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Statsvetenskaplig Tidskrift Ny Följd, Årg 90 n112 2010/1 Innehåll Uppsatser Jan Tullberg: Stereotypfördömandet – en fördom om fördomar? . 3 Översikter och meddelanden Nya forskningsanslag från Vetenskapsrådet och Riksbankens jubileumsfond . 21 Erik Amnå: Skolornas institutionella karaktär och elevernas medborgarkompetens: en jämförelse av olika kommunala och fristående skolor över tid och rum. 23 Ludvig Beckman: Universal suffrage for real? A global index of suffrage restrictions and an explanatory framework . 33 Ludvig Beckman: Globalisation and New Political Rights. The Challenges of the Rights to Inclusion, Self-Determination and Secession . 42 Christina Bergqvist: Vem tar hand om barnen? En jämförande studie av samspelet mellan politik och kultur för beslutsfattande i familjen . 50 Sverker Gustavsson: Thick and thin constitutionalism . 56 Anna K. Jarstad: Local Peace Agreements: The Road to Peace and Democracy in KwaZulu Natal? . 60 Christer Karlsson: Hur regleras EU-medlemskapet?. 69 Johannes Lindvall: The Political Consequences of The Crisis. 79 Ulf Mörkenstam: Indigenous rights to self-determination: The Institutional Design and Policy Process of the Swedish Sami Parliament. 83 Alexa Robertson: Europe as Other: Difference in global media discourse Bo Rothstein: The Determinants of Institutional Quality. How Leaders´ Perceived Threat of Losing Power Without Compensation Affects Economic Development. 85 nStatsvetenskaplig tidskrift Ny följd, årg 90. Utgiven av Fahlbeckska stiftelsen . redaktionssekreterare Mats Sjölin (ansvarig ut- givare) bitr redaktionssekreterare Björn Badersten förbundsredaktör Magnus Erlandsson redak- tionsråd Christina Bergqvist, Uppsala universitet, Niklas Eklund, Umeå universitet, Mikael Gilljam, Göteborgs universitet, Ann-Cathrine Jungar, Södertörns högskola, Mats Lindberg, Örebro universi- tet, Carina Lundmark, Luleå tekniska universitet, Ulf Mörkenstam, Stockholms universitet, Björn Ba- dersten, Lunds universitet, biträdande redaktionssekreterare, Mats Sjölin, Växjö universitet, redak- tionssekreterare, Magnus Erlandsson, förbundsredaktör teknisk redaktör Bengt Lundell Tidskriften utkommer med fyra nummer per år prenumerationspris 2010 380 kr enstaka num- mer 100 kr medlemmar i Statsvetenskapliga förbundet och studenter erhåller tidskriften till ra- batterat pris. 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Demokratisk socialisation i den svenska gymnasieskolan. Anm. av Johannes Ekman. 122 n www.statsvetenskapligtidskrift.se Besök Statsvetenskaplig tidskrifts hemsida www.statsvetenskapligtidskrift.se. Där finns bl. a.: n Utförliga anvisningar till författare om utformningen av manuskript för Statsveten- skaplig Tidskrift (kan hämtas hem som pdf-dokument). n Tidigare årgångar av Statsvetenskaplig Tidskrift i fulltextformat – med sökfunktion till artikelarkivet. För närvarande finns artiklar i fulltext tillbaks till år 1998. Materia- let kommer successivt att utökas. n Information om innehållet i kommande nummer och en aktuell utgivningsplan för Statsvetenskaplig Tidskrift. n Information om prenumerationspriser och möjlighet att teckna prenumeration på Statsvetenskaplig Tidskrift. n Kontaktuppgifter till redaktionen och redaktionsrådet för Statsvetenskaplig Tid- skrift. n Enklaste möjligheten till prenumeration på tidskriften. Stereotypfördömandet – en fördom om fördomar? JAN TULLBERG1 Is the condemnation of stereotypes unjustified? This article discusses the present negative evaluation of stereotypes. Do people who use stereotypes believe that a characteristic attributed to a group is categorical; that all members of group A have this trait? Empirical research and ordinary observations in- dicate that judgments are not so crudely made, but that people categorize in terms of probabilities. Therefore the rule “one should not generalize” seems unjustified. Fur- ther, such a view often endorses a strategy of correcting old stereotypes with the pro- motion of new stereotypes. The main problem is often not the negative view of others, but the idolized or victimized picture of the own group. The way to improve group relations according to the presented analysis is to become more tolerant to skeptical views of the own group. Knowledge about the universal human propensity for in-group preferences and honest statistics