 and rural policy 24, 170, 172, 192 Union of Architects 102–5 Gosplan (State Planning Committee) architectural construction 116 community 33 Gosstroi (State Construction Committee) 49, 63–6, 80, 106, 110, 145, 153, Belen’kii, V.P. 167 161, 171–3 Brezhnev, Leonid 76 Gosgrazhdanstroi 64–6, 80, 106, 110, and agriculture 155–7 135, 152, 158, 161, 173 leadership style 76–7 groups 19 n 40 and policy making 180–1 ideas case selection xii ideational growth 189 conceptual change 185–6 and politics 8 creative writers and reform 16–17 literature and protest 137 ideology 13, 15 as movement 145–6 Marxism–Leninism 31–2, 181 and policy process 146–7, 171 influence 182, 183 rural writers (derevenshchiki) 136 institutions Russian nationalism 139–40, 143–4 decay 26, 189–92 Socialist Realism 141 institutionalisation 94–95, 148, and The Thaw 138 149 critical space 94–5 neo-institutional analysis 15–16 political disintegration 15–16 derevenshchiki – see creative writers Khorev, B. 167 engineering model 183 Khrushchev, Nikita enlightenment model 183 and literature 137–8, 140 ethnographers 82, 131–2 opposition to 47, 53–4 political demise 73 Food Programme 172 private plot 32 and rural policy 31, 45, 69–72 geographers 82 Secret Speech 129, 138 constructive geography 121, 126 and The Thaw 137, 140 critique of policy 124–5 village modernisation 32–3, 40–3, human geography versus physical 56–8 geography 121–2 Khutor 36–8, 157, 192

277 278 Index

Kolkhoz amalgamation 41–3 policy windows 22, 197 Kovalev, S.A. 123–4 problem definition 187–8 problem framing 25, 188 leadership specialists and policy-making 7, 74, and power 24 88–90, 219 n1 and reform 16, 22–3 postwar reconstruction 38–44, 100–1 and specialists 183 power 20–1, 24, 26 faces of power 195 Marxism–Leninism 181, 186–7 and ideas 24 urban bias of 31–2 power and resources 21–2, 61, 193, middle range theories 189 215 n42 modernisation 13–14, 182 relationships of power 195 and social knowledge 194 Non-Black Earth Programme 111, private plot 54, 170 156–7, 163–4, 170 New Party Programme (1961) 59–60 Rasputin, Valentin 140, 144–5 New Thinking 22, 183 reform theories of 12–18 official ideology 182, 186–7 resources 21–2, 189, 193 opposition 166–8, 191 Riazanov, V.S. 103–4, 108 Osmolovskii, M. S. 103, 106, 108, 111 rural construction 151–3 PMK 67 Party Congresses rural migration 124 Twenty-First 56 rural planning 44, 47, 62, 64–6 Twenty-Second 59–60, 120 norms 49, 51–2 Twenty-Third 128 origins of 96 Party Plenums 119 problems with 83–4, 87 September 1953 46, 48, 103 raion planning 104, 107 1954 46 rural policy 4 1955 (January) 49 Brezhnev’s rural policy 74–9 1958 (December) 55, 73, 123 Gorbachev’s rural policy 24, 170, 1959 (December) 56–8, 105, 123 172, 192 1962 (March) 60 Khrushchev’s rural policy 69–72 1963 60 Party documents 11, 59–60, 87, 109 1964 (February) 61, 75 September 1964 decree on rural trans- 1965 (March) 73–4, 77–8 formation 87–8 1966 (May) 74 Stalin’s rural policy 29–30 1969 (October) 151 Russian nationalism 139 pluralism 12, 18, 193 policy-making 5–7 social knowledge 184–6, 188 agenda-setting 19, 25, 93–4, ideational evolution 148 under Brezhnev 180–1 official ideology 182 decision-making 19 and policy 182 disintegration of policy community and power 182 150–1, 158–9, 172 social science 81–3 under Khrushchev 69–72 sociologists 82 participation 20, 94, 147–9, 160, concrete sociological research 129 179–81 expansion of discipline 130–1 policy as process 19, 25 rural sociology 131 policy community 61–9, 79–81, Soviet Sociological Association 130, 88–90, 214 n41 134 Index 279

Solzhenitsyn, Aleksander 139 urban bias 108 Soviet State theories of disintegration/reform viable/non-viable (perspektivnyi/ 12–18 neperspektivnyi) 5, 64, 153, 162, specialists 7 171, 174 criticism from 84–5, 162–3 Virgin Lands Scheme 46 participation 20–1, 26, 159, 161, VOOPIK 146 179–81 and power 20–1, 183 specialist debate 18 within-system-change 160 and state 68–9 Zaslavskaia, Tatiana 133, 135, 165, 167, Thaw, The 131, 137, 140 172 totalitarianism 12, 19 Zastoi period (stagnation) 25