I QUADERNI DI Careggiissue 06

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Issue 06 No. 06 I QUADERNI DI CAREGGI 6 / 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective Coordinators and Guest Editors: Saša Dobričič (University of Nova Gorica) Carlo Magnani (University I.U.A.V. of Venice) Bas Pedroli (University of Wageningen) Amy Strecker (University of Leiden)

Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 5/2014

ISSN 2281-3195

In this number: Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Scientiﬁc Editor: Dr. Amy Strecker: [email protected] Graphic layout: Fabrizio Bagatti - Organisation: Tessa Goodman - UNISCAPE - [email protected] - www.uniscape.eu Issue 06 No. 06 I QUADERNI DI CAREGGI 6 / 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective Coordinators and Guest Editors: Saša Dobričič (University of Nova Gorica) , Carlo Magnani (University I.U.A.V. of Venice) Bas Pedroli (University of Wageningen) , Amy Strecker (University of Leiden)

Summary / Indice Introduction p. 3 Epistemology 5 L. Adli-Chebaiki, Pr.N. Chabby-Chemrouk Epistemological Draft on Landscape Syntax as a Common Good 5 M. Akasaka Whose View to Mount Fuji is in Tokyo? 9 A. Saavedra Cardoso Agro-Urbanism and the Right to Landscape Common Goods 15 M. Fiskervold Articulating Landscape as Common Good 20 C. Garau, P. Mistretta The Territory and City as a Common Good 26 C. Girardi From Commodity to Common Good: the Drama of the Landscape in Christo and Jeanne Claude 30 C. Mattiucci, S. Staniscia How to Deal with Landscape as a Common Good 34 L. Menatti Landscape as a Common Good: a Philosophical and Epistemological Analysis 40 J.M.Palerm The Requirement of Architecture for the Common Good 44 E. Petroncelli Landscape as a Common Good 47 C. Scoppetta From “Public” to “Common” Good 52 G. Taibi, M. Liuzzo, T. Patanè Place Governance: Harmony and Chromatic Elements 58 G. Taibi, M. Liuzzo, S. Giuliano, S. Saverino Endemic and Comparative Analysis of Urban Scenery 64 M. Tolli, F. Recanatesi Monumental Trees as Common Good 70 R. Valenti, G. Maniscalco Ideational Landscape: an Epistemological Approach 76 Land Use 83 G. Caridi Moving Towards the Soil as Common Good 83 L. Di Giovanni The Use of Landscape in Italian Property Law 87 A. Galvani, R. Pirazzoli Ruresidential Land 93 A. Giraldi, M. Massarelli, M. Tofanelli Taking Care Of Places: Experiences 98 K. Gugerell, A. Roither-Voigt Complex Landscape. Linking the Dynamic Concepts 103 J. Majgaard Krarup Climatic Changes. Identity and Identification 108 M. Mandelli, G. Belli The Power of Outreach. Case Study: “I Giardini del Benaco” 114 V. Martini Common Goods in the Perspective of the (Historic) Urban Landscape Approach 118 F. Minora The Relevance of Collective Properties in Building Cultural Landscape 123 F. Tortorelli, F. Muzzillo The Architecture of Wine Landscape: Marginality as Equivalent for Quality 128 F. Nurra Landscape and Archaeology. Representing History for Places 133 M. Freire, I.J. Ramos Agricultural Soils. A Fundamental Common Good in Urban Areas 139 O.R. Torres, I.G. Ramirez, A. Galli, O.M. Ceballo Ecomuseums And Rurality: a Case Study in Cabaiguàn 143 Decision Making 148 S. Bagnara Milan The “Integration Principle”: a “Common” Governance Strategy 148 P. Burlando Landscape Observatories Near Cinque Terre: from do it Yourself to Public Intervention 153 A. Ciambrone Public Participation as Common Good for the Province of Caserta 159 C. Collaro New Insights and Collective Decisions on European Landscape 165 I. De Meo, M.G. Cantiani, A. Paletto Landscape Changes and Shareholders’ Preferences 171 K. Hashimoto Role and Importance of Awareness-Raising And Popularization 176 G. Lombardini Landscape as Common Good: the Experience of Some Recent Italian Landscape Planning 181 R. Micarelli, G. Pizziolo Collective Decision-Making, Governance and Non-Institutionalized Practices 186 E. Salevid Implementing the ELC Effectively? - An Honest Reaction 193 K. Semm, H. Palang Who Owns Neighbourhood Milieu? 197 S. Stempfle How Can Bottom-Up, Collaborative Practices Innovate Landscape Management 202 ISSN 2281-3195 T. Waterman Publicity and Propriety: Democratic Etiquette in the Public Landscape 207 In this number: Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Scientific Editor: Dr. Amy Strecker: [email protected] Graphic layout: Fabrizio Bagatti - Organisation: Tessa Goodman - UNISCAPE - [email protected] - www.uniscape.eu Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014

F. Cimmino, Bright Life in the Alley Tight, Fourth Edition Peoples Landscapes

2 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective

Introduction

These proceedings of the 6th UNISCAPE Careggi refers to inalienability rather than mutual iden- Seminar onCommon Goods from a Landscape tification. Perspective are an interesting and inspiring col- The legal discourse of property rights has come lection of papers, presented and discussed in to dominate the cultural discourse of property Florence, 16-17 January 2014. more generally. Landscape and common goods each boast a However, given the existence of goods that are substantial amount of literature in their own neither fully public nor entirely private, such as right. However, the aim of this seminar was to shared resources and common goods, property explore the nexus between these two concepts alone is no longer relevant for many governance through the lens of epistemology, land-use, strategies. property rights, collective decision-making, governance of resources and non-institutional- Of course, ownership and control of resources ized practices. comes in shades and degrees and while a piece of land might be privately owned in title, in prac- The overall objective was to build on the intel- tice its landscape is often the subject of collec- lectual discourse initiated by the European tive use and management. Landscape Convention by further developing a framework for the protection, management and Interpreting landscape as a common good en- planning of landscape based on a social order tails a belonging articulated in users’ rights (in- not governed solely by economic and property cluding participation and access) – without ap- considerations, but one which includes the ‘com- propriation – as opposed to owners’ rights. mon’ shared aspects of the Earth’s resources from This extends the notion of property beyond an ethical and social perspective. something external to the individual, whether This seminar was open to practitioners, experts, private or public, and recovers the element of professors and young researchers alike and was common identity. visited by about 100 participants from many We wish the reader the same pleasure as we have countries. experienced in discussing the contributions that It is interesting to note that in the early etymol- here follow. ogy of ‘property’, land had significance greater than the sum of its economic production value Saša Dobričič,University of Nova Gorica (SI), and was also an important component of iden- Carlo Magnani, University I.U.A.V. of Venice (IT), tity. Indeed, the early notion of property en- Bas Pedroli,Wageningen University (NL), tailed the mutual identification of the owner and the owned; whereas the modern meaning Amy Strecker, Leiden University (NL) of the word divorces property from identity and Tessa Goodman (UNISCAPE)

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C. Roselli, The night has a thousand eyes, Fourth Edition Peoples Landscapes

4 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective

Epistemology

Epistemological Draft on Landscape Syntax as landscape as a common good, echoes the very a Common Good. The Case Study of Algiers essence of landscape and in reality opens up a large field of investigation. L. Adli-Chebaiki & Pr. N. Chabbi-Chemrouk In supposing that this quest gives us partial so- Ecole polytechnique d’architecture et d’urbanisme, Alger. Algérie. lutions and paradigms, it implies reference and Laboratoire Architecture et Environnement. other reflections linked to phenomenological [email protected] theories, combined with a socio-historical framework. So, while people’s activities contribute to Abstract:: In an urbanized context, thinking about landscape the definition of a big part of the land’s percep- inevitably brings us back to the tangible and intangible dition and use, its historical framework leads us to mensions of the territory. Besides urban and built substance, immaterial dimensions in the landscape generate a double a comparison between the past and the near fu- significance and epistemological reflections. ture of the same place. First, it is by reference to Pieter Versteegh’s concepts about ‘re- However, immaterial dimensions in the quest for versed border’ theory that we apply temporal dimensions and landscape as a common good, integrate a dou- considerations to the physical landscape. This means that the diachronic aspect of a place implies a duality in the establish- ble category, and parameters linked to episte- ment and concretisation of landscape. Where we can consider mology, historicity and evolutionism, and thus to landscape as a common good, with the integration of the two some laws of perception. These two parameters, undeniable criteria of historicity and evolutionism; which can fundamental and mutually dependent, take us invert social values after a temporal progression. to the ‘reversed border’ theory, which Pieter Ver- Second, this ‘reversed border’ theory, applied to historicity, generates the transformation of a ‘presence-absence’ to steegh terms a ‘dynamic spatial system’ (2005: 17) ‘concretisation-presence’; which not only dominates the sig- in reading urban landscapes. This in turn leads us nificance of landscapes, but also makes fundamental roles of to the philosophy of perception conceived by landscapes’ property more complex. However, these consider- Aristotle. ations will have repercussions on the perception of landscapes, and about confined and inscribed framing; and where the perception of public areas includes new parameters such as events and destinations. 2. The ‘reserved border’ theory and landscape Consequently, some laws of communication are established within the significance of landscapes; they rest on historicity Based on the reserved border theory, as well as and evolutionism, which we will try to clarify through a case study. The case concerns pollution and environmental plan- the spatial phenomenon of naturalisation and ning in the river of ‘Oued El Harrach’. This project constitutes the architectural landscape, P. Versteegh manag- a principal part of the eco-metropolitan planning of the bay es to deduce that a link with the science of com- of Algiers. Its past history and its current landscape planning plexity can contribute to the understanding and progress demonstrate the ‘reversed border’ principle, because of its new being, conceived as a common good. management of the territory. So, the reserved border theory applied to landscape builds on Keywords: river landscape, common good, ‘reversed border’, the consideration of this, as a complex and dy- historicity, evolutionism. namic system; this dynamic is made by landscapes’ fragments which benefit from a variety of dimensions, and which sometimes generate a 1. Introduction constrained order, and other times an incompre- hensible chaos. These fragments engender a dy- The quest for landscape in an urbanized context namic background, forming some recognizable usually brings us back to landscapes’ features appearances, as the centre and the periphery, and interfaces. Rethinking the epistemology of the urban model and typology, the permeabil-

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 5 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 ity and closeness, and finally, the socio-spatial isting landscapes, but will also make the funda- aspects (Versteegh, 2005: 25). This helps to con- mental means of landscape appropriation more clude that these appearances are strongly linked complex. to the ideas and meanings of landscape. The notion of ‘optical changes’ questions the in- Therefore, when identifying the urban landscape trinsic characteristics of an object, visible to the as a discontinuous, non-linear, complex envi- observer. This act of transmitting information ronment, its particularity takes place. This latter is connected to other phenomenon. The latter will, consequently, incarnate a symbolic system, (phenomenon) is not permanent, and obeys which facilitates the identification of the place. some orders and meanings linked to its historical Consequently, the understanding of this phe- and geographical context, such as the centre, the nomenon, and its configuration as a complex periphery, the bay or the river. and a spatial system, generates its consideration, Based on Aristotle’s philosophical point of view, not from its original situation or its physical sub- ‘we call, in effect, “sight” what is convincingly stance, but from its new being and its present- seen rather than what is wholly seen; and “knowl- forms (Versteegh, 2005: 34). edge” the strength of actualizing knowledge However, if the notion of urban landscape ques- rather than the actualizing knowledge’ (Aristotle, tions singularity and today’s spatial phenom- 1940: 182). By applying this definition to our case enon; the notion of the landscape as a common study, which considers landscape as a common good depends on the historical depth of the good, we notice that the first essence is the natu- place, and to both historicity and evolutionism. ral figure of the landscape, which is already ‘what By analogy to the theory of ‘reserved border’ in is seen’; whereas the second essence is its socio urban landscapes, the notion of landscape as spatial parameters, which are known. So, these a common good recalls, in addition to the two parameters engender a profound and ambiva- last parameters (historicity and evolutionism), a lent relationship between landscape, its percep- socio-spatial ambivalence, which can articulate tion and its scale. Therefore, the understanding and confine some places, whereas it can frag- of landscape as a common good results princi- ments and frame others. The socio-spatial am- pally, from the scale of its form, which strongly bivalence means that people’s way of life and affects its perception, and which is inserted into daily activities in a place contribute powerfully the dynamic process of landscape. to identifying the common good, in the mind of So, contrary to the perception of space, which citizens. On the other hand, the non-integration obeys immediate phenomenon, the understand- and neglect of a place generates less activities ing of landscape as a common good needs no and consequently, disproves the consideration immediate phenomenon linked to stimulus pa- of this latter as a common good. So, these ac- rameters relative to the context. tions incarnate the ambivalent relationships. Among these cases, the project of cleaning up and naturalising the ‘Oued El Harrach’ river, is of particular interest. This river, which constituted 3. The impact of perception on landscape as a com- the natural boundary to the old Algiers’ fahs (gar- mon good dens and villas of the Algiers countryside, dating from the Ottoman age) became after French oc- If we apply the ‘reversed border’ theory to the cupation (1830 and 1962) an ideal localisation historicity of a place, we deduce, in some cases, and settlement for housing first the Muslim pop- its transformation from ‘presence-absence’ to- ulation, and then the cosmopolitan proletarians, ward ‘concretisation-presence’. from 1920. The history of Algiers town planning, This transformation will not only dominate ex- and the neglect of planning for the entire city,

6 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective coupled with the non-integration of the river tion gives it a fundamental role, which articulates into planning projects, engendered an anarchi- between the two extremes of the city, actually cal occupation of its riversides and banks. This out of sync with planning.. This project also in- occupation was based on social and individual cludes the harmonisation and unification of the housing on its right hand side; then on collective three longitudinal parts of the river. The first part housing with horizontal and vertical typologies constitutes the plain of Mitidja with its agricul- on the left hand side (Deluz, 2010: 254). However, tural area; then in the middle, a mixed industrial the topography of these sides, with high and flat and agricultural area; and at the last, an industrial grounds on the right, is different from the uneven zone near the bay of the city. and concave grounds on the left side, which in- The naturalisation of Oued El Harrach river is include some agricultural grounds. It was only by corporated into the purification and the cleaning 1950 that some development planning actions up instructions. This project is firstly aimed at the began, joining rustic and agrarian criteria. reduction of the flood risks,; then at the recupera- Besides these aspects, the planning and devel- tion and the development of the public area. Its opment of the Oued El Harrach’ area was from program includes purification stations, housing colonisation, dominated by an industrial charac- and tourism spaces. Its end is treated by a large ter, and transitory roads and railways, which dis- stretch of water, described as a ‘panoramic prom- tributed to the whole plain of Mitidja. This plan- ontory’. The project will also benefit from several ning had also intensified the characterization of spatial sequences, allowing the articulation of the the place as a periphery, and as an urban-rural surrounding areas and the creation of many visual intermediate zone. perspectives. So, this strategy will not only recon- Given the state of Oued El Harrach river’s de- cile between the sea and the river, where there terioration, as well as its depreciated image, its was a total break, but will also reconcile the sites consideration as a ‘presence- absence’ limited its between neighbourhoods and municipalities. socio spatial impact. It had a negative presence, Its insertion into the composite landscape of the caused by the physical separation of its border- city, and its median position into the bay, take ing places first, tand hen by its negative social double functions, conjugated with its historicity consideration and depreciation. This mode of (past situation), then with its evolution (future situ- perception, based essentially on the real-life ation). These two aspects, integrating paradoxical appreciation, refers to the concept of percep- criteria, generate its definition as a common good, tion phenomenology, evoked by Merleau-Ponty according to two levels of perception: the first lev- (2011: 345), who stipulates that the temporality el is identified by the local scale and its spatial fig- of a place integrates ‘attributes’ into both percep- ures, whereas the second one is identified by the tion and meaning. global scale and its mental figures. Consequently, the impact of the real-life scale and its new perception, establishes an inversion of the perception of 4. From the presence- absence toward the concreti- the place from inscribed towards confined. Thus, sation-presence some new attributes appear, linked to ‘events’, ‘singularity’ and ‘destination’. Having a principal status in Algiers’ town, with a long course of more than 18 kilometres, the river is incorporated into the project of cleaning up 5. A new strategy linked to landscape as a common and naturalising its riversides. These actions are good. included in the eco-metropolitan planning of the bay of Algiers, planned for 2029. Its central posi- On the suggestion of the two paradigms of his-

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Fig 1, 2: views of current planning actions around the Oued El Harrach’. toricity and evolutionism in understanding land- good, and to its consideration as a non-immedi- scape as a common good, we deduce that this ate phenomenon. consideration follows from the perception and the function of a place. References: This consideration is in reality difficult to define, because it generates a duality of dimensions and Aristote, (1940) La métaphysique tome I, 2nd edition, Paris: values, in addition to the ambivalent relation- Librairie philosophique J. Vrin. Cauquelin, A. (2000) l’invention du paysage, France: presses ships between these two parameters. So, the def- universitaire. inition of landscape as a common good is linked Cogato Lanza, E. (2005) ‘Le territoire inversé’, in Versteegh, P. to both local and global dimensions of a place. Méandres Penser le paysage urbain, France: Presses poly- These dimensions are also related to historical techniques et universitaires romandes. Deluz, J. J. (2010) Le tout et le fragment, Alger: éditions changes and to the repercussion of the percep- Barzakh. tion of place. Fouilland, B. (2003) Les politiques d’aménagement des villes portuaires, France: l’Harmattan. The quests realting to the perception of land- Jakob, M. (2004) l’émergence du paysage, France: Infolio scape have some ambiguities, linked with the dy- éditions. Lechner, G. (2006) Le fleuve dans la ville la valorisation des namics of the landscape’ process first, and to its berges en milieu urbain, Paris: Centre de Documentation functioning as an open system second. This open de l’Urbanisme. system integrates landscape’ paradigms. Merleau-Ponty, M. (2011) phénoménologie de la percep- So, the perception of a place and its profound tion, 2nd edition, France: Gallimard. Versteegh, P. (2005) Méandres Penser le paysage urbain, history, contribute strongly to understanding France: Presses polytechniques et universitaires ro- and identifying the landscape as a common mandes.

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Whose View to Mount Fuji is in Tokyo? 1 Transition of the Thought of Conservation of Lan- “The Issues on the Vistas in Townscapes” dscapes in Japan

Makoto Akasaka 1.1 The Generation of Ideas of Landscape Conser- Chiba University, Chiba-ken Matsudo-shi Matsudo 648, 271- vation since Modern Japan 8510 Japan The ideas of cultural, natural and environmental Telephone: +81 47 308 8883 E-mail: [email protected] conservation in modern Japan are caused by the experience of loss stemming from substantial de- Abstract:: When we ask whose the space is, there would be two struction. These paradoxical phenomena could answers. One would be about ownership and the other about be seen wherever the waves of industrialization the right of users. What does this mean in the case of land- th th scape? For the conservation of townscape or landscape, the extended to in the 19 and 20 centuries. How- means of assuring the viewing corridors (vistas) to landmarks ever, in Japan the destruction occurred before in- are needed. Wishes for such views are related to the cultural dustrialization. The Edo period of the Tokugawa- motivations of people. In Tokyo the issue of the conservation of regime was over in 1868 and the Meiji period of the vista to Mount Fuji arose because the high-rise could block the viewing corridor. In fact there were some points where the new regime began. At that time every Japa- people could see Mount Fuji even from the ground (not from nese person had to face the greatest conversion buildings) in the middle of Tokyo City. The importance of the and confusion of a sense of worth. The Meiji Res- vista to Fuji was reported recently in the media, newspapers, toration should have been a Royal Restoration and TV-programs. Nevertheless in June 2013 the last stand- Regime and old things above all would remain. point of viewing Mount Fuji disappeared totally because of the construction of the condominium. In this paper the transition In fact it was clearly the contrary. For restoration of conservation thought in Japan is explored, as is the para- everything that was old of the Edo period van- digm shift in the notion of landscape conservation. ished or was totally destroyed. They thought that the reform would come after Keywords: conservation, sociality, common, vista, Mt. Fuji the destruction. There was a radical atmosphere of chauvinism and anti-Buddhism which took Introduction place at the end of Edo- and the beginning of the Meiji period. In the ﬁrst decade of the Meiji Townscapes or landscapes are the result of how period (until ca.1877) tremendous destruction people have been living and what they have went on and in the second decade (until ca.1887) been creating or destroying. They consist of vari- the sense of conservation developed marginally ous lands with neighboring borders and consist with the evaluation of foreign scholars1. In 1897 of various private properties. Therefore the is- the Law of Protection of Old Shrines and Temples sues of landscapes sometimes evolve into social as the ﬁrst conservation law of architecture was problems. In Tokyo the conservation of a vista- enacted. Meanwhile the tide of modernization passage of Mt. Fuji was advocated, even if the came in Japan and the idea of conservation vista-line would be running through various pri- and the movement such as Heimatschutz were vate properties. How would it develop? The be- conveyed from Europe. In 1911 “the Japan So- ginning of thought of landscape conservation of ciety for Preserving Landscape and Historic and Modern Japan and the contemporary situation Natural Monuments” was founded. This Society of Tokyo will be analyzed, as will the possibilities brought forward with some politicians the Law for schemes of “setting” and HUL of World Heri- for Preserving Landscape and Historic and Natu- tag ideas. The view to Mt. Fuji would be a shared ral Monuments. The Law was enacted in 1919. landscape. This idea could extend the notion of This is the predecessor of the current Act on the property beyond something external to the indi- Protection of Cultural Properties (existing since vidual whether private or public. 1950)2.

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1.2 The Destruction and Conservation of Landsca- cluster of high-rise buildings threatening the dom- pes after World War II inant position and visual integrity of the Cathedral During the postwar years of recovery, towns drew were finally successful. The high-rise cluster plan up their own town plans with modern and wide was changed and not realized. That case and the road-networks, but they could not implement main theme of Xi’an Symposium extended the them immediately. After the economic recon- concept of heritage from the object (the master- struction of the 1960s they began to implement piece of human creativity of Cologne Cathedral) them. And then the traditional main streets of into the setting (surrounding or landscape). In fact their towns were suddenly destroyed because of many World Heritage sites exist among diverse construction of wide roads. This situation occurred landscapes. Usually landscapes are composed of nation-wide and also caused serious conflicts be- diverse elements that sometimes include World tween inhabitants and town administrations. This Heritage sites. Namely from a different perspec- trend threatened every local identity. Meanwhile tive, Cologne Cathedral is one of the elements of the Law of Preservation of Ancient Cities (Kyoto, the landscape and has its own setting already. And Nara, Kamakura etc.) was enacted in 1966. The pro- it exists among diverse landscapes called settings. test by the inhabitants against destruction was a Daily life seems to be always hectic and change- lead for the legislation. However that law covered able. Generally it is not easy to notice or recog- only the ancient cities and their surroundings. nize something static surrounding us. HOKUSAI, All the others were left behind. However, in the the Japanese Print artist (18-19th century) liked to small town of Tsumago in the Nagano prefecture draw working men. In the near distance we see the inhabitants organized in 1968 a body for the something dynamic and in the background we conservation of their settlement. The trend spread see something static, Mt. Fuji (fig.1). The scene of out in many parts of Japan. After seven years “the the near distance would be called the changeable Japanese Association for Machi-nami Conserva- allowance of activity of daily life. The landscapes tion and Regeneration” that led the movement of are composed not always of something mobile or recovering townscape-identity was established in dynamic or changeable but also of static or not 1975. In the same year the Act on the Protection so easily changeable features. What is important of Cultural Properties was devised and “the Tradi- is that every landscape is not mobile and change- tional Architectures Preservation District (TAPD)” able and we have to notice the diversity of land- was set up legislatively in order to save the group scapes. And we should try to find out static or un- of houses. However the trends and activities of changeable elements of landscape. the Mach-nami Association depended not only on TAPD but also on traditional industry like dyeing 2.2 The Meaning of HUL (Historic Urban Landscape)- or textiles, natural environment, forestry, railway, Challenge of World Heritage Centre of UNESCO and culture related industries.3) Bandarin/Oers (2012)4 criticize the existing thought and methodology of historic urban conservation in this way: Historic urban conservation 2 Conservation Aspects on Landscapes and Town- has become a specialized field of practice, focusing scapes of World Heritage on a sector of the city. While this has allowed theoretical and operational approaches to advance, it 2.1 From a Case of the Deregistration from the has also isolated the world of conservation from World Heritage List of “Cologne Cathedral” the management of urban process. In 2004 Cologne Cathedral was placed on the list They refer to the issue of the disjunction between of World Heritage in Danger because of the plans conservation area and real city life. And the au- to build cluster high-rises. The protests against a thors describe the qualitative and quantitative

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Fig.1 Honjo-tatekawa, Fugaku 36 Landscapes by Katsushika Hokusai recent change of historic cities as below: Today the surrounding or setting? Some cases below this process has reached a peak: historic cities have show typical examples of the disjunction, i.e. the acquired high status in modern life, based on the relationship between historic gardens and the quality of their physical spaces, the persistence of setting in Tokyo. their sense of place, the concentration of cultural and artistic events that support local identity, and 3.1.1 Korakuen-garden+ Tokyo Dome: an increasingly important economic market, as 1980s Tokyo Dome (baseball stadium), Toyota historic cities have become icons of global cultural headquarters building and so on built quite near tourism. However it does not mean that all his- from or rather very close to Korakuen-garden, toric cities must become such icons. Essentially which was composed in the Edo period, i.e., ca. every city should take one’s own direction of its 380 years ago. From the main entrance you have own development. By the way is it possible or to encounter the scene of the awful setting of necessary in Japan that the idea of HUL would the Garden and the Dome. be implemented? 3.1.2 Hamarikyu-garden+Shiodome Development: 3 The Signiﬁcance of Conservation and Recovering Just only 10 years ago theShiodome super cluster the Vista to Mount Fuji high-rise was built quite near from Hamarikyu- garden which was created in the same Edo period. 3.1 The Present State of HUL in Tokyo You can look at the scene of the hopeless setting If HUL is quite eﬀective for conservation, it should of the high-rise buildings and the Garden. Famous be tried in the giant metropolis of Tokyo. What is Japanese businesses and of course many archi- the relationship between historic elements and tects with high level architectural education took

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Fig.2 The building (---broken line) would perfectly hide the whole the shape of Mt. Fuji part in the project of this super high-rise. What spected among the inhabitants and recognized as kind of sense did they have? They did not read a symbol of identiﬁcation. And the next issue is the the context and would not understand what they standpoint of viewing. It should be public spaces have done in total, even if their jobs would be seg- such as parks, roads and also where people visit mented. The given site would be a small cosmos such as Entsuji-temple in Kyoto. In the middle of To- for themselves without a relationship to the sur- kyo there is a viewpoint where it is possible to look roundings or setting. In an advertisement a mas- at Mt. Fuji from the ground, not from a window of ter architect of the super high-rise project gave a a high-rise or an airplane. That point is on the road, comment: we have a good view to the famous gar- i.e. at the top of the slope named Fujimizaka. “Fuji- den. That is “shakkei” (borrowed scenery). mi” means view to Mt. Fuji and “zaka” means slope. His word “shakkei” in this case is obviously The religious meaning of Fuji-mi fades and now abused, and a huge mistake! Fuji-mi is a pleasure of daily life in Tokyo. I suppose that also elderly people would have the same feel- 3.2 The Issues of Vistas in Urban Areas ing of enjoy it as a pleasure of daily life. What is the subject of “shakkei” which can be seen from various viewpoints? It means a common 3.2.1 The Shakkei-garden of Entsuji-temple in landscape or shared vista that would have been re- Kyoto

12 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective

Fig.3 Crowded people for watching Mt. Fuji on the road (1. Feb. 2013)

The shakkei is a technique of the composition of Mt. Fuji, was brought to light in the newspapers. garden. “shak(u)” means borrow and “kei” means Some big newspapers reported, ”Fuji-mi from scenery or landscape. The technique is to bring the last Fujimizaka will be over?”. I decided that the landscape outside of the garden, for exam- it should be appealed internationally. The appeal ple, the shape of the mountain or panorama as was submitted to the Resolution Committee of one of the scenes of the garden into the whole ICOMOS GA in Paris 2011 and adopted. In May garden, i.e. to borrow landscape or scenery from 2012 the resolution was posted to the president outside the garden. The famous shakkei garden of the construction company, the governor of To- is in the Entsuji-temple in Kyoto. When you visit kyo and the mayors of five related cities. Mean- the garden, you can see Mt. Hiei from/through while, the construction of the high-rise in Shin- the garden or I should say, the garden shows juku City was suspended because of the design you Mt. Hiei as a main part of the composition change for seismic countermeasures. Then, in of garden-scenery. The word “shakkei” has been August 2012 the other scenario happened: the used relating mainly to garden. It is possible also construction of apartments would begin from to assume shakkei as a setting. the next month just directly below the Fujimiza- ka. The building (ca. 40m ht.) would completely 3.2.2 The Vista to Mt. Fuji on the Fujimizaka in hide the whole of Mt. Fuji (fig. 2). Two different Tokyo groups were supporting the conservation of the In September 2011, the construction plan of the vista to Mt. Fuji. The group of inhabitants was high-rise (Shinjuku City, 160m ht., 6,2km from working for correspondence with the client and Fuji-mi-zaka), that would hide the right half of the mass media. Researchers and scholars are

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 13 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 studying the height of different buildings and hope. The substance of conservation is extended the terrain condition on the vista-line, issues of from something individual to something holistic city planning and the strategy of the conserva- such as landscapes. Landscape contains not only tion guidelines. And in June 2013 the vista to Mt. the substance but also the surrounding. In mak- Fuji of the Fujimizaka vanished because of the ing judgments on landscapes as setting, a certain construction of apartments, even though it was “tolerance” must be required and also a sufficient loved by millions of people (fig.3). discussion is needed.

Essential Bibliography Conclusion 1) OSATAKE T., 1940, “Meijishoki ni okeru Hakaishisou to Ho- Facing the issue of the vista of Fujimizaka, it zonshisou (jou)”, In: Shiseki-meishou-tennenkinenbutsu, could be pointed that the relevant cities are not vol.15 no.2, 20-27 accustomed to collaborating entirely with each 2)AKASAKA M., 1999, “Taishouki ni okeru Doitsu Kyodohogo- other. And the public authorities with adminis- shishou Dounyuu no Ito”, In: Nara-kokuritsu Bunkazaiken- kyuusho-gakuhou, Kenkyuuronshuu X, 167-177 trative competence are ready to prioritize private 3)MURAMATSU Y./AKASAKA M., 2009, “Zenkoku-Machinami- property over public happiness. However the Hozonrenme one city that has the viewpoint to Mt. Fuji pub- Kameidantai ni miru Hozon-doki no Henesen”, In:Landscape lished pamphlets on the conservation of vistas at Kenkyuu (Journal of Landscape-Architecture), vol.72 no.5, 456-464 almost same time, when it disappeared. Unfortu- 4)Bandarin F./Oers R.,2012”HISTORIC URBAN LANDSCAPE- nately, it was too late. But it might work better as Managing Heritage in Urban Century-”, WILEY-BLACK- an irreversible factor for the next time, or so we WELL, xii-xiii

G. Di Leonardo, Greenwich houses on the Thames, Fourth Edition Peoples Landscapes

14 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective

Agro-Urbanism and the Right to Landscape Com- Grounds and existence of a human right to lan- mon Goods. The Saclay Plateau Case Study* dscape. The European Landscape Convention and landscape democracy Andreia Saavedra Cardoso PhD Student, Centro de Estudos de Arquitectura Paisagista According to the European Landscape Con- ‘Prof. Caldeira Cabral’, Instituto Superior de Agronomia de Lis- vention – ELC, the term ‘landscape’ means ‘an boa, Universidade de Lisboa (ULisboa). area, as perceived by people, whose character [email protected] is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors’ (CE, 2000). The multiple character of landscape – tangible and Abstract: The participation of civil society in landscape projects intangible, was examined by Rosario Assunto was erected in the last two decades as an imperative of local on Landscape – environment – Territory, in 1976 democracy, conﬁrmed by the European Landscape Conven- tion – ELC, legally binding instrument of landscape law at the (Assunto, 2011). As a lived meta-spatiality, regional European framework (CoE, 2000). Similarly to what landscape is given as a formal unity through previously happened in the framework of environmental law, an a priori synthesis of the territory (material) the ELC established the involvement of civil society in decisions and the environment (functional), fully depen- aﬀecting the individual and social well-being, stating that the protection, management and planning of landscape entail dent of aesthetic and ethical appreciation (axi- rights and responsibilities for the citizen. ological). Landscape, as the formal synthesis However, do the rights of association to decision-making pro- of both – territory and environment, embraces cesses on environmental and spatial planning matters involve the urban and the extra-urban meta-spatiality, more than a democratization of these processes? Do they al- including the patrimonial dimension of the low the realization of the substantive content of the associated rights, such as the right to a healthy environment, or more exceptional landscapes as the landscapes of precisely a right to landscape? Under the scope of this inter- everyday life, as was admitted under the ELC vention, we aim to: 1) limit the grounds and the existence of (CE, 2000). a human right to landscape and examining if this right has a Thus, the definition of a right to landscape im- formal legal regulation by the ELC, 2) distinguish this right and the right to a fair distribution of landscape common goods; 3) plies considering that it integrates and over- assess the realization of a right to landscape common goods, comes the right to a healthy environment and by analyzing a case study of agro-urbanism – the Saclay Pla- the right to a qualified territory, whose char- teau in Île-de-France. We will thus try to answer the following acter and resources contribute to the identity central question: have the agro-urbanism programmes oper- and the individual and social well-being. ated in practice an evolution of landscape law toward a right to landscape common goods? There are two dominant modes of philosophical justification of human rights: 1) human Keywords: Agro-urbanism, Collective Action, Landscape De- agency – justifications of a moral order that mocracy, Human rights, Common Goods claims ‘rights as modes of protection of people’s ability to form and pursue conceptions of a worthwhile life’ (Nickel, 2013); 2) politics – where human rights serve political functions as *Acknowledgements indicators of how society should be organized Financial support for this study was provided by a grant and ‘power exercised in ways consistent with from the Fundação para a ciência e a Tecnologia. The author freedom and equality for all’ (Goodhart, 2010: wishes to thank Professor Yves Hanin, director of the Centre 662). One condition of successful agency is of- de Recherches et d’Études pour l’Action territoriale (CREAT), ten considered to be well-being – a moral jus- and Professor Bernard Declève, for the conditions of work while preparing the manuscript, as a visiting researcher at tification for the right to landscape, referenced the Faculté d’Architecture, d’Ingénierie Architecturale et in the preamble of the ELC, where landscape is d’Urbanisme of Université Catholique de Louvain. defined as ‘contributing to human well-being

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 15 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 and consolidation of the European identity’ defined, more specifically, rights concerning (Council of Europe, 2000). access to information and public participation A political conception of the right to land- in decision making, which were not put into scape is one that emphasizes e.g. an equality connection with the realization of fundamen- of access to the determination of landscape tal human rights. In fact, according to Déjeant- surroundings, for all citizens, and that ap- Pons and Pallemaerts (2002), even in relation plies principles of environmental and land- to the right to a healthy environment, the legal scape justice that mandate e.g. ‘the right to recognition issued by the Aarhus Convention, ethical, balanced and responsible uses of was reduced to its procedural dimension. land and renewable resources’ (Hofrichter, In conclusion, even if specific rights to en- 1994: 237). In this case, the justification of vironmental protection are recognized hu- rights is based on landscape democracy, e.g. man rights, the right to landscape was not on egalitarian conceptions of public partici- defined by the ELC and is still a ‘right in de- pation in decisions that affect agents with velopment’, that ‘combines articulations of regard to landscape, as well as based on con- existing environmental and cultural rights’ ceptions of environmental justice and the (Déjeant-Pons apud Egoz, Makhzoumi and distribution of the beneficial and harmful ef- Pungetti., 2011: 7). fects of development. This entails particular Despite the absence of a legal right to land- conceptions of social justice and principles scape in the contents of the ELC, the recog- of distribution (Dobson, 1999: 63). nition that landscape is an important ele- The broad scope of application of the ELC, ment of the quality of life, made by the ELC, concerning outstanding landscapes, as well as and the referred establishment of landscape everyday or even blighted landscapes, poten- quality objectives as the formulation ‘of the tially allows the construction of a right to land- aspirations of the public with regard to the scape based on a political conception of jus- landscape features of their surroundings’ tice. The local and regional level of public par- (CoE, 2000), could allow the implementation ticipation procedures set out in the definition of procedures crucial to the development of and implementation of the landscape policies landscape democracy. in the ELC (CE, 2000) and the acknowledgment that, irrespective of its value, all forms of landscape are crucial to landscape and deserve to The collective right to a fair distribution of lan- be considered, are the two major conditions dscape common goods that, if satisfied, could critically contribute to the realization of a right to landscape. Pierre Donadieu addresses the topic of land- However, although the ELC is the first interna- scape common goods in – Paysages en com- tional treaty that considers the need to protect mun. Pour une éthique des mondes vécus, with Europeans’ quality of life and well-being, tak- intention of overcoming the economic-spatial ing into account landscape cultural and natural concept of common goods. This conception values, it makes no reference to a right to land- was developed by Garet Hardin (1968) and scape. The preamble of the treaty ensures the Elinor Ostrom (1990), and established distinct central position of landscape as a key element categories of goods (public, common, private, of individual and social well-being and that its club), according to the terms of use (access cri- ‘protection, management and planning entail teria, exclusion and rivalry). Donadieu points rights and responsibilities for everyone’ (CoE, to irreducibility of landscape common goods 2000). Nonetheless, only procedural rights are to the legal options of land ownership (public

16 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective and private), showing the insufficiency of the and that usually take a community to create economical conception of common goods as and sustain (e.g. culture, national heritage). resources accessible to all, where rivalry or ex- As regards the goods provided by agriculture isting subtractability introduce the potential activity, there is according to Cooper, Hart and for the good destruction. In its place Dona- Baldock (2009: 23) ‘a continuum of ‘publicness’’, dieu proposes two complementary meanings or a degree of commonness, which means that – economic and axiological – resource (mate- pure public goods are rare because, concern- rial and perceived) and value (aesthetic and ing the subtractability, some goods consump- ethical judgment). Common goods encompass tion may reduce the enjoyment or the amount shared values, tangible and intangible assets, available to others. In fact, a particular commu- as well as a community in which the setting in nal good may be simultaneously public, collec- common implies a social and political legiti- tive and common. mation. According to Marmor (2007), there are no the- Goods may ground rights, is it the case of land- oretical difficulties in considering either the scape common goods? What kind of human right to collective or to public goods, but the rights may be involved, individual or collective same does not apply to common goods, which rights? when considered as a right become problem- If we consider that the right to landscape im- atic, as it implies the duty of all members of the plies environmental and cultural rights, we can community to share the same values. ensure that the fundamental nature of the first The issue raised here is that of moral perfec- rights, internationally recognized in the Aarhus tionism (Wall, 2012), since the right to land- Convention, does not place any constraints on scape as a cultural common good implies the legitimacy of a right to landscape. Is this that all share the duty to partake the values the case with the cultural rights integrated on that transform it precisely on a good of that a right to landscape? type. This perfectionist conception of a duty A right to landscape should be grounded as a is problematic from the point of view of moral collective right. Landscape is a matter of col- autonomy – ‘what people decide to value, and lective interest, the goods that landscape en- to what extent, is a major constituent of their tails are communal in nature, and landscape identity and their conception of their own construction is a collective endeavor. Even selves’ (Marmor, 2007: 242). if the right to a healthy environment has the Nonetheless, according to Marmor (2007: 243- individual as the right-holder, several instru- 244), this problem does not apply to cultural ments and legal texts recognise the existence existing common-goods, where we can include of collective rights relating to the environment agricultural landscapes, in which case there (Déjeant-Pons and Pallemaerts, 2002). may be right to a fair distribution, that is, the According to Andrei Marmor (2007:234), we can right to a share of the good. Is this the case of distinguish three types of communal goods, the landscape common goods created by agri- i.e. goods that ‘take a community to produce, cultural activity in metropolitan regions? Can sustain, or enjoy’: 1) Collective goods – imply- we say that the agro-urbanism programmes ing collective action to be produced (e.g. dem- developed in practice the right to a share of ocratic political procedures); 2) Public goods landscape common goods? – subject to public enjoyment without sub- We will consider next an agro-urban pro- tractability between users (e.g. farmland bio- gramme, where the claim regarding the shar- diversity); e 3) Common goods – those goods ing of landscape common goods created by that cannot be enjoyed unless communally agricultural activities constituted innovative

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 17 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 governance structures and processes of col- council, was also an important step on this lective action. matter. The governance structure developed under the agro-urban programme involved the creation of the association – Terre et cité Agro-urbanism: collective action for the right to (2001) and more recently the collectives – Un landscape. The Saclay Plateau case study autre avenir pour les Pays de Saclay (2006) and Collectif OIN Saclay – COLOS (2006). The consideration of agriculture in French re- However, the future of the agricultural plateau gional planning, as a way to limit urbanization, was constrained by national priorities, through emerged in the 70’s, responding to the aspira- the Operation of National Interest – OIN, tions of local populations in terms of the pres- launched in 2006. It would be only in 2009, ervation and enhancement of their surround- under the Grand Paris Development Plan, that ings, regarding landscape and environment the desire to preserve this agricultural plateau quality. took forward the common goals of the actors of Although initially it was the binomial state- the agro-urban governance structure, even if it region to respond to the issues of peri-urban was confirmed the creation of a scientific and agriculture through numerous studies and ini- technological cluster. This development plan tiatives, there was also an upward movement would define the legal obligation to create the of collective actions and experiments of local Saclay Plateau protection area (2 300 ha), to initiative, by elected officials, urban residents delimitate by a public consultation procedure, and farmers that launched experiments to lim- within the perimeter of the OIN. This protec- it urbanization and to engage in agricultural tion was justified by the Senate (2009-10) on projects – the agro-urban programmes (Molin, grounds of the productive function of the ag- 2010). This collective action has been support- riculture activities developed, which benefit ed and institutionalized by the Regional Coun- from a collective demand for local food. cil, since 2005. Integrated in the Regional Green Belt (1995), the Saclay Plateau has been actively advocat- Conclusions ed for its agricultural vocation since the 80s, by the inhabitants and farmers against several The right to landscape, although considered a planning projects that considered the plateau right in development, still lacks a formal legal a vacant, unused and available space to receive regulation, either binding or non-binding. The either polluting enterprises or housing proj- ELC provides procedural rights of association ects. Since the Master Plan for Île-de-France to decision-making processes, concerning the (SDRIF, 1994), was established as a priority the protection, planning and management of the plateau’s vocation for scientific and technolog- landscape. The practices of local governance ical development. have however, in the context of agro-urban The interest of the local actors on the common programmes, contributed to the realization of goods produced by the agricultural activity the substantive right to a share of landscape was further developed by the diagnostic stud- common-goods provided by agriculture. ies performed within the action research proj- As we have seen in what concerns the goods ects on peri-urban agriculture in Île-de-France, provided by agriculture activity, there is a de- initiated by the École Nationale Supérieure du gree of commonness, which means that some Paysage. The patrimonial audit (2001-2003) goods consumption may reduce the amount conducted with the support of the regional available to other individuals. This is the case

18 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective of local food production where the provision is Moreover, the maintenance of a sustainable strongly limited by other competing land uses base of natural resources may be a further in metropolitan regions. However, in the Saclay argument for basing a right to the landscape Plateau case study only the collective demand common goods provided by agriculture. for local food was considered and other land- Therefore, we can conclude that the Saclay pla- scape goods were neglected as arguments teau agro-urbanism programme operated in for the duty to protect the agricultural land. practice an evolution of landscape law toward Nevertheless, the right to a share of landscape a right to landscape common goods, evidenc- common goods was realized. The protection ing the importance of collective action for achieved will allow the maintenance of the ag- landscape democracy. ricultural landscape and soil functionality, as a means to secure the long term capacity of the land to produce food. Bibliography Through the Saclay plateau case study we verified that there were fundamental steps for the Assunto, R. (2011) Paisagem – Ambiente – Território, in Ser- rão, A. V. (Coord.). Filosofia da Paisagem. Uma antologia, affirmation and legitimating of the right to a Lisboa: Centro de Filosofia da Universidade de Lisboa. share of landscape common goods, namely: the Cooper, T., Hart, K. and Baldock, D. (2009) The Provision of Pub- regional framework for action in favor of peri- lic Goods Through Agriculture in the European Union, Report urban agriculture, the financing of the patrimo- Prepared for DG Agriculture and Rural Development, Lon- nial audit, the formalization of the agro-urban don: Institute for European Environmental Policy. Council of Europe – CE (2000) European Landscape Conven- programmes, and finally the collective action tion, Florence, 20.X.2000. ETS No. 176. developed by several territorial associations. Déjeant-Pons, M. and Pallemaerts (2002) Human rights and The governance structure developed evidenced the environnement, Strasbourg: Éditions du Conseil de a setting in common of the identity of the Saclay l’Europe. Dobson, A. (1990) Justice and the Environment. Conceptions plateau landscape anchored on the agricultural of Environmental Sustainability and Theories of Distributive activities developed, even if the patrimonial au- Justice, Oxford: Oxford University Press. dit revealed the importance given by some ac- Donadieu, P. (In press), Paysages en commun. Pour une tors to the unique association of major research éthique des mondes vécus. centers and educational institutions as an equal Egoz, S., Makhzoumi, J. and Pungetti, G. (ed.) (2011) The Right to Landscape: An Introduction in The Right to Land- significant territorial quality. scape: Contesting Landscape and Human Rights, Surrey: The identity of the landscape created by ag- Ashgate Publishing. riculture may not be valued and shared as a Goodhart, M. (2010) ‘Human Rights’, in Bevir, M. (ed.) Ency- common good, when other land uses are pro- clopedia of political theory, California: SAGE Publications. Hofrichter, R. (ed.) (1994) Toxic Struggles: The Theory and posed and defended by a part of the popula- Practice of Environmental Justice, Philadelphia: New Soci- tion and even by the State, as was the case with ety Publishers. the Grand Paris Development Plan proposal for Marmor, A. (2007) Do We Have a Right to Common Goods?, in Saclay Plateau. Nevertheless, it may be consid- Law in the Age of Pluralism, Oxford: Oxford University Press. ered morally controversial to impose that ev- Molin, C. (Coord.) (2010) Les politiques agricoles périurbaines en Ile-de-France : état des lieux et analyses de leurs évolu- eryone shares the duty to partake the values tions, Grenoble: Association Nationale Terres en Villes. that create cultural common goods. However, Nickel, J. (2013) ‘Human Rights’, in Zalta, E. (ed.) The Stanford we have seen that it is possible to justify a right Encyclopedia of Philosophy, URL = . Wall, S. (2012) ‘Perfectionism in Moral and Political Philoso- in this case as long as the farmers have col- phy’, in Zalta, E. (ed.) The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philoso- lective and financial support for maintaining phy URL = .

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Articulating Landscape as Common Good. Lay- and gas companies, covers the Nordic region. On men’s Share in Expert Terminology commission from E.ON the Norwegian part of the Swedish engineering company SWECO has iden- Marius Fiskevold tified the available wind resources of large parts Insitution and contact information: Sweco Norge AS, Marius. of the Norwegian territory. The overall aim is to [email protected] obtain a production license from the Norwegian Session: Epistemological perspectives on landscape as com- Water Resources and Energy Directorate. mon good In the small municipality Birkenes in the southern part of Norway the local council prepares a vote Abstract: This paper is developed as a discussion linking land- on whether they should support or reject the vi- scape theory to the wind turbine discourse in the small mu- sions presented by E.ON. The financial benefits nicipality Birkenes in the southern part of Norway. The paper for the relatively poor municipality are present- explores the challenges that emerge when a long practiced but ed as a main argument. Nevertheless, a diverse yet unarticulated landscape suddenly needs to be given verbal presence as an argument in a complex and far reaching dis- group of land owners and users are oppressed cussion. The aim of the work is to investigate different terms with the initiative, emphasising the unique wil- that can be used to grasp complexities in landscape forma- derness character, the absence of widespread tion and present them as valid knowledge in debates. Differ- technical infrastructure in the area (Motvind, ent landscape views uttered in expert impact assessments and undated), claiming the land as a fundamental as- public hearings were followed up by more in depth interviews and theoretical investigations. Accepting the engagement pect of their livelihood and a substantial part of of people perceiving the area as landscape on the one hand, their identity. and experts analysing and assessing the area as landscape on A wide range of ideals has suddenly been inter- the other, the study shows some of the complexities provoked rupted by the voice of the people concerned. But when landscape experience has to be articulated as common good. - at what risks? The legal, political and commercial mechanisms, procedures, regulations and Keywords: expert terminology, participation, symbolic image, institutions create a strong discursive arena well chronotope, wind energy power station suited to those already adapted and well integrated in the discourse society. How capable are the arguments concerning landscape, identity, Landscape between global ideologies and local social and individual well-being explaining their practices stands when confronted with by the overwhelming momentum established by scientific consen- In its Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Par- sus, political legitimacy, bureaucratic efficiency liament and of the Council on the promotion of and yearly municipal budgeting? the use of energy from renewable sources, The How can a long practiced but yet unarticulated European Union has set up an aim to achieve a landscape be justified as common good, with- 20 % improvement in energy efficiency, a 20 % standing and challenging such an overwhelming share of energy from renewable sources by 2020. campaign? As a member of the European Economic Area (EEA) The Norwegian Parliament has ratified the directive (Prop. 4 S (2011–2012), and together Expert terminology and local knowledge as lan- with Sweden established the common energy dscape argument market with aim of producing totally 26,4 TWh by the year 2020. According to The European Landscape Conven- From its office in the Swedish town Malmø, E.ON, tion, landscape means a human perception of one of the world’s largest investor-owned power an area’s visible and experienced character-

20 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective istics, potentially serving as a foundation for eas. Seen as a whole, area, body and eye continu- social and individual well-being (COE 2000). ously constitute a dynamic unity which opens The public process nevertheless demonstrated up for site specific perceptions. The crossing of a substantial lack of depth in the articulated the valley Bjordalen was but one of many similar knowledge aiming at this subject. The expert routes completed within an overall image fusing was limited to his habitual use of the ordinary bodily engagement with the qualities of the area. prescriptions given in the assessment program. In this act, described by Straus as ein Mit-Werden The locals seemed to lack the practice of giving (Straus 1956:409), a “co-creation”, the individual bodily experiences linguistic form, ignoring the contributes with its body, and the area with its complexities of all the preconditions and inter- surface and atmosphere. Observing the trained mediate steps, and jumping straight to conclu- way finders, or finding our own way through the sions. In this context, at the end of the public terrain actually made the qualities of the land procedure, a confined research project was car- visible, mediating the area’s unmodified state as ried out to explore the possibilities of how to a material extension into the kinaesthetically at- express landscape as common good on the are- tached individual. The members of Motvind re- na of public governance and decision making. peatedly mentioned this unique attraction of the Having a role as expert describing the theme Storehei area. Though terminologically inacces- landscape in the environmental impact assess- sible, the experience of die Ferne, the site specific ment, I knew the area from the professional performance of visual sight and sensed site, was arena. At the same time, the engagement of the heavily appreciated and accepted as a distinct local agitators of Motvind (headwind) opened property of common good. up for a constructive exchange of opinions and Observing traces of former life in the area, for development of arguments. Leaning on the rich example the ruins of the old hay barn at Or- sources of theory based directly on experience releiksheia, actualised the term chronotope or on articulated experience, an expert driven introduced by the Russian literature scholar dialogue between expert and the Motvind Mikhail Bakhtin. The chronotope is, according members was carried out. In addition to mail to Bakhtin, a fusion of time and space where correspondence involving both map drawing time “… thickens, takes on flesh, becomes artis- and topic related questions a field trip in the tically visible; likewise, space becomes charged area was used as part of the survey. and responsive to the movements of space, plot and history (Bakhtin 1981:84).” The Motvind members visualised the activity of moor harvest The perception of the moving body and the narra- as one of the most telling stories of the area. ting eye The grass of the moors where harvested, barns where built for both storage and temporary ac- The German-American psychologist Erwin Straus commodation, and in the winter season the hay has named the receiving act of bodily movement, crop was transported home. In the visualisation the original, unintentional and unreflected state of the former use of the land, the searching eye of kinaesthetic emotions, as die Ferne (the far was combined with reflexive thought, visually away situated) (Straus 1956:408). Spotted sites, investigating the still visible traces of former on different and varying distances from the ob- generation’s, culture’s or nation’s achievements server, are visually made present by the search- (Bakhtin 1986). ing eye. At the same time, the individual directs Also recognised by some of the Motvind mem- his body from the well-known ground and into bers, the visualising act of seeing, made knowl- the flux of possible and far situated spots and ar- edge visible as part of a current scene. Season-

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Fig 1The crossing of the steep hillsides of Bjordalen implied a continuous eye scanning and bodily movement, thereby transforming the materiel experience of the site into knowledge of the area’s character as landscape.

Fig 2 The remnants of the old hay barn at Orreleiksheia and the adjacent moor make up the material contribution of the chrono- topic image displayed with the knowledge of previous livelihood.

22 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective ally dependent practices or natural phenomena (Kemp 1996:160) of what has happened and were made present in the image developed on what might happen. The British archaeologist site. Through the combination of sight and Christopher Tilley has made similar claims of the knowledge, personally and culturally known importance of movement (Tilley 1994:31) as a history was given visible form, shaping a tie of source for landscape knowledge. The chronotope belonging between the area and the individual. of the road is bound to sequentially experienced The individual is contributing with its eyes, soci- and evaluated parts of an area, transforming the ety with its narratives. Thus, performing the chro- immediacies of the perceived images into the notopical view means that the narrative is trans- interpretative potential of a symbolic image. The ferred to the area and that the area is absorbed ascent of Heimdalsknuten could be seen as the by the observing narrator, giving them both a climax of the symbolic, chronotopical image for- character; as landscape and as a socially embed- mation, combining the moving body with the ded individual. narrating eye. Reaching the edge of the plateau implied a shift of perceptive attention from body to eye. The effort of climbing the slopes was re- The transformation of movement and sight into a placed by the weightless sight of blue ridges and symbolic image horizon appearing in all directions. An imagined jump to another hill, ridge or viewpoint any- According to the German art historian Wolfgang where in the current scene, would simply have Kemp, the chronotope of the road is bound to a created another image similar to the one experi- defined route and contains specific implications enced. The view served as the conclusion of the

Fig 3 The view from Heimdalsknuten, concluding bodily movement and displaying visual inﬁnity, combines the immediacy of the perceived image with the interpretative potential of the symbolic image.

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 23 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 journey, giving the observed image a symbolic superfluous, but complemented and supple- weight of movement and infinity. mented each other. The closure of experience, Our field trip was taking us from one place of disclosed the potential of the narrative, as the event to another, eventually resulting in a route other way round. prepared for a narrative. Partly spontaneous, some of the participants ad- At Heimdalsknuten we reached a summit which mitted that the activities of the research project previously was used for midsummer celebra- themselves had made them more aware of new tion, today as a place for special events like last ways of perceiving the area as landscape, until year’s 100 years anniversary of women’s right to then unknown. vote. And some of the Motvind members en- In conclusion, landscape as common good joyed the task of identifying places in the view do not reside in personal emotions or cultural shed, making some places appear closer than conventions. Quiet on the contrary, landscapes others and thereby dividing the field into differ- need to be articulated verbally to be loosened ing zones. from the domain of the individual or the con- Thus, the chronotope of the road, condensed in servation of tradition. Introducing a dialogue symbolic images like those at Heimdalsknuten, with the Motvind members was a way of releas- expresses the simultaneousness of presence ing mere impressions and convictions into lan- and absence, of bodily experience and reflexive guage and text. As the linguistic part of the in- continuity, giving landscape a visible, subjec- terplay between human intensions and natural tive perceivable and shared expression as com- appearances, landscape complexity emerged mon good. as a permeable image, gaining substance from material practices, cultural narratives, individual attention, verbal articulation and social com- The perception of verbal articulation and social munication. communication Landscape in this sense, is not as such repre- sentable, but retains its dynamic potential as a According to Kemp, to narrate is to connect the symbolic image through words and illustrations image of the media (Bildraum) to the image of in contemporary planning, discussion and deci- the area (Betrachterraum) (Kemp 1996:9). The sion making processes. intermediate step in this procedure is social communication. The members of Motvind were all eager to emphasise the central role of dia- Complementation of everyday life as an area’s logue and meaning exchange during the proc- landscape potential ess. Knowledge about the landscape was ac- cumulated and developed continuously as the The much valued interaction of bodily experi- process proceeded. It developed as part of the ence and reflexive thought, articulated and internal and external debate, but also as a result discussed by the Motvind members, also dem- of more extended use of the area and as a con- onstrated that the engagement with the area sequence of theoretical challenging scenarios could be interpreted as a version of individual displaying the area in different and potential independency from the otherwise well regu- images. lated and technical controlled nature. As ex- Thus, the whole process of articulating land- pressed by one of the informants, “we do not scape decisively increased the member’s aware- want any urbanisation of nature”. ness of the area’s landscape potential. Experi- In other words, they were articulating land- ence and narrative did not make each other scape according to modernist theorists like

24 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective

Joachim Ritter and Kenneth Clark arguing their contribution to the sustainable benefits of landscape as the aesthetically enjoyed sight future generations. of natural phenomena and processes undis- turbed by human regulations (Ritter 1995, Clark 1952:7) and as an alternative to everyday Conclusion life, routines and obligations In the group members’ opinion, equalising The experiences from the public discussions in landscape with manscape would easily miss Birkenes and the following articulation of land- the complementing aspects of landscape; tem- scape as a verbal argument have shown that porary utopian, temporary showing bygone legitimate knowledge of landscape could be eras. In the chronotope of the road the overall anchored in theoretical terms given substance imaginative potential is displayed as an aspect by site specific practice. of freedom bridging the gap between hands Additionally, insight and arguments are no less and feet, eye and body, as the anthropologist dependent on the actual analysis and assess- Tim Ingold (Ingold 2011:37) has characterised ments carried out than on the preparations and a tendency in western modernity. Perceived conceptualisation of the subject investigat- as landscape, the Storehei area offers the posed. In either case, the articulation of relevant sibility of performing the unique form of bodily knowledge of landscape is more grounded in movement as such, clarified as an accentuated dialogue than in procedure, experience than shift from everyday movement carried out as a in calculations, insight than in statements. In car driver or a pedestrian confined to the paved each case, the knowledge obtained can serve streets of civilization. as a symbolic image inviting anyone interested At the same time, the area offers the rich traces into the presence of a dynamic and sustainable of former life, standing as an imaginative sup- landscape. plement to contemporary practice and conceptions. According to this approach, the meaning of Essential bibliography: landscape could be associated with the play between modified and unmodified materiality, Bakhtin, M., 1981, The dialogic imagination, Austin, Univer- sity of Texas press. regulated and unregulated activity, conceptu- Bakhtin, M., 1986, Speech genres and other late essays, Aus- alised and the still unconceptualised reality. tin, University of Texas press. In the last sense, the Storehei area becomes Clark, K., 1952, Landscape into art, London, John Murray. a landscape which offers an aesthetic alterna- COE, Council of Europe, 2000, The European Landscape Con- tive to the scientific modelled and calculated vention, Firenze. Ingold, T., 2011, Being alive, New Work, Routledge. nature. Kemp, W., 1996, Die Räume der Maler: zur Bilderzählung seit Following the landscape approach, the area Giotto, München, C.H. Beck. could be regarded as an extension of the al- Motvind (undated), Høringsuttalelse vedrørende bygging av ready known world, representing a standing vindkraftverk på Topdalens vesthei (Storehei, Bjelkeberg og Oddeheia) i Birkenes i Aust-Agder [Public submission], reserve of potential experience and image for- Birkenes. mation, independent of both material modifica- Ritter, J., 1995, ”Landskab”, in Dehs, J. (Ed.) Æstetiske teorier: tions and scientific conceptions. en antologi [Aesthetic theories: an anthology], Odense, Odense Universitetsforlag. In this respect, it is the area’s imaginative poten- Straus, E., 1956, Vom Sinn der Sinne: ein Beitrag zur Grundle- gung der Psychologie, Berlin, Springer. tial that represents the common good which Tilley, C., 1994, A phenomenology of landscape, Oxford/Provi- the Motvind members so eagerly advocated as dence, Berg.