about actual differences will be helpful in this process. En vanlig uppfattning är att bedöma stereotyper som en viktig orsak till konflikter och motsättningar mellan mänskliga grupper. Nästa steg är att förespråka en agitation mot stereotyper i allmänhet och vissa speciella stereotyper i synnerhet. Men är kriti- ken av stereotyper väl underbyggd och de föreslagna åtgärderna konstruktiva? En vanlig uppfattning är att personer som använder stereotyper gör den kategoris- ka bedömningen att alla individer i den gruppen har speciella egenskaper i stor ut- sträckning. Därefter ser personen bara sådant som bekräftar denna tes och förbiser motstridiga intryck; stereotypen blir ett par färgade glasögon som försämrar seendet. Den moraliskt instruerande uppmaningen ”man skall inte generalisera” bygger på uppfattningen att stereotypa bedömningar blockerar och förvränger observationer av verkligheten. Personer som inte insett generaliseringars brister riskerar att komma till en rad slutsatser som normalt leder till elakartade konsekvenser. Det tankemässiga misstaget är början på ett sluttande plan som kan sluta i konflikt mellan grupper och folkmord. Sådana resultat bör rimligtvis undvikas, vilket leder till slutsatsen att använ- dandet av stereotyper bör förkastas. Stycket ovan beskriver det centrala i ett synsätt som här kallas ”stereotypfördöman- det” eller ”stereotyptesen”. Den tillskrivs stor nytta och den motiverar många till en 1 Docent Jan Tullberg är anknuten till Centrum för Evolutionär Kulturforskning, Stockholms universitet E-post: [email protected] Statsvetenskaplig Tidskrift 2010, årg 112 nr 1 s 3–19 4 välvillig inställning till de analyser och åtgärder som förknippas med den. Denna arti- kel ämnar dock inte följa en sådan entusiastisk linje utan syna både de intellektuella resonemangen och de normativa konklusionerna. Artikeln bygger på författarens re- sonemang och bedömningar. När andra forskares bedömningar refereras som över- ensstämmer med författarens så understryks detta inte speciellt. När en bedömning presenteras som strider mot författarens bedömning så påtalas detta för att resone- manget skall framgå på ett tydligt sätt och inte som ett vinglande mellan motstridiga utsagor. I ett första avsnitt diskuteras tesen samt förtjänster och svagheter med stereotypte- sens argument. I ett andra avsnitt diskuteras om generaliseringar om grupper är irra- tionella eller om de är ett förnuftigt sätt att använda begränsad information. Det tred- je avsnittet diskuterar den policy utifrån stereotyptesen som innebär att i görligaste mån undvika information som kan föda idéer om gruppskillnader och skapa stereoty- per. Det fjärde avsnittet tar upp en annan policy utifrån stereotypfördömandet som innebär skapandet av motstridiga och kompenserande stereotypa kategorier. I det femte förs en diskussion över vad som bör göras och en mer liberal policy presente- ras. Det kan redan nu vara lämpligt att definiera termen stereotyp. En gängse defini- tion är ”en uppsättning uppfattningar om personliga egenskaper för en grupp perso- ner” (Ashmore & Del Boca 1981, s 16). Definitionen på stereotyper är inte en tviste- fråga utan meningsskiljaktigheterna ligger i bedömningar av kvalitet och effekter för denna typ av generaliseringar 1 Grundtesen Walter Lippmann kan ses som upphovsman till denna djärva hypotes om mänsklig oförmåga med boken “Public Opinion”. Några korta citat belyser hans syn: “Real space, real time, real numbers, real connections, real weight are lost. The perspective and the background and the dimensions of actions are clipped and frozen in the ste- reotype”, “There is nothing so obdurate to education or to criticism as the stereo- type” (Lippmann 1922, s 156, s 98-99). Centralt för hans analys är en triangel av situ- ation (environment), situationsbild (pseudo-environment) och handlande. Männis- kor handlar inte utifrån situationen som rationalistiska bedömare föreskriver, utan från en ofta mycket missvisande situationsbild. Handlandet får dock effekter inte bara i den sociala konstruktionen, situationsbilden, utan på den verkliga situationen. Stereotyper är således inte bara en personlig illusion, utan får reella sociala effekter inte minst genom att de är kollektiva föreställningar (Lippmann 1922). Den alarmistiska inställningen till stereotyper
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