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The Territory and City as a Common Good Common goods, therefore, refers not only to the consideration of a composite, shared, and Chiara Garau, Pasquale Mistretta* often intangible reality, but its use in particular (Nivarra, 2012). In addition, the enjoyment of University of Cagliari, DICAAR - Dep. of Civil and Environmen- the commons does not exclude anyone (Rodotà, tal Engineering and Architecture 2012; Seppilli, 2012). Converting these concepts [email protected]; into practice is more difficult. In fact, it has been [email protected] an issue in every policy that re-proposes a reflection on them, linked occasionally to the domi- Abstract: The topic of common goods has become part of cur- nant theories of the purpose of policy and the rent debates in legal, philosophical, behavioral, and economic fields. Not the same can be said regarding the problem of State (Possenti, 1993). The current interest in the common goods in relation to the city, architecture, and urban commons inevitably intersects with globaliza- planning in general. Urban spaces, monumental contexts, and tion and with its constitutional processes. landscape architecture are in fact taken into consideration only The scientific debate has initially focused on the when they are worthy of cataloging by the Ministry of Culture or the regions to which they refer. The intent of this paper is to response to the crisis of the neoliberal develop- highlight the necessary dialectic between objectively collective ment model (Ricoveri, 2005). The debate then good or common goods contexts and other contexts perhaps investigated the growth of inequality on a global less “noble”, but just as significant as expressions of people and scale and the pollution of the planet. Finally, it their historical and socio-economic actualized habitat. It is related different actors and points of view, focus- recognized that the problem of commons offers an important key to understanding participatory democracy, without which ing on the development of local resources and there would be no interaction between static and dynamic local identities, correlating the physical good interpretation, typical of urban living. In this respect, we will and the designated institutions to the its use and focus (the commons of Cagliari as a typological example) on maintenance. the different interpretation contexts in order to understand whether the assessment can be justified as a common good. In this framework, the common good, which is scaled by the values on which a landscape, a Keywords: common good, city, landscape architecture region or a city can be measured, acquired a dimension and an interest beyond reading for film frames of material and immaterial objects that Introduction contribute to their scenic representation. The common represents forms of sharing a com- With their strategic and interdisciplinary themes, munity which «goes beyond the mere private the commons have consistently stimulated the sphere, without reaching the depersonalizing interest of researchers in various fields, particu- universality of the public sphere, for which the larly the legal and economic disciplines and so- rights are valid for everyone or for no one» (Rul- cial and political sciences. The collective property, lani, 2010, p. 120). In this regard, it is important however, is inscribed in a territory and becomes to consider the legal rules (local, national, and a system «in which nature and history, heritage international) that delimit the boundaries of pro- to preserve and social needs to meet intrinsically tection and management of the territory when intertwine; it becomes a system that can be un- addressing the planning tools, but also taking derstood, defended and transformed only if it is into account both the social factors which can considered in all the set of its aspects and ele- change the spatial structures, and the peculiari- ments that compose it» (Salzano, 2012, p. 87): the ties that characterize that territorial context as intangible, natural, and environmental specifics common good. In other words, planning tools with their evolutions, and possible effects on the should consider and take into account the close economic, social and landscape components. relationship between the Citizen and his rela-

26 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective tionship with reality, yet still consider the critical ing common and public goods is created which sense with which He observes and participates involves an intergenerational commitment, opt- in the development of the settlement in a demo- ing for choices aiming to provide answers over cratic way to its ‘manipulation’. the long-term. The citizen concerned with politics is honoured with prominent roles. However, the commitment to the preservation of common Participatory Democracy, Common Goods, and and public goods are typically internalized by all Territory included in a larger context involving all people, even in the daily conduct of private business. Effectively protecting the territory, which ex- A model worth investigation is that of building ceeds the conflict of competencies in the name solidarity, referring to a public space consisting of a higher common interest, is now a real test of of condominiums of adjacent buildings, which democracy because it responds to ethical, legal, guarantee the maintenance, cleaning, green and cultural long-lasting aspects involving the care, and safety. This allows this specific space, territory, the landscape, and the environment, though not formalized, a common good in all re- as well as the cultural heritage. However, «the spects and deeply shared and legitimate. institutionalization of commons corresponds to the transition from communal forms of direct participation in the electoral mechanisms of The Morphological Characteristics of Habitat delegated democracy. The common is confused with the public, the participation with the dele- There is often a strong contrast between the ap- gation [...]. Before the commons definitively dis- pearance and the effectiveness of urban build- appear, it is necessary to reaffirm and re-open ing when compared to the relationships formed the vice between public and private regulatory by its inhabitants. For planners and architects, space because the commons are recognized as is easier to draw the city, rather than to express such and are made independent from interfer- in keywords, petitions, and social components, ences and intrusions of the State» (Angelini, which interact with the historical function and 2010, pp. 107-108). are actualized in an urban space and in harmony In other words, essential criteria should be iden- with the architectural and environmental con- tified when attributing a non-private nature for text, layered over time. public goods of common interest with prefer- Indeed, it is important to recognize the many able participatory management through shared cases in which the city’s history reveals where it decision-making processes (Ponzini, 2013). It is is inappropriate to refer to the historical habitat plausible to think that the public body appears, compared with present dynamics. However, it is by nature, more suitable than a private one for not rare that with some exaggerations of tradi- ensuring the realization of all citizens’ interests. tion and culture, examples exist where one can It should provide transparency, respect of social try to relive or revive historical identitarian epi- priorities, and collaboration in decision-making sodes, increasingly aiming for tourist use. and management. The question of active partici- The most obvious typological model is the ‘Piazza pation becomes fundamental: its strategic ob- di Siena’ which performs twice a year in the Palio, jective is to recapture the public, eliminating the and figures in period dresses, galloping horses, inadequate and disengagement of policy in all and seventeen Contradas recreate the medieval forms, including its stratigraphy and manifesta- synergy between the bowl of the monumental tions, while at the same time growing it over the plaza and the population, without generational original dimensions. A new awareness concern- interruption. In a different way, some legendary

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 27 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 events are reconstructed for tourists. For exam- ditions of the people, even when certain events ple, the recreation of the Far West in Tombstone, are perpetuated for hundreds of years, such as Arizona with cowboys, outlaws, and sheriffs, uses the religious ritual of Ephesus originating 357 urban spaces decorated with saloons, small ho- years ago. tels, and craft shops of the era. Referencing these types of identitarian factors The first model may be recognized between the of Cagliari acquired as common goods allows tangible common goods of UNESCO however, reflection on the evaluative dimension of each the second cannot be a common good, if not to with respect to a local, regional, national, and in- be understood as identitarian model of an habi- ternational. In addition, depending on the level tat of the past, maintained in life as in a sound- of appreciation, the same property may be rec- stage of the United States. ognized and creates a cultural and patrimonial To understand the common goods identified interest across borders. In fact, the promontory in a city and its territory, it is necessary to first of St. Elia and the Poetto beach can be consid- distinguish the factors that can be considered ered common good of geographical relevance fixed in time, rather than mobile or subject to between the local value and international recog- generational and socio-economic changes. This nition. Molentargius pond, however, is a shared includes the monuments of nature (mountains, resource of international significance and is in- hills, rivers, lagoons, beaches, etc.) which are included in the cited Ramsar Convention. creasingly creating natural disasters causing irre- Finally, the towers of the Castello district are cer- versible changes. tainly a shared interest on a local, regional, and The conceptual difference is the spontaneous national level, but it is not clear if they can also be use of architecture in both natural and built land- acquired in the international dimension as other scapes in the city of Cagliari, characterized by the Italian fortified cities (San Gimignano, Bologna, following factors: among the fixed commons, the Montagnana) and European cities, including promontory of St. Elia with its ‘Sella del Diavolo’ Aigues-Mortes in France, Bourtange in the north (Devil’s Saddle) and the Cave of the Neolithic of the Netherlands, Nuremberg, Rothenburg in period, one of the strongest components of the Germany. landscape. In close connection with the promontory, the long Poetto beach which, despite the dynamics of the tides, keeps its dimension and Conclusions peculiarities intact. The hill town also belongs to this group and helps to characterize the built Through this exemplification, the common good environment. In particular, the hill of the Castello should be desired and offered to the community district is the medieval centre of the city with two through the urban dimension in the municipali- towers of Pisa (14th century) and can be consid- ties or gravitating to the community, and should ered a common good not only of historical im- ensure the maintenance and preservation of the portance, but Cagliari in the context of military property as long as conditions are consistent architecture of medieval cities. over time when compared to the original moti- Among the mobile or semi-fixed factors, the vations. Molentargius pond emerges with its artificial In this regard, it is important to monitor with pe- hydraulic system. It is a wetland of international riodic intervals, the variations in the structure of importance, is guaranteed by the Ramsar Con- the population gravitation and cultural factors to vention (1971), and is full of local and migratory which they refer, with particular attention to the birds, including pink flamingos. Mobile factors aspects of a more direct socialization. It is evident are clearly all expressions of culture and the tra- that the dimension of the settlement can have a

28 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective significant influence in the reading of synthesis References and, therefore, in the possibility of interpreting the context, including shape, urban fabric, typical Angelini M., 2010, “Scambio di semi e diritto originario” building, and minor monumentality. It becomes in Cacciari P., a cura di, La società dei beni comuni. Una rassegna, Ediesse, Roma. easier to reconstruct the history of generations Cacciari P., a cura di, La società dei beni comuni. Una rassegna, in relation to the built landscape and understand Ediesse, Roma. the extent to which the factors characterizing Hirschman A. O., 1983, Felicità privata e felicità pubblica, Bo- and identifying can be indicators to define some logna, Il Mulino. Nivarra L., 2012, “Alcune riflessioni sul rapporto fra pubblico common goods, or even common good of the e comune”, in Marella M.R., a cura di, Oltre il pubblico e il whole settlement and its habitat. privato, Ombre corte, Verona. When taking into account the role that every- Ponzini D., 2013, “Despite the Absence of the Public Sphere: one can play and the interaction that is pro- How Common Goods Can Generate Opportunities for duced in the community, the more effective a the Design of Public Spaces”, in Serreli S., (ed.), City Project and Public Space. Urban and Landscape Perspectives, 14: shared a habitat of small dimension and more 97-110. easily influenced, but almost imperceptible in a Possenti V., 1993, “Bene comune”, in Berti E., Campanini G., large urban dimension. In fact, only through the Dizionario delle idee politiche, Editrice Ave, Roma. characterization of habitats can extrapolated Ricoveri G., a cura di, 2005, Beni comuni fra tradizione e futuro, Emi, Bologna values be more meaningfully identified in terms Rodotà S., 2012, Il diritto di avere diritti, Laterza, Bari. of common goods. Rullani E., 2010, Modernità sostenibile, Marsilio, Venezia. Salzano E., 2010, “L’habitat dell’uomo bene comune”, in Cac- ciari P., a cura di, La società dei beni comuni. Una rassegna, Note Ediesse, Roma. Seppilli T., 2012, “Sulla questione dei beni comuni: un con- * This paper takes some excerpts from a forthcoming pub- tributo antropologico per la costruzione di una strategia lication of ongoing research by the authors into the Com- politica”, in Marella M.R., a cura di, Oltre il pubblico e il mons and urban community. privato, Ombre corte, Verona.

F. De L’Escaille, Pont de Fragnée, Fourth Edition Peoples Landscapes

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From Commodity to Common Good: the Drama particular viewpoints along the Highway Julia of the Landscape in Christo and Jeanne Claude Tuttle Causeway. The only way to see the new appearance of the bay was to fly over it and see Cristina Girardi the bay as Christo had pictured it in his projects, Department of Philosophy and Communication, University of where bird’s eye views of the work are system- Bologna atically presented together with maps of the site. [email protected] This would seem to be the best view of the work, but in Christo’s very same display panels it is pos- Abstract: During the twentieth Century, while the problem sible to detect a dialectic and continuous tension of landscape preservation was arising all over the world as a between the view from above/at distance of the global political and social matter, many artists reacted to the idea of landscape conceived as a beautiful image, or as an ab- landscape on the one side and the contact with straction from nature. It was however in Christo and Jeanne it on the other. In fact, in each project, Christo Claude’s land art works that we witnessed for the first time a shows an overall view of his work together with systematic project of re inscribing man into the landscape idea. the gesture that flies over it: on one hand, he tries Their works hide indeed the extraordinary power to cast light on a wide range of concrete and theoretical problems about to make the impersonal cartographic view of the nature-society interactions, and about landscape conceived as site more personal by adding several coloured a common good to be defended and preserved. marks which indicate the location of his inter- Evidence of this are the compelling stories of securing local au- vention. On the other hand, close to the map, he thority permits, public hearings, replies and attempts to refus- places a sample of the fabric that he plans to lay ing an agreement with the environmentalists, whose protests every time precede each one of their installations. out over the land: showing, in other words, the Christo’s first startling work in natural environment was hap tic dimension of the land work that no map Wrapped Coast (1968), and it is interesting to note that it was is able to exhibit. presented in the same year in which Garrett Hardin published In the panel’s panorama of land representations, in Science the famous article that began the ample scientific literature about the “tragedy of the commons”. Evidently, some- the little piece of pink polypropylene fabric in- thing was changing in the landscape conception too, and we troduces another mode of symbolization: what will try to understand the sense of this transformation through Goodman (1968) calls “exemplification”. That is a the bright eyes of Christo and Jeanne Claude. symbol that functions by sharing certain properties (i.e. the color, weave, material, texture, shini- KEYWORDS: Commons, Land Art, public space, landscape, Christo and Jeanne Claude. ness) with the object it refers to. Exemplification is “possession plus reference” (ib.), and in Christo’s panel it is exactly the symbolization with which In order to describe the feelings of Miami’s citi- Christo allows the observer to go beyond the zens in the aftermath of the Surrounded Islands objectified view of landscape and to come into installation (May 7, 1983) by Christo and Jeanne contact (to “possess”) his work – it allows him, in Claude, Werner Spies (1984) spoke of “visual frus- other words, to know the work by touching it as tration”. After two years of waiting and discus- well as by seeing it. sions, eleven islands of Biscayne Bay in Greater Unlike most other land art works, in which the Miami, Florida, were surrounded with 603,870 land is singled out in all its materiality, in Christo’s square meters of floating pink woven polypro- case the hap tic dimension does not concern the pylene fabric, but there was no viewpoint, on earth directly, but the fabric that the artist will land, that enabled Miami inhabitants to have a lay out on the earth and that for 14 days will be good view of the extravagant landscape created touching the surface of the bay’s water. In some around their eyes by Christo and Jeanne-Claude. respects, the 60 hectares of the polypropylene The bay is in a flat location and only fragments fabric going over the land can be considered as of Surrounded Islands could be seen from some a parody of the map which visually flies over the

30 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective land. Edward Casey (2005) has called these land challenge against our usual modes of landscape art actions “body-mapping”: a new kind of map- perception, even if Surrounded Islands is often ping conceived as a going through the land in remembered as that fabulous image of pink is- order to become more acquainted with it. An ac- lands seen from the air and resembling Monet’s tion, in other words, of looking-into (in the sense Water Lilies. both of getting into and viewing from within) op- A significant fact is that ever since the out- posite to the looking-on or looking-at of the most set Surrounded Island was more a question for customary pictorial and cartographic represen- journalists than for art historians. The history of tations. such an ambitious intervention indeed consist- In some respects, the covering act of Christo and ed of a series of debates and legal actions, and Jeanne Claude in Biscayne Bay reminds us of the was fuelled not by explanations but by stand- covering act of the map on a scale 1:1 quoted by points and opinion movements. Starting from Borges (1954): a vast map of the empire “which late-1982 the project’s approval aroused the coincided point for point with it” and which, as interest of a non-local newspaper such as The Umberto Eco (1992) has shown, nobody could New York Times (“Christo will wrap 11 islands in never read or use as a real map because of the pink”, December 28, 1982). Numerous other ar- several practical and theoretical paradoxes that ticles followed: “Wildlife group puts down plan a vast map like this implies. However, even if it to wrap up islands” (The Christian Science Moni- replicates its action, Christos’ wrapping does not tor, January 7, 1983); “Compromise proposed in share the same fate as Borges’ map. Because of Christo Island-wrap” (The New York Times, March its uselessness, the latter was finally “impiously” 20, 1983); “Pink Plastic, Not Canvas, Used In Am- left to the inclemency of the sun and the winters, bitious Work of Art” (Observer-Reporter, May 4, and reduced to tattered ruins. Instead Christo 1983); “Christo Drapes Miami Isles in Pink”, (New and Jeanne Claude’s cloth was preserved in York Times, May 5, 1983); “Tutu much: Island art perfect splendour for the whole time it was laid has Miami agog, aghast” (The Milwaukee Jour- out on the ground, nevertheless no image of its nal, May 8, 1983). dismantlement was left but just very accurate The quotations could continue, but this short re- documents about its installation. This was all view of headlines should be enough to prove the but a useless realization as it was the engine of extent of the debate, as well as the predominant a careful displaying of concrete and theoretical role that the environmental issues played within problems about interactions between nature it. In this sense, what is recorded in the newspa- and society. pers reflects the very nature of the new approach Its usefulness is indeed measured in terms of to the landscape inaugurated by Christo: a direct the great symbolic efficacy that it managed to contact with it that coincides with the transfor- exert upon its public, which prior to the instal- mation of the landscape from image to resource, lation spent two years discussing and debating from potential commodity into commons, capa- intensely on the right of access to the landscape ble of getting public opinion to be committed to of the bay and on its state of nature as an co- its safeguarding. sustainable resource. Evidently, the presenta- Surrounded Island’s story was in reality an in- tion of the project alone was enough for the credible and compelling story of securing lo- population to connect with the surrounding cal authority permits, of public hearings (seven world and its singularities as it had never done altogether), of replies and attempts of refusing before, that is to conceive their landscape as a an agreement because of the protests from the living context. So, what had been reported as environmentalists. In order to reassure people “visual frustration” was actually a significant that it would not damage the environment re-

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 31 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 sources at all, in fact, Christo hired a complete came out on the bay’s environmental situa- team of collaborators: it was the task of a mation, not unlike what would occur for the real- rine biologist, a mammal expert on manatees ization of The Gates in Central Park, New York and a marine engineer to test the effects of the (1979-2005). And not unlike, moreover, what pink fabric on the bay grass and manatees and had already occurred for the realization of Run- to show that Christo’s land alteration would ning Fence (1972-76), in California. In this case, not disturb the mammals living in the bay and for example, before installing the 39.5 km long that the new colouring predisposed them in fence snaking across the properties of fifty- their mating. In the same way, it was the task nine ranchers near Free way 101 north of San of two ornithologists to show that the installa- Francisco, Christos went through eighteen pub- tion would not create any problem for a special lic hearings and three sessions at the superior kind of sea bird nesting on Island n. 9. Christo’s courts of California, and drew up eventually an team showed photographs of ospreys nesting Environmental Impact Report the size of a tele- on telephone poles and factories, and pointed phone directory. It was the first E.I.R. ever done out that the brooding of the birds did not coin- on a work of art. cide with the period of the installation. Each one of Christos’ public land art works war- The leader of the environmental protest was Mi- rant careful analysis, considering their multiple amian Jack Kassewitz. He lost the federal court discursive, juridical and environmental implica- contest, but obtained a court order to allow him tions. Their mere presentation is enough, how- to monitor the work’s potential impact on the ever, to signal a cultural change, almost as if bay’s ecosystem following the installation from these landscape interventions were worthy to a boat paid for by Christos. The story of Sur- the extent that they managed to raise a ques- rounded Islands was, ultimately, the story of a tion: what becomes of the landscape, then, in “participant observation”, and also of a “partici- all of this? pated performance” of the local people in the It becomes first of all a problem-idea, a spatio- work: Christo hired 400 local people to remove social issue. By means of siting their works in from the islands 50 years’ of piled up garbage public and living context, Christos complicat- (refrigerator doors, tires, kitchen sinks, mat- ed the idea of landscape as not only a physical tresses and an abandoned boat). The artist’s arena or a breathtaking image (Girardi 2011), intervention cast light not only on the aban- but as a common good and a resource or, bet- doned state of the islands, that were in fact ter, as the resource of the commons. Accord- used mostly for dumping garbage, but also on ing to Merleau-Ponty (1964), the history of the contradictory views of the people who had modernity is the history of a subject commit- been complaining about the environmental im- ted to constructing worlds that he does not pact of his work. inhabit. On the contrary, according to Christo Christo himself stated that his means were not and Jeanne Claude, the landscape has now only the landscape, the sea and the sky, but also to become the subject of public apprehen- the human element: “Listen, for two and a half sion and an ethical claim. That is the sign that years hundreds of thousands of people in South something has changed: that a need arose to Florida have been discussing the project. They’ve conceive the landscape as the condition of been thinking and fantasying about it. Imagine, human life itself, and that, as the artists high- in one of our court hearings, a Federal judge, usu- lighted, no question about the use or overuse ally occupied with grimmer matters, spent four of a landscape can be solved through a mere days discussing birds and flowers” (Spies 1984). cartography of jurisdictions and subdivision In the end, a complete and exhaustive report of territorial properties. The landscape is now

32 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective discovered to be irreducible to the rigor mor- grounded on the idea that the public resources tis of a flat projection (Farinelli 2003), because in general are finite, subject to overuse and at it is not the static background of our actions, risk of an excessive and irreversible consump- guaranteed once and for all, but it is instead a tion. Was then the task of Nobel prize-winner container of resources living in a temporal and Elinor Ostrom (1990) to study social interac- asymmetric dimension, to be defended in the tions in order to transform that tragedy into a present and preserved for the future. comedy, or at least a drama whose end depends Overcoming the boundaries between man and on human behavior vis-à-vis public goods and nature; dominator man’s reliance on dominat- landscape. The attempt is to rethink our be- ed nature; the transformation of nature from longing to nature, recognizing the grave error mere backdrop to the events into an exhaust- of having excluded it for a long time from the ible generator of life; constitution of a new col- political sciences. It is no accident if landscape lectivity, in which the old humanistic idea of itself is theorized in this scientific literature as society is extended to embracing other living a living and changing resource, and declared beings as well (Descola 2005), as far as attrib- in several instances of management and access uting to the vegetable species a primary role to the commons (distribution of the water rein the preservation of animal and human life sources, organization of fishing and hunting, itself (this is ecology). The public of Surround- etc.) irreducible to the abstract and crystalliz- ed Islands was the spectator to all of this: a re ing geometry of a cartography and territorial- inscribing of man into landscape on one side, administrative subdivision. and the entrance of landscape (as natural environment) into the social contract on the other side (Bourg 1997). Essential bibliography It is exactly the same inversion of principles that for René Passet (1979) distinguishes contempo- Andrews M., 1999, Landscape and Western Art, Oxford Uni- versity Press, New York. rary economic science in respect to the classical Baal-Teshuva J., 1995, Christo and Jeanne-Claude, Taschen, ones. While the latter considered the growth of Köln. production as being completely independent Bourg D., 1997, “Le paradoxe de nos relations à la nature”, in from nature, the twentieth century economy Besse, J.-M., Roussel, I., eds., Environnement. Représentations et concepts de la nature, L’Harmattan, Paris, 1997: 51-74. discovered the exhaustibility of the natural re- Casey E. S., 2005, Earth Mapping. Artists Reshaping Landscape, sources and embraced the issue that there is a University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis-London. risk of an end to the growth of industrial and Descola P., 2005, Par-delà nature et culture, Gallimard, Paris. agricultural output. It is here that the sense of Farinelli F., 2003, Geografia. Un’introduzione ai modelli del the new course of Christo and Jeanne Claude’s mondo, Einaudi, Torino. Girardi C., 2011, La natura in cornice. Il paesaggio e la sua landscape art is clarified, significantly marked by invenzione tra XVI e XVII secolo, Bononia University Press, an overlap of dates and theoretical approaches. Bologna. Nineteen sixty-eight was the year of the first Goodman N., 1968, Languages of Art, Bobbs-Merrill, India- startling project in the natural environment pre- napolis-New York. Hardin G., 1968, “The Tragedy of the Commons”, Science, sented by Christo and Jeanne Claude: Wrapped 1968, 162, 3859: 1243-1248. Coast, a wrapping with erosion-control fabric Ostrom E., 1990, Governing the commons. The evolution of in- of 100,000 square meter of craggy shoreline stitutions for collective action, Cambridge University Press, at Little Bay, in Sydney. That same year Garrett New York. Hardin (1968) published in Science the famous Passet R., 1979, L’economique et le vivant, Payot, Paris. Spies W., ed., 1984, Christo: Surrounded Islands. Biscayne article that began the ample scientific literature Bay, Greater Miami, Florida. 1980-83, DuMont Buchverlag, about the so-called “tragedy of the commons”, Köln.

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How to Deal with Landscape as a Common Good shown by the image opening this essay. Accord- ingly, it is possible to say that landscape belongs Cristina Mattiucci, Stefania Staniscia to everyone and that, in a tautological way, it can DICAM – University of Trento be considered as a common good. Via Mesiano, 77- 38123 Trento – Italy [email protected] [email protected] The Rotaliana-Königsberg Community. One landscape, two interpretations “The charming landscape which I saw this morning is indubitably made up of some twenty or thirty farms. Miller owns this The picture, which was taken from the Faedo field, Locke that, and Manning the woodland beyond. But none of them owns the landscape. There is a property in the horizon hills, shows the central part of the Rotaliana- which no man has but he whose eye can integrate all the parts, Königsberg Community (RKC) with the Adige that is, the poet. This is the best part of these men’s farms, yet to plain in the foreground together with the mouth this their warranty-deeds give no title.” (Emerson, 1965) of the Noce valley. Keywords If we try to match the RKC with the descriptive Alpine region, Regional Plan, common / public, public space categories defined and adopted by Kucan and Golobič (2004) in order to describe the changes “The charming landscape which I saw this morning is in the contemporary Alpine landscape, it fits into indubitably made up of some twenty or thirty farms. almost all of them, albeit with some specificities. Miller owns this field, Locke that, and Manning the One scenario is the so-called «extensive suburb». woodland beyond. But none of them owns the land- In the last few years the RKC has witnessed a – still scape. There is a property in the horizon which no man ongoing – increase in population and a growth has but he whose eye can integrate all the parts, that is, in housing as well as commercial, manufacturing the poet. This is the best part of these men’s farms, yet to and facility-oriented areas, reflecting the loss of this their warranty-deeds give no title.” (Emerson, 1965) agricultural land due to soil consumption. The peri-urban condition of this area is also due So no one owns the landscape but everyone is to the proximity to Trento, which is not only a able to integrate all its parts in a look, as we are physical contiguity but expresses itself also in

Photo by Paolo Sandri (2013: 86)

34 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective terms of travelling distance, flows and uses. This implemented or are still in discussion. This was is a major feature that makes the RKC a real peri- interesting for us because of the effects they can urban area which maintains the contextual rela- have on the use of land in terms of potentialities tionship between open spaces and low-density or criticalities they produce, and of the possibil- built environment. ity to coordinate them and to create a synergy A second scenario is the «diorama or landscape between plans and actions under way. These are attractions (the mostly pastoral landscapes, con- all topics that pertain to the perspectives of de- ceived as an amenity.)» (Kucan and Golobič, 2004) velopment and change that have been stressed We refer, above all, to the hilly area of Faedo, San in order to support the idea of landscape as a Michele and Sorni to the South, characterized by common good. vineyard landscapes and low impact tourist activi- If on one hand Paolo Sandri’s picture captures ties connected with the “scattered hospitality” and an image of this area that is established in the the economy of viticulture and wine production. imagination of those who inhabit and cross it, on Beyond the depicted scenarios, in the RKC there the other hand the image that emerges from the is another important landscape linked with in- conversations is a vision for the future of these tensive agriculture – mainly vineyards. This land- places and communities. In the first image we scape coexists with the hydro graphic landscape, could interpret the reference to landscape as a which is managed as an infrastructure and can common good since it is explicit, whereas in the be considered as one of the big infrastructures second image the reference to landscape remains that outline the Adige valley – the A22 motorway implicit and requires different interpretations. and the Brenner and Trento-Malè railways. While in general there is a strong awareness of The reflection this contribution wishes to pres- environmental issues such as climate change, the ent, with respect to the above-described com- consumption/depletion of natural resources, etc. plex landscape, starts from some of the choices – probably also due to the policies implemented that have been made in the work for the devel- at the provincial and national level that fund en- opment of the Regional Plan (RP) for the RKC. vironment-oriented projects such as the Action This analytical and operational opportunity of- Plans for Sustainable Energy or the Municipal En- fers, on the one hand, the possibility to measure ergy Plans – there isn’t an equal awareness, even how landscape can represent the main issue of a among those who govern the territory, of the spatial plan and, on the other hand, the oppor- issues linked with landscape management. Envi- tunity to understand what landscape means for ronment and landscape in fact are two concepts the communities that inhabit it – starting from that often overlap and mingle, and it is also due the assumption that landscape is both “a re- to the intrinsic ambiguity of the term landscape. source and a common good” (Diamantini, 2013), As a matter of fact, in the conversations with the which means that it is something that should be mayors it was almost impossible to find explicit considered when dealing with territorial devel- references to landscape. It is possible to identify opment and change, with a focus on the idea of only some indirect hints of its presence. And all of landscape as a common good in the perception these are hints that can describe landscape only of people who inhabit and use it. by using some filter to interpret it. Since these fil- Therefore, working on the development of the ters describe the services provided by landscape plan, we considered useful to interview all the – ecosystem, cultural, etc. – they define it only mayors of the RKC municipalities. The aim of through its functionalization. these conversations was to understand which This observation brings us back to what has been are the transformations that could be generated claimed by Landolt (2013). Referring to Bätzing by decisions or projects that are already being (2009) and Tiefenbach et al. (2006) – who assert the

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 35 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 devaluation of the direct products of landscape in regimentation or of building protection dikes, as favour of the indirect ones – Landolt writes: “[a]s a for example in Zambana and Mezzolombardo. result, the alpine cultural landscape has become The three filters emphasize the role of landscape an increasingly valued public good” (2013: 1). This as a mediator among many demands as well statement confirms the hypothesis that although as the potentiality of the ongoing initiatives in the reference to landscape is implicit and indirect, terms of landscape design that is necessary for speaking of the services it provides is a way to de- environmental, financial and safety reasons. scribe it in terms of commons. Therefore, if we want to interpret the conversations with the mayors, the first filter we need to Discussing landscape as a common good. Traces of adopt is that of tourism, mainly intended as a a theoretical framework practice for getting to know places. Almost all the mayors are hoping for or implementing – even In our opinion, the three filters can be further through private initiatives – interventions that specified / described (and in some ways even promote the region and its products. The idea of more legitimized) by referring to a framework that setting up the “House of the Teroldego” in Mez- allows us to interpret a good with a physical and zocorona – around which all the wineries settled spatial consistency – as landscape is – as a com- in the RKC can converge –; the location of some mon good, because of its gravitating towards, “bicigrill” interpreted as a showcase for the terri- determining and providing the public sphere (fol- tory – the “bicigrill” are rest areas for bikers where lowing its discussion by Bianchetti, 2008). technical assistance, tourist information and re- So, this paragraph intends to highlight some refer- freshment are provided –; the enhancement of ences that allow us to interpret the landscape as bike lanes – designed for tourists but also aimed a common good, with the consciousness of a se- at promoting the commuters’ sustainable mobili- ries of openings and sometimes overlapping con- ty – are all initiatives that have the landscape as a cepts, where we let the landscape as a common background, and this is why it needs to preserve good gravitate towards a more complex sphere prerogatives of quality and specificity. of publicness according to which, given the mul- The second filter that we need to use is the atten- titudes of features and the behaviours of contem- tion given to environmental issues. The hypothesis porary society, it is necessary to consider “the is- of making ecologically equipped productive areas sue of the new articulation of the two dimensions in Mezzocorona, the subsidies for organic farming, of the public and the common, which includes the the option of producing heat from vinasse, the question of how to reimagine various practices of subsidies for refurbishing the buildings in the old ‘taking care of’” (Brighenti, 2014: 4-5). town centres in order to avoid soil consumption, Moreover, also on the basis of the interviews are all interventions whose aim is the improve- and of the experimental materials gathered ment of the environmental quality that wouldn’t from them, we can indeed ask this question (and make sense if there wasn’t a corresponding gen- therefore turn it into the subject of proposed eral improvement of the quality of the context. transformations), since we consider that from Finally, the third filter regards the safety measures such experimental materials landscape emerg- for the territory. This is a very important topic in es substantially as a component of that public such a region. Here it is necessary to deal mainly sphere. Landscape concerns a system of places with hydro geological risk prevention. This kind which, although not necessarily publicly owned, of activity can have a huge implication in terms are collectively enjoyed and thus belong to the of the impact on the territory. As a matter of fact sphere of the commons in terms of their percep- this is a matter of watercourses management and tion, maintenance and use.

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Actually, the sole photographic description of a possibility to interpret landscape as the rela- landscapes from which this discussion started is tionship between society and territories (Cos- sufficient to give us an empirical evidence of this grove 1984), we can recognize how contempo- condition: the community’s landscape, the land- rary societies (at least in the European context) scape where the community’s sense of belong- consider the commons central elements of their ing and tradition are played out, the communi- relationship with the territories they inhabit (as ty’s representative landscape, is at the same time well as the focus of manifold political claims), – as the mayors pointed out – the territory where since they define what “belongs” to them or to invest, and therefore a collective resource (in what they have in common (that is often ex- form of ground, territorial capital, basic condition pressed by their perception) and then they for the local companies, etc.), beyond the private consider what is “of value”, in the many possible companies and stakeholders who will make the facets and rhetorics, whether it is an image (sig- most direct profits from it. nifying the shape of the landscape hosting their Such a landscape is made up of a system of open way of inhabiting or living, the consolidated spaces, mostly agricultural, research centres and representation of a context, etc.) or a resource culture institutes, artefacts that reify the diffused (i.e. territorial capital, common good from an welfare, combined with the relationship among ecological perspective, etc.). the different densities (and intensities) of open There are some schools of thought, often mea- and built spaces that determines its shape and sured by empirical researches, which allow us to “character”. discuss the landscape as commons according The construction of this framework itself is an to different approaches. Gailing (2013, as with open theme. Actually, following Olwig (2003), Leibenath, 2008), for example, moves from the we share the urgency with which he argued in conceptual shift introduced by Ostrom, since she favour of “combining the historical/empirical and developed a framework to analyse socio-ecolog- the theoretical/institutional oriented approach- ical systems. es to the commons, with an approach that takes So, interpreting landscapes as potential action ar- cognizance of the commons’ enormous symbolic eas or even action arenas (Ostrom, 1990), Gailing importance to society as an epitome of shared (2013: 18) proposes ideas and approaches for the abstract values and democracy”, assuming that conceptualization of landscape based on social the link between these approaches to the com- constructivist research, arguing that “if you ask mons lies in the conception of the commons as who owns the land, who has the property rights landscape. on some portions of the earth’s surface and what The argument expands on a topic, a notion that, are the good aspects of things and areas in land- even if it has not been directly posed by the Euro- scapes, landscape is not necessarily a commons. pean Landscape Convention (2000), is somewhat But if you draw your attention to the immaterial inherent to the definition of landscape it ratified, aspects of landscape, then you will be aware of since the populations’ perceptions depend on landscapes as something collective and indivis- many factors. As conceptualized by Backhaus, ible. Then landscape is a commons.” Reichler and Stremlow (2008), these factors have Anyway, we refer to a material sphere of belong- different poles (‘nature’, ‘culture’, ‘individual’ and ing to “feel” the landscape as a commons. There- ‘society’), among which the social dimension is fore even reflections aimed at realizing – with an certainly central, and based on that it is plausible operative perspective – how landscape can be to conceive landscape as a common good. considered in this perspective as a theme and Actually, assuming the emergence of the social ground for the transformations of contemporary construction with its symbolic implications as cities, providing its features and potential as a

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(both physical and cultural) common space, and This is basically the first issue we should address, therefore they tend to reconcile the public with therefore it was decided to choose landscape as the dimensions of the commons, also to activate a central element to set the regional plan. This shared processes of “taking care” and transfor- choice derives, first, from the obligation to per- mations. form the task of implementing the “Carta del In this sense, landscape is a common good as it Paesaggio” of the Provincial Urban Plan, and, is a meeting place and a space of co-habitation second, from what has been adopted as a con- among cultures, which updates and reformu- tingent interpretative dimension, within which lates the same concepts of identity and belong- landscape as a commons can be proposed as ing, since it belongs to transiting subjects, for an almost ontological / structural meaning, to whom the status as insiders or outsiders is utter- be measured and projected as it is dialectically ly relative; and – as verified in previous research rooted in the system of local values, as a context (Mattiucci, 2012) – it represents the intersection where the public sphere is reified. of values and meanings attributed by the inhab- This assumption implies some actions that, be- itants moving from the common experience of yond the informative, consultative and participa- the same landscapes. tory dimension of the plan, could be proposed These interpretations let us identify this cultural to resolve some conflicts related to dealing with dimension of landscape – and thus it’s becoming landscape as a common good. the communication protocol among the mani- While the idea of managing a common good fold populations and cultures acting into the – where the plan deals with recognizing and landscape (Lanzani, 2008), it’s being evidently founding in every moment the best situation for a mediator– as the basis of the potential of the the greatest number of people – is inherent in planning action, since it could emerge as an ac- the plan, this idea takes on the impossibility to tion that combines and revises the conceptions assess this good as itself, but only for its contin- of public and commons. gent nature, also linked to policies and practices that are inevitably recognized as positive only by a certain public (Bianchetti, ibid: 70-74) and that Working with landscape as commons. Open que- give rise to the need to measure, in each time stion towards a conclusion and in each situation, how the (supposed) common good is actually relevant to different types In the light of this framework, it is possible to deal of public. with the operational issues of the RP, discussing So, in this sense landscape can become a mea- how they can actually be implemented on the sure of the common good. Since it is contingent basis of a conception of landscape in which the in itself and a place in common for different commons and the public converge. citizenships (or different kinds of public, follow- In a context such as the one of the RKC, in a city ing Bianchetti), the landscape may be the place that has been spread throughout the valley, land- where it is possible to give rise to the common scape is actually a public space (Delbaere, 2010), rules, that is the central place – considering its because it is inhabited / crossed / lived, and at consistency in the RKC – where to conduct and the same time a common resource and a capi- create synergies among the individual initiatives tal to invest in. During the elaboration of a plan and the single transformations, in a shared per- as the RP, the two tensions between the public spective. This possibility is furthermore sustained use and the exclusive capital for someone poses by the fact that, as already stated, landscape is questions about the principles and rules of the a common communication protocol that helps transformation and development. share planned transformations.

38 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective

Landscape could therefore become the place Emerson, R. W. (1965) Selected Writings of Ralph Waldo Emer- where all processes become readable and com- son, New York: A Signet Classic. Franceschini, A. and Sandri, P. (2013) Dal Belvedere, Trento: parable, as a communal place for a multiple so- BQE Editrice. ciety, and therefore, paradoxically, assume the Gailing, L. and Leibenath, M. (2013) ‘The Social Construction sense of commons just because of its broader of Landscapes: Two Theoretical Lenses and Their Empiri- and shared value, rooted here and now. cal Applications’, Landscape Research [Online], Available: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01426397. 2013.775233#.UznTkKJKOVo [23 Jul 2013]. Note Gailing, L. (2013) ‘Landscape is a commons!’, lo Squaderno, no. 30, pp. 17-20. [Online], Available: http://www.losquaderno. 1 The paper is the result of a reﬂection shared by the authors, professionaldreamers.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/ who have been working on landscape as the main topic of losquaderno30.pdf their research for years and are now dealing with it has op- Kucan, A. and Golobič, M. (2004) ‘The future for Slovenian cul- erative issue in the Regional Plan of the Rotaliana-Königs- tural landscapes’, Topos, no. 47, pp. 79-86. berg Community. Landolt, G. (2013) Who, when, how and how much: The transformation of common pool resource institutions in alpine farming, [Online], Available: www.ruralhistory2013.org/ papers/5.4.2.Landolt.pdf [31 Mar 2014]. Essential bibliography Lanzani, A. (2008) ‘Politiche del paesaggio’, in Salerno, R. and Casonato, C. (eds.) Paesaggi culturali / Cultural landscapes. Backhaus, N., Reichler, C. and Stremlow, M. (2008) ‘Conceptu- Rappresentazioni, esperienze, prospettive, Roma: Gangemi. alizing Landscape: An Evidence-based Model with Political Mattiucci, C. (2012) Kaleidoscopic visions of perceived land- Implications’, Mountain Research and Development, vol. 2, scapes. A methodological proposal to grasp the ordinary no. 28, pp.132-139. landscape’s perception, Saarbrücken: Lambert Academic Bianchetti, C. (2008) Urbanistica e sfera pubblica, Roma: Publishing. Donzelli. Olwig, K. R. (2003), ‘Commons & Landscape’, in Olwig, K., Cosgrove, D. (1984) Social formation and symbolic landscape, Berge, E. and Carlsson, L. (eds) Commons: Old and New, London: Croom Helm. Trondheim: Department of Sociology and Political Science, Delbaere, D. (2010) La fabrique de l’espace public, Paris: Norwegian University of Science and Technology. Ellipses. Ostrom, E. (1990) Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Diamantini, C. interviewed by De Giampietro, P. (2013) ‘Paesag- Institutions for Collective Action, Cambridge: Cambridge gio, Percezione, Comunità’, Sentieri Urbani, no. 11, pp. 6-9. University Press.

L. Micu, Canary Yellow, Fourth Edition Peoples Landscapes

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Landscape as a Common Good: a Philosophical by insiders and outsiders, who interact with its and Epistemological Analysis memorial, historical and cultural features. Place and people who live in any kind of local/global Laura Menatti, PhD landscape, are mutually defined, and this aspect ([email protected]) implies a biunivocal identity as something that is Department of Philosophy, University of the Basque Country, not fixed but, rather, always in evolution. Avenida de Tolosa 70, 20018 San Sebastian, Gipuzkoa (Spain) Starting from these premises an integrative approach to this issue is emerging in the literature, which links all the characteristics of landscape, Theoretical premises such as nature, ecology, culture and biodiversity. In addition, contemporary studies are introduc- During the last decades of the twentieth century, ing a connection between human rights and the so-called ‘spatial turn’ in human sciences sub- landscape. According to the ethical view brought stantially increased the role of landscape theory forth by this perspective, landscape is claimed as in philosophy, sociology, anthropology, human a common good and as a ‘human global’ right for geography and geophilosophy, the branch of en- all inhabitants. vironmental aesthetics to which this research belongs. Thanks to the pioneering contributions by a large number of renowned scholars (e.g. Yi Fu What is a common good Tuan, Edward Relph, Edward Casey, Augustin Ber- que) who have changed the way of studying land- Speaking about landscape as common good re- scape, nowadays we can discuss about an ethical, quires assuming a double perspective: a theoret- perceptional, social, political and rhizomatic land- ical one, in which the landscape is considered as scape (Menatti 2013), and we can overcome the the basis for an ethical life and an ethical relation- classic definition of a mere aesthetical landscape. ship between land and human beings; and, on In this context, different definitions had been giv- the other side, the practical one, concerning the en to terms such as place, landscape, space and management of landscape. These two ideas have territory: most of them are aimed at theoretically to be linked for the survival of landscape and the overcoming a naturalist and realistic approach to possibility of its safeguard. In fact, the notion of landscape, and a deeper analysis of landscape and common good was born from the awareness of place is today pursued by social scientists, besides the existence of a common human patrimony architects and urban planners. and, hence, the necessity of safeguarding of ma- Furthermore, we can also assert that place (as well terial and immaterial goods. But the issue is not as its shape: landscape) has a specific and deter- so easy to understand and analyze. minant role in building up the identity of societ- First of all I suggest analyzing what the expression ies, and not only for native people. In fact, thanks ‘common good’ means and implies. This concept to the anthropology and sociology of surmoder- was made famous by the paper “The tragedy of nity (e.g. the concepts of place and non-place by commons” by Garret Hardin (1968; see also Locher Marc Augé), and especially to the theoretical and 2013 for the history of this paper and for the analy- practical consequences of the European Land- sis of Hardin’s metaphysics). According to Hardin, scape Convention, we can now discuss identity the exploitation of commons by some population of space and place in contemporary globalised leads necessarily to their exhaustion, when a regu- urban sprawls. Hence, a new idea of place, as lation of their use is lacking. Twenty years later the both global and local, has emerged in the last debate was re-opened by the publication of the decades: place as perceived and experienced book by Nobel Prize Elinor Ostrom, Governing the

40 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective

Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective The notion of publica utilitas and the UNESCO De- Action (1990), in which the author demonstrated claration on landscape how local property can be successfully managed by local users. While the malthusian perspective From a philosophical and epistemological point of sustained by Hardin argues in favor of a framework view, “Landscape as a common good” means shar- of public intervention, Ostrom, instead, proposes ing political and environmental values, which are a new economical and sociological perspective. important and determinant for the building of the In fact, as pointed out by Arribay (p. 4, 2011), Os- identity of societies; the Latin definition of land- trom aims at overcoming both the philosophy of scape as a common good is “res omnium com- individual property rights derived from Locke’s munis”, something shared by everyone and which thought, and the philosophy of ‘Leviathan’ – that damage, I add, affects everyone’s life. Salvatore is, of the power of the state – theorized by Hob- Settis introduced the concept of publica utilitas bes. In other words she rejects both monopolies to speak about landscape as common good. The by the market and by the state. Her political idea, Latin expression denotes a shift from an aesthetic belonging to a framework based on ideas such as landscape to an ethical one, from a landscape to self-organization and self-governance, consists in look at to a landscape to live. According to Settis the fact that the actors (citizens) create institutions the safeguard of landscape means the safeguard in order to respond to issues in which collective ac- of the environment, and of the health - physical tion is required. Governance is neither determined and mental - of the citizens. Making decisions and by the invisible hand of the market, nor dependent acting in terms of publica utilitas means operating on a social contract under the veil of ignorance as for the good of present and future generations. sustained by Rawls, but it derives from the knowl- For this reason according to Settis common good edge of a given situation and it depends on the self- and publica utilitas are two expressions that can coordination of a restricted community. As briefly be referred to landscape. showed, speaking about commons entails the In addition, landscape, considered as a common analysis of different political theories of the state good, has a social and cultural function, and and of the management of the land. Management concurs in the determination of the principle of of goods by the state, by the market or by private equality among citizens: patrimony and land- citizens (classicism and neoclassicism), and manscape create, according to the Italian constitution agement by social groups – leaving aside hybrid as analyzed by Settis, the possibility of equal so- formulations – are only some among the theories cial dignity, which is essential for the freedom and that make it possible to distinguish respectively equality of citizens (art. 3 of the Italian constitu- between landscape as a public good, private prop- tion). It follows that the appeal to common good erty, and common goods. Hence I suggest that, implies the right and equal access to environmen- given the variety and difficulty in landscape man- tal and landscape resources of a country. agement, a common cultural ground and some Yet, this general and cultural definition that consti- universal principles are required: whatever the or- tutes a possible ground to speak about landscape ganization of landscape and whoever is in charge can be translated into practical terms. For example of it, its management affects all the global popula- the recent document about landscape by UNESCO, tion. This is the same principle underlining human the so-called ‘Florentine Declaration’ (http://whc. rights: they are universal, and a violation of human unesco.org/en/news/943/) represents a step in rights affects the whole population. Through a this direction. It encourages intergovernmental, spatial analogy we can introduce a notion of land- transnational and public-private cooperation, and scape as a good that belongs to everybody and it is based on a new concept of landscape, that that must be respected by everybody. is holistic, evolutive, dynamic, multicultural and

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 41 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 adaptive. This document in fieri, pursues a new con- agement one. Is quite known that landscape’s ceptualization of landscape, that is: “landscape is a stakeholders are numerous, each one exhibiting common good, the right to landscape is a human different issues, claims and interests, that are often necessity”. This UNESCO Declaration proposes a ho- incompatible with one another, and that can even listic idea of landscape, that is universal and global endanger the existence of landscape itself. Hence and, at the same time local, as it entails a respect- a common philosophical ground is required for ful approach to the difference and the diversity of the definition of landscape: an interdisciplinary identity of places. We can consider this document and integrative discussion able to take into ac- as an important step towards a worldwide protec- count the differences of the subjects living the tion and safeguard of landscape. landscape, but at the same time free from the bur- Furthermore, the UNESCO effort leads us to the den represented by overspecialized distinctions, last point of this paper: landscape and human such as the one among environment, territory rights. The literature about this topic is scarce, al- and landscape. These approaches need to con- though the book edited by the Cambridge Centre verge into a more complex and wider definition of for Landscape could be considered an important landscape as common good and as human right. precursor (see Egoz, Makhzoumi, Pungetti, 2013). Sharing a common idea of landscape as common Yet, the point that this paper wants to underline good is an ethical challenge, aimed at safeguard- is the link between human rights and landscape, ing the biodiversity of the planet and the cultural not only with respect to conflict zones or to na- resources of landscape. tive areas but, also and specifically, to everyday landscapes and environments that are threatened and damaged. It is therefore important to Some references: consider how thinking about landscape can be transformed into thinking about the ‘right to land- Egoz, S., Makhzoumi, J., Pungetti, G. (2013) The Right to Landscape: contesting landscape and human right. Farn- scape’, for everyone and every society. During the ham: Ashgate. recent protests in Turkey (at Gezi Park) this issue Hardin, G. (1968), “The Tragedy of the Commons”. Sci- has been pointed out by some scholars and intel- ence 162 (3859): 1243–1248. lectuals: there is a fundamental right to landscape, Harribey, J.-M. (2011) «Le bien commun est une construction considered as a cultural and healthy environment sociale. Apports et limites d’Elinor Ostrom». L’ecomonie politique 2011/1 (49): 98-112. that everyone is entitled to demand. Although Locher, F. «Les pâturages de la Guerre froide : Garrett Hardin this is not obvious (e.g. in relation to the natural et la « Tragédie des communs». Revue d’Histoire moderne resources such as water), the paper wants to put et contemporaine, 2013/1 60(1): 7-36. into evidence this last topic that could, in the end, Menatti, L. (2013), “Which Identity for places? A geophilo- sophical approach.” Boswell D, O’Shea R, Tzadik E, (eds), be considered the frame according to which the Interculturalism, Meaning and Identity, UK: Inter-Disciplin- study of global landscape and global governance ary Press, 221-231. can be reconsidered. Olwig, K. R. (2003). “Commons & Landscape.” In Commons Old and New, eds. E. Berge and L. Carlsson, 15-22. Oslo: Centre for Advanced Study, Norwegian University of Science and Technology. Proceedings from a workshop: 15-22. Conclusion: management of landscape and theo- Ostrom, E. (1990), Governing the Commons: The Evolution of retical approaches Institutions for Collective Action. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. In this paper two levels of analysis have been Settis, S. (2013) Il paesaggio come bene comune. Napoli: La scuola di Pitagora Editrice. put forward: the philosophical one, according Sgaard, A. (2010) «Le paysage dans l’action publique : du to which the term “common” means public and patrimoine au bien commun». Développement durable social belonging (e.g. Settis, 2013), and the man- et territoires. 1 (2): 1-15.

42 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective

G. Erfani, Red Bull temple, Fourth Edition Peoples Landscapes

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 43 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014

The Requirement of Architecture for the Com- the concept of urban strategy, or it can be un- mon Good. From the Perception, Narration and derstood from the point of view of the topology Representation of the Space to the Landscape- of a territory, or of an autonomous entity. From project another angle the logic of nature could be interpreted as the common good and therefore the Prof. Dott. Arch. Juan Manuel Palerm ability to interact with it. In both positions the Dr. PhD. Architect Professor of Architecture and Landscape Ur- role of public space and the response which ar- ban Project-Design at the School of Architecture - University chitecture must assume are discussed. of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (Spain). Professor and resear- This point of view leads us to a question. Is it pos- cher at the University IUAV of Venice and Trento. Director of the sible to perform a spatial nature following the Second and Third Biennial of Architecture, Art and Landscape rules available and the current instruments of of the Canary Islands, and Director of the Canary Islands Lan- architecture and town planning? Or conversely dscape Observatory. Founder and Senior Partner with Leopol- must the intervention be at the service of the do Tabares de Nava of “Palerm & Tabares de Nava.” use and ocupancy of the city and territory? Or at the service of the intuition of an evocative land- Keywords: Landscape Project, Public space, process, percepcion scape? How is it possible for us to meet at the spatial nature of the city in the city, in the place? Architecture has been discussed between the dimensions of public space and private space and from that need, a few instruments and tools for 2. Ways of looking clarifying this idea of space have been organised. Nowadays the idea of space is not a determining We need to recover confidence in the ability of factor in the collective perception of space and it man to order his environment and context. So is directly confronted with the new variables of we must avail of the ability to create landscape the concept of Landscape-Enviroment-Territory. for disrupting the temporality in its more prag- Given the new dimension of independent systems matic and less metaphysical dimension. Given of property or common good use, it is therefore the continuity of life, intelligent calls for a change required to investigate the following headings: of pace which, in turn, can only lead to a new way of focusing the things linked to an alternative concept of enjoyment and well-being. Being 1.- Public space architecture between nature and modern does not mean celebrating the present, artifice missing the past or idealizing the future, but intensely living the contradictions of their concur- We propose an architecture that is attentive to rency. Modernizing an urban space means de- establishing a logic of the place as a balance ducing the structure of that space and providing between experience and streamlining, between ways for flâneurs or passers-by to slow their steps reason and history, between the territory and the and be enticed along a path which awakens the place-logic as landscape, whether urban, natural senses. or artificial, but never invented. Today nothing is as valuable as one’s own free We must ask ourselves what is the nature of the time. Many things capture our attention, looking space in which we collectively feel and which where nothing happens. Aware of alternatives even connects us and identifies us, in order to to use and enjoy conventional time allows us to understand the city and its landscape. On the discover the research dimension of playfulness, one hand, the nature of space should be a con- a sort of spiral that ritualizes the detour of tem- sequence of the city and therefore respond to porality.

44 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective

The artist of modern life does not transport us fy and act on free public space, understanding the to exotic dimensions, but recalls the urban laby- landscape as an element of identity essential for a rinth outside proposing other environments and community that creates experiences that link and tripping over other more or less fictitious con- identify a society with the place. ventions which govern outside the heterotopia. Open space (parks, gardens, avenues, highways, The imaginarium garden faces nature and the roads, squares, car parks, etc.) has acquired a de- ideal, i.e., what is, with what it should be. But cisive role in the definition of the shape of the what is no longer indicates not a tamed nature city. On the other hand, the city has delegated but a runaway progress; entropic and mechani- many activities/roles that it is not able to sup- cal become second nature. And what it should port. But in the continued growth and mutation be is not already an essential idea recorded in of these roles and the continuous diversification the mind of a demiurge. These spaces should be of potential users, what are the limits of variabil- a reflection on the nature of the story, on the dia- ity that the landscaping project can and should lectic between the mechanics and the humanist have in the definition of public space? project. As the garden is a materialized idea, but Architecture is more explicitly an artificio, as long only on a line that offers a journey that replicates as it acts according to the its own linearity and makes it reflect on itself. It is manipulation and transformation of nature and not a paradise lost or regained, it is only a seduc- often, in clear opposition to nature. But tive figure of the language that breaks the literal- architecture itself is an integral part of the land- ity of a prosaic reality to affirm an idea of welfare scape. And the best architecture is based on the bending of temporality. one that works, in the first person, in the interpretation and integration (even by denial) of the landscape. 3. A new dimension of publicness. Landscape as “Public space” rtdp projects - equal or more to common good project scenery - make an artificio in nature, manipulating it to perception or human experi- Public space is an environment of social coexis- ence. Rtdp sometimes differentiate clearly natu- tence, where services and activities are distrib- ral forms, or deeply contrasting forms of trilitica uted effectively and efficiently to meet the needs construction or even avoid contact with natural of the citizens. forms. This public space is erroneously understood A perfect harmony of technical projects between since it is associated with a soil bounded, bound- landscape and public space, and in this sense ed to the city government. It is related to surfac- there is “cinematic” landscape and architecture, es, which by regulations of the state, are due to which often tend to melt and fuse into a single “free” building in a city or town. So it is a surface aesthetic operation. Currently, conventional completely defined and dimensioned. public space does not respond to applications, This free public space should be considered, not as behaviors, and perceptions that citizens request. a place or a space determined and perfectly bound- The dimension of the public has crossed the ed, as it could be... Since the public space also in- boundaries of its own spatiality defined in M. M. cludes sidewalks that surround the square, and the to settle in territories where the rules of its con- streets leading to it. The whole is what creates the ception are opposed to their own roles allowing public space. Therefore these spaces should not be natures, surfaces and places from very different understood as limited and finite places. I think that walks of life, where the architecture must provide the concept of landscape should be introduced to answers. Hybridization between a tectonic con- talk about public space. The landscape must speci- ception of space and its environmental and land-

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 45 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 scape responses characterize this new dimen- 2. Landscape is a procedural form, as is the land- sion of publicness, a mix between persuasive scape project. Landscape forms are based on instinct and order, security fronts, leisure alterna- movement, and perception in motion. The time tives, spaces to share, to ﬁnd, to enjoy, according factor and the movement factor are substantial in to precise activities... The static and monumental the landscape project. A landscape is also chang- public dimension in a contemplative sense and ing because it is experienced from the inside and its representation has disappeared; the singular- is literally shaped by the movement of the user, ity is in the concept of landscape. as a work of contemporary art in the tradition of minimal art and land art. 3. Currently, the procedural concept and muta- Epilogue tion also has become part of landscape and territory issues. In this sense, the relationship with 1. The project of landscape for common goods projective techniques of landscape applies also must accept the condition of form in motion partly to architecture, engineering, geography, and transformation (from the culture of space and botany, etc., especially in its modern and and imagination to the culture of landscape). contemporary appearance where the time factor The landscape is composed of living forms and, and the movement factor are fundamental spa- therefore, changing forms, such as vegetation tial sequences: circulation and travel - in short or climatic and atmospheric agents. For this the kinetic aspects of spaces, and even the pic- reason, landscape is the representation of forms turesque revival factors, are crucial to the land- (natural or artiﬁcial) in evolution and in contin- scape. Not only is it linked to the tectonic spatial uous mutation. Time and mutation are part of dimensions and to the orthodox instruments of the landscape, which therefore provides in itself contemporary urban society today: new instru- for growth, seasonal change, deterioration and ments and space are needed for landscape as a maintenance. common good.

T. Hegen, Frosty rime, Fourth Edition Peoples Landscapes

46 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective

Landscape as a Common Good have significant relevance and precise implications. Again, to give relevance to the percep- Elvira Petroncelli tion of people and recognise that the land- Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engine- scape “…is the result of the action and inter- ering - University of Naples Federico II action of natural and/or human factors” (art.1) [email protected] means asserting that landscape plays a role in understanding local cultures and leads us to Abstract consider the landscape as a primary identity The statements pronounced by the European Landscape Con- and nerve-centre in the construction of col- vention have pointed out the collective dimension of land- lective identity. To emphasize the collective scape, namely the active role played by communities and the dimension of landscape and to consider that impact produced by landscape quality on life conditions. The opportunity of enjoying landscape represents almost a funda- to be able to enjoy/to relate to a good quality mental right, and the protection and valorisation of landscape territory as a fundamental condition for pop- goods acquires an interest higher than the individual and pri- ulations to have a good quality of life, means vate one. This increasingly leads to the collocation of the term asserting that it is the right of every person “landscape” with “common good”. What are the key concepts to have the possibility to enjoy the landscape contained in the meaning of “common good”? What does landscape imply in order to be conceived as “common good”? and, if possible, a quality landscape. The Convention, signed and ratified by countries with differ- These propositions are enough to explain ent civil and legal systems, does not intend to break up the why today, ever more frequently, there is the systems in force, but aims at stressing above all the active role need to bind the term landscape with “com- of the populations, as well as the task of the Governments to define general principles, strategies and orientations tar- mon good”. But what does all of that mean geted towards the protection, management and planning of and involve? landscape. Consequently, it is very important to inform and It is very difficult to define the expression sensitize the communities, and make them more responsible. “common good”, because it can assume differ- In making decisions on long to medium term programmes, it ent meanings. It comprises two terms: “good”, is important to consider the possible integration of individual interest with collective interest, by working out targets which as a mix of desired and wished things; “com- would follow not only the principles of sustainable develop- mon”, probably from the Latin expression “cum ment, but also those of ecologic protection, urban quality and munus”, as a task made together, and accom - natural risks safety. The question at hand implies making com- plished together. However it is evident that mon perspectives prevail over individual interests. this doesn’t explain the two terms enough Keywords: participation, protection, management, planning, and, overall, how the expression could be un- sustainability. derstood and what it really involves when for example we make reference to landscape. The multiform crisis that currently grips the Premise modern world leads us to think that there aren’t goods that could be reached by every- The European Landscape Convention (ELC) one but, at most, which could be realised only provides that the denomination of landscape with other people, or through a limitation of must be extended to “… the entire territory of the individual interests respecting the social the Parties…” (art. 2), and has underlined the link with others. Therefore common good isn’t exigency to promote the protection, manage- simply a material or immaterial common heri- ment and planning of landscapes (art. 5), rec- tage, something owned by many people. It isn’t ognising the existence of a strong connection an ensemble of social goods, or the collection between landscape quality and quality of life of people’s rights: all these are characteristics (Preamble). Surely these three propositions that could belong to the common good, but

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 47 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 they don’t form it. Moreover, this expression To recognise the cultural, natural and social could refer to a combination of life conditions value of landscape leads us to perceive the of society that further welfare and the human impending threats towards it, in their totality, progress of all citizens. In general common which risk endangering it irreparably. To con- goods concern resources without access re- sider the landscape as an integrant part of the strictions which are out of the market. Indeed social, economic and cultural system leads us the problem is that they are “non excludable” rather to underline the importance of carry- goods for which we usually think it isn’t posing out methodologies and actions to ensure sible to impose a price. the protection, management and planning of landscape, and indeed gives relevance to the important task which the competent public The notion of landscape authorities must undertake. Although the different legal systems may pro- The Convention, referring to landscape, in- duce a range of complex scenarios related to cludes the entire territory and states that it is territorial policies, the definition of measures the task of “the competent public authorities” for protection, management and planning to define “… general principles, strategies and should not lead to the determination of real guidelines that permit the adoption of spe- rights and consequently to particular conflicts cific measures aimed at the protection, the and critical situations. management and the planning of landscapes”. The idea of “good” in a legal meaning, being dif- Therefore, the idea to make all people respon- ferent from the economic one, includes all the sible seems evident, according to their compe- goods legally protected, namely those targeted tences and potential, without affecting current to meet the needs and requirements of human juridical systems. beings. According to the art. 810 of the Italian The Convention pays attention to the rele- Civil Code “goods are the things that fall within vance of the population, how it perceives the the rights”, namely those things that man is inter- territory and fits in it by its actions and interac- ested in taking possession of. Thus there would tions with the natural system, and to the pos- be a crucial interdependence between “good” sible active role that it could/must play in the and the concept of ownership. Consequently it decisions/actions that concern its own land- could be stated that there could be things as- scape. It is in this sense that the meaning of sessed on a legal level that don’t deserve to be common good appears suitable to landscape protected, for which there is no interest in estab- and it surely doesn’t appear to me that this lishing a property relationship, but landscape, underlines the postponement of a collection according to the European Convention in force, of real rights. Namely, the Convention doesn’t should not be included in the above-said cat- make reference to the population’s perception egory. Indeed, according to the Code, there are that necessarily requests possibilities for hu- things that are not included in tangible property man benefit or direct actions on a portion of rights. Art. 810 states that the legal deﬁnition of a territory. Instead it specifies a better mean- “good” is diﬀerent from the naturalistic concept ing attached to the term landscape, and tries of “thing”. Namely there can exist things that to highlight the pertinent concept. This was are not legal goods, since they are not subject more necessary because the term, over time, to man’s power, even if there could exist legal has had very subjective approaches, also if the goods regarding intangible goods as well. forms of protection, at an international level, Undoubtedly the question needs to be tackled were very articulated and developed. and not only in the domain of landscape. This is

48 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective the reason why in Italy a legislative decree bill, abling the institutional subjects to subordinate for amending Chapter II of Title I of the 3rd Book the particular interests to collective perspec- of the Civil Code and other parts, was proposed tives, and on the other hand, of reconsidering by the Rodotà Commission in 2007. Apart from and defining new tools to meet the needs of the formal introduction of a new category of the established concepts and new require- goods (common goods) besides the catego- ments. ries of “public goods” and “private goods”, it As is expressed in the “Manifesto per il Pae- was specified that “…. Common goods are to saggio Campano”, but surely always valid, “… be protected and safeguarded by law, also for as regards the cultural and economic value it the benefit of future generations. The owners carries for the community, the protection and of the common goods can be public or private valorisation of landscape considered as an as- legal entities. In any case the collective use of set constitutes an interest greater than that of these goods is to be guaranteed, in the limits the individual and of the private sector, whose and modalities fixed by law….” and “protected interests moreover should be restricted when landscapes” fall within common goods. Obvi- they threaten its integrity, nature, use and valo- ously the problem could also be considered risation. Recognising landscape as a common from the more general point of view, that of good, allows for the potentiality of designing a landscape. plan which not only is a regulatory character, Therefore, according to Settis (2013), we could with specific prescriptions and which limits the state that we should be able to consider land- rights of private property relative to its use and scape, and the need for landscape as a com- permitted developments, but it is also a plan of mon good, not only from an aesthetic point of action and management, supported by a recog- view, but from also: nition of the value of landscape and the sharing %philosophical, because it deals with nature, of its importance through cultural and everyday %historical, because it deals with the collective reading” (point 5). memory, However, I think that what has happened to %ethical, because it deals with our behaviours, the new paradigm of sustainable development %social, because it deals with the idea of citi- in the last few decades should have shown the zenship. importance of making people aware of and responsible for the question. As it is impossible to implement sustainable development policies Policies for landscape without involving the communities in sharing determined concepts and behaviours, mutatis The above-made assumptions, which have not mutandis the same consideration should be been stressed in order to eliminate the pres- applied to landscape. ent apparatus, lead us to investigate the pos- Already in 1974 Turri in the introduction of his sible critical situations and conflicts, and how book “Antropologia del Paesaggio”, showing a it could be possible to reconcile the legal ap- cutting-edge concept of landscape in relation plications with the concept of landscape intro- to his time, pointed out the inability of the con- duced by the Convention, as well as to point temporary world to understand the landscape. out the requirements deriving from landscape Affirming that landscape reflects society and protection, management and planning hoped that in the landscape the society realizes it- for by the Convention. self, he stressed the importance of knowing Probably, on the one hand, it is a question of it and setting up adequate means and codes. defining complex systems of protection, en- He gave landscape its own value, as an expres-

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 49 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 sion of the relationship of the reciprocal and Assuming the strict interdependence between real relations between nature and mankind. actions carried out by people and landscape, Observing the low interest in landscape, Turri it is easy to understand the importance of pro- had hoped that all people learn “…to look at it tection, management and planning aimed at with interest…”, “… to see and understand that involving the communities, which undoubt- everything is organized, everything has its order, edly will have previously been informed, made nature and man”. aware and been made responsible. After many experiences that were more or less From this point of view the concept of partici- negative, I believe that today this call – surely pation, as regards landscape, gains particular ignored – should be repeated and that, besides values and features. In this case participation an action targeted to spread the knowledge of no longer means only to deal with “informed landscape, it is necessary to set up modalities subjects”, but subjects seen as an “active part”. of informing the communities, making them Man, from being considered a simple user (al- aware of and responsible for the importance most with an obsolete predatory mentality) that high quality landscape can have and the is by now also considered as manager of the impact produced by some behaviours and goods. Participation is also increasingly seen actions, but also by abandonment or indiffer- as a reply to the governability crisis and as a ence. It is in this way that an important action new spur to look for ways of collaboration and of training/education –in the wider meaning interaction between administrators and com- of the term- has not yet been done. Indeed, it munities. Obviously, all of this should not be- is not only a question of technical training, but come a kind of a general “do-it-yourself”, but of training involving all the community, which it asks for the coordination of the fragmented should be allowed to know the value and the social agents and the awareness of the role peculiarities of landscape, to understand the played by each component within the general basic role that everyone can play, though un- process. aware, namely the good or bad impact pro- Therefore it is crucial to start an educational duced by every action. action and afterwards set up training projects What has been stated in the ELC is still almost for those who will be appointed to define and the domain of the insiders, despite the “politi- guide the protection, management and plan- cal measures” (art.6) defined at the time. Now- ning actions. Indeed, to refer to protection, adays there is a great awareness of the basic management and planning of landscape, ex- role played by communities for a better appli- actly by virtue of the acknowledgement of cation of the governing tools over the territory. landscape as a common good and with the Therefore awareness-raising should represent need to follow sustainable principles, the fol- a crucial goal, as well as encouraging respon- lowing basic steps are required, such as: sibility. Only a trained community, i.e. a community being aware of its past and present, - to interpret the community’s feeling towards tends to be projected to the future and could its own landscape, aiming at finding a kind of assume responsible behaviours. Only a well- aesthetic, ethical and knowledgeable “com- considered and motivated “landscape plan- promise”; ning” should lead to define uses and ways of - to harmonize the community’s aspirations valorisation which reach quality aims accord- to the progress, taking into account the landing to sustainability, namely actions that don’t scape peculiarities and identities; infringe on individual rights even if they allow - to integrate the individual interest with the common perspectives. collective one;

50 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective

- to assemble the participation of the individu- tive, namely able to understand the eventual als within a communitarian view; effects produced by their actions and so to - to make medium-long-term planning understand their own responsibilities. In fact choices; everybody knows the role played by the com- - to work out goals that will be not only in ac- munity’s actions on landscape and how, apart cordance with sustainable development, but from the effectiveness of the projects, people’s also with ecological protection, urban quality behaviour is crucial in the course of time. It is and safety from natural hazards (Manifesto per very important, apart from working out plans il paesaggio Campano, point 9). and tools able to improve the communities’ peculiarities and to harmonize the respective To work for the protection of landscapes expectations, to try to realize consensus over should mean doing our best not only to pre- the plan’s indications, according to individual serve the quality and the peculiarities of a giv- and collective interests, namely trying to re- en landscape which the populations assign a compose and integrate the participation of the great value to, but also to attract attention to individuals within a common point of view. those territorial areas that show: “…. the vision, the perception and the character of a community Therefore, plans should give adequate indi- towards the past, the present and the future...” cations for meeting individual and common (point 2). needs, on the one hand, while on the other Landscape management will have to stimulate hand, they should aim at encouraging be- the knowledge system to define forms of “… haviours propelled towards time. It is just in protection, recovery, valorisation and develop- virtue of this new meaning of landscape that ment of the tangible and intangible resources, the time dimension gains more value and be- identifying the cultural values, defining objec- comes a crucial element of the context and its tives, methods and tools (legal, technical and development. financial), as well as adequate strategies and ac- The acknowledged strict interdependence be- tions aimed at improving the quality of the land- tween landscape quality and quality of life, i.e. scape” (point 13). the widespread hope to improve quality of life, lets us look to the future with more confidence. Planning, indeed, will work within a complex When interests of well-being are at stake, in framework full of questions and duties. Land- the broader sense, nowadays it is easier to find scape is a “never-ending building site” and in an agreement and to encourage responsible everlasting transformation. Planning land- behaviours. scape requires, on the one hand, reconsidering the idea of space and conceiving again a set of thoughts, actions, duties and participation, Essential bibliography and on the other hand, thinking about “… new urban, technological, architectural and legal Petroncelli E. (edited by), 2013, “Manifesto per il paesaggio campano”, Il paesaggio tra rischio e riqualiﬁcazione. Chiavi tools capable to renegotiating the idea of space di lettura, Liguori Editore, Napoli, pp. 13-19. and time, as well as place and situ” (point 6). Petroncelli E. (edited by), 2013, “Guardare il paesaggio nel XXI secolo”, Il paesaggio tra rischio e riqualiﬁcazione. Chiavi It is not always a question of defining and set- di lettura, Liguori Editore, Napoli, pp. 1-11. Settis S., 2013, Il paesaggio come bene comune, La Scuola di ting up new tools, but first of all of making Pitagora editrice, Napoli. people aware and responsible. The informed Turri E., 1974, Antropologia del paesaggio, Edizioni di Comu- communities are more prone to be recep- nità, Milano.

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From “Public” to “Common” Good: Implications “document” of the past to be conserved for the for Landscape Planning and Design future generations, i.e.: not because of what it actually reminds of, but of what it can actually Cecilia Scoppetta teach. As a consequence, the historical value (Sapienza Università di Roma). implies restorations in order to stop the deg- [email protected] radation of the monument that makes the scientific reconstruction of its original conditions Abstract.: Moving from the role historically played by land- difficult, so that the historical value necessar- scape in the construction of the Italian national identity and in ily requires a specific expert knowledge. the light of the concept of “sustainable development”, the aim of the essay is to highlight the implications concerning the shift On the contrary, the “value of antiquity” («Al- from “public” to “common” good. terswert») concerns the mark of time on the material object. Obviously, that is the case of Key-words: landscape, continuity, national/local identity, im- ruins, to be preserved as such because what is ages, empowerment. valued is precisely the way time has affected them. In fact, their «non-modern appearance», in which the traces of the rolling by of centu- Landscape as an historical “object” ries «work on their destruction», leads the ruin being nothing but a «perceivable substratum, Landscape is usually associated with the con- which is necessary for creating in its contem- cepts of “heritage” and “public good”, but such plator the feeling [italics not in the Riegl’s relationship appears as problematic. original text] that the sense of the circular “Heritage”, in fact, is traditionally related to course of changing and passing usually pro- the idea of “conservation”, which is intended duces in modern men». Such a feeling «does as opposed to “transformation”. This can be not require any scientific knowledge or expe- considered as the effect of a misunderstand- rience», since it derives from a simple «sensi- ing of the definition of the concept of “histori- tive perception», which expresses itself as an cal value” as different from the Riegl’s «Alter- «emotion». As such, it refers not only to «spe- swert» (1903). cialists» (as in the case of the historical value), In fact, moving from the profound and wider but to «the masses», to humans «without any cultural change («ein tiefgreifender Wandel») cultural distinction». occurred in the early twentieth century («die neuere Zeit», “the new time”) Alois Riegl – According to Riegl, the «protective conscious- strongly influenced by Nietzsche’s anti-pos- ness towards landscape» as «natural monu- itivist thought on the emancipation/libera- ment», also implying the request of a specific tion/redemption («Erlösung») from the «illness law due to the speeding up of territorial trans- of history» (see: Nietzsche, 1874) – highlights formations occurring in «die neuere Zeit», is «a the emerging of a “modern”, subjective (i.e.: distinctive feature of modern cultural life» and relative) «kunstwollen» (it can be translated as its roots are grounded into the Alterswert it- “desire of art”) which differs from that of the self, since landscape, like ruins, are part of the nineteenth century as part of a wider emanci- same natural history. pation process. But – Riegl argues – modern common people Within such frame, he distinguishes two dif- usually like «the completeness of what ap- ferent types of value coexisting in the idea of pears as new» as they tend to appreciate the “monument”. On the one hand, the historical «victorious power of human creativity» rather value is strictly linked to its capacity to be a than the «destructive force of Nature, oppos-

52 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective ing to human works». Thus, on the background according to which landscape is «the appear- of the process of “modern” fast urbanisation – ance, the characteristic, the singularity for often perceived, in the broadest sense, as a which a nation stands on the other, through destruction of the values of the past (with a the aspect of its cities, the lines of its soil» coincidence of the moral and the aesthetic di- (Croce, 1921), so that landscape conservation mension), while “modern” values are still to be means protecting «the holy face of Home- clearly deciphered – conservation appeared land» against the “ugliness” of modern times. as the “necessary” approach in a «transitory As a result, landscape is identified by law as phase», waiting for the achievement of the Al- “beauty” or “natural picture”, on the basis of an terswert as an element of the contemporary aesthetic criterion. aesthetic taste. In other words, the Alterswert We find again the concept of (mainly histori- refers to the masses, but the latter, in the tu- cal) “beauty” – as well as a certain difficulty in multuous beginning of the twentieth century, exactly defining its perimeter, as required by appeared yet unprepared to completely un- the modernist zoning approach – in the sec- derstand it, so that – in the meantime – a sort ond Italian law (1939), promulgated by the fas- of temporary mediation could be given by the cist Minister of National Education Giuseppe historical value (i.e.: by expert knowledge), Bottai (and in force until the promulgation of even if the crystallisation of “the original con- the Cultural Heritage and Landscape Code, in dition” of the monument/document meant de- 2008): we find the same centralised (not dem- nying the idea of continuity between past and ocratic) vision, since the awareness of land- present, according to which each single mo- scape value (the “aesthetic quality”) would be ment is part of a larger “development chain” easily understood only by the elites and not («Entwicklungskette»). by the Riegl’s “masses”.

Finally, following the same nationalist line, ac- Landscape and national identity: the Italian cording the Italian Constitution (art.9) «the Re- case public protects the landscape of the Nation». The idea of landscape as a public good can In the case of landscape, due to its complexity, be considered as a consequence of misun- such compromise resulted particularly ineffec- derstanding Riegl’s thought, since “public” tive as it led to a crystallisation of landscape implies some public agreement on what the planning, which, however, was functional to public “object” is, and historicism indicates the reduction of landscape complexity to nor- that such “object” – because of its “beauty”, mative needs, but also to the involvement of a sort of painting of past centuries: Hayden landscape issues in the construction of the na- (1995) would say «the shape of time» – con- tional identity as well as in nationalistic rheto- sists of just a part of landscape (rather than ric, and to excluding the local dimension (and landscape as a whole), to be distinguished by of a real participation in decision-making). expert knowledge from the remaining terri- An example in this sense is given by the Ital- tory, where, instead, “ugly” modern transfor- ian laws on landscape protection: the first mations can eventually be allowed. Such an one (1922, i.e.: after the nationalistic wage “objectification” of landscape, however, goes of World War I), was entitled as “law concern- hand in hand with the traditional “rational” ing the protection of natural beauty” and was comprehensive planning approach that fo- strongly supported by Benedetto Croce – one cuses on the need of “objectifying” the terri- could say the “father” of Italian historicism – tory as a neutral material support for human

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 53 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 activities, defined by borders coinciding with Landscape constitutes a typical example of an institution, in order to reduce and simplify common good (Donolo, cit.) : it is a complex the unavoidable uncertainty. network of social relations produced and As a consequence, in the Italian case, on the transformed through continual struggle (see one hand, especially in the second post-war e.g.: Raffestin, 1980; Sereni, 1961), the (often period, we find an impetuous building activity unintentional) outcome of the co-evolution of (strictly connected with familiar investment both people and places resulting from a long strategies as well as with the tourist develop- standing process of civilisation (Magnaghi, ment model, based on the spread of the so- 1998; 2000; 2001; see also: Dematteis, 1985), an called “second houses”) too often erasing the «immense repository of human labour» (Cat- traces of the inherited landscape without cre- taneo, 1925), a collective product/construct ating a contemporary one, where old and new that can be expressed through the Deleuze’s can coexist. and Guattari’s (1980) cyclic movement of de- On the other hand, the “protected” land- territorialisation and re-territorialisation de- scape has too often ended to be intended fining the relationship between the territoire as a postcard, a scenery for global tourism or and the milieu (or Umwelt) it territorialises. as a qualified segment of residential market: As a «by-product» (Donolo, cit.; but also: Cat- in this sense, as Secchi (1989) underlines, its taneo, cit.) of human activities, practices, condition of “public” good ends to transform strategies and «projects» (Corboz, 1983), land- it into a “positional good”, a panorama to be scape can be considered a common good to observed from a privileged window, a means all intents and purposes and, rather than “in- for social «distinction» (Bourdieu, 1984). stitutional” (i.e.: legally protected), it can be considered as an “institution”, especially if the latter is intended as a «construct of collective Shifting from “public” to “common” good: the intelligence» (Donolo, cit.). constructive role of images As a by-product, landscape cannot be reduced to a single project (see: Meinig, 1979; Further problematic aspects related to the Farinelli, 1991; Gambino, 2002). It is neither concept of landscape as “public” good concern a “neutral support for human activities” nor the definition of what “public” (and “public in- a “context”: such definitions aimed at reduc- terest”) as well as “identity” really are in our ing the landscape complexity undervalue the contemporary pluralistic multi-cultural frag- existing mutual relationships between object mented (sometimes conflicting) society (on and subjects, landscape and inhabitants, that “public”, see: Dewey, 1927; Friedmann, 1987; make landscape a «social construct», the « (in- Hajer & Reijndorp, 2001; see also: Crosta, 1998; tentional or unintentional) result of different Dente, 1990; Moroni, 2001; 2003). (political, institutional, social, economic) prac- As Donolo (1997) argues, public goods – as tices» (Pasqui, 2001, p. 63). well as institutions – are nothing but «a spe- As conceptual and material constructions pro- cialised underclass» of the broader class of ceed by mutual intersections, conceptualisa- common goods, being the latter, at the same tions about the living environment historically time, both the «precondition» and «the inten- have always mirrored real transformative prac- tional or unintentional result of the interaction tices, so that we may say that societies trans- among different social actors», a «by-product, form their territory on the basis of the terri- i.e.: the result of processes oriented towards torial representations they produce as well as other purposes». such images, in turn, derive from transforma-

54 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective tive practices. Therefore, images constructed and imaginaries implies a collective learning for representing a territory in an innovative and empowering process that provides a re- way are also able to materially transform it source of social and intellectual capital, i.e.: (Dematteis, 2001b). This means that a territory the reproduction of further common goods. cannot be thought without its own image, i.e.: without the cultural projections expressing the relationships between the population set- Consequences and implications tled there and the environment. But images refer not only to individual but also to collec- Shifting from “public” to “common” good is not tive imaginaries, which are the expression of without consequences and implication “on the history and society, so that we may say that ground”. each landscape can be referred to an imagi- The first one concerns the definition of the nary (Corboz, cit.; see also: Barnes & Duncan, “object”: as a collective construct – Weick 1992). (1993) would say an «activated» construct (see Images and the imaginary – whose relation- also: Pasqui, 2001, Giddens, 1984) – landscape ship with processes of knowledge is largely as a common good requires a social process acknowledged (see: Kuhn, 1962; Mills, 1959; of acknowledgement and sharing. This means Gruber, 1966; Starobinsky, 1970; Holton, 1983; re-defining the identity of a place around a Brown, 2003, in particular, as concerns plan- project through the construction of a shared ning, see: Rein & Schon, 1986; Faludi, 1996; territorial image and imaginary. Introducing Hirschorn, 1980 Secchi, 1989; Palermo, 1998; the concept of «territorial heritage» (Mag- Gabellini, 1996; see also: Scoppetta, 2004) – naghi, 2010) – which moves from the acknowl- play a constructive role: on the one hand, im- edgement of shared values of «places» that ages, as «constructions of the mind» (Jouvenel, are able to resist global trends and «flows» 1964), allow anticipating possible “scenarios” (Castells, 1996) – means the social produc- (frames), being the imagination an «ability of tion of scenarios, which can imply a strategy possible» (Sartre, 1936; 1940). On the other towards a different development model based hand, the imaginary plays an unifying role on sustainability. In other words, landscape as of subjects sharing a set of images, which, a common good requires an «active territorial- in turn, are connected to a set of values, fig- ity» (Dematteis, 2001a; Dematteis & Governa, ures, norms and rules (Starobinsky, 1970; Hob- 2005; Governa, 2007) aimed at a (self)sustain- sbawn, 1987; Fleck, 1980; Soubeyran, 1988), a able and durable local development. system of relevant purposes through which a A second implication concerns the local di- community recognises what is its own trans- mension as the most appropriate level for formation project (Baczko, 1978). such collective construction. Not surpris- ingly, the EU Landscape Convention focuses Thus, thanks to images, landscape as a com- on a strong place-based approach in order to mon good can be a «medium through which enlarge participation and governance, to re- values are created and expressed» (Strang, build social relationships, sense of community 1997): it can really consists of a «manner of see- and local identity, and to strengthen legitima- ing» (Farinelli, 1992), the Humboltdian “haze” cy, democratisation and social justice. Sustain- describing not «what exists», but making pos- ability, in fact, seems to be really achievable if sible «what could be, what could allow for the referred to the local dimension, where a great- unexpected, that could promote change, even er accessibility to information implies an effec- revolution». In addition, constructing images tive control on both production and exclusion

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 55 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 processes. Landscape as a common good also torial scenarios within the ongoing (and not implies an increased responsibility on how and always painless) rescaling processes (Brenner, what can be produced in a certain territory, so 2003). that it could mean shifting the centre of grav- ity of economic process closer to the level of political participation. In other words, it could imply a shift from inter-dependence, which is Bibliography at the basis of the network metaphor (Castells, 1996; see also: Scoppetta, 2009), to autonomy, Backzo, B. (1978) L’utopia. Immaginazione sociale e rappresen- which in turn could mean a conscious rescal- tazioni utopiche nell’età dell’Illuminismo, Torino: Einaudi. ing down, due to the need of enlarging the Barnes, T.J. and Duncan, J.S. (eds) (1992) Writing worlds: Discourse, text and metaphor in the representation of land- participation in decision-making. scape, London: Routledge. Bourdieu, P. (1984) Distinction. A social critique of the judg- Finally, further and wider implications con- ment of taste, Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. cern the re-conceptualisation of “develop- Brenner, N. (2003) ‘Metropolitan Institutional Reform and the Rescaling of Space in Contemporary Western Europe’, ment” itself, with the abandonment of notions European Urban and Regional Studies, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. focused on the idea of economic growth, such 297-324. as “unbalance” or “marginality”. Brown, T.L. (2003) Making truth: metaphor in science, Urbana: The latter refer to peripheral territories that University of Illinois Press. are not included into the global networks and, Calafati, A.G. (2006) ‘Traditional Knowledge and Local De- velopment Trajectories’, European Planning Studies, vol. although their contribution to the GDP may 14, no. 5, pp. 631-639. be negligible, they perform a fundamental Calafati, A.G. (2004) ‘Conservazione e sviluppo locale nei role in the social and ecological stabilisation parchi naturali: un’agenda di ricerca’, Rivista Geografica of the territory. Peripheral conditions have Italiana, vol. 111, no. 1, pp. 29-52. Castells, M. (1996) The Rise of the Network Society, Cambridge produced those features that, in the long run, (MA): Blackwell. have allowed the permanence of what Mag- Cattaneo, C. (1925) ‘Agricoltura e morale’, in Cattaneo, C. naghi (2000) calls «territorial heritage», and Notizie naturali e civili su la Lombardia e altri scritti su that may now not only find an economic use l’agricoltura, Milano: Edizioni Risorgimento. (Calafati, 2004; 2006), but also constitute the Corboz, A. (1985) ‘Il territorio come palinsesto’, Casabella, vol. 516, pp. 22-27. basis for conceptualising an interesting alter- Croce, B. (1921) Relazione al disegno di legge presentato dal native “slower” development pattern. Interest- Ministro della Pubblica Istruzione Croce nella tornata del ing suggestions 15 giugno 1921 per la difesa delle bellezze naturali e degli in this sense come from the interpretation of immobili di particolare interesse storico, Roma: Senato del Regno. certain Italian marginal areas as «slow territo- Crosta, P.L. (1998) Politiche. Quale conoscenza per l’azione ter- ries» (Lancerini, 2005; Lanzani, 2007), whereas ritoriale, Milano: Franco Angeli. slowness is not synonymous with backward- Deleuze, G. and Guattari, F. (1980) Capitalisme et schizophré- ness, but indicates a different and slower tra- nie 2: Mille plateaux, Paris: Éditions de Minuit. jectory towards sustainable development, Dematteis, G., 1985, Le metafore della terra. La geografia umana tra mito e scienza, Milano: Feltrinelli. which requires time in order to allow collec- Dematteis G. (2001a) ‘Per una geografia della territorialità tive learning processes. Autonomy and slow- attiva e dei valori territoriali’, in SLOT, quaderno 1, Bologna: ness mean assigning centrality to marginality, ed. Baskerville. as the latter can be intended as a sort of “lit- Dematteis, G. (2001b) ‘Le descrizioni cambiano il territorio. Reti e sistemi territoriali locali’, in Marson, A. (ed.) Rap- mus test” for sustainable development poli- presentanza e rappresentazione nella pianificazione territo- cies, and it can effectively play a specific role riale, Atti del seminario, Venezia: Istituto Universitario di in the construction/reformulation of EU terri- Architettura.

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Dematteis, G. and Governa, F. (eds) (2005) Territorialità, svi- Quaderni IReR, vol. 6. luppo locale, sostenibilità: il modello SLoT, Milano: Franco Magnaghi, A. (2010) Il progetto locale: verso la coscienza di Angeli. luogo, Torino: Bollati Boringhieri. Dente, B. (ed.) (1990) Le politiche pubbliche in Italia, Bologna: Magnaghi, A. (ed.) (2001) Rappresentare i luoghi. Metodi e Il Mulino. tecniche, Firenze: Alinea. Dewey, J. (1927) The public and its problems, Lectures deliv- Magnaghi, A. (2000) Il progetto locale, Torino: Bollati Borin- ered for the Larwill Foundation, Kenyon College (Ohio), Lon- ghieri,. don: Allen & Unwin. Magnaghi, A. (ed.) (1998) Il territorio degli abitanti, Milano: Donolo, C. (1997) L’intelligenza delle istituzioni. Milano: Dunod. Feltrinelli. Meinig, D.W. (ed.) (1979) The interpretation of ordinary land- Faludi, A. (1996) ‘Framing with Images’, Environment and scape, Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press. Planning B: Planning and Design, vol. 23. Mills, C.W. (1959) The Sociological Imagination, New York: Farinelli, F. (1992) I segni del mondo. Immagine cartogra- Oxford University Press. fica e discorso geografico in età moderna, Firenze: La Moroni S. (2003) ‘L’interesse pubblico. Un concetto defini- Nuova Italia. tivamente screditato o ancora rilevante per le attività di Farinelli, F. (1991) ‘L’arguzia del paesaggio’, Casabella, vol. pianificazione del territorio?’, CRU-Critica della razionalità 575-576, pp. 10-12. urbanistica, vol. 13, pp. 7-15. Fleck, L. (1980) Enstehung und Entwicklung einer wissen- Moroni, S. (2001) ‘La giustificazione della tutela dei beni cul- shaftlichen Tatsache, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp. turali come problema di etica pubblica’, in Ventura F. (ed.) Friedmann, J. (1987) Planning in the public domain, Princ- Beni culturali. Giustificazione della tutela, Torino: Utet-Città eton (NJ): Princeton University Press. Studi Edizioni. Gabellini, P. (1996) Il disegno del piano, Roma: La Nuova Italia Nietzsche, F. (1874) ‘Vom Nutzen und Nachteil der Historie Scientifica. für das Leben’, in Nietzsche, F. Unseitgemässe Betrachtun- Gambino, R. (2002) ‘Maniere di intendere il paesaggio’, in gen, Leipzig. Clementi A. (ed.) Interpretazioni di paesaggio, Roma: Palermo, P.C. (1998) ‘L’autonomia del progetto e il problema Meltemi. della “visione condivisa”’, Urbanistica, vol. 110. Giddens, A. (1984) The constitution of society, Cambridge: Pasqui, G. (2001) Il territorio delle politiche, Milano: Franco Polity Press. Angeli. Governa, F. (2007) ‘Territorialità e azione collettiva. Una rif- Raffestin, C. (1980) Pour une géographie du pouvoir, Paris: Li- lessione critica sulle teorie e le pratiche di sviluppo locale’, brairies Techniques. Rivista Geografica Italiana, vol. 114, pp. 335-361. Rein, M. and Schön, D. (1986) ‘Frame-reflective policy dis- Gruber, H.E. (1966) ‘Pensée créatrice et vitesse du change- corse’, Beleidsanalyse, vol. 15, no. 4. ment adaptif: le développement de la pensée de Darwin’, Riegl, A. (1903) Der Moderne Denkmalkultus. Sein Wesen und in Gruber H.E. Psychologie et épistemologie génetiques. seine Entstehung, Wien-Leipzig: Braumüller. Thèmes piagé tiens, Paris: Dunod. Sartre, J.P. (1940) L’immaginaire. Psycologie phénomé- Hajer, M. and Reijndorp, A. (2001) In search of new public do- nologique de l’imagination, Paris: Gallimard. main. Analysis and strategy, Rotterdam: Nai Publishers. Sartre, J.P. (1936) L’imagination, Paris: Presses Universitaires Hayden, D. (1995) The power of Place. Urban Landscapes as de France. Public History, Cambridge (MA)/London: MIT Press. Scoppetta, C. (2009) Immaginare la metropoli della transiz- Hirschorn, L. (1980) ‘Scenario Writing: A Developmental Ap- ione. La città come living machine, Roma: Campisano. proach’, Journal of the American Planning Association, vol. 46. Secchi, B. (1989) Un progetto per l’urbanistica, Torino: Ein- Hobsbawm, E.J. (1987) ‘Introduzione: Come si inventa audi. una tradizione’, in Hobsbawm, E.J. and Ranger, T. (eds) Sereni, E. (1961) Storia del Paesaggio agrario italiano, Roma- L’invenzione della tradizione, Torino: Einaudi. Bari: Laterza. Holton, G. (1983) L’immaginazione scientifica. I temi del pensi- Soubeyran, O. (1988) ‘Vingt and déja: un retour à la case dé ero scientifico, Torino: Einaudi. part?’, Cahiers de Géographir du Québec, vol. 87. Jouvenel, B. (1964) L’art de la conjecture, Futuribles, Monaco: Starobinsky, J. (1970) ‘Jalons pour une histoire du concept Ed. Du Rocher. d’imagination’, in Starobinsky, J., La relation critique, Paris: Kuhn, T.S. (1962) The structure of scientific revolutions, Chi- Gallimard. cago: University of Chicago Press. Strang, V. (1997) Uncommon Ground. Cultual Landscapes and Lancerini, E. (2005) ‘Territori lenti: contributi per una nuova Environmenta Values, Oxford-New York: Berg. geografia dei paesaggi abitati italiani’, Territorio, vol. 34. Weick, K.E. (1969) The social psychology of organizing, Read- Lanzani, A. (2007) ‘Sviluppo e turismo nei “territori lenti’, ing (Ma): Addison-Wesley.

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Place Governance: Harmony and Chromatic El- scenery we live. The possibility to demonstrate ements how the chromatic element may be crucial in both reformulating and reassessing the location Giacinto Taibi1, Mariangela Liuzzo2, Tiziana Patanè3 is definitely significant, considering this location 1 Special Educational Structure of Architecture, University of composed by the whole of individual private Catania, Siracuse, Italy; [email protected] units, which together represent the expressive 2 Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, KORE University of potential of the common good and so of the Enna, Italy; [email protected] landscape, meant as scenic setting. 3 Special Educational Structure of Architecture, University of The same importance is given to the perception Catania, Siracuse, Italy; [email protected] of place, to which contribute not only the type of individual material components with their Abstract respective chromatic varieties, but also the position of solids relative to the sun exposure of each The need to overcome the conception of landscape protection façade. To this extent, the sunlight contributes to faced at exceptional episodes is strongly felt, in order to impose emphasize asperities, irregularities and fractali- a widespread landscape planning, a necessity acknowledged ties of the place, highlighting the sculptural and since a long time by the European Landscape Convention. In this sense, “everyday landscape”, by virtue of its polysemy, volumetric effects of solids configurations. becomes an authentic expression of the historical, cultural, The attention we can pay to a landscape, more or natural, morphological and aesthetic values of an area, and less urbanized and rich of vegetation, wakes, in therefore able to express the soul of a place. our aims, suggestions conditioned by the whole It recognizes the ability to express the complex and secular synthesis between nature and culture; its protection and en- chromatisms of the place. hancement seeks to safeguard the values that it expresses as Following the same standards, even an unde- perceived manifestations of identity. veloped, harsh, rough and bare landscape ap- Given that the anthropogeographic landscape is also an aes- parently defective of the colour aspect, arouses thetic object - and therefore its perception can become figural in our aims some meaningful sensorial impres- perception - we must necessarily be aware of the size of landscape’s harmony. sions. (Fig. 1) The chromatism is among the visual and perceptive factors A landscape meant as a combination of objective that influence the feeling of landscape’s consistency or incon- values such as physical solids and chromatic val- sistency, and is capable, within a more or less heterogeneous ues and also meant as an entity able to express formal organization, of welding or dissociating the composite set of global morphology. and to spread emotions and feelings, is the hard- A chromatic spectrum consistent with the everyday landscape est setting to be read, known and represented. speaks of that place and tells its history, culture, climate, ge- The way of approaching the graphic criteria is ology. The colour thus assumes an ethical and social value: it the most critical point for the epistemological should, therefore, be thought, reasoned and above all gener- reading of a place and of its values, its qualities ated by the site. Colour that evolves from the site but that can not impose itself on it. and the relationships between them. A strong line between what is and what is Keywords: Landscape, Harmony, Chromatism, Morphology, not becomes clear. Topos The continuous intersecting and melding of sensations and chromatics effects is what really generates the “harmony of the colour” of the place. 1. Intrinsic aspects of the colour power in a Com- That is the reason why it is important to capture mon Good (G. Taibi) the shades and then to use them to give emotions and sensations. Our everyday routine develops in a geographical The quality of the place usable as common good space which physically coincides with the urban is represented by the individual contributions de-

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Fig. 1. Chromatism of geographic locations termined by private property adds, read as a syn- has therefore been conceived, discussed and, ergic will and as a sum of offered contributions. moreover, generated by the location, absorbing The alphabet of the natural combination, com- elements defined through “sense” and “sensitivi- posed by different parts which can describe the ty”. Through “sense” we can read shapes, volumes values of the scenic setting, constitutes the sign and the system of physical and compositional re- of the place in its entirety. lations emerging from a deep analysis of the location; the “sensitivity” becomes the second level of reading and interpretation, through which the aesthetic qualities of this process come to light. 2. The words of the colours (T. Patanè) Then the “project of the colour” of scenery, meant as common good, is generated by and evolves The colour, code of visual and perspective imme- from the landscape itself, instead of being imposed diacy and first factor able to reveal the identity of by economical and technological reasons, as it hap- a place or a landscape, represents the main mean pened in the last decades. We have to admit how through which we can communicate, make refer- the impact of techno - science on architecture has ences but also correct. In this sense, the research made increasingly harder to develop and maintain of the colour establishes a dialectic – metaphoric a temporal continuity in a place with its technical – relationship with a place and its landscape; a sort executive architectural peculiarities. of dialogue that interpellates the oldest history, There are recurring examples representing large the intrinsic nature, the climate and the light, the heterogeneity, considering a focused view on geomorphology, the economy and the social sta- real compactness of the sum of goods or scat- tus of a chosen place. The resulting chromatism tered properties; thanks to the presence of some

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Fig. 2. The colour as a visual and perceptual element elements, it is possible to weld this fractality in tervention: the “memory” project, the “size” proj- inseparable units, re-establishing formal coher- ect and the “harmony” one. ence in those sceneries where arbitrariness had In the “memory” project, when we choose a colour prevailed. Considering a combination of com- for scenery, we have to consider the value of the mon goods determined by casual urban struc- scenery as a common good and the centenary tures and characterized by weak weaving with technical – executive tradition of a specific place. too many rifts and irregularities, the “colour” el- The continuity of natural and artificial landscape ement can become the visual and perspective is the logical consequence of employing local re- unifying element. sources; in the past, architectural techniques and Conversely, a landscape developed with high for- local customs have influenced the use of specific mal coherence (as aware or unaware result of the colours, making it more conservative and stable application of the main elements of repetition, than now. similarity, closeness, parallelism, convergence, From the Second World War architecture has etc.) can use the chromatic element to create dis- been released from the material bonds which sonance and contrast, often because of practical influenced it until then; moreover, the techni- and economic reasons. (Fig. 2) cal – scientific progress, pushing the boundaries Our “everyday sceneries” ask for and require of possible, caused the unavoidable autonomy greater attention and homogeneity, even be- of the building shape towards the architectural cause of the colour and the chromatic range re- reasons. This kind of freedom lead to an extreme lated to the identity of the place. heterogeneity in construction and architectural The matter of the colour implies three areas of industry, subordinating choices to merely eco- intervention and three consequent project of in- nomic criteria. It is required to re - assign to ar-

60 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective chitecture more meaningful goals for human branch of philosophy, before being something existence, re-establishing ethic and moral values practical; it belongs to the world of escapism, to in formal and compositional choice. The archi- the arbitrariness of sensibility and art: something tectural choices cannot disregard the history and that cannot be neither codified nor taught. the memory of a place. The colour, like the other The most irrational part of human being needs elements, becomes symbol and expression of the to express itself, more than ever in this historical group who has been living in that place all along landmark, not only through what is useful, but and also heritage of the landscape identity. also through pure emotion. The result of denying Taking into account the “size” project, the choice of colour and visual order on behalf of mere utility a colour for scenery has to consider an already for- is the disharmony and the atmosphere of aban- gotten anthropomorphism coming from a struc- donment of our suburbs landscapes. We rather tural stabilisation spirit of the architecture itself. conceive the scenery as a big canvas where With the rare exception of institutional ones, space, composition, volumes and colours have to each building should be conceived as a chance become the elements contributing to harmonic to reveal the “place” and to contribute to the con- communion. tinuous articulation of human habitats. To teach The colour is pure emotion. the way of thinking about how to build in a correct way, we need to know and learn the main rudiments of shape and of constructed order, 3. The harmony in a changing chromatic inlay of especially those which are independent from an urban scenery (M. Liuzzo) style and historical periods and we also need to re – consider the project of the architecture as an The light of a place, both natural or artificial, truly update of an existing state, thanks to the inclu- seen or just imagined, in its physical or meta- sion of a “contemporary fragment”, a cultural at- physical meaning, seeped through a closed inte- titude which should limit or contain the personal rior or free and dazzling in the open air, shows artistic vein (as demonstrated by the greatest itself in its whole evidence as a immediately rec- masters of architecture, who have always worked ognizable feature, almost the distinctive sign of inside their historical period). The size project has a familiar belonging. It is through light that the to deal with geometrical and setting perception show of colours, which defines the nature of the matters, in order to offer some grammatical ref- habitat we live in, can arouse strong emotional erence points which can give guidelines in struc- answers as affinity or repulsion to the place, turing urban combinations and sceneries pro- meant as a Common Good. vided with greater formal coherence. We should From time immemorial, not only the natural learn from ancient buildings, because their pro- scenery, but also the urbanized one, are deeply portions, their colours and their shapes come marked by the tones existing in them; in this from centuries and centuries of studies and ex- case, tones are the result of the sum of individual periences that cannot be underestimated. choices or, less frequently, in a few and often not In the “harmony” project the choice of the colour so successful cases, the result of unitary and cul- for a scenery researches those universal prin- tured-oriented programs. ciples, maybe utopian for some people, which It is exactly for the urban aspect that the rec- allowed reaching that visual harmony, or even ognizing of the most exasperated deviations of that eurhythmy, only reachable through laws of globalization, fashion trends and virtual realities nature. The utopia is located in the inadequacy strongly leads to the revival of popular identity; of Cartesian rationality for this project, due to the it also brings the desire of re-appropriation, even fact that the theory of architecture belongs to a chromatic, of our roots.

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Fig. 2. The colour as a visual and perceptual element

Thus a particular population, such as the Sicil- rituals, symbolisms and pictorial, sculptural and ian one, has been recognizing itself in the strong architectonic artistic expressions. colours of its land all along: the black and the Therefore we can ﬁnd some privileged areas white of its molten and chalky rocks, the bright where, over the centuries, the community that red of the lava of the Etna Vulcan, the green of its has been living there and can identify itself with vegetation, the light-blue of the sky that melts in that speciﬁc place has realized the magic of the the cobalt blue of the sea. These colours represent genius loci through changing chromatic inlay. the aim of the population which has absorbed I think about the Staircase of Santa Maria del the complex essence of an island charming and Monte in Caltagirone, where the scenic perspec- terrible, moving them to the multiple evidences tive is given by the contrast between the black of of its millenary culture, made of myths, traditions, molten rock stairs and the white of the rocks of

62 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective the lateral curtains; the curtains play the change- second the constantly renewed magnificence of able role of figure and background where daily the show is combined with the shared emotion and extraordinary chromatic stories happen. If for the experience of deep significances, ancient the look is captured by the strong material – per- traditions, rituals, mastery and strains handed spective contrast at first sight, going ahead in a down from father to son, intimately carried by gradual approach we can discover a meticulous the polychromatic light. (Fig. 3) chromatic story unravelled step by step through An heritage, material and intangible at the same series of pottery tiles; the tiles are painted with time, felt as common good because it is shared the colour of the tradition – yellow, blue and by the whole community, which keeps alive the light blue, green on white background – and they deep feeling of belonging to a place and feels show the evolution of the figurative tradition of the responsibility to preserve this place from the island over the course of a millennium. physical destruction and also from indifference However, it is especially during main religious and oblivion. An heritage which can regenerate festivals that the urban scenery of the Staircase itself and also the urban scenery, perceived al- turns down in the dark of the night and then ex- ways new but familiar at the same time, through plodes in the composite light of its most flashy the magic of colours. colours –red, green and yellow – to form an enor- It is exactly this atavistic feeling of confirmed vital mous illumination, called “luminaria”, always new roots that will be able to trigger new processes of and different, which can generate strong emo- revitalization and revaluation finalized not only tions in visitors and citizens. In the first case, the to the consumption, but also to a respectful and impact of the show prevails in the visitors; in the aware usage of our Common Goods.

T. Ying, High Way, Fourth Edition Peoples Landscapes

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Endemic and Comparative Analysis of Urban This is the clear sensation we feel when the ob- Scenery servation of the nature pervades our deepest aim and conducts us into boundless meanders Giacinto Taibi1, Mariangela Liuzzo2, Sebastiano Giuliano3, and new realities, brought to life by unique as- Salvatore Savarino4 pects and peculiarities. 1 Special Educational Structure of Architecture, University of The intent of establishing a relationship of con- Catania, Siracuse, Italy; [email protected] gruity between the geography of places and the 2 Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, KORE University of related aesthetic gradient, conditions us and it Enna, Italy; [email protected] also needs a dialectic intellectual relationship 3 Special Educational Structure of Architecture, University of which takes place at a level of cultural intercon- Catania, Siracuse, Italy; [email protected] nections with all the other aspects linked to the 4 Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, KORE University of resources of our planet. Enna, Italy; [email protected] It is definitely fruitful to examine in depth this noble logic oriented to acquire a method and Abstract finalised to the right reception of those stimuli and the exact comprehension and interpreta- Our territories carry the marks of their identity, history, extreme tion of a place. poverty and wealth, as well as of their transformations and We are dealing with delicate and subtle situ- adjustments. These are the specific features of morphological ations which have the task of educating the urban landscape definitions, scars and signs of beauty that can generate emotional states of amusement, admiration and subject to recipe and codify the message; they revulsion of those who live in that site. The landscape becomes also are concepts moving and exercising their significant of a widespread presence in that place, identifying a power/influence on the sensitive and impalpa- particular vocation, weighty element of the “quality” of life. ble system. Today we must be even more adept at knowing how to man- From an holistic point of view, the scenery is age a scientific activity able to think of a landscape, draw it, in order to build it or modify it, managing to establish an intimate a complex element which cannot be brought relationship of understanding between the creation of an ur- back to a basic sum of crystallised facts of the ban landscape and the satisfaction of its future users. place, but it has to be determined by relation- In this sense, all the cultural processes aimed at the epistemo- ships thought parts; moreover, thanks to its logical interpretation of places, seen in their innermost essence, and the resulting programs oriented to the protection and noble aspiration of being represented in a high management of the integral of the common good’s addenda morphologic composition, it can be assimilated landscape, must contribute synergistically, in sync with the to a pseudo - work of art and so it has to suc- dictates enshrined in the European Landscape Convention, to ceed in trigging a deep cultural interrelation- the definition of a Quality Charter for the Environment which, ship between visual effects and the ability to following a unity of purpose, puts order in the ideational processes for the recognition and preservation of place’s identity. comprehend the phenomenal reality. In this sense, the high – articulated mental pro- Keywords: Landscape, Place, Preservation, Quality Charter, cess of place reading cannot be relegated to a Morphology mere concept of reception of individual constitutive units, but it needs to be able to perform a dynamic assimilation where the professional 1. An epistemological code for reading the urban worker gives a logical – constitutive contribu- fabrics of a Common Good (G. Taibi) tion, which is quite another thing than entirely negligible. Our daily lives are constantly characterised, To this extent, we have to understand the need stimulated and bombarded by stimuli which of acquiring a method through which correctly can influence us in many ways. see and comprehend place, as we learn to read

64 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective a book and to understand its contents and realities, we will try to analyse the harmonies of meanings. stylistic coherence, imposed by the use of ma- Therefore, our intervention in the field, with the terials and technologies different from formal aim at the codification of fact-finding processes coherence, which is characterised by the typical defined by a shared and regulated law – system, geometry of the new urban space and coher- results decisive; the law – system mentioned ence of usage and by the daily fruition of the is regulated by an universal document which “new arethusean living room”. could be recognised as Quality Charter, respect- The careful observation and the importance of ing the European Convention on Landscape. the urban fabric, sum of private units, are the In the same way, giving life to an unlimited starting point for reading the above - men- hermeneutic circle of significant and fruitful in- tioned Good that recalls the value of the com- terpretations results decisive. Obviously, inter- mon identity. pretations need to be evaluated in accordance Even maintaining continuity of materials, fin- to development process and historical docu- ishes and chromatisms, it is impossible not to mentation. emphasize the different building methods between impressive and elegant palaces of the Looking at the urban scenery through this filter, Nineties and the smaller architecture that incor- it becomes a process of infinitive interpretation porates them. where not only objective and intrinsic features This technological discontinuity can be de- of the place collimate, but also architectural and duced from comparing old and moderately new creative contributions coming from the cultural skylines: the oldest have the shape of a broken qualities of professional workers, able to inter- and uneven segment, the newest of a horizon- pret the scenery in the most appropriate and tal and rigid line, in this manner highlighting adequate way for that historical setting. the different structural ideas. The geometry and the volume typical of both urban blocks are in constant balance. 2. The interpretation of an urban scenery: Corso Both tend to occupy entirely the area where Matteotti, Syracuse (S. Giuliano) they are located: the street is interpreted not as conveyor belt (typical of the modern town); it is The demolition of the medieval quarter north- seen as loss of linear volumes to advantage of ward Piazza Archimede in Ortygia remains poorly place fruition instead. (Fig. 1) documented in the urban history of Syracuse. In the matter of coherence of usage, the new The opening of Via del Littorio, nowadays Corso urban axis, as the large majority of the histori- Matteotti, besides being a “fast” access to the cal centre of the island, now represents a place heart of the island of Syracuse that resolves where you can communicate and trade, a sym- problems connected to healthiness, set itself as bolically meaningful place of otium and nego- the symbol of early Nineties modern city plans. tium. All the new façades overlooking Corso Matteot- Considerations about the usability of this Com- ti represent ‘a plain modern style, not disjoined mon Good focus on dichotomy between con- from that character of presentable impressive- sidering Via del Littorio as a new settlement in ness needed by a building which would rise up the heart of the old historical centre of Ortygia in the new Via del Littorio’ (Dufour 2005: 205). or as process of fusion between the old and the new formalism and functionalism, even if it is In order of reading this place, meant as a whole not exactly rigorous or stylistically coherent. of the multiple phenomenal urban - historical In the end, Corso Matteotti has been the sym-

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Fig. 1. The new and the old in the urban area of Corso Matteotti in Syracuse: 1 - front of Corso Matteotti; 2 - curtain of Via Dione; 3 and 4 - planimetric system and skylines in comparison.

66 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective bol of “the new” of the old generations; for the eviscerate the built- up area alongside the steep new one, it will probably represent “the old”, but medieval scarp for opening a new road. In 1606, it will last as the tangible sign of a specific and considering the inclines and the pre-existing vi- diachronic anthropological need. ability, a staircase composed by several flights and landing areas, called “piazzettoni”, was adapted; in 1844, the staircase was unified in a 3. The fruition of the urban scenery as scenic cele- unique scenic composition made of 142 molten bration (S. Savarino) rock steps and later, in 1956, they were enriched by rows of decorations of majolica, with colours A huge number of man-influenced and natural and themes typical of the tradition of Caltagi- locations of great value exist and their current rone (Ragona 1989). state of abandonment, attributable to insuf- Symbolic monument and pride of Caltagirone, ficient economic actions of the responsible the Staircase of Santa Maria del Monte owes bodies, can only be associated to coincidental its fame not only to its characteristic space disaffection and indifference of the community solution or to its urban, architectural or orna- living in them; on the other hand, there are lo- mental value, but also to the vital role it has cations that keep a deep and dynamic bound of acquired during years, saving it until present mutual symbiotic belonging with people who days. We are talking about the urban place par identifies and recognises itself in them, despite excellence, the beating heart of the urban life centuries of lives and transformations. both in daily routine, when it represent a “liv- Only in this second case the place is perceived ing room” for citizens and visitors, and in spe- and lived as a real and shared heritage, chosen cial occasions, when it becomes the privileged by a Community that takes the individual and set and perspective scenery of great impact collective charge of keeping alive the place of extraordinary civil and religious events that identity and handing on it to future genera- take place on it. tions. The annual traditions of “infiorata” and “lumi- Therefore, a town full of valuable architectures naria” are particularly magnificent, especially such as Caltagirone, in the UNESCO World Heri- because they are closely related to the spatial tage List among “Late – Baroque towns of the set of the location. During them, the Staircase Val di Noto”, acquired as symbolic location an becomes the perspective background on which unmarked urban scenery: the scenic Staircase long and coloured hangings are realised, made, of Santa Maria del Monte. respectively of different flowers or of small oil Closely related to the steep orography of the lamps burning in the dark of the night, put in place, the Staircase is perceived as a deep cut order on Staircase steps to form always differ- into the winding topography of the ancient ent drawings, results of old traditions and of town of Arabic origins, characterised by a first the work of many people handing these secrets housing cluster previously settled on the top from father to son. (Fig. 2) of the hill and then slowly developed to lower The study of such an unique urban scenery can- levels. not disregard passing over a physical and mate- Already in the Sixties, in order to connect the rial approach of knowledge, in the attempt to ancient town with the underlying expansion understand the genius loci and the multiple se- and the ex – Cathedral Church, higher, with the mantic shades able to arouse a deep emotional House of Senators, closer to the valley, both participation, both in who see it for the first time physically and symbolically, it was decided to and in who has always been living there.

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Fig. 2. Coordinated readings for the study of the scenic spatiality of the Staircase of Santa Maria del Monte in Caltagirone.

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4. Urban scenarios between historical memory to understand the subtle and intangible threads and construction of the present (M. Liuzzo) that can activate instinctual mechanisms of recognition and emotional bonds. The European Landscape Convention considers the landscape as a basic element for the iden- Beyond the objective value of the exterior tity of people. To this extend, the increasingly scenery, we have to discover the endemic sign urgent and often neglected request of greater of that specific landscape, since it is read by sensibility about the value of the place gains people who exploited it; their identification a sense of social alarm for a community which delivers that feeling of belonging, protection risks the annihilation of its roots, through the and active evaluation which, in some cases, be- systematic demolition of its heritage. comes fruitful heritage bequeathed from generation to generation.In this eternal debate, The responsibility to protect in the present and the crucial role given to the ‘cultural heritage transmit to future generations our landscape, always oscillates between the passive storage and so our history, makes improving specific of historical memory and cultural identity side type of knowledge necessary. This knowledge and the opposite one, where it is a strong sym- should be able to read the value of the unique- bol of the creativity of the present and the con- ness laying in the infinite ways of creating struction of the future’; the emblematic cases connections between the multiple elements of Ortygia and Caltagirone demonstrate that constituting the historical and modern dimen- the landscape is everything mentioned above sion of landscapes. The matter is to unravel a and, moreover, that this material and intangi- complicate mass going beyond the elemen- ble heritage, far from being ‘a useless burden tary sum of physical components, functional we have been carrying for centuries without denotations and symbolic connotation of the any basis of economy or politics, is part of the place; the latter is perceived and exploited, aware elaboration of a social strategy focused in order to reveal its DNA, responsible for the on creating and strengthening cultural iden- destiny of the place itself, which can become tity, solidarity bounds and feelings of belong- both representative or not for the community ing, which are the basis for any structured soci- and so it can survive or be abandoned. In this ety and, as more and more clearly assumed by sense, understanding the exemplary cases in economists, they are also not negligible factors which the landscape had and still has life as of productivity’, a precious ‘source of energy’ of moments when it reflects the society living in, our community (Settis 2012). receiving wellness and development from it, was substantial in the in-depth analyses here exposed, composed with the aim of improving Reference List interpretive weapons of students; the society, for all these reasons, protects the landscape Dufour, L. (2005) Nel segno del Littorio – città e campagne si- creating a virtuous circle in which the priority ciliane nel ventennio, Caltanissetta: Lussograﬁca. Ragona, A. (1989) La scala di Santa Maria del Monte in Calta- of the common good is seen as anything but girone, Catania: Tringale. something obstructing the interest of individ- Settis, S. (2012) ‘Perché gli Italiani sono diventati nemici uals (Settis 2013). dell’arte’, Il Giornale dell’Arte, n. 324, October, Torino: So- cietà Editrice Allemandi & C. [Online], Available: http:// www.ilgiornaledellarte.com/articoli/2012/10/114543. Therefore, the interpretation of a symbolic html place, considered representative from a part of Settis, S. (2013) Il paesaggio come bene comune, Napoli: La the society, cannot neglect the engaging need Scuola di Pitagora.

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Monumental Trees as Common Good: the Cen- ever more accurate and shared concerning the sus at the Base of a Good Landscape Planning monumental tree. To these individuals, in fact, we recognize not only an extraordinary bio-eco- Michela Tolli*; Fabio Recanatesi** logical importance (Spies, 2004; Luyssaertetal., 2008; Wirth et al., 2009), but also an aesthetic and (*) Landscape Architect. PhDSchoolLandscape and Environ- cultural value, resulting from the physiognomic ment,Sapienza University, Rome. and dendrological characteristics and by the se- Email: [email protected] mantic charge which they represent, so as to be (**)TusciaUniversity – Departmentof Agriculture, Forests, Na- listed as cultural heritage (L.10/2013). ture and Energy(D.A.F.N.E.). The cultural value assigned to monumental trees 01100 – Viterbo (Italy). can also be found in the observation of actions Email: [email protected] “from the ground”. These kinds of actions are Corresponding author: MichelaTolli coming directly from communities when they share the same habitat of the tree, the same his- Abstract Landscape transformation processes in Italy in the last tory and the same culture. In Italy, many trees decades have involved mainly areas on the fringes of cities. In have been the object of popular interest and for the transformations of land use in urban areas, whose boundaries are not uniquely defined, naturalistic landscapes take on this reason they have been saved and defended a particular importance today because they produce positive by the sound of often very heated protests. A case externalities, especially since they are an integral part of a in point is the oak of the Shrine of Our Lady of deeply anthropized area. When these natural areas fall within Montemisio (AP), which was saved from cutting urban and peri-urban areas (eg. parks, villas and protected areas), they may represent a reality in which historical events ordered by the local archpriest in 1920, thanks to related to past management have allowed the persistence of the threat of a popular action against the arch- areas of particular naturalistic and landscape importance. In priest himself. In other instances awareness of other situations, however, natural areas have been replaced by the intrinsic value of the ancient tree emerges, as significant processes of urbanization. In this paper we report in the case of the large maple located in Monte the results of a study conducted in the State Natural Reserve of Castelporziano, an area located on the outskirts of Rome Tranquillo (AQ) saved in the 60s by the lumber- where the presence of landscape and natural value is markedly jacks of the Abruzzo National Park. They refused high. In particular, the work focuses on the development of a to cut it in spite of the order received by their su- methodological protocol aimed at the census of forest areas periors. or single trees that have characteristics of monumentality, as required by LR 38/2002, which are considered important exam- As evidence of the complexity of the value of ples as ecological dynamics for site management and, as such, veteran trees, very significant is the evocative a common good to defend and improve. The census provides description that Alfonso Alessandrini offers in the basis for defining adequate planning guidelines for the his book ‘The monumental trees of Italy’: There protection and usability of this important common good. “are trees that do not go unnoticed. They are Keywords: monumental tree; common good; nature reserve; real trees, heroes of the past, warriors of today, landscape planning. outposts of life, the protagonists of history and legend, indicators of time, civilizations, symbols of costume, landmarks of historical reality for Introduction shepherds, cowherds, poachers, thieves, guard hunters and soldiers, but also for ungulates, Over the past few decades we have witnessed a small mammals and birds.” The monumental tree, more gradual evolution of scientific thought to therefore represents not only an environmental the identification of points of convergence be- and ecological factor for the physical environ- tween environmental and aesthetic-cultural val- ment in which man lives, but it is also a carrier ues. This has contributed to defining a concept of culture, art, spirituality, and just like a work of

70 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective art, it presents codes and content that allow us to tional Census of trees of considerable interest, perceive it as a common good. realized by the State Forestry Corps. In the European context, the acquisition of monumental trees as common goods presents stories and many different paths. In February 1986, the Italian regulatory instruments heads of governments, led by French President Mitterand, signed the appeal of the Sorbonne in From the regulatory point of view, the Italian Paris, aimed at the preservation and promotion situation has seen a recent change in the condi- of trees and forests for present and future gen- tions concerning the protection of monumental erations. Nevertheless, the criteria for defining a trees. The main reference consists in the Munici- monumental tree are still very different from na- pal Code (Legislative Decree 42/2004), which tion to nation, and consequently, also from the however initially did not directly mention monu- point of view of legal situations, they appear het- mental trees among the assets to be protected. erogeneous. In Spain, the autonomous communi- Article 136 cites: “real estate things that have sub- ties develop local specifications for monumental stantial character of natural beauty or geological trees starting from the national law of 1985 con- singularity”. Monumental trees were, in some cerning the protection of parks, gardens and his- cases, included in this article although it remains toric and artistic heritage. France has a long tradi- difficult to consider a vegetable, and then a liv- tion in terms of protection of “the arbre remarqua- ing organism, as a “motionless thing.” We had to ble”. It was introduced in 1899 and subsequently wait for Legislative Decree 63/2008 for a change renovated and integrated with the law on natural in the Municipal Code. In article 136, paragraph monuments and places of artistic, historical, sci- 1, letter a), the word ‘or of geological singularity’ entific, legendary and picturesque interest. Britain is replaced by the following: “unique geological is the European country that presents the largest or historical memory, including monumental number of veteran trees, and has set up specific trees.” This innovation represents an efficient tool local authorities, the “Tree Preservation Order”, to protect the category of monumental trees, in whose job is to protect and preserve the trees fact, thanks to the introduction of national legis- considered to be of significant historical, ecologi- lation “Standards for the development of urban cal, landscape and monumental importance. green spaces” (L.10/2013), today it is possible to The requirement to define the identifying char- identify the monumental tree through the shar- acteristics of the monumental tree is much more ing and the adopting of rules at national scale. perceived in Italy than in central Europe, because Art. 7 provides, in fact, an unambiguous defini- of the considerable biological heterogeneity tion of monumental trees, which is defined as typical of the Mediterranean environment and “valid for the purposes of this Act and any other accentuated by the variety of landscapes that law in force in the territory of the Republic.” The our country can boast. The first demonstrations monumental tree can thus be identified as: of interest in monumental trees took place in “a) the isolated high tree-trunk or part of natural the 70s when Abruzzo National Park established or non natural woodland; whatever the location “The table of the big tree”, through which they or for the typical ancient tree shape, which can developed scientific studies primarily to define be considered as a rare example of majesty and the attributes and to demonstrate the ecology longevity, age or size, or of particular natural in- value of a monumental tree (Lisa, 2005). After a terest, for botanical rarity and uniqueness of the few years, thanks in part to the WWF, this process species, or memories relevant from the point of of scientific study of the large trees acquired a view of historical, cultural, documentary or local national value, culminating in 1982 with the na- traditions;

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 71 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 b) the hedgerows and the special tree-lined land- a strategic role in dealing with the management scape value, monumental, historical and cultural and transformation of areas characterized by heritage, including those entered in urban centers; high anthropic impact, despite the perpetuation c) the tree-trunk placed in special architectural and use of these assets. The role of the Forest complexes, of historic and cultural importance, Management Plan is not to be underestimated, such as villas, monasteries, churches, botanical which, even considering contexts in which the gardens and historic private residences. “ pressure is significantly lower than in urban ar- The acquisition, at national level, concerning the eas, its role should be to define actions to man- concept of monumental trees, represents a big age transformation that cannot be separated step forward in the protection of this category, from the knowledge of the special needs of mon- but this is still not enough to fill the gap in plan- umental trees, which certainly should be treated ning tools. with more special criteria than the rest of the forest. It is evident that, many side effects involving the lack of proper insertion of monumental trees Planning within the main planning tools preclude the possibility of certainty about the preservation of the Although the concept of monumental tree at the characteristics typical of monumental trees as a regulatory level has been widely acquired, plan- common good. ning reference tools still have many shortcomings. Law 10/2013 refers to the regional level for the Case study: the Nature Reserve of Castelporziano protection of monumental trees, as does the ‘Co- dice Urbani’, which delegates to Regional Plan- An examination of the main planning tools has ning Landscaping the task of protecting and shown that, although identified as a legal entity, enhancing the national heritage. The weakness- monumental trees do not yet enjoy any specific es identified at the level of regional Landscape relevance in the field of land planning. From this Plans refer to two aspects: the lack of transposi- follows the lack of a suitable policy to protect tion of the list of monumental trees surveyed by these trees, not only through a series of actions the State Forestry Corps and regional censuses to be taken to safeguard these individuals as bio- present for several Italian regions, and the lack logical beings, but also for the preservation of the of project guidelines for an active and focused landscape, which the presence of a monumental protection. tree, or a group of trees, is able to characterize in These shortcomings make it impossible to apply terms of historical and cultural content. the improvement carried out by law, and then The choice to test the effectiveness of the main take action with practical actions for the protec- tools available today in spatial planning with par- tion of the common good. Moreover, these have ticular reference to monumental trees present in a negative impact on planning tools and their protected natural areas, has been applied to the subordinates. In this way, they cannot find spe- territory of Castelporziano (6,000 ha), a State Nat- cific prescriptions or indications in the planning ural Reserve since 1999, which presents a high references, so there isn’t management of this degree of naturalness certified by establishing precious common good: the monumental tree. two Sites of Community Importance (SCI) in the All of this gives rise to different problems, de- Natura 2000 Network. It is located in a peri-urban pending on the landscape context in which the environment with a high degree of anthropic tree lives, so they may have different importance, features (20km from the city of Rome between depending on the case, the urban plans that play the urban settlements and Ostia Mare), Figure 1,

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plant characteristics; another significant factor is also the high degree of biodiversity of this monumental heritage: 11 plant species. The geo-referenced information regarding the exact location of monumental trees in the area studied has enabled the implementation of the content contained in the main planning instruments in force in this area, in particular: i. RLTP - Regional Landscape Territorial Plan, Table A (1:10,000 scale); ii. LUM - Land Use Map for the Lazio Region (1:10,000 scale); iii. MPA - Map of the Protection Areas in the MAFP of Castelporziano (1:10,000 scale); The first two data layers, Figure 2, were acquired from the official map of the Lazio Region and Fig. 1 The Castelporziano Estate the MPA refers to zoning in areas of protection lending it high potential in terms of externalities that allow us to set the line of programmatic in- such as ecosystem services, i.e. the whole series terventions aimed at the sustainability of forest of benefits which relapse is perceived by citizens stands (Giordano et al., 2006). with special reference to cultural values includ- Analyzing the RLTP and LUM, referring to the year ing the aesthetic, spiritual, educational and rec- 2005 , it was found that despite the establishment reational services (Martin Lopez et al., 2011; Re- of the protected area and the presence of two SCIs canatesi and Tolli 2013). under the Natura 2000 Network, is specific areas This environment, from a landscape point of were not introduced with appropriate guidelines view, can be considered unique in that its history, for the protection or highlighting the differentia- and the management structure that it has been tion of land-use to safeguard individual plants or subject to for centuries, has allowed its survival groups of them. The representation of the territo- against processes of transformation induced by ry, in both layers of information, does not take into urbanization, above all, that characterized par- account the diversification of the environment by ticularly the area south of Rome since the 1950s attributing just one land-use class for the different (Tolli and Recanatesi, 2013). The area today is forest stands: “Natural Landscape “ , in the case characterized by the same lowland oak forests of RLTP and “Broad-leaved “ in the case of LUM. that were once found behind the dunes of the Above all in the case of RLTP, such a simplification, Tyrrhenian coast from Campania to Tuscany (Tolli which only in some cases is due to the scale of and Recanatesi, 2013). acquisition, mostly does not allow the detection, The identification of monumental trees inside the and consequently the protection of vital elements protected area of Castelporziano was performed or little surfaces characterized by monumental using data collected during the ad hoc census plants or groups of them. that was conducted as part of the Castelporziano Only by the information contained in the MPA, Fig Agro Forestry Management Plan (MAFP) which 3, do we begin to outline a process of natural selec- for further information please refer to: Giordano tion between the surfaces which are distinguished et al., 2011. From the data collected in the field according to their degree of fragility, and therefore it emerged that in the Castelporziano territory subject to a different systems of constraints. There there are 52 individual trees with monumental is still no specific information regarding specific

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Fig. 2 RLTP and LUM for the Lazio Region

Fig. 2 MPA and landscape pattern map of Castelporziano guidelines in areas or landscape patterns with man- a preliminary study was conducted to classify the agement and protection policies that somehow Castelporziano natural environment in landscape consider the inclusion or preservation of individual patterns depending on the structure of forest elements such as monumental trees. stands (Recanatesi et al.,2013). The CZP, Fig. 3, of the To overcome these shortcomings in terms of a Charter of the Landscaping Zoning Estate Castel- clear and effective management of the territory in porziano (scale 1:3000), represents the first study in respect of monumental trees and to ensure that landscape character assessment, where the meth- the management policies also take into account odological approach finds its foundations in a ra- aspects of the landscape in which they are situated, tional planning of the territory, where the discreti-

74 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective zation was performed not only at a more detailed Giordano E., Capitoni B., Eberle A., Maffei L., Musicanti A., Re- scale, but also, through a preliminary differentia- canatesi F., Torri V. 2006. Proposta per il piano di gestione forestale della Tenuta Presidenziale di Castelporziano: a) tion of the landscape in which monumental trees territorio di Castelporziano; b) territorio di Capocotta. are the most striking elements of the landscape In: Il Sistema Ambientale della Tenuta Presidenziale di itself. From there emerges the possibility to define Castelporziano. Segretariato Generale della Presidenza management guidelines in which the individual della Repubblica Italiana - Accademia Nazionale delle trees with monumental characteristics can be pro- Scienze “detta dei XL”. Scritti e documenti XXXVII – Roma. ISBN 978-88-980-7502-7 Vol, III pp. 1301 – 1529. tected and valorized, both as a plant organism and Lisa C., 2005 – Considerazioni sul significato deglialberi e for their historical cultural components. delle foreste monumentali e princìpi della loro gestione e conservazione. Elaborato finale del Corso dilaurea in Tec- niche Forestali e Tecnologie del Legno,relatore Professor Conclusions Bartolomeo Schirone, Universitàdegli Studi della Tuscia (Viterbo), Anno Accademico2004-2005. In peri-urban protected natural areas, the pres- Martin Lopez B., Garcia-Llorente M., Paolomo I., Montes C. (2011). The conservation against development paradigm ence of monumental trees increases the histori- in protected areas: valutation of ecosystem services in cal and cultural value and all the externalities the Donana social-ecological system. Ecological Econom- that a given environment can provide. Today, the ics, 70: 1481-1491 importance of preserving monumental trees is Recanatesi F., Tolli M., Ripa M.N., Pelorosso R., Gobattoni F., Leone A. (2013) Detection of Landscape patterns in widely accepted by the scientific community and airborne LIDAR data in the Nature Reserve of Castelpor- institutions. This process doesn’t involve the main ziano (Rome). HORIZONS IN AGRICULTURAL, FORESTRY planning instruments that still today are not able AND BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING. X Conference of Italian to become flexible and therefore are not able to Society of Agricultural Engineering “Horizons in agricul- provide specific protection for these trees. tural, forestry and biosystems engineering”. September 9-12 Viterbo (Italy) In the Natural Reserve of Castelporziano, con- Recanatesi F., Tolli M. (2013). Il ruolo delle aree protette nei sidering the high value of silvicultural historical territori periurbani:l’esempio della Tenuta Presidenzialedi heritage - a preliminary study was performed in Castelporziano. In Il Sistema Ambientale della Tenuta order to fill this knowledge gap. The census of Presidenziale di Castelporziano. Segretariato Generale della Presidenza della Repubblica – Accademia Nazion- monumental trees together with a study con- ale delle Scienze detta dei XL. Scritti e documenti XLVI - cerning the characterization of landscape pat- Roma. ISBN 978-88-9807-509-6 Vol. II pp. 417-430 terns present in the area, led to the identification Spies T.A., 2004 – Ecological concepts and diversity of old- of homogeneous units in which it is possible to growth forests. Journal of Forestry, 102: 14-20. calibrate effectively different types of landscape Tolli M., Recanatesi F. 2013 Variations in landscape patterns and vegetation cover between 1930 and 2010 in a coastal interventions that may be necessary to protect Mediterranean Natural Reserve: the Estate of Castelpor- these individuals and, at the same time, the land- ziano (central Italy). UNISCAPE – Landscape and Imagina- scape in which they are situated. tion Paris, May 2-4 Wirth C., Gleixner G., Heimann M. (Eds.), 2009– Old-Growth Forests: Function, Fate and Value.Ecological Studies, 207: 1-512. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg. ISBN 978-3- References 540-92705-1.

Alessandrini A., Fazzuoli F., Nievo I., Rigoni Stern M., Borto- lotti G., 1989. Gli Alberi Monumentali d’Italia. Vol. I e II. Acknowledgment Edizioni Abete, Roma. Giordano E., Tinelli A., Maﬀei L.; Capitoni B., Musicanti A., This study was made possible thanks to the en- Recanatesi F., ScarasciaMugnozza G.T. 2011. Monumental trees in the Presidential Estate of Castelporziano. Acca- vironmental monitoring program for the Estate demia Nazionale delle Scienze “detta dei XL”. Roma. ISBN of Castelporziano carried out by the Accademia 978-88-980-7505-5. Nazionale delle Scienze “detta dei XL” (Rome).

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Ideational Landscape: an Epistemological Ap- In fact, historical urban sites are often affected proach for a Shared Governance of Stratified by actions of substitutions of precise parts rather Urban Landscapes than by the overturning of the general perception which altogether expresses the first syn- Rita Valenti, Giuseppa Maniscalco thetic judgment about the quality of the urban environment meant as a common good. Special Educational Structure of Architecture, University of Ca- Considering that the variation on the level of tania, Siracuse, Italy urban environmental quality determines a dif- [email protected], [email protected] ferent attraction capability of users and, consequently, a virtuous behaviour of the political and Abstract economic stakeholders, the research should be Any perceptible trace of the past in a historical urban land- directed towards analytical intervention strate- scape, both emotionally and symbolic as well as materially gies, determining the country overall develop- identifiable in its reference to history, testifies the crucial im- ment but safeguarding conservation. portance that the community has indirectly attributed to the historical and cultural value of the areas they belong to. Taking In accordance to the recommendations of the into account that any variation in the level of urban landscape ‘European Landscape Convention’, with regard quality determines a different power of attraction from users to the importance attributed to the landscape and, consequently, the virtuous behaviour of economic and quality as a common resource to safeguard, the political representatives, it is necessary to foresee strategies of activity of researchers must be directed towards scheduled interventions in favour of growth respecting at the same time safeguard and conservation issues. an epistemological approach so to reach the bal- Within this framework, knowledge, well structured and evenly ance threshold between the protection of the spread, has to trigger off a symbiotic relationship between cul- identity of an anthropogeographic landscape tural and economic development where the population has an and the interventions aiming at the well being of active role in the management of the landscape, according to the Landscape European Convention. the settled social groups. Specifically, every per- For that purpose a model of analysis of urban stratified land- ceivable trace of the past in the historical-urban- scapes has been defined. It gives order, sense and measure to the ized landscape , symbolically emotionally and visible and hidden quality in the memory archives which fix in “matterly” recognizable as referring to history, space and time the socio-cultural identity of the community. provides testimony to the sense of importance The methodology is achieved through a survey realized with the latest technology and with the traditional methodological ap- the community has indirectly attributed to the proaches. It is integrated with documentary, iconographic, car- historical and cultural events of its own area. tographic and photographic sources and with toponymy, too. Considering the specific polysemic nature of The aim is to realize an investigative approach able to connect a stratified anthropogeographic landscape, all matter and memory and convey knowledge in support of all the operators in the territory. the characteristics and their relative perceptions make up the complex gnoseologic structure the Keywords: Landscape, survey, Memory, Stratifications, GIS researcher has to deal with to analyze the process of form determination, due partly to planned actions and partly to spontaneous changing phe- 1. Challenge tackled: the analytical knowledge of nomena. Landscape maintains all that can be the complex places (R. Valenti) considered as an archive, full of memories ideas needs, which has fixed, in time and space, the The spatial, social and cultural complexity of collective and individual ways of coping with the stratified urban landscapes raises specific prob- changing priorities and with the transformation lems about perception. Generally, the urban of human history: the ideational landscape. form, referring to its planimetric arrangement, is In this landscape, sceneries, as expressions of able to resist longer than the architectonic form. processes, emerge. They are conflicting some-

76 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective times, desired some other time. Their memory is It must be seen and achieved as the interaction structured in the ability of discerning and relat- of all parts. ing to the physical patterns immediately recog- The diachronic process of form formation is nizable as the symbols of the collective memory made up of historical map sequencing, where representing the sociocultural identity of the city any information, appropriately aggregated with dwellers. the idea of thematism, determines knowledge as It is important to highlight the memory legibility a whole and the desired legibility from users. of the urban environment. It can represent the The data collection and its resulting graphic con- measure and the sense of the identifying pro- figuration is of great help to the interpretation cess of configuration of the built-in environment of the common good and it contributes to iden- which, on its turn, becomes fundamental in the tify, in the attempt to reconstruct the ancient system of governance of the common good. arrangements, the incongruities which, in the The immediate perception of symbols and present perception, determine misunderstand- meanings of the transforming process is particu- ing and mismatching due to the never ending larly relevant for the landscape comprehension transformation of towns (fig.1). which shouldn’t take into consideration the di- The aim is to give configuration and image to the verse buildings eventually wiped off. Absence combination of perceptive relations of memory mustn’t and can’t damage the essence and the contaminated by the absence of specific signs soul of a place. That’s why the perceptive reading which determined their formation and which are mediated through an epistemological approach, not supported by clear legible traces any longer. spread and shared at various levels among the Illegibility damages, of course, a perception of city dwellers, takes advantage of instruments the urban landscape coherent with memory and, appropriately designated to give order meaning consequently, can lead to politics of intervention and value to the evidences saved in the memory in total contrast with the values of respect and archives of the community and realizes an in- safeguard of the place identity, the topos. vestigative method which connects matter and Being aware that the very last one represents the memory and transmits knowledge to the people fundamental requirement for a social group to operating on the area. become a community and hoping that the ap- In particular, this paper evaluates all the available propriate spread of knowledge can contribute cartographic, iconographic and photographic to offer proper instruments to manage the com- sources which, in their logic aggregation, allow mon good , meant as the historical background the physical and mental reconstruction of what, of Ortygia, it has been drawn up a system able to even if “physically” absent, has determined the transmit information simply and accessibly, aim- emerging of an unconscious collective structure, ing at triggering a symbiosis between cultural with the purpose of safeguarding the mecha- and economic growth supporting an active role nism of memory annihilation. of the population in the management of land- A structured template for stratified urban landscape, as promoted by the European Landscape scapes has been specifically defined and it be- Convention. comes real through a survey, integrated with documentary sources and with toponymy, realized with the most up-to-date technologies and 2. Approach applied (G. Maniscalco) with traditional approaches as well. In the local area, the role of cartography is rele- Ortygia is a spatial environment where human vant. It shapes the settlement whose complexity activities are stratified. This has led the practical cannot be simply unfolded as a variety of pieces. approach towards an interpreting attitude and

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Fig. 1: Ideational landscape: perceptive relations of memory in Ortygia.

78 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective has developed instruments for analysis and for was transformed into a fortified citadel. In the efficient representation of a historically compos- XIX century its ramparts and forts were demol- ite context as the outcome of clear interrelations ished. The Royal Decree of 2 March 1878 n. 4365, between human and environmental needs. removed both the surrounding walls which ran Thus the historical cartography testifies all the along the sea and the land front of the military transformations occurred during the last centu- administration. The following 1885 General De- ries, actually, the collection, both photographic velopment Plan determined a new arrangement and iconographic, represents the heterogeneous of the city due to its new expansion out of the material suitable for the restitution of some frag- ancient city walls. At the end of the XX century, ments of the city no more visible by now. with the dismemberment of the Umbertino Through the images we find trace of the place quarter, Ortygia’s urban area gained the present which is now missing its ancient form and which configuration with new functions and services, has been absorbed into a new context, rich of suitable to a growing city. new meanings. The present urban fabric can be interpreted as The present contribution represents a method- a stratification of the past landscapes and thus ological example, conducted at the Crabnebula deeply recognizable in its complexity through Laboratory of Representation at the Special Teach- the historiographic sources and the cartographic ing Structure Department of Architecture in Sira- processing. The informative strata defined in GIS cusa, Sicily, for the management of the transfor- are never independent the ones from the others, mations of the urban fabric in Ortygia. The experi- those of the distant past overlapping the most ence made there is a reflection on the protection recent ones often constitute the present fabric and revaluation of Ortygia, revealing the absent which, though undetectable, are absorbed there, historical memories of the island. The usefulness guarding the fragments of past memories (Fig.2). of technology, especially of GIS, reveals, through The study which has been carried out, preceded raster and vector data collection, an immediate by an accurate preparatory work for the collec- reading of the informative strata of the studied tion and interpretation of the so many clues com- site. Data, exploited and well structured, become ing from written, toponomastyc, cartographic, the basis of information and represent the funda- iconographic and photographic sources (aerial mental source of knowledge, confirming the com- and satellite photos in particular), comes up as posite and well organized file archive. a research of integrated sources combining both Sign stratifications are represented by the traces the documentary and the objective ones. and by the overlapping levels which give life to The data processing obtained through GIS re- the present urban framework of Ortygia. This garding the stratified fabric of Ortygia, in the process of overlapping layers brings out the form of thematic maps, allows the user to exam- complete image of the city arranging a deep dia- ine and interact with the thematic content whose logue between the memory of the invisible city processed and saved levels describe not only the and its contemporary present. The possibility of stratifications of the place in the course of time isolating the single levels gives the immediate but also its right position and form of elements real vision of what is invisible, the no more exist- through the geography of the places. This deter- ing traces of the dense framework of the city. mines a valid contribution to the survey and to Around the XVI century, the city, with its com- the representation of the territory. plicated fortification system built under Charles The geoprocessing tool, used to provide carto- V’s reign, had strong ramparts, strongholds and graphic products of different scales, has given canals. With these imposing protections, cre- the possibility to realize processes of thematic ated during the Spanish domination, Ortygia maps extracting the processed single layers.

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Fig. 2: GIS elaborations - A fortiﬁcation system: process of overlapping layers

80 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective

Fig. 3: GIS elaborations - A Stratiﬁed landscape: process of transformations of the urban fabric in Ortygia

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Using GIS it was possible to realize a lot of editing memory of the missing places. The implementa- operations and data processing, standardize data tion of geodata referring to the images enhances analysis and validation through geoprocessing, productivity and overlapping, realizing a stream- publish the outcomes and the resources obtained lined monitoring of the historical transformation through GIS, develop customized applications of the site. and generate workflows and maintain derived These processes represent the way to mend the geographical data and thematic maps (Fig.3). fracture between conservation and transforma- All those applications implement the creation tion, providing a basis for a deeper knowledge of a data editing component, providing repeat- of the historical urban fabric of Ortygia, in order able uses, just like a store of raster or vector im- to understand the evolving lines of its transfor- ages, or as a container of written texts related mation through a careful interpretation of past to images and graphics, even as a data termi- memory. nal and processor for the hardest topography problems and structural analysis and as a cross- References list reference device to produce written or graphic documents. Adorno, S. (2005) Siracusa 1880-2000, città, storia, The research, in particular, has dealt with the cre- piani,Venezia: Marsilio. ation of a database loading information about Dufour, L. (1987) Siracusa città e fortificazioni, Palermo: Sell- the missing fragments, either integrated in the erio. architecture of Ortygia’s island or not, useful for Liistro, M. (2008) Ortigia memoria e futuro, Roma: Edizioni Kappa. the past knowledge of the city, bringing back its Taibi, G., Valenti, R., Liuzzo, M. (2012) ‘Il sintagma del rilievo. individual identity and historical memory. Analizzare per conoscere, comunicare per condividere The research has been organized into three sec- e condividere la comunicabilità’, DISEGNARECON, vol.5, tions, one deals with data collection, one with no.10, special number november 2012, pp. 135-140. [Online], Available: http://disegnarecon.unibo.it/issue/ data processing through GIS and the last one as view/341 a data maintenance PMF system containing any Voza, G. (1994) ‘Siracusa’, in Beneventano del Bosco, P. (ed.) information and historical source identifying the Siracusa urbs magnificentissima, Milano: Electa.

G.R. Patrascu, Autumn Afternoons, Fourth Edition Peoples Landscapes

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Land use

Moving Towards the Soil as Common Good also emerges when indicating the overcoming of the development notion intended as in- Giuseppe Caridi definite increase of mercification, as well as of Università Mediterranea di Reggio Calabria, Dip. Patrimonio the same notion of development taken in as a Architettura Urbanistica (PAU) natural and positive condition (Pileri and Gra- [email protected] nata, 2012). Within this second approach the various lines of conceptual revision establish Abstract. The essay tackles the key role that soil has had in the a very variegate framework of critical issues national and international scientiﬁc debate in the last few years. which testifies a drastic phase of re-configura- Three main topics are considered. The ﬁrst one is targeted to the tion of the theme and for which is already very critique of the ideological and cultural trend according to which the soil resource is only a mere passive element for the market. early to focus clear convergences. Anyway we The second concerns the possible risks of such a vision related can find a strong trend to very attentive atti- to the issue that the soil resource - especially in reference to the tudes to “formal” economical/juridical aspects disciplinary scope of urban planning - continues to be the most instead of “substantial” aspects congruent vague and uncertain among the central terms of its vocabulary, with a particular idea of soil towards a system though it continues to be the main conceptual and operational element at the base of the disciplinary epistemology. Finally, it is of clear and precise values. In this sense we discussed a new and original perspective of useful work to miti- can highlight the lack of an explicit viewpoint gate such risks that should put at the core of the elaborations about some basic principles that are neces- and good urban planning practices a basic point of view: that is sary, very shortly indeed, to mention. The first the conception of the soil as a common good. one is connected to the aware or not adhesion Keyword: Commons, Soil, Land Use, Settlements, Urbanization, to neo-liberal ideology. This has consequenc- Spatial development. es on the theme of the management of the urban revenue whose absolutely dominating role has brought about a reorganisation of 1. For the ethics of soil the building sector where the financial component of the soil plays an increasing role (“fi- In the last few years many contributions have nancialisation of the building block”). Second, highlighted, starting from different point of the support to dismantling the public govern- views, the key-role of soil in the current stage ment system of urban and territorial transfor- of the national and international scientific de- mation (authoritative planning) operated by bate (Sugden et al., 2004). Two conceivable the so named planning of informal answers approaches emerge and both, even though (informal deregulation) that has enabled to closely complementary and related to each sanction mechanisms according to which the other, seem to be developed in activities of waiver to planning indications has almost be- critical observation with an attitude of mutual come the rule to be followed. Through a proc- indifference (and impatience). ess with a really uncommon character that, On the one hand the aspects having a tech- in the last twenty years, has been directed to nical peculiarity prevail; what counts is the rewrite principles, methods and tools of urban definition of methodologies, criteria and tools and territorial planning through the “myths” for the soil use control. On the other hand, the of the political actions (tax shields, securitisa- attention is focused on the epistemological tion and sale of state assets, “Tecnotremonti”, aspects with an aim of re-defining the modali- Lupi’s proposal, question of local finances, ties of thinking such a resource; a need that fiscal federalism, etc.) and the “rituals” of the

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 83 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 technical actions (concertation, “planning by development assume in a certain historical doing”, planning for projects, great works and period influence the modalities of perception the ephemeral structures, emergencies and very much and so the use of the soil. It is possi- compulsory administrations, compensations ble to emphasise how the majority of the dis- and related operative tools: special programs, ciplinary working out lines about the soil issue real estate funds, etc.). very often avoid to express the basic question Third: the parallel subordination of private concerning the current ideological and cultur- interest over the public one (as it happens in al trend assumed by soil, its own essence that the so called project financing). Furthermore is a mere passive element of banal goods; and since the second half of the 80s, the mistake to consequently they don’t pursue objectives force a particular series of normative acts has aimed at unhinging those processes have con- occurred and these have caused an increase tributed to cause it. in building activities. First of all the “amnesty A useful perspective of work should put at the for infringement of local building regulations” centre of the urban planning elaborations and which have characterised urban planning practices, a fundamental point of view: the facts in the last quarter of the century (1985, conception of soil as common good. This re- 1994, 2003), and marginally there’s also an ar- quest of common goods before being “techni- ticulated and smoky issue of measures for the cally amorphous” (Mattei U., 2001), should be building sector (House Plan 1, House Plan 2, a central issue within the debate on the urban etc.) also at a regional level. planning future. Concerning the disciplinary scope of urban In relation with the disciplinary sphere of ur- planning, notwithstanding the rich and vari- ban planning, the issue of common goods ous framework of speculative tensions and should become a line of conceptual revision critical debate, the soil continues to be the of the modalities of control and managing the most indefinite and uncertain among the cen- territorial dynamics; in other terms the corpus tral terms of its vocabulary, even though it on which the conceptual framework of refer- represents the main conceptual and operative ence has to be re-outlined. element at the basis of the disciplinary epis- The issue of soil as common good and also temology. the interpretation in strategic terms of its con- Urban planning history both in the debate de- trol (from the point of view of its production veloped around its founding contents and in and reproduction) is fully becoming among its “practice”, highlights the centrality of soil. the terms of the urban planning debate (Ar- Each action of transformation deals, in fact, cidiacono 2011; Caridi 2010; Di Simine and with the soil, because it always involves its fea- Ronchi, 2012). In order to ensure this different tures, criteria with which its use is organised vision of the soil it’s necessary a fundamental as well as the concrete modalities of actions change of paradigm in the way to define and are aimed at favoring such organisation. This tackle it. is true even when the action is not directed to It is necessary the “knight move”. In the chess create “manufactures”, but it has for example game, the knight is the only piece that can other features. This determinates also a specif- step over the other ones. And then moving ic orientation on the criteria defining the set- from a black square it always arrives in white tlement and so on the setting of project and square. And the other way round. building activities. So in tackling the soil it’s necessary a mind- Anyway, in a cyclic path the cultural and ma- changing overturning the perspective that, terial connotations that settlement and its today, relegates it as a sterile support for the

84 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective market, thinking and arguing rather in terms First line of work. It is necessary to clear the of common good. hurdle represented by the lack of information The gradual recovery of a perception of the and considerations, reflex of little researches soil as common good enables us to activate having the soil as study theme. It is enough a dynamic aimed at taking the soil away from to say that “there are no updated and de- market logics have determined in the last ten tailed data about soil use at national level”, as years not only an inexorable and progressive showed in the sad ending of the movie “Il suo- cannibalisation, but also a complete expropri- lo minacciato” (2010, direction and subject by ation of every “collective” meaning. Because Nicola Dall’Olio, produced by WWF Parma and of common goods are a goods class that is Legambiente Parma). It is then necessary to set projected in the social experience as bases of up researches able to identify methodologies every form of acting as well as results of so- in order to investigate the settlement transfor- cial interaction (Donolo, 1997), it’s necessary mations in relation to the theme of soil (and to working in order to emphasise the intercon- its use), based on already validated and new nection between processes of territory gov- parameters of interpretation which are able to ernance and requests emerging from the set- quantify and qualify the various types of use. tled societies. This involves the description and interpreta- Moving along the perspective of the soil as tion of the phenomena of transformations common good brings about first the need have interested the settlement contexts in the to encourage the creative tension of settled last few years with the aim to recognise shapes communities; a tension that is result of aware- and identities in the relations with agriculture, ness and active participation, and that it’s urban processes as well as with productive expressed through interactions and conflicts off-farm dynamics. inside as well as outside. In this interaction Identifying the different causes that contrib- between actors, the public administration ute to determine these changes, it is central (or however the public actor having project assessing the impact that policies of program- skill) is called to play a central role; not only ming and spatial planning carried out in the for its operational skill, but especially for its same period have had, as well as the change functions as community representative. This of the economic, political and social frame- involves to give to the relations of proxim- work. These research paths must be able to ity between inhabitants and local resources a integrate synergistically investigation of the central role, rebuilding identity matrixes, em- phenomenon, its interpretation and critical phasising the constitutive and ethical value of evaluation, and the proposals for planning at social relationship and solidarity, working to different levels. reaffirm a culture of the public sphere. Hence, Second line of work. As said above, till today the leaving the basis for collective projects able to strategies of soil resource management have redefine the future of work and living. been based on the consideration of soil as a mere economic and/or productive resource. Before working to reverse the perspective 2. Two necessary conditions to change the per- I think we have to work with the utmost at- spective tention to “formal tools” of planning and land management. Here, in my opinion, it has to be Here I’m trying to suggest two work-lines that, placed as strategic objective the social use of if properly followed, can be the conditions to the planning tools. In the toolbox of planning substantiate the soil as common good. and programming there are many tools, many

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 85 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 have state that are redundant and produce a empty/ not built and to the consequent defini- complicated, cumbersome and contradictory tion of policies of social appropriation of these system; but, above all, they have exhausted not built areas (carried out through the issue their “heuristic charge” of interpreting and of the so called urban gardens). foreshadowing the reality. These considera- Still along this line of work, however, particu- tions are certainly shareable; but I think a re- lar attention should be paid to the possible interpretation is still possible of these tools, synergies between “formal” and “differently their conscious and especially creative use oriented” tools. Focusing on the institutional as to contribute to tackling the subject with planning, and in particular the municipal positive results. one does not mean to give up the opportunities offered by the other tools: therefore we This is the challenge of the effectiveness of should pay particular attention to the possible planning in the new millennium, and it is not synergies between “formal” and “differently so much related to technical issues, as it has oriented” tools. While, on the contrary, those been in the past years, but to their political es- tools which tend to chagrin the cogency and sence and to the possibility of their social use the strategic value of plans and to expropri- which can give creative and self-determination ate inhabitants of their creativity should be ability (hence design) back to settled commu- absolutely fought: among them, Program nities. For the purposes of our discussion, and Agreements are probably the worst example, in order to work in the direction aimed at em- because they are tools altering the definition powering the cycle of urbanisation, those tools of the modalities of soil use in a too much easy that laws rely on local institutions (Regions, ways. Provinces and Municipalities) play a pivotal role. Here I think it is a priority objective to re- give centrality to the municipal planning. At Bibliography this level, the request of soil as common good is stronger because Municipalities are the lo- Arcidiacono A. (2011). Il suolo, bene comune e risorsa cal institutions that have, as a rule, the task of finita. Limitare il consumo e governare l’uso. Properzi P. (ed.). Rapporto dal Territorio 2010, Roma: INU Edizioni. defining the concrete dynamics of settlement Barberis C., ed. (2009). La rivincita delle campagne, Roma: and the modalities of soil use. Donzelli. Caridi G. (2010). Figure identificative del suolo nel Mezzo- More in general the ability of local bodies to giorno. PhD tesis. Reggio Calabria: Università Mediter- ranea. field actions based on methodologies of soil Di Simine D., Ronchi S., eds (2012). Terra! Conservare le su- use that are able to focus the attention on the perfici, tutelare la risorse: il suolo, un bene comune, Sant- theme of common goods (i.e lands of civic arcangelo di Romagna: Maggioli. use, for the state property in public owner- Donolo C. (1997). L’intelligenza delle istituzioni. Milano: Fel- ship, for lands confiscated to organised crime, trinelli. Gallino L. (2011). Finanzcapitalismo, Torino: Eiunadi. etc.) should be stimulated; or, however, able Gibelli M. C., Salzano E. eds. (2006). No sprawl. Firenze: Alinea. to promote virtuous experiences such as Mattei U. (2001). Beni comuni. Un manifesto, Roma-Bari: those connected from the one hand to farm Laterza. and proximity agriculture, and to the practices Ostrom E. (2006). Governare i beni comuni, Venezia: Marsilio. Pileri P., Granata E. (2012). Amor loci, Milano: Raffello Cortina. of cooperation networks (aiming at favouring Settis S. (2010). Paesaggio costituzione cemento, Torino: the collective consumes and not the individu- Einaudi. al ones, solidarity and not competition), and Sugden A., Stone R., Ash C. (2004). Ecology in the Underworld. on the other to the revision of the concept of Science, v. 304, n. 5677.

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The Use of Landscape in Italian Property Law heritage; certain landscape assets (which together constitute the global landscape) are grouped Luca Di Giovanni under the category of public assets; others are Florence University and remain the property of private subjects de- Social Sciences Campus spite being defined as goods of considerable Department of Law public interest. Via delle Pandette, Florence, Italy The aim of this text is to shed some light on the [email protected] aforementioned terminological maze and provide answers that are as exhaustive as possible, start- Abstract: The object of this paper concerns the concept of ing with the legal distinction between private, “Landscape as common good” with the point of view of Italian property law. public and landscape assets, then focusing on the The landscape, recognised as a good with large public interest subject of landscape protection and valorisation and as a primary constitutional value (art. 9 Italian Constitu- tools and finally examining the rights of owners of tion), knows limitations to its use and its enjoyment, limita- an asset which expresses landscape value. tions that guarantee the conservation and the visibility over time, also for future generations. This paper, distinguishing between private assets, public assets and landscape assets, wants to explain what are the differ- Private and Public Assets, Landscape and Landsca- ences of enjoyment and use of these goods. In particular, the pe Assets present scientific study will deal with the following topics: 1) conceptual distinction between landscape and landscape assets; Both private and public assets are above all as- 2) list of instruments and contents of protection and enhance- sets in a legal sense and as such constitute the ment of the landscape and the landscape assets; content of rights (S. Pugliatti 1959 and 1962). 3) analysis of the recipients’ rights and the rules on protection and However, while a “private asset” is definable as a enhancement: the problem of compensation in landscape law. moveable or immovable object owned by a pri- The conclusions of this paper wants to demonstrate that, in the current Italian law, is more correct to speak about “right of vate subject, public assets are moveable or im- use” (ius utendi) of landscape goods rather than speak about moveable objects which belong to the State or property right, because the rights of the owner of landscape any other public organ (or rather a community goods are very scarce and establish a constant interference of of inhabitants) and are characterised by specific Public Authority in the owner’s decisions, reducing clearly its autonomy of decision. qualities defined by the law insofar as they are destined for a public function or service (A.M. Introduction Sandulli, 1959; V. Cerulli Irelli, 1987; M.S. Giannini, 1963; S. Cassese, 1969; N. Centofanti,2007; E. Cas- It is common knowledge that Landscape is an ab- torina- G. Chiara, 2008). solute and super primary value, protected by art. The legitimisation of the existence of public as- 9 of the Italian Constitution and which is defined sets originates directly from the Italian Constitu- as the form a territory assumes following interaction which in art. 42, comma 1, enounces that tions with human activity; landscapes represent property may be public or private and economic and manifest the cultural values of its residents. assets may belong to the state, organs or private Therefore in legal terms, a landscape is definable as subjects. Therefore, this source establishes that an “identity asset” and only if it is identified as such the Italian legal System distinguishes between may it benefit from institutional protection.But is public assets and property of common right. landscape a public, collective or private asset? As such, public assets are subject to different This question leads us to examine a series of laws and legislation compared to private assets, data: the Code of Cultural and Landscape Heri- both in terms of enjoyment and circulation of the tage aims to guarantee public fruition of cultural asset itself.

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The Italian Civil Code provides the most de- Landscape as a form and aspect of the land (A. tailed regulations concerning public assets (from Predieri, 1981), a natural environment modified art.822 et seq.). Generally, the Civil Code divides by man ( F. Merusi, 1975), is entirely disciplined by public assets into state ownership and heritage the Code of Cultural and Landscape Heritage as assets which are both disposable and indispos- well as the European Landscape Convention, rath- able by the State, Regions, Provinces and Comuni er than by the Italian Civil Code: both sources de- (municipalities). fine it as “territory expressive of its precise cultural Under this type of assets, can be mentioned the identities”, although the European act extends this assets that are“always” of State property, listed notion to all existing landscapes, ordinary, excep- in the art. 822, comma 1 of the Italian Civil Code tional, integral or devastated (G. F. Cartei, 2007). (for example, beach shores, rivers, torrents, etc.), Therefore, historical, geographical, cultural and and the occasional State assets, listed in the social reasons mean that there are many and di- aforementioned article, comma 2, which are verse landscapes which collectively form nation- not intrinsically state property unless expressly al cultural identity, protected under art. 9 of the acquired by the State (for example, roads, aero- Italian Constitution. dromes, aqueducts, museum collections, librar- As such, the term landscape (S. Amorosino, 2010) ies, etc.). refers to the overall importance of single local All of these assets are unalienable and may not landscapes. constitute an object of right in favor of third The notion of landscape as defined by the Code parties (so-called unmarketability), with the ex- is different and wider than that of landscape as- ception of procedures and limits established by sets as it includes not only such assets but also relevant laws; administrative authorities are re- territorial areas not subject to restrictions but sponsible for their safeguarding (so-called self nonetheless protected by the Republic. protection of public organs). As such this notion may be defined as “compre- Assets belonging to the indisposable heritage of hensive” (containing both landscape assets as the State, Provinces and Municipalities are listed well as the surrounding landscape) as well as under commas 2 and 3 of article 826 of the Ital- “significant” (it ensures the protection of the part ian Civil Code and include, for example, forests, of landscape which is not protected) (S. Amo- mines, quarries, armaments, etc. The legal status rosino, 2010). of such assets is characterised by the fact that Therefore, in clearly distinguishing between the they may not be removed from their designated concepts of landscape and landscape assets, it use, with the exception granted by procedures could be said that the first includes the second established by the law (art. 828, comma 2 of the and the latter exclusively refers to assets subject Italian Civil Code). to so-called landscape restrictions (declaration Lastly, all other goods belonging to public or- of public interest, legal restrictions and those im- gans, both territorial and not, are classified un- posed by landscape plans). der the category of disposable heritage assets, Landscape in particular is a unitary and global subject to common law for their enjoyment and asset, vital for identity and a result of the integra- circulation. tion and connection of individual landscape as- Landscape may be classified within this frame- sets, identified by the tools of a landscape plan. work of public assets insofar as it is an absolute Landscape, as a constitutional value which ex- value and common asset which the Republic presses public interest, may only be interpreted must safeguard, on a par with the nation’s his- as a collective asset, whereas some landscape as- torical and artistic assets (art. 9 of the Italian Con- sets may be private property if they are not sub- stitution). ject to restrictions.

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Here specific reference is made to those assets ditions for its use and the requalification of real which have not yet been subjected to the decla- estate and areas under protection. ration to be of considerable public interest, with The safeguarding and valorisation of landscapes which the administrative protection authorities (and landscape assets) is aimed at recognising, ascertain the legal nature of a landscape asset. safeguarding and reclaiming cultural values as For example, the owners of buildings of an an- well as promoting their development (art. 131). cient residential settlement, prior to its legal rec- An attempt to provide a brief outline of adminis- ognition as a historical area, are able to freely dis- trative competences for the protection and valori- pose of their buildings, selling, renting or trans- sation of landscapes (A. Crosetti- D. Vaiano, 2009; forming them within the limits of urban regula- G. Ciaglia, 2009; S. Amorosino, 2008 and 2010; L. tion because they are private goods; following Casini, 2001), may prompt the following observa- the declaration of considerable public interest of tions. Firstly, a “knowledge function” must be con- the residential settlement, all buildings belong- sidered, both of the Ministry of Cultural Heritage, ing to the settlement are subject to regulations Regions and local organs and consists of knowing contained in the declaration and owners wishing the state of the landscape with the aim of its pro- to transform their buildings must request spe- tection and valorisation. Specifically, the ministry cific landscape authorisation insofar as these as- is required to have knowledge of the landscape sets have been transformed into private assets of in order to formulate appropriate protection and considerable public interest. valorisation plans, whereas Regions should use Other landscape assets such as rivers and streams such knowledge in the creation of a landscape (art. 142 of the Code of Cultural and Landscape plan: the same may be said for local organs which Heritage), are described as such directly by the elaborate urban plans and valorisation actions. Code, without the issuing of administrative dec- The functions of orientation and coordination larations as such categorised ab origine as public are also extremely important and are jointly assets ( N. Centofanti, 2007). managed by the Ministry and Regional Authori- In conclusion, landscape as a whole refers to an ties; they concern ordinary territorial planning. intrinsically public asset as its contents are or- Landscape monitoring also ties in with these dered for the reaching of a public aim: the pro- functions which in theory should be managed by tection of the cultural values it expresses, where- the Italian Landscape Quality Observatory (L. Di as landscape assets may include private assets Giovanni, 2013; A. Peano and C. Cassatella, 2009), which are used for public purposes. although it is yet to undertake this task. In third place, protection in its strictest sense is also of considerable importance and comprises Tools for safeguarding and the valorisation of lan- three specific activities: the issuing of declara- dscapes tions of public interest of the asset by the Region, which entails a narrowing of the enjoyment and According to art. 2 of the Code of Cultural and disposal rights of property ownership rights; Landscape Heritage, “landscape heritage” com- the issuing of landscape authorisations by lo- prises cultural and landscape assets. cal authorities (or in case of inertia, by Regional The safeguarding of cultural heritage (art. 3) re- authorities) which provide permission for autho- quires the identification, protection and conser- rised work on landscape assets; lastly, the surveil- vation of such assets, for public use. lance of Regions and the Ministry and the issuing Valorisation, on the other hand, comprises a se- of sanctions by local authorities. ries of actions aimed at the promotion of knowl- One last function regarding landscape protec- edge of cultural heritage, ensuring better con- tion and valorisation is planning, which should

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 89 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 be carried out by the state in conjunction with to obtain authorisation before carrying out any the Regions in the case of landscape assets; the planned works”. latter may manage this activity autonomously Restrictions indicated by art. 146 concern all those for the rest of the landscape. who are holders (material availability) by whatso- It is also worth mentioning landscape restric- ever state of moveable or immovable goods upon tions regarding specific protection and valorisa- which landscape restrictions have been imposed tion tools. In the previous chapter we saw how as discussed in the previous chapter. three such restrictions currently exist. The first is Such restrictions mean that the aforementioned the declaration of the asset as being of public in- subjects may not carry out any works (for total terest. This declaration and/or partial modification) which may compro- ascertains the nature of the landscape asset and mise the landscape value externally manifested identifies it as such; at the same time it is also a by the asset and in any case the owners of such discretional individuation of the protection disci- assets are always required to obtain landscape pline. The restriction, defined in such a declara- authorisation (with a control function) in order tion, prevails over the content of any landscape to regulate works they may wish to carry out on plan and as such is integrally added to it. the asset (P. Gasparri, 1958; P. Salvatore, 1989; A. The second type of landscape restriction is ex Crosetti-D. Vaiano 2009; S. Amorosino, 2010). lege, that is directly from the Code rather than This is the main difference between the owner from an administrative act (art. 142), and refers of a private asset and the owner of a private as- to a series of territorial contexts, characterised by set of considerable public interest: the first may their large area and heterogeneity: for example fully exercise his property rights, modifying or lands surrounding coastal lands up to 300 me- alienating his own asset, limited only by urban ters from the water’s edge, glaciers, parks, volca- regulations, whereas the second type of owner is noes etc. required to comply with stringent regulations of Lastly, the third restriction concerns the disci- use imposed by the landscape restriction. pline of the landscape plan itself which may pro- In this sense, landscape authorisation is an es- ceed with the identification of further real estate sential tool for subjects who wish to carry out or areas of considerable public interest as well as any kind of works on their own landscape asset, the precise definition of regulations for their use ensuring that they are carried out in conformity (art. 143, lett. d). with landscape values safeguarded by the Code. As such, article 146 comma 2 specifies that subjects as those in comma 1 must present a plan Rights and duties of the owners of landscape assets: of works to the competent authority, together problems regarding the compensation for landsca- with required documentation, and must not un- pe restrictions dertake any works pending landscape authorisation. Such authorisation constitutes an autono- Art. 146 of the Landscape Code establishes that mous act and a prerequisite for a construction “The proprietors, possessors or holders, with permission or other permissions pertaining to whatever legal state, of immovable property and urbanisation or construction works and is tem- landscape areas, protected by law, with refer- porary, valid for five years; upon expiry it must ence to art. 142, or in order to law, with reference be renewed (art. 146, comma 4). The Code also to art. 136,143, comma 1, lett. D) and 157, may provides for exceptions to this general principle not destroy them, or introduce modifications for authorisation prior to landscape modifica- which may harm the landscape values which are tion; such exceptions are limited to certain types subject to protection”: there is also an “obligation of works which are listed in the Code (art. 149)

90 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective and which are considered harmless to the land- accurate to speak of a right of use (ius utendi) ( scape values of the asset (for example, we must S. Amorosino, 2010; V. Caputi Iambrenghi, 1987) remember maintenance, consolidation and con- of the asset in accordance with public interest in- servation works which do not alter the state of sofar as the owner of a landscape asset may not the place or the exterior facades of buildings, carry out any works which may compromise the works concerning agricultural or pastoral activi- landscape value manifested by the asset and in ties only if such works do not alter the hydrologi- most cases is required to obtain a authorisation cal balance of the land, etc.). prior to the carrying out of any works. For the purposes of this paper, it is sufficient to Landscape asset owners are subject to continu- say that the specific problem concerning com- ous controls by administrative authorities and pensation for landscape restrictions (G.F. Cartei, the exercise of their rights is affected by limita- 2006) has been resolved by the Constitutional tions to the point of seeming a mere right of use Court (1966 and 1968), both on the basis of the of the moveable or immovable object: such a type of protected assets and the nature of the right only permits the owner to “enjoy” the land- legal power which has been conferred upon the scape area as a normal de facto holder. government. Landscape assets possess “intrinsic characteristics”, “originally of public interest”: as such the Bibliography government should limit itself to verifying the requirements and qualities required by law in a Teachings S. Pugliatti, 1959, Beni (teoria generale), in Enc. dir., V, Milan. binding act of a declarational nature. S. Pugliatti, 1962, Cosa (teoria generale), in Enc. dir., XI, Milan. The declaration of considerable public interest A.M. Sandulli, 1959, Beni pubblici, in Enc. dir., V, Milan, 277. does not represent an expropriation constraint V. Cerulli Irelli, 1987, Beni pubblici, in Digesto (discipline pub- (Council of State, 2005). Although landscape re- blicistiche). strictions entail rather heavy limitations to the M.S. Giannini, 1963, I beni pubblici, Rome. S. Cassese, 1969 I beni pubblici. Circolazione e tutela, Milan. owner’s property right of assets, they do not rep- N. Centofanti, 2007, I beni pubblici: tutela amministrativa e resent a contraction of the faculty of this right, giurisdizionale, in Il diritto privato oggi, Giuffrè editore. insofar as the right itself was born inclusive of E. Castorina-G. Chiara, 2008, Beni pubblici, in Il Codice civile: this limit. commentario artt. 822-830, Giuffrè editore. A. Predieri, 1981, la voce “Paesaggio”, volume 31, in Enc. dir.. Therefore, the Constitutional Court as well as ad- F. Merusi, 1975, Commentario della Costituzione: art. 9, edited ministrative jurisprudence (2005, 2004 and 2002) by Giuseppe Branca, Principi fondamentali artt. 1-12, Zan- agrees that these restrictions do not require ichelli, p. 434 et seq.. compensation: the landscape asset owner’s legal G. F. Cartei, (edited by), 2007, La convenzione del Paesaggio e faculties are reduced without reasonable com- governo del territorio, Il Mulino. S. Amorosino, 2010, Introduzione al diritto del paesaggio, Edi- pensation for any such limitations or reductions. tori Laterza. A. Crosetti-D. Vaiano, 2009, Beni culturali e paesaggistici, Giap- pichelli editore – Turin. Conclusions G. Ciaglia, 2009, La nuova disciplina del paesaggio, in Gior- nale di diritto amministrativo, Quaderni diretti da S. Cass- ese, n. 19. The aim of this paper is to provide a brief descrip- S. Amorosino, 2008, I poteri legislativi ed amministrativi di Stato tion of legal regulations disciplining landscape e Regioni in tema di tutela e valorizzazione del Paesaggio, in and in particular, landscape assets, both in terms Riv. giur. urb., 1-2, 148. of their nature and the exercise of property rights L. Casini, 2001, La valorizzazione dei beni culturali, in Riv. trim. dir. pubbl., 3. upon them. In conclusion, rather than dominical Luca Di Giovanni, 2013, Italian Landscape Observatories between rights over landscape assets, it would be more rules and practices, in Quaderni di Careggi, Fifth issue.

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Attilia Peano and Claudia Cassatella, 2009, Gli Osservatori del Law, 1968, 860 et seq. paesaggio: primi risultati di un’indagine in Europa e in Italia, Italian Council of State, sec. VI, 23rd November 2004 n. 7667, in Urbanistica Informazioni n. 225. in Riv. giur. dell’edilizia (Italian Legal Construction Gazette), P. G a s p a r r i , 1 9 5 8 , Autorizzazione amministrativa, in Enc. dir. 2005, I, 547. Milano, vol. IV, 509 et seq.. Italian Council of State, sec. IV, 25th May 2005 n. 2718, in Ad- P. S a l v a t o r e, 1 9 8 9 , Autorizzazione, in Enc. giur. Treccani, Rome, ministrative Court.Council of State, 2005, 1416 et seq. vol. IV. Italian Council of State, sec. VI, 20th September 2002 n. 4777, G. F. Cartei, 2006, La disciplina dei vincoli paesaggistici: regime ivi, 2002, p.2147. dei beni ed esercizio della funzione amministrativa, in Riv. Italian Council of State, 10th August 2004 n. 5490. giur. dell’edilizia, p. 19 et seq.. V. Caputi Iambrenghi, 1987, Beni pubblici (uso dei), in Digesto Legislation : (discipline pubblicistiche), p. 304 et seq.. Italian Civil Code: artt. 822-830. Code of Cultural and Landscape Heritage (Italian Legislative Italian Jurisprudence: Decree 22nd January 2004, n.42) and subsequent amend- Constitutional Court, 20th January 1966 n. 6, in Constitutional ments. Law, 1966, 72. European landscape Convention, Florence, 20th October Constitutional Court, 29th May 1968 n. 56 in Constitutional 2000, ratiﬁed in Italy with law n. 14/2006.

L. Massaccesi, Una casetta piccola così, Fourth Edition Peoples Landscapes

92 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective

Ruresidential Land 2013, 4). The trends are likely to increase unprec- edented levels of resources extraction, according Adriana Galvani1, Riccardo Pirazzoli2 to EEA’s Report “Intensified global competition University of Bologna, Department DISCI, Via Guerrazzi 20, for resources” (2013b). This affects especially Eu- 40125, Bologna, Italy; rope, “which is heavily reliant on the imports of tel. +39 0512097463; fax +39 0512097460 many materials, including more than half of its Mail: [email protected], [email protected] supply of metal ores, metal products, and fossil Abstract: The sense of place is the attachment to land which energy. Commodity prices are more than dou- creates personal and social identity, beyond the mere property bled in real terms between 2000 and 2012, sug- which now refers to inalienability, but actually is also land- gesting global resources demand is outpacing scape awareness: how people make their own landscape and supply” (EEA, 2013b, 10). Moreover, “the expected feel a connection to it. Land areas in collective ownership or use are referred to as developments will clearly have implications for commons and have been a means of regulating the use of the environment, since middle class consump- resources. Several ownership and user models have been em- tion patterns are typically resources intensive” ployed to maximize benefit from land, from pure private to (Asquith, 2013, 5). This has strong aftermath on pure common, with many intermediate forms. rural landscape because increasing wealth and Whatever the model, social life involves exchange of symbols that can be detected into landscape. Different experiences, in- growing middle-class population can “intensify terests or agendas create multiple symbols associated with the global competition for scarce land resources. same space. Who decides what to plan and build in landscape This is reflected in a dramatically increasing num- and how to distribute property, also decides how to interpret ber of large-scale transnational acquisitions of a space. Planning and property deals with the right of dwelling, which defines the perceived and apprehended awareness land during recent years. Bio-energy production of space. Dwelling is a lived relationship that people keep with is also set to grow over the coming years. Both space. This relationship wants a space to be accessible in order trends may mean that forests and other habitats to get a meaning. are converted to farmland” (Asquith, 2013, 6). City planners emphasized the effects of accessibility as an op- Rural areas are therefore very important to sus- portunity for interaction and development. Unfortunately, the more accessible an area, the greater its growth potential, the tain this demographic over-load, but they are stronger the landscape exploitation. The rightful demand for inevitably transformed into hybrid areas, both housing is overflowing from the urban areas to suburbs so urban and rural: ruresidential lands. population is sprawled to lands beyond the historical cities, This middle class expansion affects urban trans- fighting for space (a more and more scarce resource) and pau- perizing landscape, social experience and local identity. ports which are “a marked effect on quality of life for the three quarters of Europeans living in Key Words: rights, property, accessibility, spatial resource, identity cities” (Asquith, 2013, 7). Road transport is commonly considered a “major source of air pollution, leading to a high proportion of the population 1.Introduction exposed to pollutant levels above World Health Organisation standards” (ibidem). More than air This decade witnesses the gradual expansion of pollution, transport creates noise pollution, but the global middle class. According to the Europe- this traffic noise is rarely studied, even if it is be- an Environmental Agency’s (EEA) Report “From a ing considered a neural health issue in many unipolar to a multipolar world” (2013), the mar- cities. Silence is a scarce good for urban popula- kets are becoming so integrated that particularly tion and it affects the perception of landscape. the “middle class is set to expand hugely, increas- According to Rolle (2013), “some travellers are ing from 27% of the world population of 6.8 bil- looking for places of silence”, therefore sounds lion in 2009 to 58% of more than 8.4 billion in and acoustics should be deeper analysed, since 2030, according to OECD projection” (Asquith, landscapes are commonly studied only through

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 93 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 a visual perspective, but on site, all the senses are while richer classes went to the opposite direc- involved. tion (from urban to rural). Urban spaces expand Due to that, we reflect on acoustic environments. themselves, until they incorporate rural spaces. It can be argued that affluent class is looking not The quest for silence compels those who can af- only for silent holiday, but also for quiet resi- ford to buy high standard residences to abandon dence. This quest for silence deeply affects rural the city chaos for quiet ruresidential areas. landscapes and compels privileged class to over- The overflowing from urban to rural derives from flow and sprawl from urban into rural areas. two different processes: the quest for silence, but also the expulsion of less profitable urban functions. In fact, recent economic reasons are changing 2. From unipolar to multi-nuclear urban areas in developed countries, since the ter- tiary and quaternary functions expel out of the city Urban noise has been documented as affecting the secondary activities or other functions that can- city dwellers since the Roman times. Seneca, in not ensure high revenues (Campos Venuti, 2010). Epistulae Morales Ad Lucilium, describes the in- Also residential functions which cannot afford the tolerable noise deriving from the baths close to increasing prices of the business centers are com- his home. Roman emperors were used to build pelled to look for cheaper spaces outside the city, their villas outside Rome, in order to contemplate so the dwelling model passes from unipolar3 to and admire the nature in silence. Villa Adriana in multi-nuclear pattern4 (Lozato-Giotart, 1999, 101). A Tivoli is an outstanding example of this quest for pathological effect of this double process is the pro- silence, that it is also a quest for a higher qual- liferation of the last version of villa: the villetta (cha- ity of life. In the Middle Age, the roman villa pat- let), a small mono-bi-tri familiar house, surrounded tern generated the curtes model (Brogiolo, 1996) by a bit of garden. This proliferation of multi-nuclear which changed agricultural production, but pattern of dwelling is not justified by demographic also shaped rural landscapes, featured by fields reasons, because “from 1961 up to 2011, Italian around a village (unipolar pattern) or by isolated housing stock has doubled (from 14 to 27 mil- farms, separated by fields (multi-nuclear model). lions of houses), but population has increased just Another model raised up in the late Middle Age, from 52 to 60 millions” (Campos Venuti, 2010, 64). when Petrarca decided to build his own villa in The dream of a silent place, but also the excessive an idyllic rural area on the Euganei Hills, around proliferation in buildings, develop an overflowing. Padua. It’s the first time that a middle class mem- This new model has been defined commersidence, ber, looking for silence, goes beyond the unipolar residence area with just a commercial point as ser- city to get his own relaxing site. Urban sprawling, vice; it is spreading around the main cities, with “the due to middle class quest for silence, begins in necessity to replicate services in the new suburbs” this moment (Daverio, 2013). Later, in 1500, Ve- (ibidem). Common goods like forests and meadows netian middle class replicated Petrarca’s decision with their capacity to soak up CO2 are wasted by through Palladio’s designed villas, which were a private interests of dwelling and transports, which mix of agricultural productivity (deriving from at the opposite increase CO2 production and under- curtes) and aesthetic search for a better quality mine rural productivity. of life (deriving from roman villas). During the Re- naissance, more and more rich people built their houses beyond the city boundaries, even if the 3. Urban sprawling vs. agriculture city remained their main focus (unipolar model). The urbanisation process (from rural to urban) The environmental safeguard is one the main has always involved peasants and poor people, topics of the EU plans 2014-2020, in the frame-

94 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective work of Horizon 20-20 Program. This particularly (Regione ER, 2013, 245). concerns regions whose economy is based on ER typical agriculture is featured by great size agriculture and agri-products transformation, farms, great technology and low biodiversity, such as Emilia-Romagna (ER), called the Food owned by private enterprises (Regione ER, 2013). Valley. ER is the among the richest regions of Eu- The plain is affected by intense withdrawals of rope, the second richest of Italy. ER farms have a water resources for civilian and productive pur- standard production of more than 6 billion euro, poses; especially on the plain areas, agriculture is 12.9% of the national totality. The average pro- in competition with urban sprawl, because of its ductivity per farm (€ 86.663), per area (€ 5,982/ accessibility (Regione ER, 2013, 246). ha) and per working day (331 €/wd) are all above ER typical agriculture is featured by great size the national average” (Regione Emilia Romagna, farms, great technology and low biodiversity, 2013, 83). According to these data, even if in the owned by private enterprises (Regione ER, 2013). last decade great structural changes have oc- The plain is affected by intense withdrawals of curred (-32% of ER farm, -23% of working days water resources for civilian and productive pur- in rural activities), ER agriculture is still very rich. poses; especially on the plain areas, agriculture is The regional Exploited Agricultural Area (EAA) is in competition with urban sprawl, because of its mainly invested in arable land and only a small accessibility (Regione ER, 2013, 246). proportion is for meadows and pastures, since the livestock sector is organised in intensive forms which affect water resources, threatened 4. Agriculture, density housing and identity by the disposal of animal waste. Cultivated lands are the main characteristic of The plain captures both activities and population. ER landscape. The high level of revenues added The 2011 survey (Fig. 1) describes ER featured by to a high demographic density are generating a a high density average: 193.45 inhabitants/km2. risk for the maintenance of the typical rural land- The demographic density creates a multi-nuclear scape. ER, in its 22.117 km2 is composed by: pattern, but the rural areas host the 65% of ER tQMBJO XIFSFTPDJPFDPOPNJDEFWFMPQNFOU population (4.342.135 inhabitants) and most of has more impact on the ecosystem the people are spread in rural-urban transition tDPBTUMJOF areas (1.368 million inhabitants) and in interme- tIJMMT diate rural areas (1.101 million inhabitants) (Re- tNPVOUBJOT gione ER, 2013).

Fig. 1 – Increase of population per typology of area (2002-2011). Source: Regione ER

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 95 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014

In mixed areas, it is even more difficult to obtain relationships that space acquires meaning. […] and maintain excellent performances in agricul- Spaces receive their essential being from particu- ture production and rural landscapes. This multi- lar localities” (Basso, 1997, 106). nuclear pattern, a ER key element (Regione ER, 2013), is confirmed by the absence of municipalities with over 50,000 inhabitants in the mixed ar- 5. Creating a New Identity eas. This undermines the ability to offer services to the population living in these areas, because The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) points a sufficient critical mass in demographics terms out that urban and rural areas must be planned would be required (Regione ER, 2013, 342). The together (EU, 2013a). This allows to pass from a quest for urban services increases traffic pollu- multi-nuclear to a polycentric model where sev- tion and, consequently, noise pollution. eral functions and services are spread on the This multi-nuclear system steals lands to the ag- territory, merged with “an “ecological focus area” riculture and to agro-industrial transformation, composed by “field margins, hedges, trees, fallow eroding the basis of the regional wealth. Rural land, landscape features, biotopes, buffer strips, lands are requested by rich people who are in afforested area” (EU, 2013, 4). We suggest that in search for green and quiet surroundings, so that order to find a new identity in the urban sprawl they buy chalets in the best areas around the cit- t OFXDPNFST IBWF UP GPMMPX UIF MJGFTUZMF BOE ies. The economic global trends are also expel- habits of autochthonous people; ling poor people from the city. This overflowing t OFXDPNFST DBO DSFBUF OFX SVSBM TFUUMFNFOUT process on one hand erodes the rural areas, but, with their own identity, which reflects the exi- on the other hand, allows to avoid the prolifera- gencies of people who moved from the city. tion of slums. People invest “in dwelling aspects These guidelines are especially followed in Ru- of themselves, of their own evolving identities”. ral Development Plan (RDP) of Bozen Province, Experience of place is inevitably a product and which is considered a model for maintenance expression of the self, “shaped at every turn by of rural traditions and settlements. The political the personal and social biographies” of those choice of preserving traditions is coupled with who surround it. Places have a marked capacity the climate change challenges which request to

“for triggering acts of self reflection, inspiring increase the green areas as sinks of CO2 capture. thoughts about who one presently is, or memo- According to Bozen RDP, a model of village re- ries of who one used to be, or musing on who newal is therefore required to allow: one might become” (Basso, 1997, 107). tBCBMBODFEUFSSJUPSJBMEFWFMPQNFOUUISPVHIMP- “The awareness of the need to communicate and cal transports with low fares and ICT increase; express the suggested territorial project” (Mar- tBWJBCMFGPPEQSPEVDUJPO son, 2012, 6) is connected to landscape preserva- tBTVTUBJOBCMFNBOBHFNFOUPGOBUVSBMSFTPVSDFT tion. The quest for rural assets means “to redis- for example restoring old houses, in order to keep cover the emotional dimension, the spirituality the actual cubic capacity without new edification. of places as a necessary dimension also for the In this scenario, we are witnessing to the phe- social interaction and community identification” nomenon of sclerosis of the middle class (Yeo- (ibidem). The dwelling derives from the forms man, 2012), since middle class has not been able of individual and social identity “with which in- to align with the transformations deriving from dividuals perceive and apprehend geographi- the end of oil, which therefore make transport cal space. […] dwelling is said to consist in the and travel more expensive. The dwelling con- multiple “lived relationships” that people main- centration is instead less costly since the relative tain with places, for it is solely by virtue of these proximity of homes and businesses can encour-

96 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective age walking, cycling and the use of mass trans- Brogiolo, G. P. (ed.) (1996), La fine delle ville romane: trasfor- port in place of private motor vehicles. mazioni nelle campagne tra tarda antichità e alto medioevo, SAP Società Archeologica Mantova If adaptation is not achieved, the lack of identity Campos Venuti, G. (2010), Città senza Cultura, Editori GLF and the sprawling could trigger political instabil- Laterza, Roma ity and create environmental damages. Daverio, P. (2013), SAIE Conference, Bologna European Environmental Agency (2013a), Global megatrends shaping Europe’s environment, Copenhagen European Environmental Agency (2013b), Global mega- Notes: trend update: Intensified global competition for resources, Copenhagen 1 University of Bologna, Department DISCI, Via Guerrazzi European Union (2013), Overview of CAP Reform 2012-2020. 20, 40125, Bologna, Italy; tel. +39 0512097463, adriana.gal- 5 December 2013 [email protected] Galvani, A. (2004), L’obiettivo 2 per l’Emilia Romagna: la sub 2 University of Bologna, Department DISCI, Via Guerrazzi 20, area orientale, in Di Carlo P., Moretti, L. Nuove politiche per 40125, Bologna, Italy; tel. +39 0512097463, riccardopiraz- il mondo agricolo: multifunzionalità e sviluppo integrato [email protected] del territorio. Bologna, Patron, pp. 377-391 3 A main space with a function that attract people. Lozato-Giotart, J.P. (1999), Geografia del Turismo, Franco An- 4 Many places where people just dwell, but with no other geli, Milano functions. Marson A. (2012), Participation in Landscape Planning, in I Quaderni di Careggi, Issue I – April 2012 N.1 Provincia Autonoma di Bolzano (2013), Strategie di sviluppo regionale 2014-2020 References Regione Emilia Romagna (2013), Programma Regionale di Asquith, M., Ulrich Speck, S. (eds.) (2013), EEA: Assessment of Sviluppo Rurale 2014-2020 global megatrends — an update Global megatrend: From a Rolle, L. (2013), TTG Meeting Rimini 19 October 2013, Il turis- unipolar to a multipolar world ta come media. Basso K. (1996), Wisdom Sits in Places, Albuquerque, Univer- Yeoman, I. (2012), 2050-Tomorrow’s Tourism, Channel View sity of New Mexico Press Publication, Bristol UK

N. Shoaib, Summer Wave, Fourth Edition Peoples Landscapes

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 97 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014

Taking Care Of Places: Experiences the care of the environment are considered crucial for the economic, social and cultural devel- Andrea Giraldi, Matteo Massarelli, Massimo Tofanelli opment of the country, and therefore they relate University of Florence their professional future to such matters. DIDA - Dipartimento di Architettura (Dept of Architecture) The growing attention towards the environ- Via della Mattonaia 14 - 50121 Florence, Italy ment is possibly ephemeral and could there- [email protected] fore be rejected by new trends in the future. [email protected] More probably, this approach could last for a [email protected] long time. Indeed, much evidence of a new mentality can be observed. For example, com- Abstract Community gardens, urban farms, farmers’ markets, munity gardens, which flourished in the late agrarian parks, school gardens, and food plans are sometimes perceived as (and who knows, probably are) ‘temporary fash- 1970s (Pasquali 2006), are increasingly com- ions’ or mere results of the economic recession. Whatever the mon. Guerrilla gardening is growing too, above case, they are strongly impacting on the mentality and habits all in big cities (Massarelli, Tofanelli, to be ed- of people. Indeed, they are at the core of a new approach, which ited). Meanwhile, in twenty-six of the European could endure long after the crisis or the ‘temporary fashion’. If Union’s twenty-eight states, bicycles outsold the Roman salad comes from the neighborhood garden; if the apple comes from a farm that is less than two kilometers from cars in 2012 (only in Belgium and Luxembourg home; if the formerly abandoned field is enjoyed as a sort of did cars outsell bicycles). In 2012, 1.6 million bi- public garden during the weekend; and so on, people pay more cycles were bought in Italy alone, in comparison attention to the environmental and aesthetic qualities of their with 1.4 million cars. It is no surprise that half surroundings, and take care of them, plus they ask planners and the government to take care of them. Moreover, the young of the inhabitants of Tuscany use the bicycle at are stimulated to reflect on the way plants grow, on the food- least once per week (Sigagnini 2013; www.bbc. chain, on the consequences of their actions, and on the quality co.uk/news/world-europe-25209551). of the environment where the food they eat comes from. The new focus on environment and agriculture A new attention, a new care, a new sensibility are found in this is at least partially related to the economic crisis trend, and they could last forever, if correctly conveyed and supported by governments, planners, and the media. Some that started in 2008 and which is still particularly public administrations, for example, the Italian region of Tus- arduous in many countries, Italy included. Be- cany, are developing experiences in the right way, and some sides preeminent economic factors, attention to good examples could be given, even if more has to be done to social and environmental issues is relevant too. enable the trend to flourish and have stronger roots. Events such as the collapse of a garment factory Keywords: Urban agriculture; community gardens; food plans; operating in Bangladesh for famous European environmental education; Tuscany and American brands, Benetton included, which occurred in April, 2013 causing the death of more than 1.000 workers, deeply impacted on public Taking care of places: a temporary fashion? opinion. Benetton’s Facebook profile, indeed, was overwhelmed by negative comments about Recently, Italian university enrollments to en- the poor working conditions in the Bangladeshi vironment-related disciplines have strongly in- factory: the company responded providing a creased: for example, the Faculty of Agriculture fund for the victims, while retailers and authori- at the University of Florence has doubled its ties, both in Europe and in the USA, decided to enrollments. In Italy, 38 percent of the young impose stricter codes (Morris 2013). would prefer to manage an agritourism rather Urban and territorial planning should join and than work for a multinational company or a bank support this trend. In fact, the new attitude (Gabaglio, Minerva 2013: 60-66). Evidently, for could help to solve or at least face some needs more and more young people, agriculture and of the contemporary city. Indeed, in the past,

98 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective some projects that planners put forward were matters. For example, a new approach to peri- perceived as irrelevant or dispensable in the urban agriculture could be improved, limiting opinion of part of the population, and were the expansion of urban areas to the detriment managed with diﬃculty by the governments: of rural areas. For decades, laws aimed at limit- on the contrary, recent trends and needs due ing or forbidding the urbanization of the coun- to the economic crisis increase a general and tryside and land waste have been issued: above universal awareness concerning social, cultural, all in Italy, for example in Tuscany, these laws environmental, productive, food, and planning usually produced poor results. Urban Land cover growth in Tuscany between 1954 and 2007 (source: Regione Toscana 2009) Year Hectars % % growth 1954 82.536 3,59

1978 124.816 5,43 0,077

1988 142.948 6,22 0,079

1996 152.920 6,65 0,054

2007 169.740 7,38 0,067

The result is an extension of the suburban sprawl owners and farm workers often abandon their in many parts of the region, with an unprec- ﬁelds. Recently, because of the economic crisis edented intertwining of rural and urban areas. and the growing environmental consciousness, This in not a totally new phenomenon in a region attention is focused on these interstitial green where cities, towns and villages have always areas, which attract people: fragments of the for- been particularly frequent. In the Middle Ages, mer agrarian areas, compressed in the suburban Tuscan cities and their surroundings, although sprawl and included in a new urban - rural form, separated by the city walls, were strongly tied assume diverse roles with a multi-functional ap- to each other: for example, continuous inter- proach (Sorlini 2010: 5-7). changes are depicted in the fresco The Allegory First of all, peri-urban empty areas are ideal for of Good and Bad Government, painted by Am- gardens and orchards, which help maintain a brogio Lorenzetti in 1338-39, located in the Sala productive agrarian dimension of fragmented dei Nove (Council Room) in the Palazzo Pubblico farms. Gardens and orchards are typically multi- (Town Hall) of Siena. The fresco highlights the functional (Donadieu 2002). Of course, they have move of people, animals and goods of every kind a productive function: vegetables and other from the city to the countryside and vice-versa products coming from peri-urban gardens are (Chelazzi Dini 2002: 171; Ragionieri 2009: 36). particularly appreciated for their freshness and Also the present-day suburbia, with its urban low costs, due to their proximity to the city and sprawl and thus characterized by spatial and the absence of commercial intermediations. Sec- social fragmentation, mixes the rural and the ond, gardens carry out a social purpose: present- urban (Ingersoll 2004, p. 20-22). In any case, in ly, social farming is particularly relevant in Tus- present-day peri-urban areas the rural loses in cany too, where several experiences have been the competition with the urban, since it is less successfully improved in recent years. What is competitive in economic terms. The result is a related to social functions is also the therapeutic fragmentation of agrarian areas, which are here function: all green areas have a healthy impact and there occupied by building lots. Therefore, on the mind: people relax while walking in the

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 99 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 wood or in the park. Garden therapy is increas- Above all during the 1950s and the 1960s, and ingly common in Tuscany, aimed also at disabled presently too, food quality is guaranteed by big patients. Gardens fulfill a relevant ecological - companies, in general focusing on the hygiene environmental function too. For example, they of productive processes. Due to scandals such as clean the air and preserve soil from erosion. the ‘mad cow disease’ or the more recent ‘adul- Moreover, they have a didactic function: indeed, terated Brunello and Chianti wines’, among oth- some governmental initiatives target school-age ers, consumers are more sensitive to the quality children. For example, the Province of Pisa pro- of the food and drink they purchase and ingest, moted a Food Plan in 2010, aimed at making the and are skeptical about the reassurances given young aware of food chains and promoting the by big companies and the mass media. Agricul- from-field-to-fork policy and local productions in ture of proximity is therefore chosen by a grow- schools (Butelli, Massarelli, to be edited; D’Alonzo ing number of consumers. Indeed, it is easier to 2007: 13-15; Galdo 2012: 58-65). Lately, the gar- directly control the quality of purchased items. dens’s aesthetic role is also being appreciated. Moreover, people are increasingly involved di- On the internet and social networks, websites, rectly in the production of the food they eat. groups and profiles aimed at improving agricul- Therefore, people are paying more attention to ture inside the city are more and more popular. the environmental quality of the places where Some of them promote the beauty of gardens, the purchased or produced food comes from. emphasizing their productive and aesthetic role Indeed, people prefer to defend fields from real in the contemporary city (for example, https://pt- estate development in order to have space for br.facebook.com/hortaurbanagrowshop; http:// their cultivation. Attention to air and water pol- www.growtheplanet.com/en/). lution is common too, since it could impact on Besides the multiplication of gardens, peri-urban food quality. Still existing open fields, even if agriculture is used for recreation, sport, contem- small and surrounded by routes or buildings, plation, relaxation; it creates or re-creates land- are perceived as potentially or effectively useful scape; supports biodiversity; protects the soil and pleasant, and many citizens become active from erosion; encourages the use of green areas in order to protect and use them. as recreational areas; preserves the environmental balance; is a barrier to air pollution; and preserves traditions related to specific places. While farmers A few examples in Tuscany are encouraged to bring their products into the city, where farmers’ markets are getting more pop- Tuscany displays a wide range of examples fol- ular by the day, people from the city cultivate peri- lowing these inputs: some of these can be found urban agrarian fields, or take a trip to the country in Prato, and are particularly relevant due to the in order to purchase fresh and seasonal food from industrial identity of the city. trusted farmers (Ingersoll 2004: 198-201; Mazzoc- Indeed, Prato is historically an industrial town chi 2010: 77-80; Sorlini 2010: 6-7). specialized in the textile sector at least since Initiatives focused on agrarian peri-urban spaces the Middle Ages. After World War II, Prato fast are growing, but still look ephemeral and frag- became one of the most important epicenters ile: if land owners reclaim the land in order to of the textile industry in the world. Due to such build houses or factories, peri-urban agriculture an achievement, Prato, in the need of ever more is sacrificed, due to the lack of effective pres- factories and workers, faced massive real estate ervation laws. In order to de-marginalize frag- development. Later, in the 1980s, the textile in- mented rural areas in the urban sprawl, agricul- dustry started to decline in Prato, although part ture and food production are highly relevant. of the local industrial production is continued on

100 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective by Chinese immigrants who have created one the awareness concerning the great value of the of the largest Chinese communities in Europe. agrarian territory surrounding the city amongst Due to such an immigration flow and to the ex- consumers, trying to limit its constant erosion due pansion of the Florentine conurbation, which to massive urban expansion. firstly reached Prato, and then surpassed the city, Since the beginning of this century, Tuscany has reaching Pistoia, 20 kilometers west of Prato, the been looking at schools as places in need of con- latter city has continued on its urban growth. sciousness regarding the way in which the food Therefore, large parts of former agrarian spaces reaches the plate. have been covered with condos, factories, shop- The Regional Plan for Agriculture and Forests ping malls, freeways, low-density residential ar- of Tuscany includes policies for the promotion eas, etc. Indeed, in economic terms, agriculture of biological/typical/local food in public school has become almost irrelevant in comparison to lunches. Local administrations participated in a other economic sectors, and cultivation has of- first experimentation of these measures in 2010 ten been abandoned. Prato has become a mod- and 2011. The new regional plan concentrates ern city with a drastically changed identity and resources for schools on the proposal “Mensa outlook, and doing so has run the risk of com- Toscana” (Tuscan School Canteen). Local admin- pletely destroying its agrarian areas. istrations tested forms of collaboration with lo- Recently, a new awareness has developed in the cal producers who sell their products, with high city. For example, the former Medici property of standards of quality, to school canteens. Thanks Cascine di Tavola has been transformed into a pub- to this regional program, some local administra- lic park, with surviving rural farms preserved and re- tions like Terranuova Bracciolini (Arezzo) include newed as relaxation and leisure areas. A Slow Food only local certified food in kindergartens and in- safeguard point has been located inside the park, troduce Tuscan “pesce povero” (poor fish) and lo- and there is a restaurant specialized in local recipes cal food in the menu of public school canteens, made with ingredients from the surroundings. accompanied by an educational program regard- Gran Prato, an experimentation trying to develop ing alimentary aspects and food production. a from-farm-to-fork approach in the Prato area, adopts the same approach. The Gran Prato experimentation is promoted by local institutions, Sources farmers, bakers, university researchers, and as- Butelli E., Massarelli M., to be edited, “La bioregione urbana: sociations. It aims at valuing the Verna wheat, an dall’ellisse urbana della Toscana al caso dell’Aquitania”, ancient and precious local wheat variety, and its Planum. The Journal of Urbanism, n. 27, vol. 2. products, especially bread. The Gran Prato project Chelazzi Dini G., 2002, “Pittura senese dal 1250 al 1450”, in Chelazzi Dini G., Angelini A., Sani B., Pittura senese, Fed- is based on an agreement for the supply chain, erico Motta, Milan: 9-262. which identifies fundamental and inalienable pro- D’Alonzo R., 2007, “Un progetto di sviluppo rurale: agricol- duction requirements. Indeed, wheat must come tura sociale in Toscana”, in Noferi M. (editor), Agricoltura from the territory of Prato. Moreover, production sociale e agricoltura di comunità. Esprienze, progetti, nuove must follow a disciplinary code imposing good forme di accoglienza e solidarietà nelle campagne toscane, Arsia - LCD, Florence: 13-22. farming practices, environmental respect, reduc- Donadieu P., 2002, “La société paysagiste”, Actes Sud, Arles. tion of the use of chemical products, and promo- Gabaglio L., Minerva D., 2013, Green University, in L’Espresso tion of organic farming. On the one hand, the n. 43 anno LIX, Rome: 60-69. Gran Prato project aims at promoting the bread Galdo A., 2012, “L’egoismo è finito”, Einaudi, Turin. Ingersoll, R., 2004, “Sprawltown”, Meltemi, Rome. of Prato, which is one of the most typical local Massarelli M., Tofanelli M., to be edited, “‘Nessuno sceg- productions, second only to the textile industry. lierebbe di vivere senza amici’ (Aristotele)”, in Moccia D. F. On the other hand, the project aims at improving (editor), La città sobria, Proceeding of the Seveth Study-Day

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by INU, Naples, December 14-15, 2012, Edizioni Scientifiche Regione Toscana, 2009, Italiane, Naples. http://www.regione.toscana.it/documents/10180/7097 Mazzocchi C., 2010, “Rischio di perdita di suolo: il ruolo 0/601382e99d54714fed54fb7458e8ee34_presentazi- dell’agricoltura periurbana”, in Agostini S., Bertoni D. etc., onedef2.pdf/4296e21a-8cc2-4e3d-b7d7-e447befa91e3 Per un’altra campagna. Riflessioni e proposte sull’agricoltura Sigagnini S., 2013, in http://www.greenreport.it/news/bi- periurbana, Maggioli, Sant’Arcangelo di Romagna (Rim- ciclette-mon-amour-le-vendite-superano-quelle-delle- ini): 77-82. auto-ma-ora-servono-infrastrutture/ Morris S., 2013, in http://www.thestar.com/news/ Sorlini C., 2010, “Agricoltura periurbana di qualità: una sfida world/2013/05/14/bangladesh_factory_collapse_ per i prossimi 5 anni”, in Agostini S., Bertoni D. etc., Per clothes_made_for_a_tenth_of_retail_price_documents_ un’altra campagna. Riflessioni e proposte sull’agricoltura show.html periurbana, Maggioli, Sant’Arcangelo di Romagna (Rim- Pasquali M., 2006, “Loisaida. NYC community gardens”, ini): 5-12. a+mbookstore, Milan. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-25209551 Ragionieri G., 2009, “Pietro e Ambrogio Lorenzetti”, Giunti, Florence. All websites are updated at December, 2013

S. Silvi, Sunset in the Azores, Fourth Edition Peoples Landscapes

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Complex Landscape. Linking the Dynamic Con- from the High Middle Ages (12th/13th AC) while cepts Landscape, Memory and Governance the appearance of vineyards can be traced back to the Roman Empire (Wolfram, 1995). The partic- Katharina Gugerella), Antonia Roither-Voigtb) ular landscape analysis (1823 – 2010) points out that up to the beginning 20th AC transformation a University Groningen, Department of Planning & Environ- processes went steadily but comparatively slow, ment – Faculty of Spatial Sciences, Landleven 1, 9747 AD Gro- displaying the nexus of spatial and institutional ningen, The Netherlands. [email protected] design, i.e. Charlemange’s settlement policy for a b City of Innsbruck, Department of Urban Planning, Maria The- stronger internal colonisation carried out by Ba- resien Strasse 18, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria. Antonia.Roither@ varian monasteries which had major impact until magibk.at the beginning of the 19th AC. Landscapes, like cities, are an example of systems out of equilibrium, Abstract: This paper discusses the nexus between landscape, the adapting constantly to its internal and external concept of place and remembrance and governance, interlink- context (e.g. natural hazards, technical developing those with their institutional framework, researched in a th case study ‘UNESCO World Heritage Site Cultural Landscape Wa- ments, climatic changes i.e. in the 18 century, chau’ (Austria). In 2000 the Wachau, a cultural landscape deriv- demography, institutional design) - multicausal ing from wine production on steep rock terraces, was inscribed in and multilevel. 1997, Sieferle already argues that the UNESCO World Heritage list. The inscription acknowledged new landscapes, emerging since the Industrial the landscape as a fabric interweaving the natural premises and the socio-cultural actions, hence representing an adaptive com- Revolution, are characterised by transition where plex system. The paper discusses the complexity of landscapes new manifestations continuously are emerging and explores the nexus of tangible and intangible landscape out of disequilibrium and due to acceleration components as well as exploring links to landscape governance. and compression of time distinctly formed land- Landscapes discussed as a dynamic, non-linear concept is based scape layers are not formed any longer. Scilicet on the assumption that landscapes evolve along a time trajectory coping with permeable system boundaries on different socio- landscapes are in constant flux, evolving along a spatial scales. Next to the tangible also intangible dynamics are time trajectory and adapting to the internal and present, represented by the conception of memory and Lieux de external context: either by steering - but they Memoire considering perceptive layers in comprehensive land- are also adapting even if no actions are taken, scape research and reveal possible links to decision making and co-management approaches. ratiocinative they are self-adaptive and not only the landscape is emergent also the components Keywords: cultural landscapes, complexity, co-management, and elements itself are. The spatial adaption is governance, Lieux de memoire to be understood as a a better fit to the context (Cilliers, 1998). Thereby the spatial patterns and Methodological remarks. The methodical setting follows an manifestations can differ significantly from those integrated approach interlinking a historic landscape analysis in former periods which indicates the non-linear (1823-2010), a qualitative analysis of the actual farming styles evolution of landscapes. Within these processes, (Ploeg, 1993) and policy arrangement analysis (Arts et al., 2006) exploring multi-level landscape policies in a compara- time is crucial since it’s the carrier of the context tive analysis focussing on the content layer. and therefore the transitions are getting more important. Transitions taking place on different socio-spatial and institutional scales impact- Landscapes are problems of organised complexity ing the system since the boundaries are not only fuzzy but also permeable and the global The cultural landscape Wachau is a riverine, ter- collides with the local. The multi-relational and raced stretch of the Danube River, located be- multi-scale assemblage explains why straightfor- tween the two historic towns Melk and Krems in ward prognoses in landscape development are Lower Austria. The basic landscape structure hails precarious, which means that in unordered sys-

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 103 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 tems, desired end-states are unlikely and more lic interest and use, this arrangement is coined important can hardly be predicted (Portugali, as divided ownership (Penker, 2008; Berkes, 2009). 2008). In the discourse these issues are referred Developing this idea further, including public to as wicked problems (Rittel & Webber, 1972) interest and the interest and concerns of local or to problems of organised complexity (Jacobs, and regional actors in policy making, links to the 1961; Weaver, 1958). Landscapes are evolving as European Landscape – and the Aarhus Conven- “coherent structures that propagated, grew, split tion (UNECE, 1995) stressing that “in the field of apart and recombined in a wonderful complex the environment, improved access to informa- way” (Waldrop, 1992:226). Their adaptive capac- tion and public participation in decision-making ity makes landscapes both robust and flexible in enhance the quality and the implementation of the very same moment. decisions, contribute to public awareness of environmental issues, give the public the opportunity to express its concerns and enable public au- Landscapes are impure public goods thorities to take due account of such concerns.” The consideration of assembled networks (gov- Hobsbawm (1997) refers to a human-nature me- ernment-civil society-market) in visioning and tabolism, that people not only living in their sur- decision making is pointing to the spectrum of rounding environment but adapting nature and planning and steering practise – from technical landscape according to their interests, achieving more top down approaches to communicative- a better fit to the context, and that these adap- participatory approach (Allmendinger, 2013; tions are taking place in socio-cultural settings. Healy, 2007; Schönwandt, 2012) including inter- That brings us to a crucial momentum and the subjective layers including ie. the perception of question: who owns the landscape? Within the landscapes. landscape governance discourse landscapes are discussed as impure public goods, characterized by a divided ownership and therefore shared Memory as non-linear concept of landscape per- between private (owners) and public (interests) ception (Penker, 2008). Landscapes are common goods s.l. and while Adjoining the ELCs objectives as well as Rittel & some authors are referring to common goods (i.e. Webber’s (1973) and de Roo’s (2010, 2011, 2013) Fürst et all, 2008) others are using the term Im- context-specific and time-sensitive reasoning the pure Public Good (Penker, 2008; Enengel, 2009; basic idea to frame landscapes as social mementi Gugerell, 2012) which illustrates that landscapes seems natural: like landscapes, the concept of are hybrids between private (individual property memory (Halbwachs, 1992; Assmann, 1995) is a rights) and public goods (public interests). The in- dynamic one (in contrary to history): the percep- dividual property rights, limiting the and restrict- tion of landscape and its contextual alignment ing specific uses of 3rd parties, are concurrently (i.e. individual remembrance) are evolving along not precluding the consumption of the good or a time trajectory impacting identity on different single aspects trough others (i.e. aesthetics or spatial scales. Memories are linked to collective visual expression). Furthermore the individual values and images and therefore represent social property rights are restricted in favour of public mementi – shared history and collective memory. interest, i.e. safeguarding water and air quality, Nora (1989) coined the term lieux de memoire, rights of passage, monument protection or the which comprises tangible and intangible phe- aesthetic value of land- and townscapes. This nomena, like places, land- and townscapes, mon- distribution of private property rights and pub- uments or even collections, where the memory

104 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective crystalizes. Charged and linked to symbols: lieux the abstract and reference lacking general rep- de memoire are identity establishing phenomena resentation. Yet, it’s important to keep in mind, which are not bound to linear and straight for- that the cultural memory is not to be determined ward narration and development (Hauge, 2008; on a spatio-temporal continuity or cultural ho- Hayden, 1997). Rather they are in flux too - re- mogeneity. The power of place (Hayden, 1997) is negotiated and re-narrated over time in a non- referring to the fact that landscapes are socio- linear way. The non-linearity manifests i.e. that emotional and symbolically charged and that a reinterpretation of time periods or events (i.e. they provide joint orientation and values. Place Austria’s role in WWII, changing reception of the enhances the concepts of memory and lieux de landscape Wachau over time) resulting in com- memoire by integrating vernacular landscapes plete different patterns of interpretation and in the symbolic layer. Self-organisation, joint vi- perception then in previous stages. The context sioning and – decision-making are possible hubs is changing because current events are to be to link the two spheres and opens the topic for embedded in the structure and therefore are debate. Since both concepts, landscape and reconfiguring the place and its meanings. The memory, are dynamic and temporal they allow biographic mementi are relationally embedded, adaption and evolvement, based on the percep- re-narration and reconfiguration are requiring tion of landscape and cultural context. It is ex- communicative structures which in turn relates pected that a better implemented network ap- to Luhmann’s social system theory (Luhmann, proach increases the willingness for joint usage 1987; ibid., 2012) and reminds us that meaning is and management of (impure) public goods and incessantly contextual and contingent. resources especially on the local and regional level (i.e. Scott, 2011; Zuidema, 2011; Fuerst et al., 2008) and to give place for non-linear develop- Bridging landscape complexity, memory and go- ment approaches (Hartman and de Roo, 2013). vernance Coincidently the tangible and intangible landscape are mirroring power relations and various Why does it make sense to reflect on associating dimensions of power: power over definitions those ideas ? Landscapes are assemblages of in- and data, incorporation of landscape concepts, tangible and tangible manifestations which are instrumentally power and power of enforce- non-linear evolving, adapting to their context to ment (Kuehne, 2012; ibid. 2008; Poppitz, 1980), reach a better fit. Therefore time is an important which again links to Luhmann’s network theory factor since it’s the carrier of context which in as well to the discourse of divided ownership and turn is found again in the divided ownership, rep- the questions who owns the landscape and is in- resenting public interest on landscapes and spa- volved in decision making. tial settings and are therefore integral part of the Recalling the European Landscape Convention’s discourse about landscapes and property rights, (ELC) objective, that not only those landscapes conventions and customs. Linking biographic coined as elite masterpieces are of public inter- mementi with landscapes offers the opportunity est rather are also vernacular and everyday land- to recall the connection to the landscape also on scapes. Both, the UNESCO World Heritage Policy a vernacular basis. The importance of biographic but also the ELC demand for inclusive approaches mementi are emerging, if either the official mem- and methodology regarding to landscape devel- ory (and narration) or the official policies (land- opment and heritage issues (Olwig et al., 2011) scape policies, spatial/regional development apart from top-down elitist approaches towards plans) are either superimposed, blurred or driven self-organizing and non-institutional develop- by political interests. Then memory compensates ments. The importance of more inclusive, par-

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 105 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 ticipatory approaches is not to be understood ment and Planning C: Government and Policy, vol. 31, as an emphatic denial of technical (s.l.) planning pp: 556-570. Hauge, A., 2007, Identity and place: a critical comparison of approaches but punctuates the importance of three identity theories. Architectural Science Review, vol. a broad range of possible approaches and the 50, no 1, pp. 44-51. necessity to carefully choose the most suitable Hayden, D. (1997) Urban Landscape History. The Sense of one for the particular issue. Adaptive capacity, Place and Politics of Scale, in Groth, P., Bressi T.W. (eds.), Un- in the sense of adaption of physical environment derstanding Ordinary Landscape, New Haven, 111-133. Healy, P. (2007) Urban Complexity and Spatial Strategies: but also in the notion of social learning touches Towards a Relational Planning for Our Times, Routledge, both worlds: “Planning activity is the ﬁxed state Chapman & Hall. of structure and function, fact and value, shape Hobsbawm, E. (1997) On History, Abacus. and meaning within the planning situation” (de Kühne, O. (2008) Distinktion-Macht-Landschaft. Zur soz- ialen Deﬁntion von Landschaft, VS Verlag für Sozialwis- Roo, 2010:34). senschaften. Kühne, O. (2012) Landschaftstheorie und Landschaftspraxis. Eine Einführung aus sozialkonstruktivistischer Perspek- Bibliography: tive, Springer VS. Luhmann, N. (1987) Soziale Systeme. Grundrisse einer allge- Allmendinger, P. (2009) Planning Theory, Palgrave Mac- meinen Theorie, Suhrkamp. millan Ltd Luhmann, N. (2012) Theory of Society, Volume 1 (Cultural Arts, B., Leory, P., Tatenhove, J. v. (2006) Political Modernisa- Memory in the Present), Stanford University Press. tion and Policy Arrangements: A Framework for Under- Nora, P. (1998) Zwischen Geschichte und Gedächtnis, Fis- standing Environmental Policy Change, Public Organiza- cher Taschenbuch. tion Review vol. 6, pp. 93-106 Olwig, K. R., Mitchell, D. (eds.) (2011) The Practice of Land- Assmann, J. (1995) Erinnern um dazuzugehören. Kulturel- scape ‚Conventions‘ and the Just Landscape: The Case of les Gedächtnis, Zugehörigkeitsstruktur und normative the European Landscape Convention, Routledge. Vergangenheit. In: Platt, K.; Dabag, M. (eds.): Generation Penker, M. (2008) Governing Austrian Landscapes: Shifts und Gedächtnis. Erinnerung und kollektive Identitäten, Along the Private-Public Divide, in Sikor T. (ed.) Public and Leske & Budrich, Private in Natural Resource Governance. A False Dichoto- Assmann, J. (1999) Das kulturelle Gedächtnis. Schrift, Er- my? London: Earthscan Research Editions, pp. 89-106. innerung und politische Identität in frühen Hochkul- Ploeg, J.D. vd. (1993) Rural Sociology and the New Agrarian turen, Beck. Question. A Perspective from the Netherlands. Sociologia Berkes, F. (2009) Evolution of Co-Management: Role of Ruralis, vol. 33, pp. 240-260. knowledge generation, bridging organizations and social Poppitz, H. (1980) Die normative Konstruktion von Gesell- learning, Journal of Environmental Management, vol. 90, schaft, Mohr & Siebeck. pp. 1692-1702 Portugali, J. (2008) Learning from paradoxes about predic- Cilliers, P. (1998) Complexity and Postmodernism: Under- tion and planning in self-organizing cities, Planning The- standing Complex Systems. Routledge. ory, vol. 7, no 3, pp. 248-262. Council of Europe (2000) European Landscape Convention. Rittel, H.W.J, Webber, M.M. (1973) Dilemmas in a General Egoz, S., Makhzoumi, J., Pungetti, G. (eds.) (2011) The Right Theory of Planning, Policy Sciences, vol. 4, pp.155-169. to Landscape. Contesting Landscapes as Human Rights. Roo, G. de (2010) Being or Becoming? That’s the question, Ashgate Publications. in Roo, G.de; Silva E.A. (eds.): A Planners Encounter with Enengel, B. (2009) Partizipative Landschaftssteuerung. Kos- Complexity. New Directions in Planning Theory. Ashgate ten-Nutzen-Risiken Relationen aus Sicht der Beteiligten. Publications Ltd, pp. 19-40. Wien. Roo, G. de (2012) Spatial Planning, Complexity and a World Gugerell, K. (2012) Das UNESCO Welterbe ‘Kulturlandschaft ‘Out of Equilibrium’: Outline of a Non-linear Approach to Wachau’ im Spannungsfeld von Erhaltung und Dynamik. Planning, in Roo, G. de, Hillier, J., Wezemal, J. van (eds.): Zum Verhältnis von Landschaft, Farming Styles und poli- Complexity and Planning. Systems, Assemblages and tisch-rechtlicher Steuerung, Wien. Simulations, Ashgate, pp. 141-176. Halbwachs, M. (1992) On Collective Memory, University of Roo, G. de, 2013: Abstracties van Planning. Over processen Chicago Press. en modellen ter beinvloeding van de fysieke leefomgev- Hartmann S. and Roo, G. de (2013) Towards managing ing, UITGAVE. nonlinear regional development trajectories. Environ- Schönwandt, W. (2012) Planning in Crisis?: Theoretical Ori-

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entations for Architecture and Planning. Ashgate Publi- dation.org/uploads/files/947f2787-359e-4bea-a090- cations. b32f1c90c6f9-1958.pdf [3 March 2014]. Scott, A. (2011) Beyond the conventional: Meeting the Waldrop, M.M. (1992) Complexity: The Emerging Science at challenges of landscape governance with the European the Edge Of Order And Chaos, Penguin Books. Landscape Convention? Journal of Environmental Man- Wolfram, H. (1995) Österreichs Geschichte: 387-907. Gren- agement, vol. 92, pp. 2754-2762. zen und Räume. Geschichte Österreichs vor seiner Entste- Sieferle, R. (1997) Rückblick auf die Natur: eine Geschichte hung, Ueberreuter Verlag. des Menschen und seiner Umwelt, Luchterhand. Wyrtzysens, H., Penker, M., Reiterer, M., Tronner, R., Wittich, Stoker, G. (1998) Governance as theory: ﬁve propositions. S. (2001) Der Rechtsökologische Befund. Ein Instrument International Social Science Journal, vol. 155, pp. 17-28. zur Erfassung von Landschaftswirkungen des Rechts, UNESCO (1972) Convention Concerning the Protection of Facultas. the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. Zuidema, C. (2011) Stimulating Local Environment Qual- Weaver, W. (1958) The Rockefeller Foundation, Annual Re- ity. Making Sense of Decentralisation in Environmental port, [Online], Available: http://www.rockefellerfoun- Policy. Wöhrmann – Zutphen.

A. Caballero, The miracle of light, Fourth Edition Peoples Landscapes

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Climatic Changes. Identity and Identification probability of greenhouse gases emitted as a by- product of human activities are the cause of the Jonna Majgaard Krarup ongoing climate change. Associate professor, PhD. In a Danish context climate changes are primarily The Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, Schools of Architectu- manifested in an interaction between modified re, Design and Conservation wind and precipitation patterns, temperature School of Architecture- Institute of Planning increases and a rising sea level (IPPC 2007; DMI Philip de Langes Allé 10 2008). There will be more torrential rains, more DK - 1435 Copenhagen K - Tel. +45 4170 1500 frequent and extensive flooding of low-lying Email address: [email protected] areas, and there are likely more powerful winds and frequent storms (DMI 2008). Abstract: According to Cleo Paskal climatic changes are envi- In summary, the changes are described as WWW ronmental changes. They are global, but their impact is local, - Wilder, Wetter and Warmer. and manifests them selves in the landscape, in our cities, in The IPPC report of 2013 confirms this. open urban spaces, and in everyday life. The landscape and open public spaces will in many cases be The changes are irreversible, and require adap- the sites where measurements to handle climatic changes will tion of the built environment to these new con- be positioned and enacted. ditions. Measurements taken are mostly adaptive or aimed to secure and protect existing values, buildings, infrastructure etc., but will in many cases also affects functions, meaning and peoples identification with the landscape and the open urban spaces. Climate changes are environmental changes From Henri LeFebvre’s thinking we learn that the production of space is a feed back loop, where the space is constructed when The individual factors in the process often act we attach meaning to it, and when the space offers meaning together and are reinforced in interaction with to us. Spatial identity is thus not the same as identifying with space. Without indentifying with space, space doesn’t become already known natural and cultural phenomena, place, and thus not experienced as a common good. why Cleo Paskal’s term ‘Environmental changes’ Many Danish towns are situated by the sea; this has histori- (2009) might be more accurate than climate cally supported a strong spatial, functional and economically change. The term Environmental changes indi- identity of the cities, with which people have identified. Effects cates that the processes of changes are not just of globalization processes and a rising sea level are now questioning this. Measurements as dykes will changes or cut off the an isolated climatic phenomenon, but extensive spatial and functional coherence between the city structure environmental changes, and thus also causing and the sea. changes in the built environment. Questions regarding the status and the appropriation of these Climatic changes are global, but their impact ‘new’ adaptive functions in landscapes and open urban spaces by ordinary people must be addressed in order to develop and is local, and manifests them selves in the land- support social sustainability and identification. scape, in our cities, in open urban spaces, and in This paper explore and discuss how the handling of climatic everyday life. This means that functions, mean- changes in landscape and open urban spaces might hold a ing, spatial identity and people’s identification potential for them to become common goods. with places are affected. Keywords: climate, environmental changes, identity, identification Questions and themes to be addressed

Introduction Current research is focusing on development of concrete measures to mitigate the eﬀects of cli- In the latest report from IPCC, UN Climate Pan- mate change. Many of these projects and mea- el (2013), it is argued that there are up to 99% surements address securing of buildings and up-

108 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective grading and development of sewerage and new Example: Kerteminde drainage technology. Besides these, measurements in the landscape Many Danish cities and towns are situated by the and in the open public spaces are to be devel- sea. This has historically supported a strong spatial, oped and implemented in order to accommo- functional and economically based identity of these date not only technical challenges, but also cities, with which people have identified. Effects of meaning, identity and spatial relationships and current environmental changes and globalization experiences hereof. processes are now questioning this. Measurements as dykes will changes or cut off the spatial, func- Henri LeFebvre argues (1974) that space is a tional coherence between the city structure and social product, a complex social construction the sea. Changing the spatial and functional rela- based on values, and the social production of tionship between the city and the sea will also af- meanings, which affects spatial practices and fect people’s spatial practices and perceptions, and perceptions. The production of space may thus thus the meaning attached to the spaces. be understood as a kind of feed back loop, where Kerteminde is founded back in 1300. The city has space is constructed when we attach meaning to evolved from a small village by a natural harbour it, and when space ‘offers’ meaning to us. to a harbour city, which later acquired provincial Spatial identity is thus not the same as identify- town status. In the last century Kerteminde grew ing with space. Without indentifying with space, to medium size and is today an attractive place space doesn’t become place, and thus not expe- to live and a tourist destination. rienced as common goods. The harbour and the sea have played, and con- Space as common goods is here related to LeFe- tinue to play, a major role in Kerteminde. bvre’s notion on space as a social construction It is still the city’s waterfront, which makes Ker- where the production of meaning and value is a teminde popular and contributes to the city’s pivoting point in the appropriation of the envi- image. The area around the historical centre, the ronmental changes and spaces. Johannes Larsen Museum (Danish bird and land- Also Marten Hajer and Arnold Reijndorp (2001) scape painter) the Fjord and Belt Centre, the fish- emphasize collective experience, meaning and ing harbour, the marina and the urban beaches value, ‘[Public domain] requires a certain diver- creates, if you disregard the diffuse spatial coher- sity in the spaces that people from different ence, a qualified attractive entity. backgrounds, and with different interests, all Today the town as a whole appears spatially frag- can attach a positive value to the shared ex- mented and inconsistent and have in several re- periences that can take place in these spaces.’ spects lost the connection to the landscape. The (2001; 11) harbour-related activities have moved further away from the historic centre. Roads and parking Following this, it is not enough ‘just’ to secure facilities separates the historic centre from the buildings, and to adjust and develop new sew- sea. Also, the marina is separated from the town age technology in order to accommodate the by roads and a large reclaimed area for winter ongoing environmental changes. storage of sailing boats. Adapting urban and landscape spaces to environmental changes, questions on spatial identity and people’s identification with and experience Spatial and landscape features in Kerteminde of the new adaptive functions in the spaces, must be addressed in order to develop these spaces as The historic town’s main streets are oriented in common goods. two directions North-South and East-West - all

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Fig.1 Denmark: Kerteminde marked with red

Fig. 2 Kerteminde: town and landscape Fig. 3 Detail of Kerteminde

110 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective originating from Langegade, which is the central is thus expressed in the urban structure, in the spine of the city. On the related church and town building traditions, and in the spatial relation- square, and around this street has all the major ship between the historic town and the sea and merchant houses remained. landscape. This is still evident in the building stock density, and in the height and structure. Langegade’s The modernistic part of the town on the hill, southern end culminates in the meeting with the consisting of single-family residential areas and harbour and bridge. The meeting is dominated Nordre Ring Road, is located at level 3-5 meters by Hindsholmvej, which, with its width and traf- above sea level fic today has blurred this central place in the The large industrial area is situated in a slightly town. To the north Langegade becomes more lower area in level 2-3 meters above sea level. and more anonymous. The building structure is This area was formerly arable land and is partially changing from small blocks of flats (2-3 floors) to drained meadows recovered from the bay. small fishing houses, predominantly one floor, The area is kept free of water by drainage chan- positioned shoulder to shoulder. nels and dykes facing the bay and the 'ord and The street space ends up with a remarkable view through pumping. of the Bay and North Beach. The industrial facilities with their backs to the The street spaces in the historic centre are simple countryside characterize this potential shallow and clear, all with stairs up to entrance door. All nature area in a harsh way. the houses have low bases at the same height, To some extent this also applies to single-family which seems to have ensured that the floods areas, though in a less contrasting way. have not reached the floor level. It seems as if there have been some unwritten guidelines for It is a characteristic feature of this part of Kerte- how high the floor level should be in order to minde that the settlements haven’t crept further avoid flooding. into the meadows. The settlement relates to the hill and is not located below level 2. The same applies to the newer fishing houses Thus, there is a distinct spatial and logical differ- around Drossingen and Harbour Street on the ence between land occupied by buildings on the opposite side of the harbour, where also the base hill and arable landscape in the reclaimed mead- heights and floor levels seem fixed in specific ows. height as a protection against flooding.

Another characteristic that can be observed in Current development plans and projects in Kerte- the old town north of the outlet of Kertinge Nor minde is the long narrow gardens on the backs of the houses, forming a distinctive structural pattern The development in tourism, recreation and wel- of elongated gardens with small rear buildings fare, which started to draw people for fishing gear. to the town with the railway opening in 1900, is still today the development area Kerteminde The structural plot pattern as well as the orien- base the development strategies in (2011). tation of the street pattern towards the sea and The most significant urban planning projects harbour, the precisely positioned building bases seek to repair and reinforce the town’s connec- and floor levels, may all be interpret as indica- tion to the landscape context. tions of an understanding of the site and the The motivation for these actions seems mainly imbedded natural processes. This understanding a desire to attract more private investment to

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 111 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 boost tourism and make Kerteminde into an The restoration project might have been devel- even more attractive town. oped to adapt the town both to the environmental changes and to reinterpret the spatial The three major focus areas are: relationship between the town and the sea and t5IFPVUFSIBSCPVSBSFBT UPDPNF landscape. But when maintaining the dykes fac- t5IF3FOBJTTBODF)BSCPVS POHPJOHQSPKFDU ing Kerteminde Bay and Odense Fjord, in order t5IFSFDMBJNFENFBEPXT POHPJOHQSPKFDU to secure the golf course against flooding, the outcome of the restoration project will be a fresh The project, The Renaissance Harbour, aims to shallow lake, where the size of the surface of the restore and re-interpret the meeting between lake will depend on the climatic and hydrological the town and harbour at the place where the old fluctuations over the year. harbour was located. The project will have a ma- The two projects are thus based on different jor impact on the visual, spatial and recreational landscape perceptions and landscape use. The qualities of the meeting between the town, har- golf course is a highly regulated piece of mono bour and water as a whole. functional landscape design, with high de- The meadow project consists of to projects: A mands on drainage work, and requires a static restoration project where the idea is to take ad- landscape. vantage of the terrain-related advantages, and In the restoration project the natural processes create a new version of the Fjord landscape as it are to some extend accommodated. But the proj- was before reclamation in 1814. There will be rec- ect, by virtue of its relative small size and by the reational paths, a visit point, and a bird watching positioning of it in the same landscape space as tower in the area. This project is motivated by na- the golf course, might turn out as a piece superfi- tional targets for conversion of arable lowlands cial landscape design - a green-wash project. for water-rich dynamic nature areas controlled Positioning the golf course in the meadows is by natural processes. also in contrast with an existing building and The second major project in this area is the con- spatial practice in Kerteminde, which for centu- struction of a large golf course by ries has guided the city growth. This practice has a private consortium. The golf course is going to meant that the city has respected the surround- stretch from the village of Over Kærby, located on ing flat reclaimed 'ord area as it’s natural limit. a small hill west of the city, down the northwest This limit is now broken. Further the golf course side of Kerteminde, ending in the flat reclaimed project represents a type of urban growth, which meadows. does not address challenges arising from environmental change processes. One could have chosen to give the natural pro- Discussion and conclusion cesses free run in the meadow area by enlarging the restoration project and locating the golf course Climate change adaption is not included as a somewhere else, and thereby ensuring a relief area planning parameter in the current plans for Ker- in flooding situations. This new urban landscape teminde. Only one sketch in the Plan Strategy space could thus have been seen as a spatial clari- 2011 describes a desire for sustainability, local fication and re-interpretation of Kerteminde’s rela- infiltration and some green belts to connect the tionship with the landscape and the water. city with the waterfront. This could also have supported the construction of the spatial identity, and people’s identification In the meadow area, the two significant land- with and experience of this space and it’s new scape projects contradict one and another. environmental adaptive function, and thereby

112 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective supported the social construction of this new Hajer, Marten & Reijndorp(2001), In Search of New Public urban landscape space in Kerteminde as a com- Domain, Ananlysis and Strategy, NAI Publishers Rotter- dam. mon good for the inhabitants in Kerteminde. IPPC(2007), Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (14885 characters spaces included) Report 2007 , IPCC WGI, CH IPPC (2013), Climate Change 2013 The Physical Science Ba- sis, IPCC WGI AR5, CH. www.climatechange2013.org. Bibliography LeFebvre, Henri (1974/1991), The Production of Space, Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Publishers Kerteminde Kommune (2011), Planstrategi 2011. Kerte- Arktisk Råd, AMAP (2011), ’Sne, vand, is og permafrost i Arktis’, minde Kommune – Ramme om det gode liv, Kerteminde Energistyrelsen, Kbh. Kommune, www.kerteminde.dk DMI/Jørgensen, Anne Mette K., Hansen, Niels (2008), Kli- Paskal, Cleo(2009), The Vulnerability of Energy Infrastruc- maændringer 2007; Synteserapport. Sammendrag for ture to Environmental Change, Brieﬁng Paper, Chatham Beslutningstagere, The Danish Meteorological Institute House & Global EERG BP 2009/01

T. Kassi, Sunlight under the mist, Fourth Edition Peoples Landscapes

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The Power of Outreach. Case Study: “I Giardini day meeting about garden architecture and de- del Benaco” sign. It then evolved into a laboratory where to experiment outreach ideas and strategies. Since Marinella Mandelli, Graziella Belli its very start I Giardini del Benaco in 2010 studied Comune di Gardone Riviera Del Garda, Italy. and analysed how the use of the land, is deeply [email protected] connected with the rules governing common [email protected] cell. +393395469004 goods. The cooperation with the Town Council of Gardone Riviera as a public body was crucial, the Abstract: “I Giardini del Benaco”, which reached its 4th edi- audience could attend for free, as we considered tion, is organized on Lake Garda by the municipality of Gar- the participation of common people as users and done Riviera, a public authority. This event was conceived to attract the attention of the public towards Lake Garda for as owners vital; communication through labora- touristic purposes, by means of a cultural tool such as a two- tories free speech and world cafés sessions, saw day meeting about garden architecture and design. It then common people fond of gardening mingle with evolved into a laboratory where to experiment outreach ideas professional garden designers and famous archi- and strategies. Hosting speakers of clear national and international stature served as the launch platform that catalyzed tects form different countries. The subjects went the interest and participation of young designers, students, from garden design towards research about traders as well as enthusiasts. Over time a transition occurred landscape and its close relationships with agri- from garden design towards research about landscape and its culture and tourism. close relationships with agriculture and tourism. Urban plan- Urban planning, folklore reassessment, and the ning, folklore reassessment, and the relationship with the city have been explored in relationship with the ethical and soci- relationship with the city have been explored etal perspective of the final users. Comparing the experiences in relationship with the ethical and societal per- of multiple European countries allowed broaden the scope of spective of the final users. Comparing the expe- the meeting from technical and design issues towards relevant riences of multiple European countries allowed discussions over aspects including governance and its strategies. The debate between the decision makers (municipalities, to go from technical and design issues towards planning officials, region, province, local communities) and relevant discussions over aspects including gov- the cultural actors involved in planning (landscape architects, ernance and its strategies. The debate between agronomists, geographers, journalists, opinion leaders) was the decision makers (municipalities, planning of- pursued to investigate the best strategy to develop the con- ficials, region, province, local communities) and cept that landscape is shared wealth. They have been pressed to propose criteria for landscape planning also through non- the cultural actors involved in planning (land- institutionalized practice. scape architects, agronomists, geographers, jour- The discussion also included the opportunities arising in connec- nalists, opinion leaders) was pursued to inves- tion with the European Landscape Convention and the limits of tigate the best strategy to develop the concept its application. Agriculture, tourism and city have been re-interpreted from the fundamental perspective of identity and com- that landscape is shared wealth. They have been mon property. Our report will outline the experience gathered, pressed to propose criteria for landscape plan- and the proposals arisen from the meetings, and our experimen- ning also through non-institutionalized practice. tation with communication strategies over these years. The discussion also included the opportunities arising in connection with the European Land- Keywords: Governance strategies, landscape planning, com- scape Convention and the limits of its applica- munication strategies tion. Agriculture, tourism and city have been re- interpreted from the fundamental perspective General perspective and cultural background of identity and common property. The outcome was a very positive one as far as the new com- This event was conceived to attract the attention munication methodology during the meetings of the public towards Lake Garda as a touristic is concerned, and the feedback of lecturers and resort, by means of a cultural tool such as a two audience was really encouraging and showed

114 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective the need of this new attitude. On the other hand Nature is us, can be the final outcome of that ses- we realized how much still has to be done, first in sion. We have the responsibility to pay attention order to involve public bodies in effective actions to our territory and behave carefully so that land- and participation, and also in the opportunities scape is not going to be considered a profit mak- arisen in connection with the European Land- er but a precious good on which to invest money scape Convention and the limits of its applica- and research so that citizens can enjoy it, as they tion, secondly in order to get an effective result become users and owners at the same time. it came out that it is necessary to have clear and precise goals and this can be done only if we speak a common language. Thirdly as far as com- Communication: the world café and the free speech munication and information is concerned it was as the new ways for the final user to get involved in clear that the traditional media such glossy mag- the design and project of the landscape azines portraying big names on the cover cannot be any longer effective while Internet through The Expo that will take place in Milan has been blogs and Youtube can be a very effective and matter of discussion in 2012 and 2013 and opened easy way to spread the news especially to young to new ideas on land planning, acknowledging enthusiasts on events related to the new trends environmental traditions and the relationship be- and policies connected to landscape. tween urban and agricultural areas. Ethical and social user-friendly views have been adopted so that experts could face the opinion of the actual Communication: the need for new ways to share users who know and live that particular territory. the project with the audience The world café has been adopted as a new approach to discussion and confrontation of peo- In such conventions architects normally speak ple representing different roles in society. Several about their project from its creation through the local professionals met and exchanged opinions general description of the steps in progress and mirroring the multi faced situation quite far from the final result. What we achieved during our that of a town, but actually very similar to what 4 years activity is that from the first year each Italy is geographically speaking: a great number guest speaker was asked to summarise in a few of many small towns. sentences their opinion on the topic, so that their In the world café groups of four people sit at a project was not the core of the discussion, and table as if they were sitting in a coffee shop, in ideas became more important than the realiza- each group there is an ambassador. Each group tion of the project itself. The importance of their has 10 -15 minutes to discuss three common project stands in the fact that the actual realiza- questions, after that the ambassador stays at the tion of the idea is possible. same table, while the other three people change In 2011 the debated topic was on urban public table and mingle. At the end each ambassador and private green areas in their historical setting. reports the results of the work of all the groups The architects Paolo Burgi, Franco Zagari and and all the groups share their ideas. Elisabetta Cereghini analysed the topic from dif- The free speech was the perfect conclusion of ferent perspectives, and the outcome was that the works of the convention. landscape cannot stay still. Architects must be All the lecturers /host speakers were asked to sit aware of the roots and traditions of an area but on the stage and report the different outcomes they should help taking this area towards a new of the world cafés sessions, while the audience vision of nature that has taken on a new environ- could take part asking questions, clarifications, mentally friendly vision. or giving opinions.

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Once again we allowed a common working ses- 2012 reported that a successful original project is sion that helped everyone from world famous the result of long study and preparation, and not experts to common people to get a deeper last that being a garden designer is not enough, awareness of the state of things. while a training as a gardener is vital in order to The experiment has been very encouraging; the get the best results from the delicate stages of request of giving life to real and actual actions realization and conservation. came out together with a need of sustainability, We performed the same line also in 2013 when participation and the importance of a common tourism was the key topic of the convention. A ground from where to engage a dialogue be- new interpretation of accommodation turned tween past and future time, so that a new defini- out to be the “albergo diffuso” (scattered hotel). tion of landscape becomes possible. This has given life to actual projects in the area in the Vittoriale di Gabriele D’Annunzio in Gardone Riviera. Facing different European projects Together with positive issues such as this last one, a negative effect of globalization came from We could consider several solutions as far as the Spanish geographer Francisco Munoz : the planning and technical issues are concerned, as result of hosting a Smurf convention held by well as those related to general issues such as an American Company made the inhabitants of governance strategies. a small village in Sierra Malaga in Spain decide In 2011 Fabienne Gibodeaux, parks and gardens to paint their houses blue instead of traditional councillor of the Town Council of Paris, together white (due to “albedo” ). with some Professors of the Ecole de Versailles, shared their experience concerning urban shared kitchen gardens and other issues. Their presenta- Communication: the difficult dialogue with public tion explained in detail all stages of the project, bodies and the actual practical problems they faced. This created a strong curiosity and increased what The key point as to considering the landscape as was already a local need, and created a proac- a common good has been the communication of tive attitude with Italian organisations. The very public bodies (town council, region, province, lo- interesting result that arose from world café dis- cal communities) and the cultural actors involved cussion was that even if problems and difficulties in the planning and project making ( architects, were actually the same and all set in the Mediter- landscape designers, geographers, agronomists, ranean area, it is a big mistake to suggest the so- journalists and opinion makers....) lution in merely copying what another area has What came out from our four year experience adopted. Each place has to be taken into account is that it is actually very difficult to put into as a single and unique one studying the best and practice the new tools and ways to protect the more appropriate solution taking into account territory. Ten years after the European Conven- all its peculiar characteristics. tion of the Landscape, projects have increased The Barcelona EMBT Spanish projects in 2013, Val- in number on one hand, while on the other, erio Morabito (studio Corner) and the High Line despite the fact that attitude has actually in New York in 2012, Daniel Vasini and WEST8 in changed, it is still too difficult to leave the old 2011 are just some of the host speakers protago- traditional procedures, due to a huge amount nist of our meetings. They all shared a real unusual of bureaucracy of course, but also to the fact and original interpretation of the theme. As far as that landscape is not considered a top priority The Olympic Park is concerned, Nigel Dunnett in in a period of financial crisis.

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A common language through new movements and trends is asking. The old and sterile concepts strategies and beliefs, The opportunities given by the European Land- like the “genius loci” for example, have no future. scape Convention and the limits of its application The huge failure of town planning in considering have been studied. The terms: landscape, territory, nature like architecture, must be forgotten. agriculture, tourism and town, have been analy- The future is considering the single, the indi- sed considering the concept of identity and com- vidual, the final user of public green areas as the munity property; not only their semantic meaning core of the project. For example the spread of but the different relation between common good the environmentally friendly good practices, the and community property as a conflict of rights vs. so called “Zero pesticides use” very popular in obligations and the single citizen vs. society. France, would be really beneficial in Italy as they The result of this analysis is that the user feels and really represent what is closer to the real needs intends the common good as something on which also from educational point of view. he deserves his rights, but at the same time he does not feel responsible to its conservation nor he feels it is something he is obliged to respect. Thanks The governing authority on the other hand considers landscape as a mere cost, so it has to return We would like to thank all the host speakers who profits, and this very often results in the superficial in the years have taken part to our convention: exploitation of the landscape as a touristic good. Ermanno Casasco, Ettore Favini, Andreas Kipar, Domenico Luciani, Francesco Merlo, Francesca Neonato, Stefania Naretto, Maurizio Ori, Chiara Conclusion Otella, Darco Pandakovic, Luciano Pia, Alessandro Rocca, Andrea Vigetti, from abroad: James Bas- The real town, with its actual problems and situa- son, Udo Dagenbach, Enzo Enea, Pablo Georgief tions is where we are asked to start again paying (Coloco Group), Jacqueline Osty, and Elisabetta attention to real people, to what the common man Belletti for the help in the English version.

R. Lingi, Ziros Lake, Fourth Edition Peoples Landscapes

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Common Goods in the Perspective of the (His- since nobody can prevent others to have access toric) Urban Landscape Approach to it, but its consumption in different forms can preclude its usability by others. Viviana Martini This concept has become fundamental in urban PhD University of Nova Gorica management and has partially moved from the [email protected] traditional planning, which tended to bureaucra- tise as act of the government, on the assumption Abstract: In historic cities, restrictions can have different forms. that public authorities decide, to a new form, When a limit is imposed to safeguard a urban landscape, it is the governance, based on special institutional possible to limit the construction in one area while allowing it to increase in another area. The advantage for the authorities arrangements that could be found in common- is that they do not have to spend anything since the loss of a pool resources. right in one area is compensated by its availability in another The idea of governance, which was supported by area where it can be sold to owners and developers. The urban the European Union (White Paper: 2001), intro- equalisation regime may be a valid tool by which any inequali- ties connected with the rights of individuals and community duces five other principles, namely openness, par- can be overcome safeguarding not only the owner’s rights but ticipation, accountability, effectiveness and coher- also common goods. ence, that strongly promote a different approach This way, the aim of the paper is to illustrate a new inter & intra to territorial development which is important for disciplinary tool for conservation, planning and management to establish more democratic governance. All ac- of cultural landscapes with complex urban and historic characters. tors are asked to take part in the process, with an It investigates the connection among the (Historic) Urban overall aim to guarantee the highest integration Landscape approach, planning tools, urban equalisation re- of actions for an optimisation of the resources gime, user’s rights and Common Goods in some areas included at stake. If governance is taking the floor in the in the buffer zone of the historic city of Assisi, in Italy. scenarios of territorial management, new tools Keywords: HUL, Common Goods, planning, rights. for information and communication sharing are needed and these should be able to draw the attention of all stakeholders both to raise awareness Introduction: Governance, HUL approach and and to speed up the decision making process. In Common Goods this framework, possible answers can come from the newly introduced the (Historic) Urban Land- The increasing need to match planning with manscape approach and from the possible range of agement and management with preservation instruments to assess it, the same instruments moved the attention to possible different approach- that would enable an appropriate planning able es, based on more comprehensive and holistic views to react to the pressures of the urban sprawl. on the urban context. In the heritage field, the debate about tangible and intangible assets pointed out the true nature of culture as the complex sphere The (Historic) Urban Landscape where societies can manifest themselves. Recent movements at national level have high- The phenomena of rapid urbanisation and trans- lighted the importance of a relatively new conformation of existing cities have put the concept cept, extremely relevant in our perspective, giv- of heritage conservation in the core of manage- en by the so-called Common good. ment tools. Common good should be intended as neither At the international level, new policies and meth- collective nor private, but characterised by the ri- odologies for the conservation both of historic valrousness and the non-excludability. A square, cities and their surrounding landscapes were al- for instance, could be seen as a common good ready defined in the 1970s of the XX century.

118 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective

Still today, the main references for the manage- (Historic) Urban Landscape means an approach ment of historic areas are to be found in the to the identification and recognition of specified UNESCO documents. They consider the historic qualities, characteristic and significant relation- city as a living organism, the result of a long strati- ships in the built and natural territory, resulting fication, which can adapt itself to the necessities from processes over time and being associated of modern life, seen in a development perspec- with multiple layers of significance. tive which should be based on the balance be- Planning and management of Historic Urban tween conservation and transformation, past Landscapes will necessarily involve numerous and future of urban landscape. stakeholders and authorities, placed at different However, the analysis of the international situa- levels of hierarchy. Therefore, one of the key is- tion shows the existence of significant limits in sues in the management will be communication traditional policies, which are not always able to and information at all levels. properly manage the consequences of new so- The definition and implementation of HUL cial and economic processes as well as the formal would be mainly based on the existing and/ proposal of contemporary architecture in urban or newly created planning and management landscape. instruments according to case. Consequently, Starting from these considerations, UNESCO, HUL would not be just another master plan, but together with many other subjects interested rather it should offer a general policy reference in conservation, has started a reflection on the for safeguarding and integrated development development of historic cities, resulting in a Rec- policies and strategies. ommendation on the Historic Urban Landscape, In the end, a wide education and awareness for which was adopted in November, 2011. the management of heritage are fundamental. This Recommendation contains a wide and Such educational and training policies should complex definition of the concept of HUL and consider the integration of necessary aware- shows how UNESCO has come to consider the ness as a requirement in career structures of historic city and urban landscape as a dynamic professionals and in the appointment of officers entity – and not a static one any longer – where responsible for the management and develop- development and conservation are supposed to ment of the built and natural environment. supplement each other in a joint process which The fact that historic cities are living cities calls should provide appropriate tools and manage- for an active participation of the local population, ment plans. for whom these spaces hold special significance. This notion provides a framework for general It is also clear that historic areas are essentially principles that acknowledge continuous change entities that go through continual processes of in functions, uses and social structures as part transformations and multi-disciplinary actions of the urban tradition, and it offers policies and needed to be taken to control these changes. strategies for proper planning processes involving a close participation of the communities and groups of people, according to the principles of An approach to the management of HUL the Governance. The HUL approach aims at managing the devel- An approach to HUL, according the Draft Action opment of historic cities to contribute to the well- Plan of the UNESCO Recommendation, could being of communities and to the conservation of contain the following steps: historic urban areas and their cultural heritage 1. First of all a general assessment on the devel- while ensuring economic and social diversity opment of the urban structure should be done and residential functions and common goods. to acknowledge the perspective of investigation

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Fig. 1. Assisi: vulnerability of common goods of the city, where and why data should be col- can offer a general overview on the intensity of lected. importance (concentration of different quali- 2. Data collection, by means of historic inves- ties in the urban landscape) correlated with the tigations through archives and libraries, visual degree of potential transformation/change. The representations, statistic data elaboration on the result, again proposed in a graphic format by cultural, socio-economic and environmental di- the use of maps, give immediate information for mensions of the selected urban area. It includes a policy making. preliminary study of the significance of the cities, 5. The final step is the definition of priority ac- their history and the development of their urban tions for conservation/development, with spe- shape. In addition, the analysis of historic maps, cial attention to areas that are less protected, and cartographic resources and historic iconography more subject to alteration or destruction of the is essential to understand the city’s significance, distinctive characteristics and Common resourc- and to define what the resources are and why es. This way, the development of the appropriate they are important. Another key element is the partnership and local management frameworks study and the analysis of the past and present for each of the identified projects for conserva- city protection tools, which, as a general rule, de- tion and development in the CCS/CDS must be scribe the current conditions in a higher or lesser considered, in order to coordinate the various detail and regulate future transformations. activities between different actors, public and 3. The data collected is represented in a thematic private. map according to the intensity and the propen- sity to structural changes. Thematic maps are overlapped to point out the intensity map and Common goods and urban equalization in the HUL the vulnerability map, as them are often comple- approach: the case of Assisi mentary (Fig. 1). 4. The data collected so far, organised into a co- With regard to the possibility of urban devel- herent set of resources and assessed according opment in Assisi, this must occur outside the to a scale of values in the different Macro-areas historic centre, near the hamlets which are al-

120 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective ready seriously compromised. Consequently, have almost all of their original characteristics of urban expansion could be assumed for the historic urban landscape intact. The presence of hamlets of Santa Maria degli Angeli, Petrigna- scattered, disjointed constructions that spoil the no and Palazzo in particular, which are already visual integrity of the historic urban landscape in compromised significantly due to widespread, various points should be the subject of practical, random urbanisation, accompanied by the ul- organised planning that aims to rearrange the timate objective of modernising the existing territory. structures. The identification of these different areas for To this effect the City Development Strategy conservation/development can result in some (CDS)/ City Conservation Strategy (CCS) identi- inequality in relation to the rights of owners and fies the macro areas of expansion in the historic common goods. city, splitting the territory into: This way, the urban equalisation can be a valid - areas which are strictly off-limits: areas that in- tool on which the HUL approach can be integrat- clude the historic centre, the area of the Subasio ed. The purpose of the equalisation today must and the area at the foot of the hills. These are ar- be designed to achieve a number of objectives, eas which are already sufficiently protected (leg- which can be summarised as follows: islative decree restriction 42/2004; special pano- - acquire good-naturedly additional soils to be- ramas, SIC areas) where conservation measures come common goods for the implementation of are at maximum levels; measures of public utility; - areas with development opportunities: these - acquire the soils for the common goods in their areas include the hamlets and thoroughfare next own parts of the city where their deficiency is to the SS75, where widespread, disjointed build- most felt, for example in those parts of the urban ing has seriously compromised the original char- fabric where the processes of functional obsoles- acteristics of the historic urban landscape. The cence pose needs of requalification; idea of sustainable development in these areas - ensure soils in similar conditions of fact and law, of the historic town means intervening on the thus eliminating inequality among the owners of existing structures by modernising them, in ad- the land allocated to private actuations and those dition to creating new economic and social de- of soils assigned to public actuations, which velopment opportunities for the town; characterise the zoning of the traditional ap- - areas with development opportunities espe- proach; cially for the construction of high rise buildings: - implement the urban transformation activating these are the areas of Petrignano, already seri- private initiative in the implementation of public ously compromised in terms of visual integrity and community goods; and from which the historic centre of Assisi is no - with the urban equalisation, all owners of land longer visible, as highlighted on the visual integ- have the same index for build; the owners of the rity map (Fig. 2); areas which are designed as common goods can - already compromised areas that require careful transfer these areas to collective uses once ex- planning, design and implementation: these are ploited the development rights. the fringe areas of the hamlets, where the origi- It is therefore desirable that the HUL approach, nal characteristics of the historic urban landscape the urban equalisation regime and the existing are still present but are partially compromised, or planning and management tools become shared some urban sections along the railway line; and integrated instruments in order to promote - partially intact areas that require careful plan- the development of the city and at the same ning, design and implementation: these are the time to safeguard the owners’ rights and Com- areas corresponding to the Assisi plains, that still mon goods.

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Fig. 2. Assisi visual integrity map

References UNESCO (2011), Report and revised text of the draft Recom- mendation on the Historic Urban Landscape. Commission of the European Communities (2001), Euro- Martini, V. (2013), The Conservation of Historic Urban Land- pean Governance, A White Paper, Brussels: COM (2001) scapes: an approach, PhD thesis: University of Nova 428 ﬁnal. Gorica.

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The Relevance of Collective Properties in Build- are not established systems of rules in order to ing Cultural Landscape prevent the depletion of the stock. Conversely, if the rules for the preservation of the stock don’t Francesco Minora allow exploitation flows, population may aban- European Research Institute on Cooperative and Social Enter- don those areas. prises1 Most of the literature in terms of commons is Contacts: [email protected] focused in the study of natural resources such as pastures, forests, irrigation systems, oceans Abstract: This paper argues the idea that landscape can be a etc. because these resources, more than oth- common good through an examination of theoretical and empirical investigation of collective properties, evidence of mille- ers, show this dilemma. In any case, as soon as narian land management schemes whose relevance seems to the term was clarified, it was realised that other be forgotten. traditionally considered public goods fall under The first part of the paper is focused on those aspects char- this category: dealing with roads, for example, acterising the commons that show more than others to have a direct impact on the mechanisms of production of cultural over-exploitation is a synonymous of traffic and landscapes. Among these elements are discussed in particular under-exploitation is synonymous of neglect, excludability and property regimes and those ones related to decay, insecurity. Similar consideration can be the running mechanisms of collective properties such as cus- done on traditionally considered private goods, tom and culture. such as houses: for instance common parts like This paper describes the outcomes of collective properties’ action on territory through the case of Agrarian Partecipanze in stairs or car parks allow inhabitants to access Cento, showing how their contradictory practices were able to their homes. produce a cultural landscape. Commons are interesting objects to be studied to the extent they are part of a more complex Keywords Commons, Common Pool Resources, Collective properties, Cul- system in which interactions happen between at tural landscape, Agrarian Partecipanze least three elements: community’s subjects, the physical-spatial conditions of the resources, the regulatory mechanisms used by people with par- 1. Introduction: on common goods and cultural ticular reference to decision-making rules. commons In a local system where there’s a coexistence of different forms of ownership, CPRs enable all The concept of common good is associated to the members of a community the access to a mini- notion of common pool resources (CPRs) (Mckean, mum vital to the maintenance of the species. et al., 2000) (Ostrom, 1990). CPRs identify those The right to water on which several authors have particular resources on which coexist two dif- discussed (Ward, 1998) (Simms, et al., 2003) (Mat- ferent types of property regimes: use rights as- tei, 2011) is an example of how the reduction of serted are parcelled among several subjects in the plurality of property regimes in favour of mo- respect of the exploitation of the resource flow nopolist’s ones dispossesses the community of (e.g. a fish, a lot of land, a well etc.). These rights the chance to survive. are similar to those ones asserted in the individ- In economic literature a second advantage of ual private property regime. Dealing with the re- commons is called the reduction of transaction source’s stock, however, (e.g. a shoal of fishes, an costs, a phenomenon visible both dealing with area, a water basin etc.) the same subjects exer- technological development, and in other situa- cise indivisible rights similar to those ones used tions: for example the erection of fences (enclo- in public property regimes. sures) entails the payment of lawyers for the def- For CPRs is central the problem of their scarcity: inition of property’s boundaries and hereditary the risk of an overexploitation is crucial if there succession’s costs.

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Institutional arrangements for governing CPRs are the commons mentioned above. In the study of called collective institutions: collective properties landscape as a common good, analytical catego- described below are examples of these kind of in- ries typically used in the study of the commons stitutions. Communities’ destiny is largely based doesn’t seem to be sufficient. This is particularly on the ability of these institutions to establish true for cultural landscapes that can be consid- a system of rules that are sufficiently stable and ered a combination of culture both as a set of respected by group’s members. The absence of practices and as a value in itself. rules implies that resources are subject to a differ- The definition that Bertacchini et al. (2012) quoted ent regime defined open access, with disastrous in Gabbi (2013) used for cultural commons reflects consequences for the CPRs themselves and, con- this idea: these authors agree in defining them as sequently, for the survival of the community. a system of intellectual resources available within Interaction is so important for these communi- a geographic or virtual area like ideas, creativity, ties that in some collective properties’ charters, lifestyles, traditions, beliefs and traditional knowl- it is not unusual to read specific articles binding edge. Cultural resources, spatial context where people to hold roles of responsibility within the interaction is played and community’s attributes community. Participation is therefore not sponta- are the three elements that the authors identify neous, but it’s an obligation to co-management. as relevant for the analysis of cultural common. The unit of analysis for studying CPRs and in- However the normative dimension, in my opin- teractions between actors in a social-ecological ion, cannot be avoided and continues to have a systems is defined action arena (Ostrom, 2005). strong influence on all the three elements just It consists of various action situations i.e. a set mentioned by defining the ways in which culture of recurrent interactions in which the physical is reproduced and evolves and the way in which it and spatial characteristics, the community’s at- takes shape in the socio-spatial interaction. tributes and rules are combined in observable behaviours and choices. The concept of action arena is not very different 2. The landscape as a common: the case of the from the one used by some authors where the Agrarian Partecipanze of Cento (Fe - Italy) territory coincides with the usage made of it (Cro- sta, 2010), with the difference that while studies Considering the landscape2 as a common means on the commons are focused on behaviours and underlying the difficulty of excluding someone individual choices (actions), in territorial studies from its enjoyment. The term difficult does not the attention is focused on practices. This mean automatically means impossible, but it simply that cultural outcomes of actions are relevant for means more expensive. There are in fact some interaction itself. In other words, the territory is landscapes whose enjoyment is allowed through not something simply acted, but it is the place or the payment of an access fee (fun parks for ex- arena in which every action produces effects in ample). Moreover, even for seeing an alpine land- cultural terms. Hence community of appropria- scape directly, anyone needs to physically visit the tors are community of producers as well. site and then spend resources for travelling. Both of these approaches point out the atten- All the resources that are based on spatiality as a tion on the user and on the outcome produced foundational element are somehow excludable. from such usage of resources. They differ, how- This type of argument is developed by Fold- ever, in including or not the cultural component vary (1994) who points out that free riders (i.e. of the action: the custom for example, includes those ones that earn the benefits derived from values and symbols that can be hardly included improvements without paying the costs), are, in the list of analytical categories used to study for the goods like landscape, landowners. Those

124 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective ones should bear the costs of improvements and, hence, are more legitimated than others to govern land transformations. However, this argument is not complete. The landscape as a common good implies from one hand a parcelled exploitation of the soil by landowners, and on the other hand the possibility of its enjoyment as an intact and undivided resource dealing with its stock component, as pointed out above. The landscape as a common good is the means through which the territory assumes a public value. There should be a collec- Fig. 1 Geometric subdivision of common lands tive institution for governing this aspect: normally this institution is public (the State), but it can The environmental instability due to River Idice’s be private as well (collective properties). flooding has marked these territories. The custom The case of Agrarian Partecipanze of Cento in of dividing every twenty years the land collective- Ferrara Province (Italy) clearly exemplifies this ly owned into lots that are assigned to the each idea. The Partecipanze are spread across the Po householders is still practiced. People entitled to valley. They are a particular form of collective in- partition are only male householders descending stitutions spread throughout Europe. By the end from the ancient original families that populated of the XIX century they were attacked (Grossi, these lands, living continuously in Cento. Even 1977)3. However they didn’t disappear. The 6th today, the small white streets accessing the lots agricultural census carried out by ISTAT (2010) carry the surnames of these families. identifies as collectively owned about 5% of Ital- ian lands. Geographic area Hectars Nord-ovest 249.242,44 Nord-est 477.914,35 Centro 205.400,78 Sud 536.310,72 Isole 152.992,24 Total 1.621.860,53 % on national lands 5,37 Table n. 1 Collective lands’ distribution in Italy (ISTAT, 2010) Fig. 2 Rururban landscape of Cento

On the collective lands of Cento there are two The rule to exclude daughters from succession Agrarian Partecipanze since the XII-XIII century. as well as ordinary residents of Cento has always Their birth was due to some emphyteusis rights depended on the need to reduce the number of made by the Abbot of Nonantola to communi- claimants preventing overpopulation and overex- ties who settled here. Their presence in these ploitation of land. Books telling the story of Cento wetlands owned by the State of the Church stress a signiﬁcant presence of people in these ru- had the meaning of monitoring and reclaiming ral areas (Centro Studi Girolamo Baruﬀaldi, 1994). marshy areas. Those lands were later bought by This phenomenon was probably due to the fact those people. that the subdivision of land into lots attracted

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Fig. 3 Typical homes in Cento people here looking for a piece of land to crop. areas. In the ‘60s-’70s the number of enterprises Once the drainage was ended, commoners be- born in Cento was one of the biggest of Italy came permanent residents. The right to crop the (Camera di Commercio di Ferrara, 1989). lot where a household lived has driven several It was noted by some experts that Agrarian Parte- community’s member to build houses for the cipanze represent “an open-air archive” (Torre- whole year. The Partecipanza in 1611 had to de- sani, 1998). This sentence stresses the cultural fine distances and height of the homes specify- dimension of the landscape produced. Not in all ing building rules. Even today some of the kilns Partecipanze the landscape value has a weight as used for burning bricks are still visible. The archi- strong as in that of Cento. In fact the influence tectural style used for building is quite peculiar of culture on the local landscape in other similar to these areas. In the curse of time the presence situations remained in the oral sphere, without of Partecipanze has witnessed the production of taking body in architectural and spatial shape. a peculiar agricultural landscape. This case shows paradoxically the fragmentation The culture of self-entrepreneurship thanks to of the land by a closed group of people co-exists land subdivision was very rooted in these fami- with the production of cultural landscapes. The lies: during the XX century, once agriculture opening to the enjoyment of people from out- activities were not profitable anymore, and the side the community enforced in the Act n.1766 engine factory started to grow in these areas, and never implemented would obviously dis- families started to produce engine components, torted this type of landscape. It is the cultural building sheds near their homes on common landscape the element which in this case makes lands, changing the economic nature of these enjoyable these areas to anyone.

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3. Concluding questions to the local community. Common lands are inalienable, indivisible, not subject to acquisitive prescription and per- petually bound to agro - forest - pastoral usage. The production of cultural landscapes in the work of self-organised communities like the Agrarian Partecipanze of Cento only partially solves some Bibliography key questions that arise when considering collec- Bertacchini, E., Bravo, G., Marrelli, M. and Santagata, W. (eds.) tive properties as institutions capable of governing (2012) Cultural commons: a new perspective on the produc- landscape. Here are listed some key questions in tion and evolution of cultures Cheltenham, Northampton, this paper there’s not enough space to deal with: Mass.: Edward Elgar. tino - PCOFUND-GA-2008-226070î programme co-funded Mattei, U. (2011) Beni comuni. Un Manifesto Roma, Bari: Laterza. by The Province of Trento & The European Commission Mckean, M., Ostrom, E. and Gibson, C. (2000) People and forests: 2 In this paper landscape is considered according to the defi- communities, institutions and governance Cambridge, Mas- nition provided in Florence by the Council of Europe (2000). sachusetts: Mit press. In this convention landscape is defined as (Art. 1 a) “an area, Minora, F. (2011) Le proprietà collettive di Cento e Cortina as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the d’Ampezzo in Moroni S. and G. Brunetta G. (eds.) La città action and interaction of natural and/or human factors”. intraprendente; comunità contrattuali e sussidiarietà orizzon- UNESCO (1992-2013) identifies cultural landscapes as “the tale. Roma: Carocci. combined works of nature and of man designated in Article Ostrom, E. (1990) Governing the commons Cambridge: Cam- 1 of the Convention (on world heritage). They are illustra- bridge University Press. tive of the evolution of human society and settlement over Ostrom, E. (2005) Understanding institutional diversity Princ- time, under the influence of the physical constraints and/or eton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. opportunities presented by their natural environment and Simms, A., Drury, J. and Trathen, K. (2003) Limits to property: the of successive social, economic and cultural forces, both ex- failure of restrictive property regimes in the modern world Lon- ternal and internal”. don: NEF, the New Economics Foundation. 3 Act n. 1766 in 1927 abolished Usi civici, defining their hiv- Torresani, S. (1998) Il territorio delle Partecipanze Agrarie emil- ing off and liquidation through money. It also established iane: un archivio storico a cielo aperto in Nervi, P. (ed.) I demani collective lands for agricultural usage (category B) should civici e le proprietà collettive: un altro modo di possedere, un di- be parcelled and liquidate; instead they would be protected verso modo di gestire. Padova: CEDAM. if used for forests and pastures (category A). This law identi- UNESCO (2013) Cultural Landscape [Online] fied also agrarian Associations and Universities separately. Available at: http://whc.unesco.org/en/culturallandscape/ Usi civici had to be managed by the local municipality, while [20th December 2013]. agrarian Associations could continue to exist if not for harm Ward, C. (1998) La città dei ricchi e la città dei poveri Roma: E/O.

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The Architecture of Wine Landscape: Marginal- houses, lakes, rivers, even fields should appear ity as Equivalent for Quality as documents and witnesses of a story that still needs to be written. Fosca Tortorelli1, Francesca Muzzillo2 No doubt, in our century human activity has already significantly altered the landscape, to the (1) Dipartimento Luigi Vanvitelli, Seconda Università di Napo- point that it can be hard to identify the many li, [email protected] changes occurred in a short time. In most cases, (2) Dipartimento Luigi Vanvitelli, Seconda Università di Napoli, however, it is still possible to detect many aspects [email protected] that bear witness to our past and, therefore, offer the opportunity to set in motion the most appro- Abstract: There are many connections between architecture, priate protective action. Therefore, we’d better landscape and identity, which could be analysed with different modify the landscape in which we live only if we interpretations. The key issue is the concept of “terroir”, that in every place involves a network of meanings arising from the in- are truly aware of the value of our cultural and tersection of landscape, grapes vines, products and economy. historical heritage as well as of the environment. The rural culture with a social structure of family type, over the Sometimes, landscape gains new identity centuries has helped to preserve the integrity of different envi- through the changes carried out by the individ- ronmental contexts. Hence the search for a new dimension of the cultural landscape, which should start from the connection ual, who re-interprets landscape according to his mentioned by the philosopher Remo Bodei between the two or her own sensitivity. terms “culture” and “farming”. The innovation must start from Landscape is therefore a very complex entity, the same set in relation to a dynamic system with a majority of made of concrete as well as of abstract descrip- links between elements of small size, connected to each other tors, such as culture, history and traditions: to confirm the persistence of differences, which become a priority for the landscape character of a place and a space. In order all the elements interact and merge into one to not totally cancel the distinctive feature of “neglected place”. single result, which is obviously eclectic. Land- Specifics examples are the eco-museum fieldwork in France, scape contains the history of its people, while its where it is evident the importance of maintaining a recogniz- shapes and lines are the concrete sign of human able environmental impact of human signs including recent and, uneven not completely denature with fake hint of “old” intervention, which has made the environment and “peculiar”, just what wanted to preserve. In this sense , to productive. As archaeologists say, the territory is do not homogenize the areas, should be studied the best ways like a palimpsest upon which all human activi- to recover in small confined spaces, the charm of randomness ties have left some trace. Of course, we must not that the places still retain . forget that with the passing of time landscape Keywords: Wine area; Breakup; Marginality; Landscape Per- has often changed its physiognomy, improved spective; Local Production or worse, alternatively becoming the place of disfigurement (think of our countryside in times of famine or natural disasters). The work of man, A Modern View for Wine Landscapes in Architecture1 however, is always the first element in charge of the landscape’s change: landscape becomes the According to a well-established practice, land- mirror of human action, which turns a large part scape is seen as a natural setting rather than as of what we call natural into artificial. an inert atmosphere mostly changed and trans- The above-mentioned concepts lead us to an im- formed by men. In other words, the reading of portant consideration, namely the ability to under- territory has always taken place according to stand the uniqueness of landscape and its quality aesthetic criteria without taking into account the of non-transferability. Landscape mutually reacts fact that landscape is effected by the changing of to human activities and natural environment. For economy and by the evolution of technology. a full enhancement of modern wine production, Therefore, to a careful observer, old villages, conforming to the morphology of landscape, as

128 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective well as to its history is advisable, especially since a by its physicality, by its diversity. In this sense, vineyard gives a hard-to-replace and almost inimi- landscape is a notion deeply linked to spatial and table identity to landscape itself. chronological variability. Climate, topography and soil cultivation tech- The farm is located within the agro Amastuola niques that are imposed from time to time are Crispiano, on a plateau 210 meters above sea calibrated and programmed for specific envi- level in the omonymous district, and is in an area ronmental realities. Man has consequently cre- dotted with farms since the late medieval age. ated landscape , making it both productive and The surrounding area is characterised by a luxu- aesthetically appealing. Man then becomes the riant Mediterranean vegetation, with pine trees main actor in the landscape. and the Mediterranean maquis, which create Perhaps for this reason, the value acquired by a set of aromas and flavours. Vine cultivation in wine landscape over time can be defined as a this rural area is an ancient practice: grape seeds sort of “ territorial imprinting .” and Greek amphorae have been found during ar- It is through the architecture of vineyards that chaeological excavations. landscape takes shape, providing its wines with The buildings of the farm, which are not current- peculiar traits, becoming the basic value for eco- ly used, have been renovated to avoid deteriora- nomic processes and the synthesis of a multiplic- tion and to encourage tourism industry and cul- ity of relationships. tural development in the whole area. The winery The structure of the Italian viticulture/wine sys- is underground. The barriques and barrels area, tem is due to its territory, intended in its physical, also underground, once open to the public, will anthropic and cultural dimensions, and to the be the starting point for amateurs visits to win- ecosystem, meant as quality of landscape and of eries and tasting and the centre of initiatives in the vineyard environment. This macro system is cultural tourism, sustainable mobility paths, rural articulated into micro-territorial systems, as a re- receptivity. sult of their interaction both within the territory The design of Amastuola vineyard /garden (fig. (as synthesis of factors related to the physical and 1) has been highly valued from many perspec- the natural), and within the strategic-relational tives and received several awards, among which domain. one for the “Good Practice for the recovery of Italian viticulture in its centuries-old evolution agricultural landscapes no longer productive“ has always chosen the most suitable climate and for the “Good practice for the protection and habitats. However, it has also given rise to very enhancement of agricultural landscape also for different processes of sedimentation structures tourism purposes.“ and investment strategies. It has been repeatedly stated that the viticulture landscape is made up of sets of colours, but it is also true that even the smallest details of the vineyard can revive distant landscapes, continuous or hidden. It is the case of the farm called Amastuola. Landscape should therefore be lived and touched with our hands: the attentive view- er will note the differences with the passing of seasons and the enduring charm of the intimate vitality of vine. If landscape is synonymous with culture, history, and nature, it is also true that its appeal is given Fig. 1 The design of Amastuola vineyard /garden

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It can be considered as a unique case of har- In fact, it is precisely through this sensitive geo- mony between production and aesthetics. The metric design that, coming to Amastuola, and vineyards were planted on the basis of the de- along the long avenue flanked on both sides by sign thought of the great landscape architect olive trees, the visitor can grasp - seeing them Fernando Caruncho, which placed them in the parading by side - a kind of silver gray wall that, backs sublime drawing parallel waves that fol- gradually, composes and decomposes. In addi- low for about 3 km, defined by the same author tion, all around, the grass changes colour with “waves of time that traverse this landscape since the seasons and follows the lines of the drywall. antiquity” (Fig.2). In addition, 1,500 olive trees, In addition, going up to the farm, gradually un- items recovered as historical monuments were folds the full perspective on the waves of vine- relocated in 24 islands organically positioned yards that seem to move as you progress, form- over the surface of the vineyard and along the ing light-dark games with olive trees and assum- historic streets of the farm, featuring the project ing at times the appearance, of a velvet combed with the contrast between the green and silver species when they are touched by the wind and of the olive. Bright green waves of the vines. sun grazing in the sunset. Philosopher and gardener at the same time, Fer- The purposes of this project, reported as a case nando Caruncho drew for the first time the entire study, designed to stimulate, promote and in- agricultural landscape as if it were a garden. For duce a different conception of landscape, which him drawing landscape is equivalent to seek- recovered fully its value and its potential in pro- ing entrance into deep order, that order which posing the environments and the national wine he grasps with his heart and processes with the industry . mind. When designing a garden he has the task of combining the human and the natural, not 2. From a fragmented place towards a meaningful only to realise a correct and beautiful to behold, place2 but to achieve that purity and simplicity that is built into the nature of things. How space and Which principle underlies the project with refer- time are two important parameters in his work, ence to terroir, wine landscape and identity of so the geometry becomes the means to express landscape? them, and through which to relate to each other The first idea is that also a dishomogeneous place the architecture, landscape and sky. may be become a place full of sense. Notwithstanding the inherent difficulties, there Geometry becomes the grammar of the garden are latent opportunities in a marginal place with itself. an attitude towards adaptability and a composition of personal experiments in an united mosaic, if we operate with a framework of variable conformations of landscapes that have to be recovered. The renovation of qualities must start from the same system in relation to a dynamic structure with a majority of links between elements of small size, connected to each other to confirm the persistence of differences, which become a priority for the landscape character of a place. Specially in order not to totally cancel the dis- Fig. 2 The Amastuola vineyard /garden tinctive feature of the identity of southern plac-

130 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective es, specific measures are to be adopted not only processes and on the other side the natural eco- as regards the specificity of the product, like it system. regularly happens with autochthon wineries, but In fact, in collecting and re-elaborating the also with regard to perceptive aspect of places. heritage of traditional small rural societies, it is However, the most relevant coming out focus is thought that the new rurality is completely en- that the best choices are the ones that found a trusted to conscientious participating and cul- balance with respect to the perceptive rules. turally evolved societies. It takes up again, in a Let’s move onto the level of the experience of different way, a direct and mutual action process perception, and let’s try to perceive a landscape between natural elements and living forms: a not only in its wholeness, but also taking into ac- process that man was continually experimenting count the visual boundaries between the inter- with his own hands in the rural world respecting nal and the external part of small wine proper- the differences and the various identities. ties: they seem to us dynamic, changeable, and Moreover diversities are connected not only to perforated in more than one place, this system social values and perceptive landscape rules, could only be helped by the presence of non- but also to the quality of the product, that into organized residual margins. southern reality is very often bound to the ex- At a first glance one might argue that a polarisa- treme variability of grapes. In fact onto the tion would lead to a decrease in the intensity of double planes of landscapes, on one hand, and identity. This claim is based on the ideas that a of wine tasting, on the other hand, we could try synthetic idea would emerge in a landscape, but to determine common denominators of different there is a relation inherent the correspondence space combinations and wine identity, consider- of wine economy and wine landscape: the rec- ing also the specificity of the products. ognition of a specific historically founded tra- Notwithstanding the inherent difficulties, there ditional economy corresponds also to a special are latent opportunities in old Southern Italy rural organisation and, if the economic structure is wine landscapes as they preserve a sensible atten- fragmented, an homogeneous landscape asset tion to simplicity. It is a symbolic attention for the design seems better suited to describe reality of environment which moves onto the natural en- big economic standard and it is not often apt to vironment level and onto the human behaviour be reapplied in southern contexts. level with the same attitude, an attitude towards Many eco-museum experiences have connected adaptability, accommodation, contextualisation, winery spaces inside wide landscapes, respecting towards an idea of richness into diversification. the identity of each different little space. The two main reasons for the establishment of an eco- museum in fact is the need to rebalance the envi- Notes ronment of a place and a willingness to work for the recovery of traditions that have developed in 1 Fosca Tortorelli the same place. These characteristics make it par- 2 Francesca Muzzillo ticularly suitable for an eco-museum to promote tourism and sustainable and conscious that fund Essential bibliography its future on a recognition of identity. An innovative approach should offer the oppor- Duane E., 2010, Voluntary simplicity. Toward a Way of Life tunity to enhance the cultural identity of local That Is Outwardly Simple, Inwardly Rich (first ed.1981) Harper, New York. communities, urging the integrated conserva- Caballero R., Díaz Vera J. E.,. de Gruyter W., Sensuous Cogni- tion of the evidence of fragmented economic tion: Explorations into Human Sentience: Imagination, (E) reality, respecting on one side the production motion and Perception

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Barocchi R., Manualetto di progettazione rispettosa del erche ed esperienze a confronto, ESI, Napoli 1999 paesaggio ad uso dei professionisti e delle commissioni Pastore R. Il marketing del vino e del territorio: istruzioni per edilizie integrate, ISPAR – Istituto per lo studio del pae- líuso. Franco Angeli, 2004 saggio e dell’architettura rurale, Edizioni della laguna, Scienza A. Failla O.- Raimondi S.-Angelini R. (A cura d). La vite 2002 e il vino, Script, 2009 Brun, J. P. Le vin et líhuile dans la Méditerranée antique. Viticul- Rossetti M. Cantine. Tecnologia, Architetture, Sostenibilità ture, oléculture et procédés de transformation. Paris 2003 Maggioli Editore, Rimini, 2011 Falcetti M., De Biasi C., Campostrini F., and Bersan A. Dal vi- World Heritage Status of the Cultural Itinerary of the Vine and gneto alla cantina: la zonazione al servizio dellíenologo . Wine Among the Peoples of the Mediterranean, World Heri- Vignevini, 6, 43-74, 2001 tage Expert Meeting on Vineyard Cultural Landscapes, Muzzillo F., a cura di, La progettazione degli ecomusei. Ric- 11-14 Luglio 2001, Tokaj, Hungary

M.A. Massa, It is in us that landscapes have landscape, Fourth Edition Peoples Landscapes

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Landscape and Archaeology. Representing His- the study of landscape, led to its factorisation in tory for Places parts too rich in adjectives (Caravaggi 2002: 12), too often disconnected. Federico Nurra The word indicating landscape in romance lan- (Research Fellow in Ancient Topography) guages (paesaggio, paysage, paisaje, paisagem, Università degli Studi di Sassari peisaj), includes in itself, etymologically, the signs Department of Architecture, Design, Urbanism (DADU) of history and of human action (Scazzosi 1999 e +39 329 6691516 - [email protected] Scazzosi 2002 as in Azzena 2011a: 203); the signs of pagus, village, first and fundamental work of Abstract: The aim of this paper is to present the objectives and transformation of territory in an anthropic sense preliminary results of a research project, currently ongoing, (Raffestin 2005; Guzzo 2002). The same definition framed within the ‘ancient topography’, but looking to the latest practices of spatial planning focused on the environment. of “Historic Landscape” that often characterised Today, as the principle of individual profit and income is pre- the attempts to read, interpret and rebuild an- vailing the concept of publica utilitas, it seems crucial to iden- cient territorial structures (Azzena 2011a: 203), is tify the archaeological public heritage, throughout the terri- therefore redundant. tory, not merely as economic and monetary source, but as a cultural and social resource, too often ignored. Main aim of the present research is therefore to A reflection is proposed, in order to prevent the impoverishment reach a reading of the characters of historicity of cultural sense of territory and urbs. An upstream deep recon- inherent landscape, in order to conceive forms sideration of some positions (usual in the praxis of predomi- of representation allowing a diverse audience to nantly object-oriented conservation) will be needed, orienting “read” the traces of history (fragments or ruins of the study towards a new reading and interpretation of historical evidences (both visible, such as ruins, an agrarian structure now disappeared territorial structures) on terri- or a road network, or invisible, such as toponymic fossils, oral tory, attributing to the significant its meaning in traditions or suggestions) contributing to the modification of time and space. the landscape, up to the present perceived ‘shape’. As Andreina Ricci observes: « nevertheless there Expected result will be a new model of representation of perceived variations of the character of historicity of the Land- is, amongst many, a problem that is usually ne- scape, not as census, cadastre or simple result of the territorial glected: the “meaning” that those pre-existing invariants, but as an instrument of help, support and direction elements have today for citizens and their com- to every study plan. munities in order to elaborate collective identities increasingly “multiple” and “differientiatedc’è però, Keywords: Ancient Topography, Archaeology, Landscape, History, Places. fra tanti, un problema generalmente trascurato: il “significato” che tali preesistenze rivestono, oggi, nell’immaginario dei cittadini e delle loro comunità Premise ai fini dell’elaborazione di identità collettive sem- pre più “multiple” e “differenzianti”differentiated”» The study and analysis of landscape took, in the last (Ricci 2006: 9). twenty years, an ever increasing role in different Precisely and duly knowing the positioning and fields of knowledge, from landscape ecology (Fa- real meaning of the past ruins remaining on the rina 2001) to geography (Guermandi, Tonet 2008; territory is fundamental to reach this aim, i.e. Farinelli 2003), territorial planning (Castelnovi 1998; having an ‘Archaeological Map’ (Castagnoli 1993: Raffestin 2005; Turri 2002), history (Guzzo 2002; Set- 5-81; Azzena 2001: 149-152). The territorial sur- tis 2010; Azzena 2011a; Turri 2006) and legislative vey of the present research is therefore based on field (Carpani 2005; Carpentieri 2004). the method of ancient topography (Castagnoli The topic includes in itself different strictly inter- 1993; Dall’Aglio 2000), looking to the most recent related features; the result of a sectoral hyper- practices of environmental-oriented territorial specialisation (Morin 2000) in the approach to planning (Maciocco, Serreli, Sanna 2011).

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Objectives 1995: 136-160; Ricci 2006: 94-99) will be, thus, put into question, trying new forms of reading and Conceiving new forms of representation of «his- interpreting the processes which have allowed tory for places» (Azzena 2011a: 201) is funda- traces of history (both visible, as a ruin, an agrar- mental in order to support the dialogue between ian structure or a road network, and invisible, as specialists traditionally investigating aspects of toponymic fossils, oral tradition or suggestions) territorial archaeology, e.g. ancient topography to remain on the present landscape. and landscape archaeology (Cambi 2012), and A theoretical and practical contribution to the those studying territorial, urban and landscape planning and realization of an innovative system planning (Fazzio 2005). of representation (Nurra 2011: 39-41) able to re- The present work, aiming to an organic develop- turn the perceived variations of historicity of the ment of territory, tries to mend the existing gap places (considered inherent and ubiquitous in all between a preeminently conservative approach landscape, and not only where it’s perceptually and a diametrically opposite approach, aimed to relevant) will be proposed. the transformation (Fazzio 2005: 26-28; Azzena Indispensable starting point will be the traditional 2004: 185-187; Ricci 2006: 41-16 e 58-68; Turri ‘Archaeological Map’ (in progress in Italy from 1875 2006: 21-25). and still unfinished; Mansuelli 1957: 299-301; Cast- Implicit objective is to return to populations the agnoli 1993: 5-81; Azzena 2001: 149-152). This map meaning of traces of history present on territo- should be enriched with those material elements ries, as perceived by insiders and outsiders (Cos- that, until the more recent past, interested, de- grove 1990: 246-247), in order to build some tools signed and transformed the places, trying to over- of knowledge and sharing aimed to allow the come the traditional historiographical (Carandini widest possible audience to know and interpret 2008) and legislative (D.Lgs 42/2004 e ss.mm.) the history of their own places, and for their own criteria, that arbitrarily put absolute chronological places (Azzena 2011a: 201-209). The attempt is to caesuras between the end of Ancient Age and the avoid a drift tending to territorial homologation passage to Middle Age and Modern and Contem- and to the debasement and the loss of places’ porary Age (see the principle of ‘equidistance’, in identity (Azzena et Alii 2012: 96-98). Azzena 2011a: 215-219). This goal will be pursued with the support of a Attention will be paid on individuation and re- solid regulatory apparatus, to a Regional (Zoppi building of ‘chronosystems’ developed through 2004 e Guermandi, Cicala 2005), National (D.Lgs. the centuries, as living bodies on the ground that 22 gennaio 2004 e ss.mm. Cammelli 2004) and dying (as defunctionalised) inevitably left their European extent (Ulisse 2009; European Land- mortal remains, signs of their passage, as mem- scape Convention, Firenze, 20th October 2000, ory and track of their existence, often offering Art. 6 «to assess the landscapes thus identified, cannibalistic nourishing and sustenance to the taking into account the particular values as- bodies that took their place and whose succes- signed to them by the interested parties and sion gives, today, a sense to that diachronic jum- the population concerned.»); an apparatus that, ble that, filtered through the thick lenses of our thanks to the ‘ethic’ inspiration (Venturi Ferriolo look (Farinelli 2003: 66), can be called Landscape 2002) of the European Landscape Convention (Turri 2006: 15-18; Farinelli 2003: 200-201; Guzzo (Carpani 2005 e Carpentieri 2004), faced the top- 2002: 73. Cfr. Cosgrove 1990: 246-247). ic with an innovative, but still perfectible (above Expected result will be a new model of represen- all in terms of protection), approach. tation of perceived variations of the character of The ‘object-oriented’ approach to the protec- the landscape’s historicity, not as census, cadast- tion of historical-archaeological heritage (Choay re or simple result of the territorial invariants, but

134 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective as an instrument of help, support and direction debate would be inserted in the reflection start- to every study plan (see some explicative cases ed in the last years in the urban and landscape in Castelnovi 1998; Azzena et Alii 2012). fields; a reflection that tries to overcome the high boundary walls erected for the defense of disciplinary competences contributing to an organic State of the art study of territorial planning (Azzena 2004: 195).

The office for the archaeological map of Italy was established with a Royal Decree in 1889 (Azzena Preliminary results 2001: 15; Azzena 2011b: 30). Safeguarding the archaeological heritage was certainly the driv- Reaching a base of historical-territorial knowl- ing force of this initiative, in a historical moment edge as complete as possible, in order to start when the construction euphoria and a very lit- to elaborate an innovative methodology for the tle forward-looking perspective of progress (in identification and recognition of the most signifi- the new capital city, but not only) jeopardised cant characters highlighting the presence of his- the preservation of the testimonies of the past tory in landscape, was the main objective of the (Azzena 2011b: 30-31). first year of research. The collection of as much Talking about ‘Archaeological Map of Italy’ or data as possible about the territory in question, about a ‘cadastre’ of archaeological presences and the analysis of ta great number of available today, after one hundred and fifty years (Azzena historical and geographical data, were an essen- 2011b: 29), can seem obsolete and out of time; tial part of the work. but, as denounced by Antonio Cederna (Guer- North-Western Sardinia was chosen as the field mandi, Cicala 2007: 304), and as remembered by of inquiry, for the preeminent conservative char- Salvatore Settis, the ‘heritage’ is still undermined acter of this island and for the transformations by cynicism and indifference (Settis 2010: 282; that took place in the last two centuries in this Antrop 2005: 21-23). area (increasing of the mining activity, drainages, Today, in a moment of economical, social and towns built in the fascist Age such as Fertilia, ag- cultural global crisis, in which the principle of in- ricultural exploitation of the Nurra plain, the individual profit and income is prevailing the con- dustrial hub of Porto Torres, urban explosion and cept of publica utilitas, it seems crucial to identify dispersion). For the eminently empiric character the archaeological public heritage, throughout of the present research, this method could be ap- the territory, not merely as economic and mon- plied, in the future, to other territorial contexts. etary source, but as a cultural and social resource, The collection and preventive analysis of histori- too often ignored (deliberately or not). cal-archaeological data regarding the examined A reflection is proposed, in order to prevent the territory, allowed to highlight relations and inter- impoverishment of the cultural sense of territory actions contributing to the generation of the his- and urbs of which future generations inevitably torical processes and of the diachronic dynamics will take charge. The same meaning of cultural (contractive or expansive, depending on the his- ‘good’ or ‘heritage’ (Choay 1994: 83-115), frames torical moments) of ‘territorialisation’ (Raffestin an economical-productive oriented approach 1984: 69-82; Magnaghi 2001: 31-33; Poli 2001: to the topic of preservation and ‘valorisation’ 39-41; Raffestin 2005: 36-44) that characterised (another term borrowed from economics), and the same territory. threatens to undermine a forward-looking plan- The collected data have been systematised in ning of territory and of its components. For this a dedicated GIS, thus allowing to deepen the reason it seems essential that the archaeological knowledge of territory, defining, to a macroscop-

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 135 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 ic level, some of the relations between natural exposed in the present text will be achieved component (environment) and anthropic com- through some concrete actions. ponent (territory) that led to the current defini- Deepen the knowledge of the representation tion, conformation and perception (landscape) of archaeological thematism in archaeological of the study area (Guzzo 2002: 33-38). cartography (Mansuelli 1957: 299-301; Azzena A widespread and homogeneous knowledge, 2001), was necessary in order to conceive new extended to the whole analysed territory, even forms of representation, trying to overcome the if reduced to the basic informative system asso- current forms of object-oriented representation ciated to a precise geographical localisation (the of the archaeological ‘good’, even when char- ‘archaeological cadastre’ pursued from 1875), is, acterised by a measured metric survey (Azzena in this sense, an undoubtedly solid base, that can 2009: 11-16). be used in different directions and with different The ancient territorial assets of the examined functions. area were defined, not as stratification, but as The great number of acquired data was collected compenetration, trying to apply the principles of and organised according to the specifications equidistance, scale, reciprocity and sharing in the dictated by the “Commissione Paritetica MIBAC/ reading of landscape (for the definition of these MIUR per la realizzazione del Sistema Informativo four parameters, see Azzena 2011a: 217-223), Territoriale del Patrimonio Archeologico Italiano” and trying to represent the produced analysis. (D.M. 22 dicembre 2009. Sassatelli 2011: 99-101), It will be necessary to reach a different reading and confirmed by the resolutions of the “Gruppo of the history of the territories, and to propose di lavoro paritetico e permanente per la realizzazi- it as a moment of “auto-determination of popu- one del SIT Archeologico Nazionale per i Beni Ar- lations”. The perceptive characters of the history cheologici (SITAN)”, established in 2011 and still in the places (Turri 2006: 36-41; Raffestin 2005: operating. 84-88; Augé 2009: 75-102; Guzzo 2002: 33-37) as To contain and organise the collected data (both perceived by users: inhabitants and not, special- present on file system and in network), an ex- ized, flaneur, insiders and outsiders, will be nec- press relational GeoDB on a server OS on Open essarily analysed (European Landscape Conven- Source platform was arranged, in order to make tion, Art. 6). To do this, it will be necessary to try it possible to access the archived data, through to define new parameters of reading history in a common GIS client, in every moment through the landscape (Nurra 2011: 40-41), highlighting the Internet. the affective component towards the remains A minimum value of knowledge was attributed (tangible and not) of History present in places. to each geographical datum, avoiding redun- Once defined the parameters and supports for dancies and incongruities. A ‘Greatest Common the representation (currently in preparation, and Divisor’ was used, in order to define to a topo- not necessarily cartographical), the experimen- graphic and chronological level, the archaeologi- tation in different territorial contexts of the new cal evidences of territory. forms of graphic automated/assisted/analogical representation produced, will be started (a practical example in Azzena et Alii 2012: 96-98). Future actions For the eminently social character of the expected results, it seems undeferrable the successive The preliminary results presented are relative sharing of the datum to all extents: a ‘democra- only to the first year of research. The work will tisation of information’ (Azzena 2011b: 34) con- be completed during the two years lacking to tributing to create, define and promote that sen- the end of the project of research, and the goals sibility, indispensable for a ‘shared protection’,

136 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective nowadays finally achievable, also thanks to the Choay F., 1995, L’allegoria del patrimonio, Officina, Roma. Web contribution. Cosgrove D., 1990, Realtà sociali e paesaggio simbolico, Un- icopli, Milano. The aim is a shared horizon, an ethic, before than Dall’Aglio (Ed.), 2000, La topografia antica, CLUEB, Bologna. technical, goal, towards a base of knowledge Farina A., 2001, Ecologia del Paesaggio, UTET, Torino. shared, open and really accessible. Farinelli F., 2003, Geografia. Introduzione ai modelli del mondo, Einaudi, Torino. Fazzio F., 2005, Gli spazi dell’archeologia. Temi per il progetto urbanistico, Officina, Roma. Essential bibliography Guermandi M.P. (Ed.), 2001, Rischio archeologico: se lo cono- sci lo eviti, Atti del Convegno di studi su cartografia arche- Antrop M., 2005, “Why landscapes of the past are important ologica e tutela del territorio (Ferrara, 24-25 marzo 2000), for the future”, Landscape and urban Planning, 70: 21 - 34. all’Insegna del Giglio, Firenze. Augé M., 2009, Nonluoghi. Introduzione a una antropologia Guermandi M.P., 2005, “Centro e Regioni. La necessità di un della surmodernità, Elèuthera, Milano. sistema”, in Cicala V., Guermandi M.P. (Eds.), Regioni e ra- Azzena G., 2001, “L’indagine topografica e la cartografia ar- gioni nel nuovo Codice dei Beni Culturali, Atti del Convegno cheologica”, in AA.VV., Il Mondo dell’Archeologia, Treccani, (Bologna, 28 maggio 2004), IBC, Bologna: 25-36. Roma: 149 - 152 Guermandi M.P., Cicala V. (Eds.), 2005, Regioni e ragioni nel nuovo Azzena G., 2004, “Tancas serradas a muros. Tracce di in- Codice dei Beni Culturali e del Paesaggio, IBC, Bologna. comunicabilità nel linguaggio archeologico”, Archeologia Guermandi M.P., Cicala V. (Eds.), 2007, Un italiano scomodo. e Calcolatori, 15: 185 - 197. Attualità e necessità di Antonio Cederna, Bononia Univer- Azzena G., 2009, “Archeologia no global (La Topografia An- sity Press, Bologna. tica e i ripensamenti disciplinari)”, Journal of Ancient To- Guermandi M.P., Tonet G. (Eds.), 2008, La cognizione del pography, XIX: 7 - 20. paesaggio. Scritti di Lucio Gambi sull’Emilia Romagna e Azzena G., 2011a, “History for places/La storia per i luoghi”, dintorni, IBC, Bologna. in Maciocco G., Sanna G., Serreli S. (Eds.), The urban poten- Guzzo P.G., 2002, Natura e storia nel territorio e nel paesaggio, tial of external territories, Milano, Angeli: 194 - 225. “L’Erma” di Bretschneider, Roma. Azzena G., 2011b, “Una logica prospettiva”, in in Serlorenzi Maciocco G., Serreli S., Sanna G. (Eds.), 2011, The Urban Po- M. (Ed.), SITAR Sistema Informativo Territoriale Archeologi- tential of External Territories, Franco Angeli, Milano. co di Roma. Atti del I Convegno. Roma-Palazzo Massimo (26 Magnaghi A., Rappresentare i luoghi, Alinea, Firenze, 2001 Ottobre 2010), Iuno, Roma: 29 - 39. Mansuelli G. A., 1957, “La carta archeologica”, Enciclopedia Azzena G., Bua F., Busonera R., Cossu C., Garau E., Meloni L., Classica, Sezione III. Archeologia e storia dell’arte classica, Nurra F., 2012, “Il caso Tresnuraghes”, Agri Centuriati, VIII - vol. X, t. IV (Geografia e Topografia Storica), S.E.I., Torino: 2011: 73 - 101. 299 - 301. Cambi F., 2012, Manuale di Archeologia dei Paesaggi. Metod- Morin E., 2000, La testa ben fatta. Riforma dell’insegnamento ologie, fonti, contesti, Carocci, Roma. e riforma del pensiero, Cortina Raffaello, Milano. Cammelli M., 2004, Il Codice dei beni culturali e del paesaggio, Nurra F., 2011, “Cartografia Archeologica Digitale: retrospet- Il Mulino, Bologna. tive, prospettive e un esempio”, Digitalia, 2/2011: 29 - 42. Carandini A., 2008, Archeologia Classica. Vedere il tempo an- Palazzo A., 2002, “Identificare i paesaggi. I. Risorse storico tico con gli occhi del 2000, Einaudi, Torino. culturali”, in Clementi A. (Ed.), Interpretazioni di paesaggio. Caravaggi L., 2002, Paesaggi di paesaggi, Maltemi, Roma. Convenzione Europea e innovazioni di metodo, Meltemi, Carpani E., 2005, “La convenzione europea del paesaggio Roma: 138-160. nell’esperienza italiana di tutela paesistica”, in Colantonio Poli D., Attraversare le immagini del territorio, All’insegna del R., Venturelli, K. Tobias K. (Eds.), La cultura del paesaggio, Giglio, Firenze 2001 Leo S. Olschki, Firenze: 21-38. Raffestin C., “Territorializzazione, deterritorializzazione, ri- Carpentieri P., 2004, “La nozione giuridica di paesaggio”, Riv- territorializzazione e informazione”, in Turco A. (ed.), Re- ista trimestrale di diritto pubblico, 2 (http://www.giustizia- gione e regionalizzazione, Franco Angeli, Milano 1984, pp. amministrativa.it/documentazione/studi_contributi/ 69-82 Carpentieri4.htm). Raffestin C., 2005, Dalla nostalgia del territorio al desiderio di Castagnoli F., 1993, Topografia Antica. Un metodo di studio, paesaggio. Elementi per una teoria del paesaggio, Alinea, Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato, Roma. Firenze. Castelnovi P., 1998, “Il senso del paesaggio. Relazione in- Ricci A., 2006, Attorno alla nuda pietra: archeologia e città tra troduttiva”, in AA.VV., Il senso del paesaggio. Seminario identità e progetto, Donzelli, Roma. internazionale (Torino, 7-8 maggio 1998), Politecnico di Sassatelli G., 2011, “La Seconda Commissione ministeriale Torino, Torino. per la formazione di un Sistema Informativo Territoriale

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Archeologico Nazionale”, in Serlorenzi M. (Ed.), SITAR Sis- Turri E., 2006, Il paesaggio come teatro. Dal territorio vissuto al tema Informativo Territoriale Archeologico di Roma. Atti territorio rappresentato, Marsilio, Venezia. del I Convegno. Roma-Palazzo Massimo (26 Ottobre 2010), Ulisse F., 2009, Tutela della cultura e cultura della tutela. Car- Iuno, Roma: 99 - 101 tograﬁa archeologica e legislazione sui beni culturali in Ita- Scazzosi L., 1999, Politiche e culture del paesaggio. Esperienze lia e in Europa, Ante Quem, Bologna. internazionali a confronto, Gangemi, Roma. Venturi Ferriolo M., 2002, Etiche del paesaggio. Il progetto del Scazzosi L., 2002, Leggere il paesaggio. Confronti internazi- mondo umano, Editori Riuniti, Roma. onali, Gangemi, Roma. Zoppi M., 2004, “Regioni e Codice dei beni culturali”, in Guer- Settis S., 2010, Paesaggio Costituzione cemento, Einaudi, mandi M.P., Cicala V. (Eds.), Regioni e ragioni nel nuovo Torino. Codice dei Beni Culturali, Atti del Convegno (Bologna, 28 Turri E., 2002, La conoscenza del territorio, Marsilio, Venezia. maggio 2004), IBC, Bologna: 67-70

A.L. Pitulicu, Old beer factory, Fourth Edition Peoples Landscapes

138 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective

Agricultural Soils. A Fundamental Common of mineral and organic material, water and air Good in Urban Areas: a Strategy for Recovering (Costa, 1985). Multiple functions are associated Their Identity with soil (support, regulation, filtering, storage, recycling, habitat and biomass production) as Maria Freirea,b; Isabel Joaquina Ramosa,c well as several uses (urban or rural, agricultural a University of Évora UE / Dep. of Landscape, Environment and or forestry, among others) developed by the vari- Planning ous qualifications well established in planning. b UE/CHAIA – Centre for Art History and Artistic Research Our focus is on agricultural soils, those best for c New University of Lisbon /CICS.NOVA – Interdisciplinary Cen- biomass production and particularly important tre for Social Sciences from an ecologic, economic and social point of [email protected]; [email protected] view, the result of an integrated dynamic between physical agents and human processes. Common good is the combination of material Abstract: Good agricultural soils are a scarce and exhaustible and spiritual conditions that provide to the hu- resource, essential for providing regular food production to so- man community a harmonious development of cieties and to the idea of sustainability. The protection of these soils is particularly important in Mediterranean landscapes, its individuals. So, common good is more than in- where there are strong natural and cultural contrasts and the dividual good; it is a community good, a univer- fertility of land is based mostly on human activity. sal value perceived in the well-being of the com- In Portugal, law protects soils since the early 1970s and in 1982 munity of individuals as a whole (Filho, 2000). good agricultural soils were classified and safeguarded by law as National Agriculture Reserves (RAN) – non aedificandi An equivalent to the concept of public interest, – areas particularly suitable for agriculture. Even private land as a relationship between society and the com- is considered of collective importance, protected by heavy re- mon good, pursued by that society through the strictions in use and management. Nevertheless, once land is authorities – governors, public administrators, required for urban development, it is reclassified as urban soil magistrates, etc. (Filho, 2000). and included in urban areas. The reflection on Common Goods from a Landscape Perspec- The emphasis of our research is on dignifying the tive, leads us to the idea of a functional conversion of agricul- natural common goods, given by nature – e.g. air, tural soils in urban areas, sustained in the valorisation of these soil, water, plants and animals. Being a part of a exceptional resources as productive functions in urban areas. holistic natural whole, natural common goods This implies the maintenance of these soils as RAN in urban areas and the development of an evolutionary dynamic, re- were considered the goods of ‘no one’, being in- inforcing the idea of a common good – the return of the best tensively and over exploited, transformed and soils to agriculture in urban areas – expressing the ecological, destroyed (Donadieu, 2013). social, historical-cultural and ethic values. It is a request to rec- Associated with natural common goods are reate the notion of common identity based on land, lost in the universal values, imposing respect by through meantime but possible to recover through the promotion of urban agriculture. protection and valorisation, after the principle of public interest. For their universal value, their Keywords: agricultural soils; urban areas; common identity; recognition, respect and valorisation are an ob- functional conversion; urban agriculture ligation oflaw and states (Donadieu, 213). Sev- eral authorities, at different levels, such as the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural The concepts Organization (UNESCO), Council of Europe (CE), States, and Governmental and Non-governmen- Soil is the superficial and relatively unstable layer tal Organizations, have the responsibility to ad- of the earth’s surface and is defined as the natu- just their concerns to the time and options that ral environment for plant growth, being consti- law establishes to the improvement and promo- tuted by non-consolidated aggregated materials tion of the common good.

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The value of ‘agricultural soil’ mainly a result of human activity. In Portugal, this is evident in a singular landscape pattern - a com- The greater value of soil results from its multiple plex mosaic determined by unique conditions of functions and from inherent pressure and vul- relief, climatic, vegetation and human activity. A nerability. Despite severe constraints on its use, combination of natural and cultural conditions its destruction is meaningful all over the world favoured agriculture as a dominant way of liv- (Azevedo, 1997; Cortez, 2007), with massive soil ing and determined the establishment of human destruction by edification – in the whole world, settlements associated with the fertility of land 25% of cultivated soils have been lost, around (Ribeiro, 1992). 100 000ha per year destroyed by edification Recent data (CE, 2006b) confirm this fragility, sin- (Magalhães, 2001). There is an increasing need gularity and importance, particularly in the South to preserve soils with better capacity of biomass of Europe. In Portugal, around ¾ of the territory production, keeping them free of construction has degraded soils, and only 12% has privileged and other uses not compatible with the mainte- edaphic and climatic conditions (Araújo, 1976). nance of their fertility.

For agriculture, soil is naturally the main raw mate- National public policies and agricultural soil rial. There is a need to provide an adequate agricultural use and management that improves ag- As said before, in Portugal, the main public policy ricultural activities but also integrates the several on soil protection is the National Agriculture Re- soil functions – economic, social and ecological, serve (RAN) law. The aim is to protect soils with crucial to maintain landscape equilibrium. The fast a high capacity of biomass production and the transformation of landscape in the last century of- most agricultural potential, non-aedificandi ar- ten meant the collision between the functions of eas allocated exclusively to agriculture. At the soil and the ecological functions of landscape. municipal level plans, it is mandatory to classify In the last century, an increase of scientific re- these areas as RAN, in order to guarantee the sus- search and the awareness of such a reality led tainable use and management of rural areas. to the idea of the global valorisation of soil, The exclusion of this type of soil from this classi- expressed in a wide range of legislation for its fication, is sustained in the requirement of these protection. Soil is seen as a rare, sensitive and areas for housing, economic activities, equip- scarcely renewable resource and concerns for ment and infrastructures. Thus, the same law de- its protection arose, namely in planning for ru- termines that soils included in the so-called ur- ral and urban areas (Magalhães, 2001). States (or ban perimeter, defined in the municipal plan, are their organizations) produced political initiatives not classified as RAN. It is the territorial planning and measures for soil protection – as examples, that determines the purpose of land, supported the Soil Map of the World (FAO/UNESCO, 1971- in the differentiation between rural and urban 1981), the European Soil Charter (CE, 1972) or the soil (DGOTDU, 2007): the first integrates soils with EU Directive (CE 2006a); in Portugal, the Dec-Law capacity for agriculture activities, farming, forest- 365/75 protects the best agricultural soils and, ry and mining, and natural areas of leisure and later in 1982, their classification and safeguard- protection; the second integrates urbanization ing as National Agriculture Reserves. areas, including the existent urbanized areas, the The protection and valorisation of soils is par- ones expected to be urbanized and those to in- ticularly important in Mediterranean landscapes, tegrate an urban ecological structure. of significant natural and cultural contrasts, with From the moment a municipality defines an ur- intensive human pressure. The fertility of soils is ban perimeter, the soils integrated in it are urban

140 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective soils, since the development strategy requires Recently, there are echoes of these dynamics at them – regardless of their characteristics, quali- the planning level, with proposals and recom- ties and capacities, that is, regardless of having mendations including these agricultural areas in characteristics to be included and classified as the development model of cities, emphasizing RAN (Freire and Ramos, 2013). the relationship with other urban components, As stated before, the establishment of human bringing out functions beyond production, and settlements were associated with better agricul- economic, social and environmental benefits. tural soils. In the last decades, in these areas one More ambitious is the proposal to introduce a new can observe a significant increase in urban areas function in the city – the agricultural one – as a pro- at the expense of rural ones. grammed answer to the demand for urban vegetable gardens, still growing, taking advantage of their benefits in urban areas (Pinto, 2007). Agricultural soil in urban areas – proposals for its In order to operationalize a functional conversion defence and creation in urban areas, focused on the reestablishment of areas with good agricultural soils, a return to the Agricultural soils in urban areas are meaningfully productive functions in the following types of ar- associated with urban agriculture. In Portugal eas must be advocated (Freire and Ramos, 2013): this dynamic is increasing, meaning the creation

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The return of agriculture in urban areas is a pro- Costa, J., 1985. “Caracterização e constituição do solo”. Lis- posal based on recent dynamics in cities, chang- boa: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian. DGOTDU, 2007. “Nota sobre a definição de critérios de classi- ing the paradigm of massive edification with no ficação, qualificação e reclassificação do solo em sede de personal identity, disregarding natural charac- PROT”. MAOTDR. http://www.dgotdu.pt/prot-continente/ teristics and creating fragmented landscapes. Nota%20Classif%20Solo%20_%20PROT_V4_11Dez07. A new paradigm based on an evolutionary dy- pdf [Access 2013-12-13]. namic, reinforcing the idea of common good and Donadieu, P., 2013. “A construção de paisagens urbanas poderá criar bens comuns?” In I. Cardoso (Coord), Paisa- recreating the notion of common identity based gem e Património, UE-CHAIA: Dafne Editora, pp. 57-81. on land, was lost in the meantime but is possible FAO/UNESCO, 1971-1981, Carta Mundial do Solo. to recover through the promotion of urban ag- Filho, I., 2000. “O princípio ético do bem comum e a riculture. concepção jurídica do interesse publico”. Revista Ju- rídica Virtual, Brasília, 2(13). http://www.planalto.gov. br/ccivil_03/revista/Rev_13/princ-etico.htm [Access 2013-12-13]. References Freire, M., 2011. “Para uma diferente aproximação ao ensino do projeto de arquitetura paisagista. Tese de doutora- Araújo, I., 1976. “O Valor Social dos Solos Agricultáveis e o mento”. Évora: Universidade de Évora. Reordenamento Agrário”, Vida Rural, 4:36-39. Freire, M., Ramos, I., 2013. “Shocking ShoppingScapes”. In Azevedo, A., 1997. “Nota sobre a evolução de alguns casos de International Conference ShoppingScapes, Universidade ‘impermeabilização’ de solos em Portugal continental e a Lusófona, Lisboa. Portugal, 28-30 maio, 2013 (in print). defesa das terras agrícolas”. Évora: Universidade de Évora. Magalhães, M., 2001. “A arquitetura paisagista. Morfologia e CE, 1972. Carta Europeia de Solos. complexidade”. Lisboa: Editorial Estampa. CEE, 2006a. “Proposta de Diretiva do Parlamento Europeu e do Ribeiro, O., 1992. “Portugal, o mediterrâneo e o atlântico”. Conselho que estabelece um quadro para a proteção do solo Lisboa: Edições João Sá da Costa. e altera a Diretiva 2004/35/CE”. COM (2006) 232, Bruxelas. Telles, G. R., 1957. “A importância actual da vegetação na ci- CEE, 2006b. “Estratégia temática de proteção do solo”. COM dade”. Revista AGROS, Ano XL, nº 2, AEA/Instituto Superior (2006) 231, Bruxelas. de Agronomia, Lisboa: 137-141. Cortez, N., 2007. “Solo. Recurso a preservar no âmbito do or- Telles, G. R., 1997. “Paisagem Global” In Paisagem, DGOTDU, denamento do território”. Arquitetura e Vida, pp. 55-59. Lisboa: 29-45.

M.E. Denisa, The beauty of the mountainsg, Fourth Edition Peoples Landscapes

142 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective

Ecomuseums And Rurality: a Case Study in Ca- ment objectives. In other words, this infers the baiguàn (Cuba) recovery of cultural and natural heritage. At all times, it is necessary to include strategic Omaida Romeu Torres (1), Ignacio González Ramírez (2), An- activities in research , social participation, and drea Galli (1), Osmany Melendres Ceballo (2). economic diversification as integral parts of the (1) Polytechnic University of Marche, Department of Agricultu- project for territorial development,. Rural eco- ral, Food and Environmental Sciences, Ancona (Italy). (2) San- museums have some characteristics of identity cti Spiritus University, Sancti Spiritus (Cuba) and relationships with a specific territory and its Contact: [email protected] heritage. The inhabitants participate not as tourists, but as actors of local changes, supported by Abstract: Cabaiguàn is a municipality in the province of Sancti a team of experts. Spiritus, Cuba, characterized by a typical cultural landscape in The most recent studies emphasize the value of which the production of various crops in rotation with tobacco prevails. There are abundant productive soils, undulating the eco-museum as an instrument for the sus- plains and typical vegetation, which in combination with the tainable development of the community. These buildings associated with agricultural production, make this precepts also value the tie between eco muse- area a rural landscape highly valued for its aesthetic quality. ums and the planning and management of the It also has the only ethnographic museum of Cuba, but unfortunately, it is a static and closed institution devoid of activities landscape. that involve the community. Taking into account these consid- However, an incomplete vision of sustainable erations, our group intends to design an eco –museum of rural- development has prevailed, and it does not have ity with the aim of protecting these landscapes and enhanc- solid conceptual and theoretical formulations ing the cultural historical values through the incorporation of (Boisier, 2000). There are some interpretations new economic activities in the field of tourism and recreation. As an initial task, a perceptive analysis was applied to the re- of this concept and above all its operational ef- siding population in the territory in order to evaluate the vi- fectiveness over local intervention. As a result, sual landscapes. For this purpose, 100 photos of different rural researchers apply a disciplinary approach, ac- landscape elements were used and were rated from a score of cording to anthropocentric or economistic para- 1-10. These preliminary results allowed the design of two green ways. Currently the second phase of the project is underway, digms. Researchers of natural sciences, oriented with the identification of natural and cultural resources in or- towards the protection of natural resources, ne- der to plan the strategy as well as the forms of action to enable glect development issues. At all times, varied po- the implementation of the rural eco-museum. sitions tend to avoid the real and complex issues at hand. Keywords: Eco-museum, cultural landscape, local community, Sustainable development should be considered local identity, sustainable development. as the capacity of the territory, of the human ecosystem and the group of systems to guarantee its The planning and management of eco-museums operation, effectiveness and efficiency, in such a could be incorporated into countryside research way that the potentialities can be realised and based on sustainable development as an alterna- individual and social needs are satisfied (Mateo, tive to solve the environmental situation in arable 2012). and livestock farms. Rural eco-museums as a cul- It is important to define what the word sus- tural and territorial institution is a living place to tainable means. Varied sustainable indicators preserve the cultural and natural heritage. Thus, have been developed based on disciplinary ap- it is a laboratory with an educational function proaches (Urquiza, 2011; Mateo, 2012) or global addressed to the local community to promote its indicators (Wackernagel and Rees, 1996; Hardí development. In this way, the local community and Zdan, 2000; IUCN/UNEP/WWF, 1980). In this takes possession and is in charge of its own ter- study, the comparative geographical method ritory and can identify and achieve its develop- has been applied, as it is powerful for determin-

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 143 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 ing the state of the natural-cultural environment. resources using multi-criteria technics of evalu- It is completed with procedures associated with ations from Geographic Information Systems. the human way of acting. Under this premise, Pictures of landscapes were taken, which were the design and implementation of rural eco-mu- subjected to evaluations of aesthetic quality by seums could be considered one of the solutions the inhabitants; questionnaires were applied to for achieving sustainability at the local level, be- the residents, to the producers and to the com- cause the main transformation is guided towards munity leaders and several community activi- the creation of a new vision of the relationship ties and documentary studies were carried out, with the natural resources that serve as a sup- in which the l Analytical Hierarchica Process was port to the socio-economic activity of the com- applied (AHP) to establish necessary hierarchical munity. approaches in the design of the eco-museum. Nevertheless, today’s international realities concerning rural eco-museums are different according to their insertion in the economic and national Natural environment legal framework. There are significant differences between Europe and Latin America as main re- The altitude is between 100 to 150 meters, on gions with eco-museums. In the European Union sedimentary or volcanic rocks. The predominant with the Common Agricultural Policy, this expe- soils are Sialic carbonated and non carbonated rience is supported by legal and economic poli- (Hernández, 1998), very productive for a great cies towards to achieving public participation. By variety of cultivations (Figure 1). The forest cov- contrast, in Latin America, this conditions do not erage is 3%. exist, and new economic activities, such as tour- The studied area is located in the municipality of ism, are structurally addressed to obtain foreign Cabaiguàn, in the county of Sancti Spiritus, Cuba. investment. Thus some projects such as rural It belongs to the geo-ecological region of Santa eco-museums are designed by political entities, Clara - Sancti Spiritus, evaluated as critically un- outside the local community, without taking into sustainable (Mateo, 2012). However, in the town consideration traditions, local knowledge and of interest, Cuatro Esquinas de Santa Lucia, the cultural identity. Consequently, profits are not situation of the environmental has not reached a directed towards local development. Also, local critical state, although it has its own problems. values such as popular culture, community heri- This place could be evaluated as potentially tage and natural resources are not valued. unsustainable, described as “the observation In the Cuban case, it is necessary to establish of strong changes in the space and functional basic principles for the planning and manage- structure, although it conserves its integrity”, ment of rural eco-museums. It is an unique proj- according to Mateo (2012). The favourable situ- ect but with a strong administrative influence. ation inside this region is due to the type of soils Local participation and inhabitants’ identity are it has, its plastogenical properties and sociocul- scarce in this case. Therefore, an essential task is tural factors, such as the prevalence of agrarian to construct theoretical principles based on the familiar ownership for family subsistence where Cuban context and its legal basis. Also, the re- historical cultural values are shared with han- search on landscape quality, and social and natu- dling answers according to the state of soils. ral resources involving tradition, heritage and lo- The original vegetation has been substituted cal everyday life, need to be addressed through almost entirely; there is prevalence of chemical teamwork. fertilization and of plagues and illnesses from In this study, documentary information was chemical products. The soils have undergone in- gathered to obtain the inventory of territorial tense modification with the loss of natural fertili-

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Fig. 1 Land use Map of Cabaiguan municipality. ty and strong erosion, which presents itself in fur- because the farm proprietors have been able to rows and ravines. The practice of the sustainable build houses in urban establishments. The main management of lands in some properties has di- problem is related to the aging workers and the minished the degradation and has optimized the lack of capacity on the part of new generations agricultural systems, which demonstrates a high that take a greater interest in increasing the pres- stability of the current landscape. sure on the ground in search of quick earnings. With the appearance of the ﬁrst symptoms of degradation, in general, a favourable answer has Socio-economic conditions of the studied area been observed in the adoption of measures that optimize the productive process. In some cases, The main element of pressure is tobacco pro- sustainable practices have been introduced, with duction and various cultivations that constitute good results. the source of economic income for the residents Some rural traditions have been conserved (Fig- and for the local economy. In the current climate, ure 2); such as :the traditional instruments for the what prevails are quick incomes and the propen- elaboration of foods and the products of crops. sity toward markets of lesser quality products, Traditional rural music, mainly the decima and which yield high interest for the relationship of the repentismo continue to be favoured among current prices. High yield varieties have been in- the elder farmers and it also has its young follow- troduced, the irrigation has been generalized and ers. Dancing manifestations of Canary roots are there has been a displacement of the population conserved, the craft based on the use of autoch-

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Fig. 2 Places of sociocultural interest thonous products, the plates of typical Cuban mation of the landscapes, as much as their deg- cuisine and some based on local cuisine contin- radation as their optimization, is man, who can ue to generate pride. Popular games, which were be guided by the formation of capacities leading the only form of amusement in earlier times, con- to sustainability. tinue to be played. These traditions are reﬂected The interviewed local population understands in the passion in the literature, and together with that for the implementation of an eco-museum, the memory of other times, legends, myths and the social, economic and environmental aspects the local history are revived. need to be taken into account. The hierarchical In spite of the changes in the characteristics of analytical process applied to groups of residents, the productive system, the cultural landscapes leaders and experts, determined the hierarchies continue to maintain a high aesthetic quality. A of each one of these axes. value-based survey on aesthetic quality, using In conclusion, in spite of the changes in the pictures of diverse places of the county, was ap- economic situation of the country which have plied, and these landscapes obtained the best impacted on local culture and the perceptions punctuations by the interviewed public (Figure of the resident population, there is a continued 3). This perceptive element should be considered concern for the maintenance of production , as a sustainable approach, as a result of the local with the appropriate knowledge concerning the population’s preference and the untenable envi- necessity of soil conservation. Cultural traditions ronmental state. The main factor in the transfor- have been kept alive which have been adapted

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Fig.3 Aesthetic evaluation of landscapes elements. Locality Cuatro Esquinas de Santa Lucía, Cabaiguan to the new socio-economic situation, and which sinergia cognitiva en una región. Chile: Universidad de have been able to ﬁnd a space to survive amid Talca. IUCN/UNEP/WWF. (1980). World Conservation Strategy. Liv- the productive mercantilism and the changes in ing resourse conservation for sustainable development. the characteristics of the population. Nairobi, Kenya: IUCN. Mateo, J. M. (2012). La dimension espacial del desarrollo sostenible: una visión desde américa latina. 1 ed. La Habana, Cuba: Cientíﬁco-Técnica. p. 296. ISBN 9789590506581. References Urquiza, N. (2011). Manual de manejo sostenible de tierras. Habana, Cuba: AMA. Boisier, S. (2000). Conversaciones sociales y desarrollo re- Wackernagel, M. y Rees, W. (1996). Our ecological footprint. gional. Potenciación del capital cinegético y creación de Gabriola Island, Canada: New Society Publishers.

M. Prananto, Big Bright Threat, Fourth Edition Peoples Landscapes

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Decision Making

The “Integration Principle”: a “Common” Gov- Landscape Convention (ELC) – was adopted in ernance Strategy to Address the Landscape Florence (Italy) on 20 October 2000 under the Agenda? auspices of the Council of Europe, with the specific purpose of promoting “landscape protec- Selena Bagnara Milan tion, management and planning” and – keeping Architect and MSc/PhD student at University of Nova Gorica with the universal principles of the Rio Declara- and University IUAV of Venice tion – “concerned to achieve sustainable devel- [email protected] opment based on a balanced and harmonious [email protected] relationship between social needs, economic activity and the environment” (ELC, 2000: Pre- Abstract: The preface to the Council of Europe 2006 publica- amble). It was immediately clear that by taking tion on landscape and sustainable development points out that “the main feature of the European Landscape Convention care of the landscape communities could con- is the way in which it calls for the landscape to be valued as a tribute to the improvement of social well-being, product of history, the fount of cultural identity, a heritage to the safeguarding of the environment and the be shared, and a reflection of a Europe of multiplicity.” Notwith- protection of economic activities: along with cul- standing, the European Landscape Convention - and so other European and international charters and conventions - does tural improvement, these are all ingredients of not provide or set out any recipes to impose a standard land- sustainable development, as mentioned several scape policy, instead it is characterized by a plural approach times by the explanatory report to the Conven- to landscape: it is for states to define effective integration in- tion: “This [individual, social and cultural fulfil- struments, along with coordination, cooperation, assistance ment] in turn may help to promote the sustain- and consultation methods. Given the fact that distinctive local, cultural and legal features characterize each country, applying able development of the area concerned, as the the Convention’s principles to different states generates “con- quality of landscape has an important bearing sistency issues” at all levels of landscape policy between the on the success of economic and social initiatives, Convention itself and other national instruments. whether public or private” (ELC, 2000: par. 27). Considering that there are still many bias associated with the governance of landscape and a lack of a common approach to The fact that all landscapes, regardless of their the related protection, planning and management issues, this value, play a fundamental role in the develop- paper aims to: (a) Examining and conceptualising the intro- ment process is yet recorded in a prior docu- duction of the so called “integration principle” as a holistic, in- ment of the Council of Europe (CoE): a 1995 terdisciplinary and community-oriented strategy for effectively recommendation aiming to provide guidelines addressing the multiple values inherent in landscapes from the geographical, institutional, planning and decision making point for landscape policies and to propose measures of view; (b) Providing an overview about how European bodies for the conservation and managed evolution of (through conventions and charters) and world organisations landscape area had already stressed the impor- such as UNESCO offer a reference framework for a dynamic and tance of landscape policies having an approach comprehensive protection, management and planning of landscapes so as to respond to the new economic, ethical and social guided by the concept of sustainability: “It is im- challenges currently faced by many countries. portant that landscape policies should draw on the principle of sustainable development while Keywords: European Landscape Convention, governance, inte- striving, by taking appropriate measures, for gration principle, values, World Heritage Convention compatibility between the managed evolution of the landscape and the economic and social Introduction changes which tend to alter the environment” (CoE, 1995: art. 6.1). The first regional international convention ex- In order to take the above principles into prac- clusively dedicated to landscape - the European tice, under the Convention each Party shall be

148 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective committed to “integrate landscape into its re- artt. 6-8); not forgetting to be respectful of inter- gional and town planning policies and in its cul- national charters and conventions, but balancing tural, environmental, agricultural, social and eco- international requirements with those of each nomic policies” (ELC, 2000: art. 5.d). To all intents community. and purposes, the general aim of the Convention is “to encourage public authorities to adopt policies and measures at local, regional, national and A Guiding Principle To Address The Landscape international level for protecting, managing and Agenda planning landscapes throughout Europe so as to maintain and improve landscape quality and The so called “integration principle” regards bring the public, institutions an local and region- geographical integration, institutional integra- al authorities to recognise the value and impor- tion, integrated planning and integrated deci- tance of landscape” (ELC, 2000: par. 25). sion making. The matter is particularly relevant The same approach is registered in the 2004 in local choices regarding a particular site, which Natchitoches Declaration on Heritage Land- needs harmonius measures for its protection, scapes, adopted in the United States on the oc- management and development. It demands a casion of the 7th International Symposium of US/ new attitude on the part of all those whose de- ICOMOS. This important declaration states: “There cisions may affect landscapes as they need to is a convergence of natural and cultural values bring landscape objectives in all relevant sectors in the landscape […] Heritage landscape protec- of public life; not limiting the actions exclusively tion is required at the local, national and global on special policies and legal aspects, but extend- levels in order to transmit these universally valuing the matter at other sectors and at all levels of able heritage landscapes to future generations”. decision making. During the closing session it was widely agreed The preface to the Council of Europe 2006 pub- that initiatives around the protection of heritage lication on landscape and sustainable develop- landscapes need a holistic approach, interdiscipli- ment points out that “the main feature of the nary collaboration, community engagement, and European Landscape Convention is the way in national and international cooperation to address which it calls for the landscape to be valued as a the multiple values inherent in landscapes; multi- product of history, the fount of cultural identity, ple voices need to be included in the protection a heritage to be shared, and a reflection of a Eu- and management (O’ Donnell, 2004: 42). rope of multiplicity” (CoE, 2006, preface). Given The Landscape Convention (and so the Natchi- the fact that the nations were shaped based on toches Declaration) is therefore conceived in the various cultural factors, the comprehensive leg- spirit of the 1994 Nara Document, which gives islation adopted by state Parties in terms of art, new impulse to cultural and heritage diversity education, environment, science and any other stating that cultural heritage diversity demands aspect of civil societies, allows the interpreter to “respect for other cultures and all aspects of their pay attention to the different legal meanings that belief systems”, and also “acknowledgements of have been specifically attributed to the term “cul- the legitimacy of the cultural values of all parties”. ture” (Assini and Cordini, 2006: 291-293). Moreo- Crucial to this paper is the passage of the text ver, according to Article 167.1-2 of the EU Treaty, that underlines the principle for which the re- the Community shall contribute to the flowering sponsibility for cultural heritage and its manage- of cultures of the Member States, while respect- ment “belongs, in first place, to the cultural coming their national and regional diversity and at munity that has generated it, and subsequently the same time bringing the common cultural to that which cares for it” (Nara Document, 1994: heritage to the fore.

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The European Landscape Convention does not Moreover, it should be recalled that - with the provide any recipes or set out to impose a stand- adoption of the Budapest Declaration on World ard landscape policy, instead it is characterised Heritage during its 26th session - the World Her- by a plural approach to landscape: it is for states itage Committee invited all partners “to ensure to define effective integration instruments, an appropriate and equitable balance between along with coordination, cooperation, assistance conservation, sustainability and development, and consultation methods, from the local to the so that World Heritage properties can be pro- national level. As a result, applying the conven- tected through appropriate activities contribut- tion’s principles to different countries will gener- ing to the social and economic development and ate “consistency issues” at all levels of landscape the quality of life of our communities” (UNESCO, policy between the convention itself and other 2002: art. 3.c). Ultimately, with reference to the national instruments: each country is character- Faro Convention (CoE, 2005: art. 5) - which links ised by distinctive local, cultural and legal fea- the protection of cultural heritage to the objec- tures, some more other less favourable in terms tives of sustainable development and cultural of effectiveness for the landscape (CoE, 2006). diversity – a management plan must be able to select the right strategy for implementing a sustainable local development. In this regard, it must The Role Of Unesco be reported what the UNESCO guidelines for the inscription of cultural landscapes recommend for The “inclusion of landscape considerations” in their protection and management: “It is impor- regional and town planning policies (ELC, 2000: tant that due attention be paid to the full range art. 7) is an obligation on states even at interna- of values represented in the landscape, both tional level, both for European bodies and world cultural and natural. The nominations should be organisations such as UNESCO. prepared in collaboration with and the full ap- The 1972 World Heritage Convention concerning proval of local communities” (UNESCO, 2013: an- the protection of the World Cultural and Natural nex 3, art. 12). And again: “Management systems Heritage recalls the instrument of “regional plan- may vary according to different cultural perspec- ning” (art. 5.a), endeavouring the “adoption of a tives, the resources available and other factors. general policy which aims to give the cultural and They may incorporate traditional practices, exist- natural heritage a function in the life of the coming urban or regional planning instruments, and munity and to integrate the protection that herit- other planning control mechanisms, both formal age into comprehensive planning programmes.” and informal” (UNESCO, 2013: art. 110). Existing World Heritage sites constitute a network Moreover, the World Heritage Convention indi- of protecting areas, which require the linking of cates in its article 4 the duty of States Parties “of environmental policies to other social and eco- ensuring the identification, protection, conser- nomic functions. In this perspective, a World Herit- vation, presentation and transmission to future age Site characterised as a cultural landscape rep- generations of the cultural and natural heritage”. resents a system in which an interaction between However, according to its article 6, “whilst fully different factors - cultural, environmental, social, respecting the sovereignty of the States […], and and/or economical - takes place. For that reason, it without prejudice to property right provided is clear that an efficient interaction between these by national legislation, the States Parties to this components is possible only if accompanied by Convention recognise that such heritage consti- valid forms of institutional cooperation and the tutes a World Heritage for whose protection it construction of an integrated management of the is the duty of the international community as a site (Casini, 2010a: 177-180). whole to co-operate” (UNESCO, 2013: artt. 96-97).

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Thus, the Convention assigns each State Party a World Heritage Convention is vital in achieving “global function” in order to achieve internation- a dual purpose: ensuring respect for cultural di- al common goals; and the very inclusion of a site versity in the definition and implementation of in the World Heritage List is not merely based on measures and polices; and promoting interna- the outstanding value of the property, but also tional cooperation and collaboration (among na- on the specific institutional and domestic regulations and between public and private entities) in tory system in place (Battini, 2010: 44-49). order to establishing a common understanding Since domestic regulations and institutional about best practices, integrated planning poli- frameworks affects holdings of interests of the cies and regulatory processes: from their codifi- so-called “global community” – which shares cation and enactment to the related monitoring a common heritage of mankind – the way the activities. Convention acts is necessarily the one of a “global regulatory regime”: its purpose is to make sure that domestic authorities, when ruling over Essential Bibliography World Heritage Sites, take into account the global interests affected by their discretionary power, Assini, N. and Cordini, G. (2006) I beni culturali e paesaggistici. Diritto interno, comunitario, comparato e internazionale, regardless of the outcome it eventually produces, Padova: Cedam. contributing to the “development of a horizon- Battini, S. (2010) ‘The Procedural Side of Legal Globalization: tal and procedural path to legal globalisation”. The Case of the World Heritage Convention’, Working Pa- More generally, the model by which UNESCO per 18/10, The New Public Law in a Global (Dis-Order). A Perspective from Italy - Seminar, New York University Jean performs its duty is a “procedural model of legal Monnet Center, New York, Available: http://www.jean- and institutional integration” (Battini, 2010: 43), monnetprogram.org/papers/10/101801.html. the functioning of which is based upon Global Casini, L. (2010a) La globalizzazione dei beni culturali, Bolo- gna: Il Mulino. Administrative Law (GAL) concepts (Kingsbury, Casini, L. (2010b) ‘Italian Hours: The Globalization of Cul- Krisch and Stewart, 2005: 15-61): this allows natural Property Law’, Working Paper 11/10, The New Pub- tional and local authorities to govern with regard lic Law in a Global (Dis-Order). A Perspective from Italy - to economic and social impacts of their actions Seminar, New York University Jean Monnet Center, New on the entrusted communities, while introduc- York, Available: http://www.jeanmonnetprogram.org/ papers/10/101101.html. ing “international” interests in the domestic deci- Council of Europe (2000) European Landscape Convention, sion-making process. Strasbourg: Council of Europe, European Treaty Series 176. Council of Europe (2005) Framework Convention on the Value of Cultural Heritage for Society (Faro Convention), Stras- Concluding Comments bourg: Council of Europe, European Treaty Series 199. Council of Europe (2006) Landscape and sustainable development. Challenges of the European Convention, Stras- Despite the fact that even cultural heritage is un- bourg: Council of Europe Publishing, ISBN 978-92-871- 5989-2PDF. der the impact of globalisation and that there are Council of Europe Committee of Ministers (1995) Recom- new mechanisms of regulating this field based mendation No. R (95) 9 of the Committee of Ministers to on public and administrative law (Casini, 2010b); member states on the integrated conservation of cultural landscape areas as part of landscape policies (Adopted by still there are many bias associated with the defi- the Committee of Ministers on 11 September 1995 at the nition of “landscape”, as well as “consistency is- 543rd meeting of the Ministers’ Deputies). Council of Europe Committee of Ministers (2008) Recom- sues” at all levels of landscape governance, and a mendation CM/Rec(2008)3 of the Committee of Ministers lack of a comprehensive approach to its protec- to member states on the guidelines for the implementation tion, management and planning. of the European Landscape Convention (Adopted by the Committee o Ministers on 6 February 2008 at the 1017th In this labile framework, I believe that the role meeting of the Ministers’ Deputies). of the European Landscape Convention and the Kingsbury, B., Krisch, N. and Stewart, R.B. (2005) ‘The Emer-

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gence of Global Administrative Law’, Law and Contempo- lation to the World Heritage Convention, Nara (Japan), rary Problems, no. 68. [Online], Available: http://www.icomos.org/charters/ O’ Donnell, P.M. (2004) ‘Learning from World Heritage: Les- nara-e.pdf. sons from International Preservation & Stewardship of UNESCO (2002) Budapest Declaration On World Heritage, Cultural & Ecological Landscapes of Global Signiﬁcance’, Paris: Unesco, (WHC. 02, CONF.202/25). The George Wright Forum, no. 21. UNESCO (2013) Operational Guidelines for the Implemen- UNESCO/ICCROM/ICOMOS (1994) ‘The Nara Document tation of the World Heritage Convention, Paris: Unesco, on Authenticity’, Nara Conference on Authenticity in Re- (WHC. 13/01).

E. Potorti, Natural strife, Fourth Edition Peoples Landscapes

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Landscape Observatories Near Cinque Terre: belonging to that place and not another. Identi- from do it Yourself to Public Intervention. (Lig- fication is a primary aspect of being in the world uria-Italy). and is “at the base of the sense of belonging to a place of man”(Norberg-Schulz-1972). Patrizia Burlando The life of man is intimately connected with the University of Genova, Polytechnic School, DSA Stradone landscape in its natural and cultural state. Sant’Agostino, 37 - 16123 Genova, Italy, In 1997, Porto Venere, Cinque Terre and the is- Address: via Fontevivo 19f, La Spezia lands of Palmaria, Tino and Tinetto were declared Email:[email protected] World Heritage Sites for being “an area of out- [email protected] standing cultural value, which shows the har- Tel. n° +39-3355683152 monious relationship between man and nature, which is has a landscape of great scenic beauty Abstract: The two case studies compared are part of the Na- demonstration of a traditional way of life that has tional Park of Cinque Terre and were declared a World Heritage Site for the original characteristics of the terraced landscape survived for a thousand years and continues to cultivated mainly with vines. play an important role in the socio- economic life Is it possible to maintain such a landscape where the terraces with of the community.” dry-stonewalls are for the most part in a state of abandonment The use of landscape techniques, ways of exem- and cultures are disappearing, in an area with more frequent hydrogeological instability and no presidium? Can we reverse the plary land use in an area threatened by change process of deterioration of the terraces in this Mediterranean land- and the incontestable evidence of an important scape? If we go to an area with a different appearance, is it really period of human life are the reasons why this area a loss of identity, or is it possible to upgrade and preserve even a was declared unique. It is thus obvious that every single part? The two cases presented below represent the sign of intervention should aim at its enhancement. change though a modest example for the future. On the one hand in Tramonti (La Spezia), which morphologi- Is it possible to maintain such a landscape, even cally is the connection between the system landscape of Porto if it is a synonym of the secular integration of so- Venere and the adjacent islands and the Cinque Terre, there is cial, economic and environmental factors? an example of a public intervention, the first element of the re- Here, as in most of Liguria, where it was estimat- development of a degraded landscape which was followed by some private interventions. ed that more than 60 % of the land was terraced The other case study is that of Palmaria island in the municipal- in the past, the bands with dry stone walls and ity of Porto Venere, where the guidelines to facilitate the recov- cultures have for the most part been abandoned, ery of the agricultural landscape have been put into practice not only olive groves and vineyards, but many by individuals. “Tips” in general to be applied to specific cases varieties, are disappearing. were formulated to have a presidium throughout the territory and to avoid hydrogeological instability in the hope that inter- In addition,with the abandonment of the terrace ventions of this type, though small, are further increased. system there is a lack of presence in the territory, and thus, in the absence of particular land man- Key words: guidelines for terraced agriculture, ancient Ligurian agement, hydrogeological instability is becom- terraces, public intervention and do it yourself ing increasingly frequent. Can we reverse the process of deterioration of the terraces unique to this Mediterranean land- Landscape is cultural heritage according to the scape? Is the territory taking on a different ap- ELC, and the global community depends on this pearance? Is there really a loss of identity, or is it primary resource for quality of life . possible to upgrade and preserve even a single Specific features of a landscape contain the char- part? acter of a place, determined by numerous factors The two cases presented below could be the sign (geological, natural, climatic, historical, cultural, of a change, and although modest, could be ex- economic, etc.), which cause an individual to feel amples for the future.

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Fig. 1 Study area framework

Tramonti terraces. In areas abandoned for the longest time, holly oak has been reconstituted or maritime pine Tramonti is a narrow strip of land between a linear has spread further, which is unfortunately much ridge with a height of between 350 and 600 me- more subject to spontaneous combustion. ters. It has a high rocky coast, with narrow beaches The isolation of Tramonti from the main nineteenth of coarse detritus, enclosed between Riomaggiore century roads has prevented major landscape and Portovenere, and has the only direct view of changes and has allowed the area to maintain its the City of Spezia on the Ligurian Sea. historical-cultural values related to a pre-industri- Topographically the area is bordered to the west by al world. Today it is still diﬃcult to reach and only Punta Merlino and to the east by Punta Persico. by foot. Another way to reach Tramonti is from the The coast of Tramonti enjoys a mild climate, as it sea, but there are no safe havens. is exposed to the west and is protected from the Today, from the comparison between current and north winds by steep, rugged terrain. historical cartography, although their agricultural The civilization of the coast of Tramonti has re- vocation has been abandoned in most cases, the sulted in the disappearance of holly oak, replaced terraces are still top-permanent marks on the ter- by terraces. ritory and consequently represent the elements of Currently with the abandonment of most of the value of the historic landscape. However, they are crops, vegetation is slowly approaching a situa- very vulnerable, because their gradual agricultural tion classiﬁed as ‘potential’: pioneer vegetation abandonment, the continuation of the Mediterra- that has changed with evolution has settled on the nean and at the same time increasing problems of

154 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective

Fig. 2 Tramonti hydrogeological and slope stability, reach in some From ancient times until the early nineteenth cases a disturbing level of severity. century, the vineyards were kept on the ground The area of Tramonti is characterized by a unique and eventually upheld by a reed, small tree to viticultural landscape overlooking the sea, with tree, during maturation. After this date, the char- dizzying stairs and climbs, small and even small- acteristic of pergola was introduced, which still er plots still planted with low vines, and the most is a version with a very low height (40 cm) and inaccessible areas of cliffs overlooking the sea. a base (approximately 1 m), which is the most The project promoted by the Municipality of La widespread. This type of farming is also more Spezia proposes the setting up of a scientific lab- productive but it is very costly, as it is not mecha- oratory for the study of re-naturalization of cer- nized. Man must, in fact, work with small hoes, tain wine-growing areas and wine permanence under the pergolas, in an awkward position and of others, with particular attention to the devel- dividing the earth in his hands. The average pro- opment of new varieties in relation to the natural duction of pergolas is relatively high, ranging environment and cultural heritage. anywhere from 70 to 120 q.li / Ha. There are still The project comprises the area between Punta very old vineyards crawling on the ground to Merlino and Punta Persico, which is characterized adapt to difficult environmental conditions (Ag- by the presence of a landscape extraordinarily noletti, 2011): today they are the ‘wrecks’ of this rich in environmental and cultural values, some- type of cultivation, increasingly replaced by a times still untouched, in relation to the original crop, although manual, but ‘higher’, to allow the cultivation of the vine. mowing of the overgrown lawn, only at the root

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nections between buildings and terraced land and forcing all new owners to maintain at least a portion of the land, if not themselves then as property loaned. Another initiative recently adopted by the city to promote the redevelopment of this cultural landscape, characterized by an excessive fragmentation of ownership, is to also guide the individual farm-owners with the help of local associations to the use of European funding through the regional strategic plan, up to now only used by agriculture. The stimulation of small receptivity has also been promoted as has the promotion of school camps for study and research. To put into practice the recovery of agricultural landscape in an alternative way, the town of La Spezia has promoted a pilot project on the recovery of a private terraced area, given as a con- cession for 20 years to an association, which will be responsible for its maintenance and cultivation of the vineyards which are now abandoned, following new types of crops. When a dilemma occurs, is it better to follow the city, which if it works allows the recovery of many abandoned terraces but will radically transform the historic landscape of Tramonti characterized by creeping vines or maintaining the ‘anachronistic’ and almost impossible cultivation of low vines? Fig. 3 Palmaria wine and a few times a year, with the introduction of Palmaria racks to transport the grapes and gear. The municipality of La Spezia has promoted the es- At the end of the eighteenth century the agricul- tablishment of an experimental laboratory for the tural vocation of the island of Palmaria in front study of the historical and agricultural landscape of of Porto Venere is clear both from the map of G. Tramonti, in a place where some original arrange- Brusco (1790) and in the words of G. Targioni- ments of fundamental interest are preserved. Tozzetti (1772): “The circuit in Palmaria Island is Sample areas have been identified for scientific not more than three miles, being in the southern experimentation; recovery of the garrison and part totally craggy, steep, and inaccessible: so enhancement of existing rural trails at high alti- the side facing north, to the Gulf, where the rock tude in local stone. goes declining downhill, with many olive groves, The themes and related issues are not only the and delicious ‘Vignali’, keeping as close to the resumption of construction on existing buildings, marina as some villette, which abound it ‘sum- but above all an attempt to create a connection mer times of beautiful and tasty fruits, and espe- between building restoration and the recovery of cially of large peaches, and very delicate figs.” the existing agricultural heritage by creating con- In the two subsequent centuries most of the ter-

156 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective races were abandoned because the island was In order to recover areas for agriculture, to pro- used for military purposes that preserved it from mote the use of the land for productive purposes massive tourist development. and to strengthen environmental monitoring Although even today the trend on the island with the participation of local producers, the fol- is that of further abandonment of terraces, a lowing projects are proposed: number of private initiatives are emerging aimed - Testing of unconventional Mediterranean crops at agricultural production, which is limited by the and/or income support (medicinal plants, etc.) as statutory instruments (PUC and Regional Plan research and teaching, of Natural Park of Porto Venere) only to certain - Enhancement of agricultural and craft products defined areas APA (Aree di Produzione Agricola), and their trade promotion at points of sale in the where you can carry out agricultural activities. Park visitor centres, These are areas of limited extent although in the - Facilitation of regional coverage through ac- past the island was mainly terraced and planted tions aimed at improving quality of life on the is- with olive trees, vines and vegetable species, as land (incentive to create underground tanks suit- can be seen by comparing the land use of Pal- able for agricultural use and fire protection, pro- maria relative to the year 1790 (made by overlay- motion of the construction of the water line and ing the relief of Brusco and the regional techni- any other technological networks of Palmaria). cal map), where all the north-facing slope was On the northern slope of Palmaria, where there is terraced with fully grown vines, with the current most of the APA, the phenomenon of recovering state discoverable by the land use of the PUC part of the old terracing for production purposes of Porto Venere (2000) where we note that only is spreading to private initiative. Generally, the small areas are cultivated and many ancient ter- promoters are part-time farmers, who do not live races are covered with woods. permanently in Palmaria, nor in the municipality In the APA and PUC, in agreement with the LUR of Porto Venere. They are owners of small par- (Legge Urbanistica Regionale), provides, through cels on the island, who, after recovering the his- an agreement between the public and private toric terraces, with the redevelopment of the dry sectors, a continuity of agricultural and environ- stone walls and the cleaning of the vegetation mental presidium (cleaning of paths, removal of left without care for a long time, have replanted weeds, surface water regulation, fire surveillance, vines and olive trees, integrating the existing ter- maintenance of dry stone walls, farming fields, races and producing quality wine and olive oil. etc.) as a condition to any form of building within the areas themselves. To facilitate the recovery of the agricultural land- Essential bibliography scape of Palmaria, as part of Ph.D. research funded by the Regione Liguria- Rete di paesaggi costieri: a Agnoletti M., 2011, Paesaggi rurali storici- Per un catalogo na- blueway to Porto Venere with subsequent publi- zionale, Roma-Bari Burlando P., 2009, Rete di paesaggi costieri- una blueway per cation (Burlando, 2009), useful guidelines have Porto Venere, Firenze been developed for the private individual to in- Norberg-Schulz C., 1979, Genius Loci –Paesaggio, Ambiente, tervene. Architettura, Milano To have a presidium throughout the territory Quaini M., 1973, Per una storia del paesaggio agrario in Ligu- ria, Savona and to avoid hydrogeological instability “hints” Rossi L., 2003, Lo specchio del Golfo- Paesaggio e anima della of a general character have been formulated to provincia spezzina, La Spezia be applied to specific cases, with the hope that Targioni-Tozzetti G., 1772-1774, Relazioni d’alcuni viaggi fatti such interventions, however small, are further in diverse parti della Toscana per osservare le produzioni increased. natura, Firenze, libro IX-X-XI

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Map of G. Brusco “L’Isola Palmara divisa nelle Tenute delle Figures (source) Particolari Possidenti colla Cannellazione, e specie di Col- Carta IGM “Portovenere”, foglio 95 II SO 1862, scala 1:25.000 tura contenute nelle medesime. Misurata dal Cap.no Ing.re Carta IGM “Lerici”, foglio 95 II SE 1933, scala 1:25.000 Giacomo Brusco, in Luglio 1790” Photographs: source from author

P. Cechova, Under the highway, Fourth Edition Peoples Landscapes

158 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective

Public Participation as Common Good for the ent signs that have marked its landscape: the Province of Caserta, Italy consular roads and subsequent centuratio in Roman times, the fortified architectures during Alessandro Ciambrone the Middle Age and Renaissance, the convents architect and urban planner and the agricultural colonies of the Benedictine PhD in Architecture, Second University of Naples monks, the Bourbon royal palaces, water infra- PhD in Territorial Governance, Université Paris X structure and major roads, implemented and Department of Architecture and Industrial Design “Luigi Vanvi- expanded in following periods (Jacazzi, 2007). tell” - Second University of Naples The Romans, besides the construction of the Monastry of San Lorenzo ad Septimum streets of communication with Rome, also or- 81031 Aversa (Caserta), Italy. ganised agricultural land by taking the usual [email protected] division into sectors of equal size squares, ori- [email protected] ented according to cardinal directions denoting a quite evolved technique. These traces are still Abstract: The landscape of the Province of Caserta, in the cen- visible in numerous roads, including, Capua, turies-long succession of historical events and up to World War Santa Maria Capua Vetere, Caserta and Casag- II, has been not only the expression of a rural culture but has also focused on innovative agricultural processes through a iove (Casiello, 1980). conscious attitude of man towards this extraordinary natural Later, the presence of the Normans in the ter- heritage. Over the last decades, it has passed, in a short period, ritory marks a period of economic and politi- from an agricultural to industrial use, denaturalising the natu- cal stability, also guaranteed by an effective ral vocation of the territory. This has involved a meaningful variation in the models of life and fruition of the area. system of road monitoring, based on the con- Not taking into consideration the shortcomings of local admin- struction of castles, fortified structures of de- istrations willing to propose operational landscape manage- fence and elements located at strategic points ment tools as well as the uncontrolled and unauthorised build- in the network. These are interwoven with ru- ing interventions that have gone unnoticed by the institutions, ral dependencies and farms, managed by the the author believes that the most serious problem lies in the lost sense of identity and attachment of the local communities Benedictine monastic communities, for the to the historical matrices of the place. This has effects on the control of large areas subject to drainage and social and economic aspects. The inhabitants of the area have subsequent agricultural use. Subsequently, the turned away from politics and public institutions, delegated, in Swabians introduce the productions and sales general apathy, to make planning choices. In order to restore the identity and aesthetic of places, a co- of local crops in national and international cir- operative project was undertaken by the Province of Caserta cuits, thanks to the regulation of monopolies, administration, the Second University of Naples, the UNESCO customs and the opening of fairs and markets Club of Caserta five years ago, with the aim of promoting cul- (Vitolo, 1976). tural tourism, food and wine itineraries as well as the immate- From 1500, the Aragonese are substantially in- rial heritage, which strongly characterise this territory. volved in the rehabilitation of vast areas of wet- Keywords: rural landscape, cultural and immaterial heritage, lands and construction of roads, especially for genius loci agricultural transport: they had the idea to make the Volturno river navigable in order to establish a connection between Capua and the sea. The historical landscapes Since mid-1700, the best territories of the province are utilised for agricultural experimenta- The rural vocation of the province of Caserta, tions, which are considered a driver of economic characterised by urban centres of extraordinary development. These are promoted by the Bour- historical and artistic interest, can be read in bons, through a network of residences, the “real different historical stages and through differ- sites”, spread over a larger area.

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Fig. 1 Santa Maria Capua Vetere, photo by Cucciardi Fotograﬁ Capua

The most important among these for the protec- population decline, disorder and social anarchy. tion of the agricultural productions is the royal Today, the rural architectural heritage, which has property of Carditello, destined above all, to the signiﬁcantly deﬁned the landscape of these plac- breeding of equine and bovine races (Serraglio, es, as already said, seems severely compromised 2007). The rural landscape in the eighteenth and in a serious state of abandonment, both century, is strongly marked by extraordinary physical and functional. In order to recuperate works of hydraulic engineering: the Regi Lagni, the genius loci and its aesthetical value institu- a massive irrigation canal that runs through the tional and social stakeholder developed a syner- hinterland to the sea: and the aqueduct of Van- gic plan. These are the Campania region and the vitelli, declared World Heritage property in 1997 province of Caserta Administrations, the Depart- with the Royal Palace, the royal gardens and the ment of Architecture and Industrial Design at the industrial city of San Leucio characterised for its Second University of Naples (SUN) in partnership production of silk. with the areal-marine group of the Guardia di Fi- The program of “rural urbanism” of the fascist pe- nanza (agreement signed in 2011), the Chamber riod - focused on the reclamation and colonisa- of Commerce and the Unesco Club of Caserta, as tion of wetlands, especially along the Domitian well as many local associations. coast - serving as a propaganda by the govern- The rural landscape of the Terra di Lavoro, if prop- ment, which exalts the virtues of rural life as a erly enhanced, could encourage the local eco- sign of a renewed morality to oppose to the in- nomic development not linked just to the agricul- dustrial urbanism, seen, on the contrary, cause of tural production, but extended to the enological,

160 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective gastronomic, and cultural itineraries oriented to The landscape of Caserta is also strongly charac- authentic experiences (Capriglione, 2005). Among terised by particular cultivation of vines. Among these, we propose to promote the traditional as- all, la vite maritata, so defined because leaning sets and the immaterial heritage, which have so and interwoven with one or more trees, de- strongly characterised the local culture. pending on the cultivation technique conceived by the Etruscans. Interesting examples of vite maritata, with tall poplars up to 15 meters, are The traditional landscapes still frequent in the province of Caserta, where is produced the Asprinio wine of certified origin. The celebrations and festivals related to local The origin of such cultivation can be traced back food and wine products, as well as the land- to the Normans who identified in the slight hills scapes characterised by crops and pastures of around Aversa, an ideal area for implanting vines. buffaloes in the province of Caserta, can become These ensured the court a rich reserve of spar- part of a tourist and cultural itinerary strongly kling wines. linked to rural land identity. The most valuable Much older is the production of the Falerno Mas- product known of Terra di Lavoro is definitely buf- sico wine. The grapes destined to the production falo mozzarella of certified origin. Some argue of this certified wine, originate from the Domi- that the buffalo was introduced in Italy after the tio Coast: Sessa Aurunca, Cellole, Mondragone, invasion of the Lombards, and others who were Falciano del Massico and Carinola. This area was the Normans, around the year one thousand, to already note as Ager Falernus. The wine-growing establish the first buffalo farms in the swampy ar- in this area has Greek – Mycenaean origins. It was eas of southern Italy. It is, in any case, a very old revived by the Etruscans and then further devel- tradition and deeply rooted, especially in the vast oped in Roman times. floodplains of the Caserta and Salerno provinces. In this territory, the archaeological remains of It is precisely in these two provinces that most of ancient rustic “villas” are still visible, for wine- buffalos and of farms are concentrated. making and storage, as well as the remains of The buffalo has found here a suitable environ- ancient plants vineyards organised according to ment, that perhaps recalls its remote African or methods and techniques of the age. Known as Asian origins. In fact, it prefers to stay immersed the wine of kings, it was the most expensive and in the mud to avoid the heat and insects. desired of the Roman Empire and was sold in all The Bourbons paid much attention to the farm of the Provinces of the exterminated Empire in ter- buffalos, such as to create one in the Real Cardi- racotta amphorae found in different sea bed of tello, where, in the mid-700, a cheese factory was the Mediterranean. settled. We find traces of such splendor in literary texts, In the plain of the Volturno River, there are still the among other things, of Giulio Cesare, Orazio, old bufalare, which are circular masonry buildings Marziale, Cicerone, Plinio, Virgilio, Petronio, Gio- with a central fireplace for the processing of milk, venale, and Tasso. and small areas along the walls for accommoda- Among the exceptional products we also indi- tion of bufalari. The pastures of buffalo mainly cate the extra virgin olive of certified Terre Au- characterise the wetland of the Domitian coast, runche, whose territory is characterised by olive and countryside near the City of Aversa, which is groves, is located in the north of the province of the main market of the mozzarella cheese. There Caserta, in the area around the extinct volcano of are also numerous annual festivals devoted to Roccamonfina. Also, excellent are the oils of the mozzarella, including that of Cancello e Arnone, hills of Caiazzo, which is the headquarters of the Castel Volturno and Rocca d’Evandro. slow-city association. Famous are also the mela

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Fig. 2 Castel Volturno, Oasi dei Variconi, photo by Alessio Usai annurca (apple), cherries, the hazel of Vairano, water and soil pollution in the province of Caser- and the peach of Aversa (percoca). Among the ta (Gambardella, 2010). The main objective of the celebrations linked to rural tradition, we report research is to define a mapping of critical envi- the feast of Sant’Antonio Abate in Macerata Cam- ronmental issues of the waterways and soils with pania, where the “bottari” on wagons play a mu- particular reference to the risks of public health. sic produced by vats, barrels and sickles. These The pollution of the area, covering a population are tools from the peasant world, and made by of about 900,000 people, through exports of ag- local artisans. Among the most joyous festivals, ricultural products, has negative repercussions the Aurunco Carnival is linked directly to the au- abroad. thentic pagan feast. This stems from the tradition The survey of critical situations will be used by of pre-Christian rituals related to fertility of the public bodies responsible for putting in place se- earth, as the Saturnalia. Currently this event is curity measures aimed at restoring the environ- one of the most beautiful folk rituals praising the mental levels and risk that are within the param- rebirth of life in Campania. eters set out by specific regulations. The recorded data will be used for the preparation of maps that highlight areas polluted and not, in order to The regenerative protection of the territory: a scien- seek the necessary actions and to restore credi- tific project shared by the community bility to the healthy soils, and the connected productive activities, from agribusiness to tourism. Among the cooperation projects involving pub- In addition, such data may be used by public and lic administrations, universities and local asso- private entities to build up, through legal repre- ciations, particularly significant is the scientific sentatives and insurance agencies, civil action activity of integrated multi-dimensional relief against those who intentionally caused damage (thermal and hyperspectral remote sensing, on to the environment, through a request for finan- the surface and underwater) for the mapping of cial compensation.

162 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective

Such ex post compensation will reduce crime and increase environmental controls by public bodies responsible for supervising the area. The province of Caserta, named Terra di Lavoro, owes its name to the historic extraordinary fertility of the soil due to the volcanic nature of the same, and to the temperate climate favored by the central position between the Tyrrhenian Sea and the Apennine mountain. A mixture of positive factors that led over the centuries, many peoples to inhabit and cultivate these places, despite the inherent instability and the constant danger of seismic eruptions. For the beauty of the landscapes, the area was described as “immense Mediterra- nean garden” by travelers of the eighteenth century, thanks, among other things, to the excellent groundwater and surface apparatus. Today the province of Caserta has not lost its con- genital connotations of fertility and productivity, but suffers from an evident and serious socio-economic, and cultural crisis. In the collective imagination, this area represents the paradigm of environmental degradation, excessive power of Camorra, and cultural vacuum (Ciambrone, 2012 a). In fact, the negative image of the area has pre- Fig. 3 Sessa Aurunca, photo by Gino Spera vented the local sale and overseas export of agricultural products, famous in the world. Moreover, ed platform, thanks to the joint use of a single it has limited the flow of tourists in one of the re- aircraft, is a unique instrument for scanning the gions with the highest concentration of cultural Territory. heritage in the world, including: 6 World Heritage The remote-sensing activities aimed at the scan properties, 2 immaterial assets included in the of the waterways such as rivers, lakes, and small Intangible Heritage List under the Unesco pro- reservoirs and adjacent territories can return tection, 2 Man and Biospheres, 15 Sites of Envi- digital data with high geometric and spectral ac- ronmental International Importance , and amost curacy inherent to the reflection and emission of 13.000 archeological sites in the only province of electromagnetic emissions over land surfaces. Caserta (Ciambrone, 2012 b). This allows you to detect changes in the density The activity relates to specific, targeted cam- of liquids or stress vegetation on the land due to paigns of integrated multi-dimensional airborne the presence of illegal underground pipes and survey (hyperspectral thermal imaging through channels. Itres CASES 1500 and Itres TABI 320 sensor, and Thematic maps drawn up with these technolo- photographic images through PhaseOne iXA gies are a source of scientific documentation of camera, installed on the P166DP1 Piaggio air- the Territory useful to locate the presence of il- borne, which belongs to the Areal-maritime Ex- legal dumps, and to define the qualitative and ploration Group of the Guardia di Finanza (Con- quantitative classification of the areas interested vention, 2011) (Gambardella, 2011). The integrat- by critical environmental issues.

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For more detailed investigations on the ground tradition and innovation. In: “The 14th International Con- and on the water, innovative technological tools ference on Geometry and Graphics – ICGG 2010 Kyoto”. pp. 1-10. ISBN: 978-4-9900967-1-7 will be used. These belong to the Research Centre Gambardella, C. 2011. S.A.V.E. Heritage. In: “Le Vie dei Mer- of Excellence of the Campania region for Cultural canti. Safeguard of Architectural, Visual, and Environmen- Heritage, Ecology, and Ecomy (Benecon), institu- tal Heritage”, IX International Forum of Studies, Aversa tional member of Forum Unesco University and and Capri 9-10-11 June 2011. Napoli: La Scuola di Pitago- Heritage. ra. ISBN: 978-88-6542-046-1 Jacazzi, D. 2007. Leggere il territorio: scienza e interpretazione dell’Ager Campanus. In Serraglio R. Ricerche sull’architettura Bibliography rurale in Terra di Lavoro. Napoli, Edizioni Scientifiche Ital- iane, pp. 11-46 Capriglione, J. 2005. I Musei della Provincia di Caserta. Cam- Kondolf G.M., et al. 2011. Connecting Cairo to the Nile: Re- era di Commercio di Caserta newing life and heritage on the river. Institute of Urban Capriglione, J. 2009. Lo sguardo mimetico. Sarno (SA), Ediz- and Regional Development Working Paper No. 2011-007. ioni dell’Ippogrifo University of California, Berkeley Casiello, S., e Di Stefano A. M. 1980. Santa Maria Capua Vet- Kondolf, G.M. 2011. Setting Goals in River Restoration: When ere. Napoli, Editoriale Scientifica and Where Can the River ‘Heal Itself’? In Simon, A. et al (eds) Ciambrone, A. 2012 a. Integrated Management and Cultural Stream Restoration in Dynamic Fluvial Systems: Scientific Districts. The French experience for the Campania Region. Approaches, Analyses, and Tools. Geophyical Monograph Napoli, La scuola di Pitagora Series Vol.194 pp29-43. American Geophysical Union, Ciambrone, A. 2012 b. Cultural Tourism and Sustainable De- Washington DC. DOI: 10.1029/2010GM001020 velopment. A management network for the World Heritage Serraglio R. 2007. Ricerche sull’architettura rurale in Terra di properties of the Campania region. Napoli, La scuola di Lavoro. Napoli, Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane Pitagora Vitolo, G. 1976. La Campania nel Medioevo. In Donzelli, M. Gambardella, C. 2010. Geometry and measurement between Storia, arte e cultura in Campania. Milano, Teti, pp. 53-81

F. Cimmino, Growing Up in the Light, Fourth Edition Peoples Landscapes

164 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective

New Insights and Collective Decisions on Euro- contributions required for interdisciplinary as- pean Landscape: the Paneuropean Stakehold- sessment studies on the state of environmen- ers’ Strategy for IPBES tal resources is recognized; mankind’s common heritage requires a specifically designed gover- Carolina Collaro nance, taking into account scientific data, and Architect. Nova Gorica Univesity, Venice. also indigenous knowledge, which acquires a [email protected] traditional knowledge system status. The nature and purpose of this platform is clarified: Abstract: Following in the footsteps of Elinor Ostrom, who won IPBES will provide periodic updates on biodi- the Nobel Prize for economics in 2009, we could find that if we versity and ES status and trends, and their re- have to work on common goods, special institutions have to be created in a sustainable way. lationship with human well-being. IPBES will Keywords: integrated multiscale approach,stakeholders strat- achieve this, producing coordinated assess- egy, science-policy interface, fast-track assessment, knowl- ments at global, regional and sub-regional levels. edge systems. This integrated approach across multiple disciplines and multiple scales is a unique feature that In Busan, Korea, in 2010, representatives of 90 distinguishes IPBES. The aim is to determine how countries approved the formation of the Inter- the changes in some ecosystems affect other governmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodi- places, at very different spatial scales, and then versity and Ecosystem Services, the IPBES. The compare the total with the local, establishing first Plenary session was held in Bonn, Germany, connections and influences. This synthesis and in 2013. The elected Plenary, its Bureau and the integration requires a new environmental gover- Multidisciplinary Expert Panel (MEP), agreed to nance, where biodiversity and ES knowledge has develop a programme of work for 2014-2018 to be shared and evaluated. and requested UNEP to administer the Secretar- Although there are many examples of environ- iat of IPBES, an “independent intergovernmental mental assessment methodology, IPBES will be- body”. Aside from the platform draft programme, come the pre-eminent and authoritative source a Pan European strategy for stakeholder involve- of international assessments in the area of biodi- ment was discussed in Leipzig, in July 2013. versity and ecosystem services in support of the The origins of IPBES are to be found in the Mil- international treaties addressing these topics. lenium ecosystem assessment (MEA), a massive This capacity building activity, through working study establishing the importance of natural groups, is at the basis of the platform’s structure- capital for humanity, the ecosystem services(ES). design, which is also formed by a group of exter- Data complexity and feedback between biodi- nal stakeholders. The stakeholders’ involvement, versity, ecosystems and human impacts could characterized by a partnership approach, is very be communicated only through broad par- important. In Leipzig, a first Pan-European stake- ticipation, bringing together scientists and holders’ meeting was convened to discuss this politicians to decide on action programmes to strategy. achieve the targets enshrined in the international Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Over the past 25 years, the way we study bio- So IPBES, building an efficient science-policy diversity, and landscape, with ecological func- interface, ensures the implementation of CBD, tions and processes, has changed a lot; instead adopted by law in the European member states. of a landscape of patches and patterns, we talk In 2011, in Tokyo, at the UN University, the basis of ecosystem services. Often the nature of com- for future IPBES work programs was discussed. modification is criticized because nature’s value In this important document, the complexityof should be left out of the economic context. If

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 165 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 climate, biodiversity, and wetlands are common “ services” is incorrect because if a landscape is natural resources, why do we seek an economic fragmented, its visual and aesthetic qualities evaluation, with market or no market value? are also in danger. We must be concerned with The reason is that an economic value of these changes in services, i.e. the biota, soil properties natural assets helps to inform the management and hydrological balance, to reconnect this frag- choices, necessary for mitigation or adaptation ile landscape, to find the cultural values linked strategies, for these systems’ survival. The axis be- to the continuity of care, which communities are tween policy assessments and implementation placing and which is likely to disappear, along in the landscape is provided by the construction with the traditions supporting landscapes. and elaboration of models and scenarios. With- out them, we could not understand how the The first agreement was researched around landscape will change over time, once policy op- the so-called conceptual framework. It reflects tions are made, to smooth the inevitable trade- multi-scale spatial and temporal dimensions offs with ES beneficiaries. and the interactions between biodiversity, ES and human well-being, and explains how As a first step, it was decided within IPBES to such a conceptual framework needs to be ap- verify the possibility of conducting assess- plied to thematic assessments. This framework, ments that are simpler scenarios and models. the working program’s basis, is a support to Thematic assessments are taken into consider- implement the four functions of IPBES (knowl- ation and prioritized. The purpose of studying edge generation, policy support tools, assess- a fast-track assessment of modeling scenarios ments and capacity building), and it is utilized methodologies, for biodiversity and ES, is taken for ES assessments. The final goal of IPBES is into account. What is this? First, it is a work pro- to “strengthen the science-policy interface for gram platform for the first phase (2014-2018). biodiversity and ES, for the conservation and It was developed in accordance with the draft sustainable use of biodiversity, long-term hu- procedures for the preparation of the platform’s man well-being and sustainable development”. deliverables. This first fast-track assessment The Platform recognizes and considers different aims to establish the foundation of scenarios knowledge systems, including indigenous and and the models’ uses, to provide insights into local knowledge systems, which can be comple- the impacts of plausible future socioeconomic mentary to science-based models. development pathways and policy options for biodiversity and ES. This helps to evaluate ac- The term “stakeholders” is not a clear-cut or legal tions that can be taken to protect biodiversity concept, so its scope needs to be defined. On the and ES, identifying criteria by which the qual- basis of the dictionary’s definition, stakehold- ity of the scenarios and models can be evalu- ers could be defined as all those who take part ated, ensuring the comparability of regional in the international institutions’ deliberative and and global policies. The first assessment phase, decision-making processes. to be completed by early 2015, will focus on Some authors propose three major categories of assessing various approaches to scenarios and stakeholders: Member States, the private sector the development and use of models. and civil society. In Leipzig it was proposed to insert single stakeholders, but then another approach Global and local environmental changes are a prevailed. Today, in the context of the implementa- challenge for the future; therefore an attitudinal tion of the work programme , stakeholders are in- change is necessary in order to think and act in stitutions, organizations or groups that could: a proactive way. To say that landscape are not (a) Contribute to the work programme’s ac-

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Fig. 1 MANCA LA DIDA

tivities, through their experience, expertise, Europe, with its diversity of histories and cultural knowledge, data and information; traditions and heritage, policy and knowledge (b) Use or benefit from the work programme’s production, its diverse ecosystems, abundance outcomes; of knowledge holders, and multiplicity of policy (c) Encourage, facilitate and support participa- strategies and approaches offers great potential tion in the Platform’s activities. to contribute significantly, and profit from IPBES. In addition, IPBES may help to highlight the dif- The Pan European stakeholders consultations ferent changes in biodiversity and ES that are cur- intended to bring together associations’ repre- rently happening, as well as future challenges, in sentatives, organisations already accredited to different parts of Europe. the IPBES secretariat, to define types and actions The documents that were reviewed were then in the platform’s work. About 90 people were to- divided into two tranches: one part was about gether from all over the world to share ideas and the draft for the work program and the other documents, leading through brainstorming ses- part, the stakeholders’ strategy; then the global sions. At the end of three days of intense work, dimension with the European one. Europe can the documents were revised with peer reviews. contribute to IPBES thanks to its multiple assets, What role Europe could receive was shared : which include:

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Strengths of pan-Europe for supporting the work of IPBES: a) strong expertise from a diversity of disciplines, historical experience and information systems on the relationship between land and sea use, biodiversity, ecosystem structure and function, and ecosystem services; b) strong expertise in streamlining and standardization of databases, encouraging initiatives to increase data collection, improve accessibility, and ensure quality and interoperability, which could be used to provide models and tools to others;

c) broad knowledge about biodiversity, ecosystem structure and function, and ecosystem services outside Europe, which should be made accessible for IPBES activities in the according regions;

d) experience in conducting environmental assessments at different levels and on different topics; e) long-lasting culture of dialogue and compromise and skills at mediating between multiple actors with potentially overlapping or contradicting impacts; f) collaborative management across boundaries; g) strong civil society active in the field of biodiversity and ecosystem services; h) high level of environmental awareness and education; i) existing corporate and consumer social responsibility; m) global experiences in partnerships and capacity building activities. Serving its four functions in a credible and inte- across Europe by: grated way, IPBES will support decision-making

The added value that Europe will get from IPBES: a) getting stronger evidence on challenges in Europe and its sub-regions with regard to biodiversity ecosystem structure and function, and ecosystem services; b) increasing awareness of the links between biodiversity, ecosystem services and human well- being; c) providing options for improvement of policies and their implementation, including the identiﬁcation of potential trans-boundary activities; d) helping to include innovative mind-sets and best practices from other regions of the world; e) creating incentives for more eﬃcient coordination of and access to knowledge at European and national levels; and highlighting the link to global multilateral environmental agreements like the Convention on Biological Diversity and its Aichi targets and the importance of their implementation in Europe.

Some major requirements will need to be ad- Some of the structures, networks and programmes dressed, so the expectations of IPBES in Pan-Europe that already exist in Europe, which can act as con- can be met, and IPBES does not get into competi- tributors to IPBES, will need to be identiﬁed and tion with existing institutions. Capacity building is sustained. Strategies will need to be developed still needed, in all parts of Europe, to enable experts and implemented to engage underrepresented and stakeholders to get involved in IPBES processes stakeholder groups with IPBES processes on the eﬃciently. This may include national support plat- global and European scales, especially those from forms in countries where they do not yet exist. land and sea based communities and the private

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Fig. 2 MANCA LA DIDA sector. An evaluation process might be set up to as- 4. Take into consideration the relevant experi- sess Pan-European performance in IPBES and these ences of other organizations and processes and activities’ impacts and satisfactions. build on existing initiatives and frameworks; 5. Ensure balanced representativeness in participation among the diﬀerent stakeholders. Stakeholder engagement

Stakeholder engagement has been identi- Strategic approaches fied as a key element for the Platform’s relevance, effectiveness, credibility and suc- Stakeholder engagement should involve the cess. This strategy aims at identifying: following elements in delivering the work pro- 1. Guiding principles for stakeholder engage- gramme and addressing the four functions of ment in the work programme, building and ad- the Platform: ding value to relevant stakeholders’ initiatives; 1. Proactively identifying relevant stakeholders 2. Strategic approaches that might be employed, for each activity and process undertaken by the increasing the engagement of stakeholder imple- Platform (stakeholder identification); mentation, in activities relevant to their interests; 2. Developing targeted approaches to address 3. Modalities and processes to enable effective sta- the needs of stakeholders and facilitate their keholder engagement in the work programme’s contributions; activities, spanning the Platform’s four functions. 3. Building a general understanding of how improved biodiversity knowledge and ES will support an effective science-policy interface through Guiding principles communication and outreach activities; 4. Ensuring the active and effective participation 1. Help to support the Platform in promoting and of stakeholders to help foster their ownership facilitating full adherence to its operating principles of the Platform, and to ensure that the Platform during the work programme’s implementation; benefits from their expertise and experience; 2. Be inclusive, embracing the diversity of 5. Seeking innovative ways to enhance stake- knowledge systems, disciplines and per- holder engagement through best practices and spectives, as well as social and cultural di- innovative communication approaches; versity, including gender dimensions; be- 6. Encouraging stakeholders actively and inde- cause stakeholders have different engaging pendently to engage in the Platform; ways and require a diversity of approaches. 7. Identifying and communicating benefits for 3. Be transparent, including the obligation stakeholder engagement in implementing the to declare any potential conflict of interest. Platform programme of work;

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8. Developing strategic partnerships where this values, in which the option’s value is very strong is identified as necessary and appropriate. and depends on scenario development, which In conclusion, giving a visualisation of a possible can orient according to evaluations and choices. science-policy interface, we say it relies heavily The goal of knowledge is to create a research and on credibility, relevance, legitimacy balancing. communication platform, increasing global understanding of ES, taking into account the livelihoods of indigenous and local communities of the world, Synthesis of trade-offs leading to equitable and effective natural resource policies and decision-making. Many national and Biodiversity strategy in Italy international conventions, as well as policy statements, require a mechanism to include ES contri- Italy ratified the CBD with law n ° 124 in 1994. It is bution to indigenous and local communities’ live- clear, from the experiences already had, that it is lihoods. For example, the Aichi Targets of the CBD not enough to approach the environment from emphasize the need to include the use of biodiver- the biological point of view but also the social, sity into national planning and decision-making. cultural and economic dimensions. So the dis- So it is very important to include and dialogue course of ecology expanded to human societies with different knowledge systems, and to deepen is consistent with the CBD Fourth National Re- our contemporary (scientific) knowledge system. port. As much as possible, ES have to be restored, Will man, who has adapted and coexisted with although there is still a need for studies, such as the environment, defying the worst adversity, be those done in the UK, where ES were mapped, able to survive the global changes that are taking and classified with economic assessments. place? These changes, from the small size of local development to the global one, should not be seen only as a threat, to leave to the expertise and intel- The ethical future ligence of scientists and policy makers; they have become opportunities for building new relation- In addition to ecological, economic, social and ships, founding the civilization that man himself cultural reasons, there are also ethical reasons for created, between citizens and institutions, inhabit- preserving biological diversity. Ethical values de- ants and cities. pend on the social context in which they develop and become an integral part. Analysing the state Bibliography: of implementation in various regions, it appears that much has been done, but much remains to C.Neßhöver, J. Timaeus, H.Wittmer, A. Krieg,N. Geamana, S. Van den Hove, J.Young, A.Watt(2013) Improving the be done, especially in the area of multiple hu- Science-Policy Interface of Biodiversity Research Projects, man relations with nature and in the field of bio- GAIA 22/2 : 99–103 diversity values. It is, therefore, very important to M.Pallemaerts,M.Moreau(2004)The role of « stakeholders participate in these implementation processes of »in international environmental governance, N° 07/2004 | Global Governance. international environmental governance and not S.Sakki et al(2013)Balancing credibility, relevance and le- only reap the benefits later, trying to implement gitimacy: A critical assessment of trade-offs in science– the results. The Pan-European strategy indicates a policy interfaces,Science and Public Policy, pp.1 –13 common path, walking through governments and Statement from the Pan European Stakeholders consulta- organisations’ participation. A same element of tion to support the intersessional process of IPBES,Leipzig, Germany,July 16-18 ,2013.On the European dimension of biodiversity can assume a different value accord- IPBES support. ing to whom is acting, and this is especially true UNEP (2011) International Science Workshopon Assess- when dealing with the cultural landscape’s typical ments for IPBES,United Nations University,Tokyo, Japan

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Landscape Changes and Shareholders’ Prefer- mon properties are usually those found on high ences in the Baselga di Pinè Commons (Italy) ground, where, in historical times, grazing and gathering prevailed. Instead, meadows and fields, Isabella1* De Meo, Maria Giulia2 Cantiani, Alessandro3 Paletto situated on privately owned lower ground were 1*Corresponding author – Consiglio per la Ricerca e Sperimen- managed individually (Viazzo, 1989). In fact in the tazione in Agricoltura – Agrobiology and Pedology Centre Alpine mountain habitat, frequently both hostile (CRA-ABP), P.za D’Azeglio, 30, 50121, Firenze (Italy). Tel. (+39) and fragile, diversified forms of ownership and ap- 055 2491250. E-mail: [email protected] propriate production strategies were fundamen- 2Department of Civil, Environmental and Mechanical Enginee- tal to ensure people life support whilst preserving ring, University of Trento, Trento (Italy) natural ecosystems. Commonly owned natural 3 Consiglio per la Ricerca e Sperimentazione in Agricoltura – Fo- resources have always been managed mainly in rest Monitoring and Planning Research Unit (CRA-MPF), Villaz- order to produce favourable socio-economic and zano of Trento (Italy) environmental conditions. This led to an improvement in the quality of life of local inhabitants Abstract: Natural resources have always played a fundamental through various original, autonomous forms of role in the survival of communities living in the Alps. Land situ- common lands government (Gerber et al. 2008). ated on high ground, where grazing and gathering activities once prevailed, was generally common property and man- A determining factor in this form of organisation aged by collective institutions in accordance with rules aimed is that all the members of the community are co- at regulating the collective use of resources. The traditional owners of common goods and consequently, are activities carried out by the shareholders have contributed to directly involved in guaranteeing that resources shaping the landscape typical of the Alps. Today these institutions are showing signs of crisis. From an economic point of are used in a sustainable way. view, the forestry sector has been in decline since the middle of These institutions were violently opposed to the the 20th century. Moreover, grazing gradually decreased with profound socio-economic changes that char- a consequent change in the traditional landscape. These com- acterised the 20th century. Today however, they munities no longer possess a common cultural background are showing signs of crisis from both a social and the stakeholder network of the area has been interrupted. At the same time new issues are under consideration, such as and economic point of view (Paletto et al. 2013). the importance of habitat protection and landscape conserva- There are factors relating to emigration and the tion to enhance activities connected to tourism. Our research, phenomenon of commuting plus changes of an carried out by means of a case study located in the Province of economic nature and alternative uses of natural Trento, aims at identifying how the collective institutions can take advantage of the opportunities that may arise from recent resources for which new developmental strate- socio-economic changes. A semi-structured questionnaire was gies for the territory need to be found. given to a sample of shareholders in order to investigate the The landscape structure is the result of natural bond between people and their territory and the attitude to- processes and human activities of varying inten- wards management strategies aimed at the restoration of the sities, which adapt to local circumstances. In the traditional landscape. Alpine mountains, the traditional activities prac- Key-words: traditional landscape, management scenarios, tised, such as the use of forests and pastures, had commons, shareholders, Province of Trento (Italy). a stabilising effect on the territory, and ensured the maintenance of an elevated ecological diversity, collaterally guaranteeing the safeguarding of Introduction the landscape in all its diversity (Messerli 1989). Consequently, these landscape changes can be In the Alpine region there is an historical tradition analysed through changes in society. The new of common properties and collective forms of models of development that have affected the ownership in the management of natural resourc- Alpine region in the last few decades have upset es, consisting mainly of forests and pastures. Com- not only the balance of human communities but

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 171 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 also that of the ecosystems (Cantiani et al. 2013). called Amministrazioni Separate per gli Usi Civici The abandonment of traditional mountain activi- (ASUC). The Municipality of Baselga di Pinè was ties, in particular livestock farming, caused various chosen as the study area because it represents ecological problems with resulting consequences well the way common properties are managed for the landscape structure. Among these, one of in the Province of Trento. There are nine ASUCs great interest is the reduction of open spaces that present there, each of them corresponding to are being colonised by forests. This in turn leads to one of the nine hamlets of the municipality. a reduction of landscape heterogeneity and mo- From an environmental point of view, the Mu- saic features, and frequently to a loss of cultural nicipality of Baselga di Pinè covers an area of ap- landscapes (MacDonald et al. 2000). proximately 40 km2, of which 80% is forest. Inso- The aim of this study is to analyse which models far as ownership is concerned, most of the forests of development collective institutions can adopt and pastures are common lands, while private to adapt to the recent socio-economic changes. property is rather limited. The cognitive approach for the evaluation of pub- The Municipality of Baselga di Pinè has a popu- lic perceptions and preferences has been applied lation of 4,856 inhabitants, who still have a very to a case study in the Italian Alps. This approach strong bond with their territory and local tradi- emphasizes how individuals organize, process tions (Paletto et al., 2013). The main source of in- and interpret the informational content of the en- come in the area derives from the tourism sector; vironment (Daniel and Vining 1983) and cognitive as many as 65,000 tourists visit the area during studies can help us understand the reasons for in- the summer. The forestry sector and the timber dividual preferences (Karjalainen 2006). We used industry have been in decline since the middle of a questionnaire as survey methodology which the 20th century. The intensity of grazing has also was submitted to a sample of shareholders in the gradually decreased since the 1970s and large study area. Our aim was to investigate their prefer- tracts of former pastureland have been aban- ences for various management scenarios aimed at doned and become overgrown with shrubs and the development of the territory. trees. Inhabitants are greatly concerned about the problems relating to the future development of the area. In particular, people deplore the loss Study area and survey description of pastures and meadows caused by the decline in livestock farming (De Meo et al., 2012). The data were collected from May 2010 to Janu- A semi-structured questionnaire, comprising 35 ary 2011, in the Municipality of Baselga di Pinè closed- and open-ended questions was admin- (Figure 1), located on a mountain plateau (about istered to 43 shareholders through a face-to-face 1,000 m a.s.l.) in the Province of Trento (Italy). This interview. The sample of shareholders is repre- Province is characterised by an ancient tradition sented by the presidents of the nine ASUCs and of common property management (337,000 ha, by a subset of householders. The questionnaire corresponding to 55% of the territory, are com- addressed the need for a better understanding monly owned). Recently, a provincial law (Law n° of how the tradition of common property is root- 6, 2005) which reorganises the issue of common ed in the community, and to investigate commu- properties and common rights acknowledged nity members’ perceptions regarding common the importance of common property institu- goods. The questionnaire is divided into thematic tions for the conservation of alpine environment, sections and among the themes investigated we its traditional landscape, and cultural heritage. concentrated our analysis on shareholders’ per- About 75,000 ha of common lands are self-admin- spectives relating to common goods and their istered by a particular type of institution which is management.

172 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective

Fig. 1 Baselga di Pinè, Province of Trento (Italy): the lake of Pinè

In particular we analyse here the shareholders’ which one of the following management scenarios preferences for diﬀerent scenarios of landscape is more important for the future development of management aimed at the development of the the territory?” Five management scenarios were Municipality of Baselga di Pinè. Speciﬁcally, we taken into consideration (Table 1). concentrate on a question that reads as follows: The interviewees were also given the opportu- “In your opinion – in the framework of the land- nity to indicate any additional strategies for al- scape planning of the plateau of Baselga di Pinè - ternative scenarios.

Table 1. Description of the landscape management scenarios

Name Scenario Description Increase forest areas and decrease other land uses (i.e. pastures and Forest scenario meadows) in order to increase timber and fuelwood production Diversify landscape by promoting pasture and agricultural area Landscape diversiﬁcation scenario development and decreasing forest areas Develop tourism with realization of tourist facilities in forst and in open Tourism scenario areas and creation of infrastructures such as bed & breakfast, agri- tourisms, sports attractions, etc.. Business as usual scenario Maintain present situation without changes in landscape use

Results and prospects majority of respondents (65.1%) declare that increasing pastures and agricultural areas in or- The shareholders’ opinions on the five landscape der to diversificate the landscape should be the management scenarios of the Municipality of main way to develop the territory. It is interest- Baselga di Pinè are mainly oriented towards the ing to analyse this answer jointly with the answer landscape diversification scenario (Figure 2). The concerning the increase of forest areas as a pos-

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Fig. 2 Shareholders’ preferences concerning landscape management scenarios for the Municipality of Baselga di Pinè sible way of development. Only 2.3% of the re- respondents who gave the answer «other rea- spondents think that forest expansion could be a sons» (14.0%) reveals that in some cases they good strategy for the future evolution of the area seem to have given a response which does not of Baselga di Pinè. These answers must be read in fit the question, e.g., they declare the importance the light of the fact that, especially from the be- of the economic role that ASUCs could have for ginning of the last century, the territory of Basel- the development of the economy of the territory. ga di Pinè, like many other mountain regions, has Some shareholders affirm that the realization of been subjected to a natural re-establishment of handicraft activities in the area could be a way a forested landscape. In fact the abandonment of for the future development of the territory. In traditional mountain agriculture was followed by their opinion this process could provide a way to a natural forest recovery on disused agricultural escape from the marginalization of these moun- land, meadows and pastures (Walther, 1986; Sit- tain territories. zia et al., 2010). Indeed, inhabitants of Baselga The great interest shown by the shareholders in di Pinè have viewed with regret this gradual but the diversification of landscape is surely a sign of inexorable expansion of the forest around them the very strong bonds between the community and the loss of a patchy landscape with forests, members and their own territory and of the fact pastures and agricultural areas. For this reason that landscape is considered a common good, they strongly desire that future management the maintenance of which has to be the main scenarios could ensure landscape diversification. strategy of management for the development A lower percentage of shareholders (16.3%) are of the area. Furthermore, the landscape diversi- in favour of the realization of tourist facilities and fication scenario can be considered the one for infrastructures. Probably in their opinion these fa- restoring the historic landscape, unlike other sce- cilities are important as they can attract a greater narios such as tourism and forest scenarios that flow of tourists in order to support the economic are more addressed to a local economic devel- development of the area. Taking a closer look at opment. From the shareholders answers, on the

174 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective whole, there has emerged an hypothesis of de- International Review of Social Sciences and Humanities velopment based on the relaunching of animal 6(1):228-243. Daniel T.C., Vining J., 1983, “Methodological issues in the as- husbandry and mountain agricultural activities. sessment of landscape quality.” In: Altman, I., and Wohlwill, All this should eventually be carried out in syn- J.F. (eds). Behavior and the Natural Environment. p. 39-84. ergy with forms of tourism that are sustainable De Meo I., Cantiani MG., Cocciardi D., Paletto A., 2012, “Co- and mindful of the environment. This could be munità locali e governance del territorio: un’indagine encouraged by the fact that in the last few years, percettiva nell’Altopiano di Pinè”. Dendronatura 33:26–40 Gerber JD, Nahrath S, Reynard E, Thomi L., 2008, “The role the environmental policy of the Province of Tren- of common pool resource institutions in the implementa- to has shown interest in the revitalisation of the tion of Swiss natural resource management policy”. Inter- agricultural sector, acknowledging its role in the national Journal of the Commons, 2:222–247. conservation, on the one hand of biodiversity, Karjalainen E., 2006, “The visual preferences for forest regeneration and ﬁeld aﬀorestation-four case studies in and on the other of the traditional landscape. Finland”. Dissertationes Forestales 31. p. 111 The research undertaken has revealed indications MacDonald D., Crabtree J.R., Wiesinger G., Dax T., Stamou N., potentially useful for forest planning on a land- Fleury P., Lazpita J.G., Gibon A., 2000, “Agricultural aban- scape level. In particular, interviews with share- donment in mountain areas of Europe: environmental holders have brought to light a number of aspects consequences and policy response”, Journal of Environ- mental Management, 59:47–69 that will allow for a better understanding of the Messerli P., 1989, Mensch und Natur im Alpinen Leben- territorial context and the dynamics at work. sraum: Risiken, Chancen, Perspektiven, Stuttgart: Verlag We would like to conclude by emphasising the Paul Haupt Bern. usefulness of studies such as this one, which fo- Paletto A., De Meo I., Cantiani M. G., Cocciardi D., 2013, “Bal- ancing wood market demand and common property cuses on the analysis of community and stake- rights: a case study of a community in the Italian Alps”. holders’ perception, in order to support the deci- Journal of Forest Research, 1-10. sion makers in the management and planning of Sitzia T., Semenzato P., Trentanovi G., 2010. “Natural refores- the territory. tation is changing spatial patterns of rural mountain and hill landscapes: a global overview”, Forest Ecology and Management, 259(8): 1354-1362. Walther P., 1986, “Land abandonment in the Swiss Alps: a References new understanding of a land use problem”, Mountain Re- search and Development, 6:305-314. Cantiani MG., De Meo I., Paletto A., 2013, “What do Human Viazzo PP., 1989, “Upland communities. Environment, popu- Values and Emotions Suggest about Forest Planning? lation and social structure in the Alps Since the sixteenth An International Review Focusing on the Alpine Region” century.” Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

C. Ceribelli, Borneo sunset, Fourth Edition Peoples Landscapes

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Role and Importance of Awareness-Raising And ficials and budgets for urban planning projects, Popularization of the Idea of Common Goods underdeveloped legal systems, and willful neg- in Landscape Planning ligence by residents of existing legal frameworks are typical problems which obstruct the realiza- Kenichi Hashimoto (Ph.D.) tion of urban planning/landscape projects in de- Nine Steps Corporation, Chairman and Managing Director, veloping countries. [email protected] In order to execute spatial improvement projects under such conditions, it becomes necessary to encourage residents’ participation into the urban Abstract: Landscape resources need to be preserved in devel- planning and landscape field. As residents are oping countries as well as in developed countries, and their improvement is also an important issue. But social systems in not usually familiar with the technical aspects of developing countries are fragile, complicated, and chaotic, so these fields, the key to increased participation is that making a landscape plan, as well as reaching a consen- to increase consciousness of, and popularizing, sus about the plan and its implementation, are both difficult. the idea of the landscape as common goods. Lack of both administrative officials and budgets for urban planning projects, underdeveloped legal systems, and willful When successful, landscaping works will be im- negligence by residents of existing legal frameworks are typi- plemented as autonomous and voluntary activi- cal problems which obstruct the realization of urban planning/ ties of the residents. landscape projects in developing countries. This paper presents a strategic approach for de- This paper presents a strategic approach for decision making cision making in urban and landscape improve- in urban and landscape improvement project in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. The project worked out a ment project in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic scheme to accelerate residents’ participation in urban/land- of the Congo. scape planning processes by increasing consciousness of, and popularizing, the idea of the landscape as common goods, and thus implementing landscaping works as autonomous and voluntary activities of the residents. 2. Outline of the Case Study The project introduced strategic collective decision-making processes for the entire process of spatial planning and imple- The project, which serves as case study for this mentation, i.e. from the identification of social infrastructure paper, ran from 2008 to 2009 as a community de- issues to landscape design as solution. The project cultivated velopment program by JICA (Japan International and encouraged collective decision-making by providing civil education programs suited to the maturity level of the com- Corporation Agency). The community develop- munity. ment program was applied for by the N’djili commune, which is one of 23 communes of Kinshasa Keywords: Kinshasa, participatory community approach, self- City. The commune had about 370,000 people government in its 13 districts. The commune was originally developed as sub-center of the capital, Kinshasa City, in 1960s, but its development is still incom- 1. Introduction plete and quite different from its master plan, because of the civil war which lasted for many Landscape resources need to be preserved in de- years. Nevertheless, many landscape elements, veloping countries as well as in developed coun- while damaged, remained as traces of a planned tries, and their improvement is also an important city within the commune, and their improve- issue. But social systems in developing countries ment and restoration were desired. are fragile, complicated, and chaotic, so that mak- The aims of the project were: ing a landscape plan, as well as reaching a con- - to formulate its community development plan, sensus about the plan and its implementation, - to execute some of construction works as pilot are both difficult. Lack of both administrative of- projects, and

176 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective

- to formulate implementation system of com- and urban-specific problems of the study area. munity development activities. A series of interviews were conducted in every district, targeting specific social groups (house- wives, commercial workers, manufacturing work- 3. Activities and Output of the Case Study ers, agricultural workers, and youth groups). 1) Survey and Analysis of Urban Problems of the Study Area The major problems raised during the interviews and the result of the subsequent urban problem Interview surveys and site visit surveys were con- analysis, classified according to problem catego- ducted in order to grasp the current conditions ry, is shown in Figure 1.

Fig. 1 Urban Planning Problems and Activities

2) Formulation of an Overall Strategic Urban Im- assumes 10 years for its implementation. The provement Program necessary budget and expected residents’ participation were worked out at its formulation. Its The project introduced strategic collective deci- sub-projects were arranged to range from simple sion-making processes into the entire process of projects (e.g. public goods improvement) to the spatial planning and implementation, i.e. from multi-sectorial (e.g. urban redevelopment proj- the identification of social infrastructure issues ect), as shown in Figure 2. to landscape design as solution. The collective process, which was named the Strategic Urban Improvement Program (the Program) was formu- 3) Execution of Community Development Sub- lated by officials of the city hall of Kinshasa City Projects under the assistance of Japanese experts as the city officials’ On-the-Job Training. The Program This project then further attempted to cultivate

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Fig. 1 Urban Planning Problems and Activities and encourage collective decision-making by a) Civic Education Program providing civil education programs suited to the maturity level of the community. And towards The ﬁrst sub-project executed was the civic ed- the same aim, this project also executed the fol- ucation program. It aimed to build the capac- lowing three sub-projects among the many for- ity of community leaders concerning planning, mulated under the Program (see Figure 2). implementing and coordinating community-led

178 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective development activities, and at the same time, to struction and -management capacity within the change their attitude about decision making pro- commune for further urban planning and devel- cesses so that the latter may be conducted with opment. transparency. The participants of the civic education program identified the necessary improve- d) Post-Project Situation regarding Community De- ments to be made to their urban environment velopment and formulated the activity plans. The whole planning and consensus-building process, now This JICA community development project in well understood by the community leader par- N’Djili commune finished with success. From ticipants, was then transferred to other residents. 2010, the community development program This chain of learning greatly improved the resi- was expanded and implemented in 22 other dents’ understanding about public matters. communes of Kinshasa City and the experiences in N’Djili commune were transferred by b) Community Environmental Improvement Pro- the “Training of Trainers” method. There remain gram many areas where outside technical assistance will likely be required for the full implementation Through their discussions during the civic educa- of urban planning and development project un- tion program, the residents planned their initial der resident collaboration. But it seems that the urban improvement program. Specifically, gutter participatory approach had been well launched cleaning activities were planned and executed as Kinshasa’s urban management system. by members of every district within the commune. Which urban improvement issue to tackle, and the execution of subsequent improvement 4. Lessons Learned from Case Study programs, were based on the initiative of community leaders. These activities raised residents’ The following are lessons learned from this proj- awareness on the conditions of their urban envi- ect, and points for consideration when applying ronment, and awareness that the urban environ- of idea of common goods in landscape and ur- ment is managed by themselves, the residents, ban planning. as common goods. % This project formulated an entire vision for community development at the beginning, c) Road Rehabilitation Project and it was shared between the officials of the city hall, residents and the international experts Road rehabilitation works were also executed (see Figure 2). This overall picture was difficult to for the central area of the commune. The road in understand for most residents, especially gen- question was initially designed as a central ave- eral residents, with the exception of some of the nue of a sub-core of the capital city in the 1960s. community leaders. But nevertheless, sharing this vision helped the officials to make decisions The rehabilitation project planned for construc- about the development process and to organize tion work to be executed by local resources. A residents. Congolese construction company was selected % There were possibilities to choose other sub- and workers were selected from among resi- projects as the initial implementation project dents in the commune. Necessary construction (for example, the improvement of hospitals, etc.). technology was transferred to the construction But the sub-project for improvement of common workers by indoor training as well as field train- goods (rehabilitation of road and surroundings) ing. This scheme aimed to build up the self-con- was agreed on instead of one for the improve-

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 179 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 ment of public goods. The selection was not in- effective. When applying the participatory ap- tentionally induced, but as a result, this initial se- proach to more complicated situations, such as lection greatly encouraged the residents’ interest that involving both spatial design and land use, in participating in the planning and implementa- the problems and necessary countermeasures tion process. might be less clear-cut, and individual interests % Residents’ participation in training courses and preferences will come into play. In such situ- greatly affected the disclosure and decision mak- ation of increased complexity, technical transfer ing process of planning and development. In the for capacity development will likely need to be very beginning of the project, it was difficult to less generic and more pin-point, such as plac- get any agreement on what to select as the pilot ing greater emphasis on the in-depth training of sub-project. Every resident and official insisted community leaders, methods to identify target on the improvement of their neighboring area subsets of the community for awareness-raising, and related public facilities. After execution of a and arbitration skills, in order to assist both offi- series of civic education courses, however, they cials and residents effectively. The complexity of started to think in the context of public and com- the civic education process will in a sense need mon welfare. The positive effect of the training to match the complexity of the landscape plan- courses on planning and development were in ning itself. fact more than expected before the implementation of the project. %This project was a relatively simple urban plan- Essential Bibliography ning project, and conducted awareness-raising on the idea of common goods towards a wide Japan International Cooperation Agency, 2010, “The devel- target (effectively the entire community) in the opment study for urban rehabilitation plan of Kinshasa early phases of the project. As the spatial prob- in the Democratic Republic of the Congo final report : summary”. lems of Kinshasa and their countermeasures Kenichi HASHIMOTO, 1998, “Landscape generation in het- were obvious and clear, with no room for dis- erogeneous spaces” agreement, this form of awareness-raising was Kisho KUROKAWA, 2006, “Revolution of city”

A. Spornic, The untouched land, Fourth Edition Peoples Landscapes

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Landscape as Common Good: the Experience be confused with public property, that is, State of Some Recent Italian Landscape Planning or other property under the ownership of public administrations. Giampiero Lombardini Common goods, however, do not refer only to Department of Sciences for Architecture, University of Genoa physical objects. There are many categories of Tel. +39.010.209.51.828 email: [email protected] common goods which, although intangible and non-physical, are considered available to all citi- Abstract: Historic and naturalistic landscapes must be regarded zens. In the recent scientific debate perhaps the as common goods and as such this raises the issues of their most striking case of a non-materialistic public management and planning. This is exemplified by three points; good is represented by the Internet, which is the ease at which these common goods suffer erosion due to ex- formed by the shared and wide amount of in- cessive consumption, the difficulty of conferring on them their economic value, and the need for a definition of the legal regime formation contained within it and, at the same of these particular commons. The issue of landscape planning time, by the sheer volume of its access. Common in recent years in Italy has proposed a set of interesting ways to goods in principle can then be distinguished by address the issue of landscape management, which is seen as a tangible and intangible (or social) assets. Exam- public good and, in particular, as a common good. ples of immaterial common goods are; cultural Keywords: common goods, landscape planning, property heritage, the potential capacity of art and science rights, community, coevolution. and ultimately the landscape as a testimony of both the historical memory and also the visible expression of different forms of civil organization The debate around common goods of a people (or a community).

The debate around common goods today is divided into two basic categories of interpretation. Common goods features On one hand is the economic standpoint and on the other is the legal standpoint. According to Common goods can be defined on the basis of the economic perspective, public good is neither four fundamental characteristics: ownership, excludable nor rival to consumption. This good is forms of management, degree of access (or ac- defined by its need to be accessible to all, but its cessibility) and social function. While the deter- usability by the individual is independent to that mining factor in these cases is social function, of others. Common good, on the other hand, is the other functions are less decisive. the good that is rival in the issue of consumption Ownership, in fact, is not of primary importance: but not excludable, and it is also an advanta- a common good can, or could, also be in the geous good in that each user obtains a benefit availability of one or more individuals or in the from its use which can’t be separated from the availability of the State (such as a public compa- benefits obtained by others. ny) but does not lose its character as a common Today, even though a shared taxonomy defining good if two factors are guaranteed: access and what common goods are does not exist, a fairly proper form of management. theoretical accurate definition for them does ex- Such management must involve active forms of ist. Public goods include goods such as natural participation from the local community who par- resources (i.e. water, land, etc.) that are finite, and ticipate in this formation beforehand, which will in the current global scenario, are also scarce. eventually lead to their enjoyment of that com- Nobody can be excluded from their exploitation. mon good. Such participation must be organized Common goods are also referred to as “common through public and shared processes of decision- owned property” and as such they should not making (as illustrated in the work of E. Ostrom).

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Common goods can thus be excluded from repre- naghi (2000) that “the territory is a work of art, senting a specific category of good that tends to perhaps the highest, the most collective that be defined as a purely economic vision. humanity has never expressed”, the land trans- It has to do with the rights of people to access formed by using natural and human artifacts in socially essential vital functions and therefore the course of history is itself a common good. In they are outside both market logic and the logic particular it becomes a project that materializes of the populus. into tangible shapes (landscape) with a collective intention. The ‘common’ is not only an object (or objects), but it is also a relational category made Common goods and landscape up of relationships between individuals, communities, and environment contexts (Mattei, 2011). It is interesting to note that the common goods We can, however, observe how landscape is the debate was born with regard to matters concern- result of the fine and unceasing work of the trans- ing the land, its property, its access and its man- formation of nature by man, which has occurred agement (Hardin, 1968, and before him: Olson, and still occurs largely through the private ap- 1965). The territory (whose Latin etymology is propriation of land. What we see as a landscape composed by the terms ‘terrae’ and ‘torus’ that can framework, in the experience of almost all Italian be defined as “bed of soil”) is chronologically the regions, however, is something more than the first common good that appears in the legal world, sum of many small interventions conducted in particularly in the Roman context. When Romans the logic of profit and interest: it is the result of founded a city (starting from Rome) and they a project that could not be individualistic, but traced its boundaries both externally (dividing the rather communal, or rather common. city from the countryside) and inside (creating dif- The heritage of territory therefore has an emi- ferent urban partitions), the land becomes terri- nently immaterial nature. In the landscape we see tory, and territory becomes the subject belonging today we can thus appreciate the material mani- to the human aggregate who dwell in and on it. festation of some common goods in the strictest From this moment began the unity of community, sense (in Italy this is called “civic uses”), but they its territory and the jurisdiction of such a commu- are only part of the overall framework: the true nity. Starting from the moment of spatial human common heritage is in the generative rules that tracking and the configuration of settlements have been established in the course of history arises an issue of fundamental importance: that and have given shape to several landscapes. In of the term “private property” which arises only this sense, the ‘territorial heritage’ is not a good if the community to which the territory belongs given in itself (although actually often sub- concedes a part of it to individuals (cives). merged, degraded or collapsed), but becomes a It is important to note at this point that private common good through activities of recognition, ownership of small parts of the Roman territory awareness, and community projects. did not exclude the membership of those same A particular crucial point to recognize are the parties. Namely, the sovereign power of the peo- codes in landscape, as suggested by C. Alexan- ple, as noted by Carl Schmitt (1991). This was a der, who termed them “generativeness”, namely sort of “super-ownership”, afterwards identified those shared codes through which a territory in the Middle Ages with the “dominium eminens” determines its ability to reproduce the primary of the sovereign (or the king or feudatory), con- resources for the community: the quality of the trasted with the “dominium utile” of the private landscape and its protection as a common good owner (“shared ownership”). depends on the effectiveness of the regulation of Today, if we start from the definition of A. Mag- this process of reproduction.

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Landscape planning methods - the Italian expe- five stages of the planning processes listed rience above. The first element of such an analysis is made on In order to continue to keep alive the relationship the consideration that each landscape plan is between community and territory we must there- made using the elements that shape the structure fore design the landscape to be in continuity with of the regional landscape. In the case of Apulia, its the historical processes that have determined its prominent elements consist of the ecological net- shapes, a shape that we can call its “identity”. The work. That is the structure of historical settlement question therefore is which parts and features of patterns, cultural goods and the perceptual struc- landscape are foundational to define its identity. ture of the main landscapes. In the case of Pied- The most recent experiences of landscape plan- mont with respect to natural landscape compo- ning in Italy have attempted to capture the struc- nents, those of water bodies, glaciers and forests, tural nature of the aspects in the territory. contribute towards the definition of the structure In landscape planning Italian legislation is the of regional landscapes, as well as the historical instrument through which the first values were systems. This refers both to the network of historic recognized. The first recognized were the values paths and settlements (historical city centers and associated with common heritage, then the man- rural emergency landscapes) and to the character- agement of the design process and then that of istics of perception and finally the degraded areas. landscape management frameworks, those The recognition of cultural heritage is processed ranging from conservation rules to regeneration separately and is not related to the historical evo- and production actions. Landscape planning can lution of the regional spatial structure. Ecological thus be deconstructed into a series of processes networking is a topic-specific analysis and relates that aim to design a territory, starting with the to the historic cultural network: the result of this recognition of its heritage. So a process of land- analysis is the representation of the landscape scape planning, based on the experiences that framework in which environment and culture are were taken into account, can be broken down inter-related. into five basic steps: Within the Umbrian landscape plan the part of 1) Analysis of the landscape the regional landscape are: the physical structure 2) Identification of the subjects involved in the and environmental resources (those of forests, reproduction process grasslands and cultivated areas), cultural and his- 3) Establishment of a framework of actions aimed torical resources (network of historical paths, his- towards it implementation torical centers, archaeological sites), social and 4) Research of resources needed for the develop- symbolic resources, related to local agricultural ment of the landscape production and forms of perception of symbolic 5) Evaluation, environmental balance and moni- imagery attached to the main regional town cen- toring of the action plans ters or regional areas most recognizable from an historical and environmental point of view. The settlement system and regional ecological net- Landscape project and planning: some Italian case work are specific issues. studies In the case of the plan of the Sardinian landscape, one can detect all the necessary components of The analysis of some regional Italian landscape the landscape which are divided into natural ar- plans (Apulia, Piedmont, Umbria and Sardinia) eas (thickets, forests and wetlands), semi natural can be useful in understanding which elements areas, and finally areas in use for agro-forestry. are considered relevant to the definition of the These components are brought into a relation-

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Fig. 1 2 e 3 MANCANO LE DIDA

184 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective ship with the landscape and cultural constraints case very complex and detailed, what prevails is by law. The historical cultural assets map in- an idea of landscape planning as protection and cludes historical and cultural regions, the areas as a constraint in opposition to urban growth and characterized by the presence of artifacts of his- the increasing land consumption. It is a narrow torical and panoramic importance, the historical view that does not conceive the landscape project creations of art, historical settlements, networks as a territorial project, with a real consideration for and connective elements. The settlement map the actors and resources as would be desirable. includes an analysis of the historical centers and The exception is represented by the plan of an interpretative reconstruction of the network Apulia in which the construction of a landscape of historical paths. This specific map is intended scenario (a vision of the future landscape of the to be the census of civic uses. Region) identifies the strategies to achieve a fu- In all these landscape planning experiences the ture different for the regional landscape. A series analysis and interpretation of the common heri- of strategic document-correlated actions are tage is a clear objective and it is focused primarily, needed, actors and resources aimed at promot- although with different levels of detail, in the re- ing decisive actions for the active protection of construction of the historical structure of the set- the landscape, going beyond simple apposition, tlement that is sometimes positioned in relation however fundamental, of environmental and to the environment (the ecological network or the landscape constraints. natural system assets) and sometimes the network It is no coincidence that the plan with a more of cultural heritage. In some experiences (Umbria, current conception and design of landscape Apulia) planners have also tried to build a percep- planning is that of Apulia. A plan that is de- tual map , as provided by the Code 42/2004. signed to achieve its objectives and make use As regards the subject of “producers” of landscape, of assessment tools, which are essential for the those that are predominantly identified in the op- monitoring of the plan during the period of its erators present in the territory (in the first place implementation. In this sense the strategic envi- farmers, with reference to rural areas), in regional ronmental assessment is a useful tool in defining Public Administration, who play, in all cases, both the framework of coherence where all the differ- the role of the producer of rules and actor of some ent projects will have to adapt. specific projects in territorial local development. The actions planned by the different landscape plans References cover a range that starts from the conservation of sites of absolute artistic, historical, and cultural value Alexander C., 1964, Notes on the Synthesis of Form. Harvard and main landscape contexts, to the active protec- University Press Hardin G., 1968, “The tragedy of commons”. Science, Vol. 162, tion and maintenance, which covers the most valu- no. 3859 able farmland landscape, where its historical matrix Magnaghi, A., 2005 The Urban Village: A Charter for Democ- is still recognizable. In addition the reorganization racy and Local Self-sustainable Development, Zed Books, and consolidation of the most fragile areas where London Mattei U., 2011, Beni comuni: un manifesto., Laterza, Roma- there is a strong competition with urban uses of land Bari where upon conversion actions and rehabilitation Olson M., 1965, The logic of collective action. Harvard Univer- for degraded areas are recognized (especially in the sity Press, Cambridge plans of Piedmont and Apulia). Ostrom E., 1990, Governing the Commons. Cambridge Uni- With regard not only to the economic, but also to versity Press. Cambridge Rodotà S., 2013, Il terribile diritto. Il Mulino, Bologna the institutional, social and cultural resources, the Schmitt C., 1991, Il nomos della terra. Adelphi, Milano, contribution made by different landscape plans Settis S., 2010, Paesaggio Costituzione cemento. Einaudi, is quite poor. Beyond analytical apparatus, in any Torino

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Collective Decision-Making, Governance and ve manner and homologously managed by con- Non-Institutionalized Practices tinuous and lasting experiences, guaranteed by Commons/Landscapes Beyond the Contempo- appropriate statutory norms understandable in rary Crises, Toward Participatory Governanceís terms of common goods. Processes

Prof. Rita Micarelli*, Prof. Giorgio Pizziolo** 2. This wider contemporary perspective allows us to * IIAS International Institute for Advanced Studies in System reconsider landscapes as material, concrete and in- Research and Informatics, Ontario, Ca formational, living environments (Ostrom, 1990). email: [email protected] ** University of Florence The rediscovery of landscapes and their wider email: [email protected] contemporary interpretation open innovative perspectives toward a contemporary conscious- Abstract: Landscapes and commons have been mutually in- ness based on and developed in two relational teracting along the ages and their interactions have been continuously evolving. Since the year 2000 landscapes have been dimensions: concrete and informational. intended as living environments by the ELC. In accordance The concrete sense of landscapes is linked to the with the ELC and with our metropolitan present condition, we traditional management of the commons still can conceive our living environments in a wider perspective visible in a lot of contemporary territories man- and re-consider the commons both as material and tangible and informational web living environments. The contradic- aged by their communities according to speciﬁc tions of the contemporary crises leads us to the rediscovery of rules and statutes. commons in terms of collective values, while their destruction The informational meaning of living environment is imminent. At present our landscapes with their social heri- can be linked to the research of Elinor Ostrom, tages, memories, and traditions are sold as separate products, winner of the 2009 Nobel Prize for Economics, as happens with Mediterranean life environments, people. and cultures. Governing all these commons throughout a wider who suggested a contemporary approach to the multiplicity of non- institutional participative processes can be commons through a whole, ethical, alternative a fundamental opportunity for their maintenance and evolu- challenge. Such a challenge can become a sharp tion, but also for developing new forms of participative gover- counterforce against the dominant powers. nance for our contemporary landscapes, as a lot of concrete examples of urban and territorial governance testify. These contemporary proposals can be fundamental also to reconsider the informational liv- Key words: Contemporary Commons/ Life Environments, par- ing environments such as contemporary web ticipative interactions, new autonomies landscapes, often improperly intended as virtual, without forgetting the philosophical research that brought to light the original virtual charac- Six Theoretical Points + a Seventh Point: “Action/ teristics intrinsic to the natural world, now at risk Research and Examples” of being misused by the dominant web powers. 1. Florence, 2000: Landscapes are recognized by the ELC as living environments and collective values as bases of the commons 3. The deprivation and destruction of our living en- In this sense vironments is imminent as well as the destruction the living environment expresses the interwo- of social values, whereas the informational tech- ven relationships between communities and nologies invade and distort every living context to territories which have been perceived and spon- propagate their informational landscapes taneously recognized as collective values along the ages. All European/Mediterranean territories Regarding concrete landscapes we cannot remain have been traditionally used in a social, collecti- indiﬀerent to this devastation without becoming

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‘complicit’ in the crime. However, we can encour- visage a contemporary, innovative version of com- age an adequate reconstruction of the threat- mon goods as common-scapes ened living environments and the quality of life of their populations. 5a. The concrete dimension of landscapes can Regarding informational living environments we be socially referred to as participative landscap- realize the continuous distortion of natural hu- ing actions and experiences, just to achieve a man virtuality, dispersed and trivialized in the new vision of abroad territory, a new un-sizeable web living environment to become an informa- geographical reference endowed with a whole tional merchandise, whereas the progressive -spatial, temporal and relational- dimension. Ter- fragmentation of living contexts inhibits the per- ritories, bioregions and relationships with their ception of their social values. different conditions and their new reference- communities can constitute the loci of new landscapes where a living geography can arise. In this 4. The contemporary crises lead us to rediscover the vision the commons and the bioregions can fully intrinsic values of common landscapes and the ori- play the role of commonScapes ginal meaning of human virtuality as new contem- 5b. The informational dimension and the con- porary common goods temporary contradictions of living environments can be referred to the philosophical approach The new values of living environments, their im- which brought to light, along the ages, the minent distortion and frenzied destruction un- wholeness of the living world and the secret of derline the urgency of rediscovering their natu- its creative virtual/actual unity, specific to natural ral, social and environmental wholeness, since /human dynamics, defined as a sacred unity by such a destruction hits the essence of natural G.Bateson and cultural environments in evolution, whose The recent Web 2.0 interactive technologies, ap- living cycles (human and natural) are progres- parently aimed at amplifying the natural capac- sively altered, ripped off, or destroyed. ity of their users, have been propagated within This is a real threat for the survival of traditional the social systems to constitute a whole artifi- common goods, exasperatedly fragmented, and cial world, equivocally termed virtual, which at- for any collective control towards the pervasive tempts to substitute the natural one by imitating propagation of the informational web environ- its behaviors, so that the intrinsic prerogatives of ments ambiguously presented as virtual envi- the social living world are jeopardized. ronments. The wholeness of the virtual-actual, the naturally To resist this situation we have to reconnect fuzzy source of creative dynamics is progressive- these multiple fragments (material and virtual) ly annihilated by a crisp mechanical cause/effect through ecological research and projects (social, interaction, while the social and natural envi- economic, and cultural) that can serve in the dif- ronment, the very womb of social learning pro- ferent contemporary situations as interstitial/in- cesses in evolution, is substituted by a simplified ter-temporal activities able to create unexpected on line landscape/environment where new on evolutionary contemporary contexts. line communities operate in the illusion of being “very knowledge citizens”. Throughout the ages virtuality and virtual /actual dynamics have been 5. The new dimensions -informational and concre- progressively abstracted from nature, trivialized te- of living environments which can manifest in by the informational technological powers and unexpected ways (which affect social perception, transformed into a controllable global phenom- consciousness and autonomous management) en- enon, out of any individual and social control.

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In the present age informational technologies environments, considered in terms of concrete burst into the living world, occupying every and informational (web) experiences. These place in it, and break the natural wholeness of communitarian activities are often mutually in- its cyclical dynamics at every level. In spite of teracting towards the reconstitution of shared, these attempts, the living world treasures the au- autonomous and responsible conditions of life, tonomous creative prerogatives, the inextricable based on and managed as common goods. secrets of its development, and manifests its po- In this way the new dynamics or tensions/facts tency, in contrast to the dominant phenomena. prefigured by G. Deleuze can concretely produce 5c. Market values vs use values, separation, ab- a molecular revolution, in a continuous counter- straction of plus values against the cyclical plus offensive towards global dominant powers. life value of nature. 6a. The renovation of living environments in- On the residual fragmented living environments, tended as communitarian use values, leadsus territorial goods and societies, the market values towards the constitution of contemporary com- and the dynamics of financial enrichment grow mon goods. and expand, in spite of the impoverishment of The re-discovery -and consequent re-covery- of environments and cultures everywhere on the the resulting parts of fragmented cycles by so- planet. cial groups through experiential learning aimed In contrast to these phenomena a new tendency at an adequate social knowledge (Pascucci 2010) towards the recovery of these aspects in terms can foster these activities. of use values manageable by new communities Such kinds of whole, autonomous knowledge, is in happening. On these bases renewed cycles completely rooted in its context, can produce and renewed living environments can be con- the cultural bases on which various modalities of ceived to create unexpected conditions of ad- participative governance can be developed and equate knowledge and solidarity among these propagated. communities. The theoretical elaborations can help us to un- 7 Action–Research and experiential examples in derstand the dynamic of market value/use value development with reference to the cyclical dynamics of living nature and to its alteration attempted by domi- 7a Kenya, Nairobi: The voice of Kibera (Studied and nant powers (Pascucci, 2013). written by L.Maiorfi) By using a free software Wiki for information, collection, visualization and interactive map- 6. The realization of commonscapes implies new ping produced by the non-profit firm Ushahidi social creation, control and management based as a platform, the Voice of Kibera slum -close to on: use values, solidarity, participative governance, Nairobi- mapped and monitored the daily living and on a multiplicity of social/environmental expe- environment of its population, invisible or not riential initiatives, towards communitarian goods represented in official cartography. Through the such as the cases exemplified in the seventh point website created by this non-profit association, above the users (inhabitants of Kibera, humanitarian associations and NGOs, journalists, etc.) became Many experiential attempts are under way and contextually able to perceive, represent their develop as social processes practiced by differ- life environment, and report on the map events, ent kinds of communities. All of them are based emergencies and facilities, even localizing the on the consolidation/acquisition of common ca- different ethnic groups that live in the slum and pacities towards a wide range of different living their own activities.

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The community achieved three different levels 7b. Palestine, Occupied Territories: a pacific counter of “knowledge”: territorial knowledge, ability to village (Studied and written by M.Pascucci) represent the ground, technical competence and cultural acquisition. The share of information and A theoretical-concrete participative research- levels of knowledge, the dialogue amongst the action, developed by a Palestinian group as a subjects established a re-awakened condition creative-happy initiative in opposition to unaes- allowing every user to reach a new level of con- thetic and trivial domination. An example of the sciousness, in terms of acquisition of information participative methodology could be the actions and competence in each area. of the popular committees of non-violent strug- Among the subjects, both with regard to the liv- gle in Palestine: building a Palestinian village ing environment and the on-line environment, a where Israelis are putting a settlement is happi- dynamic exchange improved and increased the ness for the Palestinian people, who choose daily quality of contributions, while the whole process non-violent actions. rewarded best practices and content, appreci- Happiness within the context of non-violence ated by the users as the quality of their contribu- is to be satisfied inside, a satisfaction which is tions, which are continuously improving. the consciousness that one is doing something

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 189 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 which affirms within him or her that non-violence participation of experts, students, workers, and is Potentia, is an unlimited power which makes unemployed young citizens. They occupy these you feel internal joy. properties to attract collaborations, innovations The philosophical thinking and the social expe- and initiatives aimed at rehabilitation /restoration rience are very inter-twined, so that the think- of spaces and buildings, at disposal for social ac- ing from which the happiness– experience- can tivities and unexpected kinds of jobs. continuously rise to the surface and manifest The management of these occupied properties through concrete actions. develops to create new conditions of social life and testifies to the enormous opportunities which can flourish in these new contexts, moving toward 7c. Italy, Tuscany: the Common Goods Municipali- a progressive constitution of contemporary life ties (Rebeldia Group, by Micarelli, Pizziolo) styles, effective, attractive and spatially adequate, able to concretely create the context as a com- The Rebeldia Group is working in Pisa, to imagine mon good, where people, spaces, competences, and practice in concrete a new management of economies, management, meet to guarantee a public /private abandoned properties through the different quality of life within urban areas.

7d. Italy, Emilia Romagna Region: The Panaro River- Province, and the local Municipalities. This contract is Landscape contract as governance of a common today eﬀectively in progress. good (Micarelli, Pizziolo) Conclusions

The art of renewed fluvial landscape and the promo- The examples above show different processes tion of its participative governance has been prac- of effective interaction between philosophical ticed by local groups of citizens, associations, public ideas and concrete experiences. They share a bodies, schools, territorial museums and entrepre- common origin even if they arise from apparent- neurs, with an interdisciplinary staff. This group has ly incomparable contexts, and imply, as multiple been involved in a creative process towards the par- branches of the same tree, through the following ticipative democracy of the fluvial landscape, which homologous steps, as: evolved in the form of a river landscape contract, proposed by the social group of participants (as a %the progressive acquisitions of social conscious- landscape presidium) and ratified by the Region, the ness towards different living environments,

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%the creation of alternative common values (so- through different social experiences based on cially recognized in aesthetic-ethic terms), new relational contexts where new communities % the creation of new communities – formerly and living environments can re-discover their unimaginable- through unexpected mutual rela- new reciprocal belonging self-defined and cre- tionships, which lead to: atively managed. %a new sense of friendly belonging to community/living environment, %suitable projects for such renewed socio-environmental contexts, developed in terms of concrete and socially manageable realities. References In this multiple articulated sense, the exam- [1 ] M. Pascucci Causa sui. Saggio sul capitale e virtuale. (About ples demonstrate how different interwoven Capital and Virtual) Verona, Ombre corte, 2010 relational activities can lead towards the real- [2 ]M. Pascucci La potenza della povertà. (The Potency of Pov- ization of new, contemporary common goods. erty)Verona, Ombre corte, 2006. Such goods can be realized by further articula- [4] G. Deleuze, F. Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus. London and New York, 2004. Mille Plateaux. Paris:1984. tions of the relational contexts under experien- [6] E. Ostrom, Governare I Beni Comuni, it edition, Governing tial perspectives (spatial, temporal, economic the Commons and ecological). These new common goods [7] G. Bateson, Mind and Nature. Italian edition, Milano, renew and go beyond the ancient traditional 1980 commons – even if effectively managed and [8] L. Maiorfi, Knowledge Citizens, Degree Thesis Faculty of Architecture, University of Firenze, 2013 appreciated by their communities – towards [9] http://it.wikipedia.org wider and more productive contemporary liv- [10] http//mapkibera.org, http:legacy.ushaidi.com ing environments. [11] R. Micarelli G. Pizziolo, Proceedings of Intersymp 2012- 2013 International Institute for Advanced Studies in Sys- tem Research and Cybernetics-IIAS, Ontario Ca Hence we have to consider the opportunity of [12] R. Micarelli G. Pizziolo, Proceedings of International Con- further complex construction of common goods, ference Cognitonics, Ljubljana, 2013

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P. Sukenikova, Calling for freedom, Fourth Edition Peoples Landscapes

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Implementing the ELC Effectively? - An Honest Who should be charged with responsibility for the Reaction to the Landscape Observatory in Sca- same? nia Article in Ist Quaderni di Careggi 5/2013 Where the finance if necessary could come from?” (O’Regan, 2013). Eva Salevid I have felt the need to ask those questions my- [email protected] self, for example: Master of Arts (MA) 2004–2009 when I prepared a Swedish trans- lation of the European Rural Heritage Guide Abstract: The article presents how Landscape & Citizens, a non- published by CEMAT and connected it to two governmental network committed to the successful implemen- French national guides and A Guide to under- tation of the ELC in Sweden, has registered a growing discon- nection concerning direct landscape knowledge on the ground taking a landscape circle in seven easy steps between civil and expert societies in Scania. It is potentially a (O’Regan, 2008). The Guide was presented for risk as it may frustrate and ultimately defeat the realization the first time – coincidentally as was also this of the aims of the ELC: a vital convention. In that situation the Irish Guide – during the 8th WS for the ELC at the network asked another network, Landscape Alliance Ireland, for support. Its director, Terry O’Regan, is willing to help in the Swedish Agricultural University-Alnarp (Council realization of a pilot study. Unfortunately, the present orien- of Europe/CEMAT, 2009). tation of Region Scania to “lower” the landscape perspective, 2010–2013 as I organised a Region of Scania- rather than reinforcing this perspective, is felt as a frustration. supported seminar on the ELC in March 2010, The article discusses this and the author pleads for an answer which lead to a joint article with prof. Erik Skär- from the authors involved. The possible collaboration with Mr O’Regan is a unique offer and there may be essential lessons to bäck of the same Swedish university in Novem- be learned from such a study. ber, published by UNISCAPE and later developed in a second article, Fumbling for Light in Forested Keywords: Areas, where also the issue of common goods is Awareness, education, people, European Landscape Observa- tories, CEMAT discussed (Salevid, 2013). Now to my problem!

Introduction

For ten years the term ”landscape” has had spe- ciﬁc connotations to me after a traineeship at the Council of Europe’s “Division of Spatial Planning and Landscape”. Supplied with the over-arching and determining deﬁnitions of “landscape” from this policy-making organisation, I chose this title, believing there is a need for better answers from the policy makers in my country. An Irish landscape activist, Terry O’Regan, re- Fig, 1 Anders Hedlund, Swedish National Heritage Board, cently formulated some simple questions that Landscape Forum, Mariestad, 2013 are still relevant to most landscape-oriented and educated people in Europe: Problem: No “changing perspectives”!

“Why are some of our landscapes attractive and Basically, the essence of a well functioning democ- others less so? racy should be when a suﬃciently informed civil How could the situation be improved? society has a fair chance to have its say, in this case What means should be employed to achieve this? about “the landscape”, in particular since the ELC

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 193 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 is now ratified in Sweden. Does this idea perme- National Heritage Board during the Scandinavian ate the Swedish law? No! To me, particularly the Landscape Forum last September: “A holistic view formula concerning the aims of the Landscape on landscape? Or: Sectorial work with a landscape Observatory of Scania to “change the perspective perspective? Development of a landscape policy? Or: of landscape as scenery to landscape as a system” Mainstreaming landscape into sector policy”? (Hed- (Andersson, Larsson, Sarlöv Herlin, 2013), is con- lund, 2013). The “landscape as a system” approach troversial. It may limit the requested civil dialogue recommended by the three authors, proves that processes in Scania and thereby the effectiveness the second choice out of the two alternatives is, in of the Convention’s implementation. I again refer fact, already chosen. Legitimately? The quality of to the five simple questions by Terry O’Regan, who government should also become a civil concern! continues with a modesty that more should have: See another article on the forum, by prof. em., “The answers may not be as simple, but the delivery Kenneth R. Olwig, who takes the tour via Siena process should not be so complex as to obstruct and frescoes and an Allegory of Good Government to frustrate the development and implementation of illustrate how landscape quality may easily be en- the answers” (O’Regan, 2013). So far, it seems to dangered: “Thus, it was not the laws of n a t u r e [my me that the legal discourse on property rights has emphasize] that first and foremost shaped Siena or taken precedence over the cultural and demo- Skane as a landscape place, but the laws, customs cratic dimensions of landscape development in and justice of the people of Siena or Skane” (Olwig, Sweden, thus ignoring the deeper understand- 2013). What if the “people” is excluded?! It is clear, ings of land and place embodied in the ELC, but that the process of integrating governmental deci- also in the most classical definitions of “common sions with both Parliament and National Agencies, goods”. This can ultimately defeat the realization is yet too much for “the small, therefore often cen- of its aims – let us not forget that strong legal in- tralized state” (Salevid, 2013). So, are we doomed struments were lacking aspects and references to to “business as usual”? the implementation of the ELC in Sweden missing, as an important governmental report highlights (Emmelin, Lerman, 2006). I fear that the Landscape Proposal: One “landscape circle pilot study” may Observatory in Scania so far under-estimates the help things on the move! needs for profound civil dialogue with people in Scania concerning the serious transformations of As director of the ELC-informing, informal network, this old cultural landscape, fragile in times of glo- Landscape & Citizens since 2005, I investigated the balisation, yet still sharing a certain identity with conditions for a more jargon-free engagement other nations around the extended Oresund Re- around the local landscape in Scania NW in au- gion. The stakeholders behind the web forum are tumn, 2013. Would it be possible to include, using not yet representative: for example, the one NGO the Landscape Circle Methodology, developed by referred to as being one of the forum’s creators, the Irish Landscape NGO, LAI and Terry O’Regan, does not in reality represent the landscape inter- a more qualitative civil dialogue, addressing two ests of Scania but strictly its natural protection in- (or more) local village groups directly, along a terests! This scientific approach severely limits the small stream, perhaps even a few local politicians horizon for the landscape as a concrete feature engaged by rural issues at community level in the within spatial planning, in need for monitoring. Angelholm Municipality? Is it possible to highlight See also an article on the web forum by business now, in Sweden, not only the social but also spatial economics prof. Magnus Lagnevik: About the Sca- sustainability underlying the ELC? The choice of nian landscape as a system (Lagnevik, 2012). territory was partly due to an already existing lo- In fact my viewpoint was illustrated by the Swedish cal and regional “Leader Strategy Document” that

194 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective explicitly solicits international collaboration around the Swedish ratification of the ELC in 2011 the “European Landscape Convention” (Leader should become an opportunity to prove Swe- Skane Nordvast Norra, 2008). I had preparatory den’s reputation as a good “European”. Some talks both with the Strovelstorps Village Group, that lessons should be made, though. If the above has already established “the landscape” around the project, can still be supported at the regional Orjabacken Stream as a major concept for a strong, decisional level, local people will have found a civil engagement both on concrete development source for their curiosity, especially if the pro- tasks and visionary landscape perspectives for the cess and the results would be possible to follow last ten years and with a nearby parish further up on the new Landscape Observatory site of Sca- the Stream, Spannarpsorten. It had documented, nia, possibly presented as a new generation of though recent, contacts with the ELC, via the The urban-rural projects, designed with European Rural Economy and Agricultural Societies/SVH (Civils- expertise to contribute effectively, and directly, cape, 2009). Together, the two villages would work to the implementation of the ELC, in awareness- towards local “empowerment” and a “community raising, education and participation. The need landscape ownership”, down-up” and complemen- to sharpen the Swedish NGOcontributions in tarily as advocated in the CEMAT guides. The idea the landscape field remains very important. was also to build on already executed series of ru- The “circle”-model of the Irish Landscape Circle ral projects financed by the Region, by adding a methodology, as described by Terry O’Regan, European and civil dialogue dimension directly to has the advantage of presenting an accessible the former ones. Last but not least, the idea was tool for the many, slowly, but effectively focus- to link local villagers, citizens and local politicians ing more and more on the general knowledge within an urban-rural project as initial “landscap- aspects. This is precisely now being increasingly ers” in their own right and based on the curiosity of centered upon in the national debate, ranging these communities on one another when digging from schools to politicians. Why not passby our deeper , this by accepting the very kind proposal “new” rural communities and villages? The of- of Mr O’Regan to actually help us in the prepara- fer from Landscape Alliance Ireland (and indeed: tion and monitoring of a Local Landscape Study Quaderni di Careggi!) to participate at citizen Report, by means of collaboration with Landscape and community levels in one authentic Land- & Citizens in the facilitation and monitoring of the scape Study Report can still be a chance for the project. Unfortunately, this idea seems yet in need Region. It will refine existing methodologies of further elaboration. I believe, that one important and strengthen local and regional awareness reason for this must be derived from the Explana- concerning the need for deeper understand- tory Report, 22, cited by Leif Gren of the Swedish ing both of the landscape per se and the new National Heritage Board on the Landscape Forum ELC concept of landscape. It will thus also help Mariestad, autumn 2013: Official landscape activi- maximize the Convention’s universal applica- ties can no longer be allowed to be an exclusive field tion and create a more vigorous focus on the of study or action monopolised by specialist scientific landscape as something that belongs to a real and technical bodies” (Council of Europe, 2000). But world, and must not be “main-streamed”. Some if people are not invited? time spent in preparing a landscape study of one’s own, may help also Swedish local communities to regain hope after long-lasting ru- Concluding reflections ral exodus and move towards some healthier and strong positions for the future. By allowing Overall still convinced by the Florentine idea people to set out a slightly different commu- “We are the landscape!” (Sara Di Maio et al, 2009), nity agenda – their own – when they need to

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 195 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 engage on a given communal topic, with those independently. This is how costly mistakes in in charge, citizens – e.g.voters– will increasingly landscape planning can be avoided over time be able to perceive and discuss common land- and an interest for society as a whole: A com- scape protection/management/planning issues mon good.

Fig.2 Education, participation and awareness-raising at European level. Two book-covers by E. Salevid & T.O’Regan. The Region of Scania co-ﬁnanced in 2010 a “European Rural Heritage Guides Project” upon this idea

References Sweden?” In: Living landscape, vol II, 2010 Salevid, E., “Fumbling for light in forested areas”, in: Land- scape & Imagination, 2013 Emmelin, BTH, L, Lerman, P, 2005, Lagtolken AB, [The Steer- ing of land use and the environment] ,In Sw: Styrning av markanvändning och miljö, Governmental Report, 2006 Links Hedlund, A., Landscape for everyone! 443_Anders Hedlund RAÄ. pdf, at ELC Landskapsforum Väst 12-14 September, 2013 http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/cultureheritage/heritage/Land- Quaderni di Careggi, Seminar on Landscape Observatories in scape/ReunionAteliers/cetinje/speech/Ireland-ORegan. Europe from the ELC Recommendations to Local Initiatives, pdf Awareness, Education and Participation, Andersson, http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/cultureheritage/heritage/CE- Lagnevik, M., About the Swedish Landscape as a system, In MAT/VersionGuide/Suedois.pdf Sw: Om det skånska landskapet somm system, April 2012 http://www.hutskane.nu/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/ L., Larsson A., Herlin, I.S. The Landscape Observatory of Sca- Naturlig-rekreation-dokumentation.pdf nia, 5 / 2013. http://www.civilscape.eu/civilscape/content/en/events/ Olwig, K.R. “Justice, power and political landscape”, Land- pages/1366096508.xml scape Observatory in Scania, April 2013 http://www.leaderskane.se/download/18.1166db0f120540 RECEP-ENELC, “We are the landscape!” (Di Maio, S., Berengo, fe049800028295/1377190347079/leaderstrategi.pdf C., Priore, R., Gallà, D., 2009) http://www.landscapecitizens.se/pdffiler/050224_orja- O’Regan, T., A Guide to undertaking a landscape circle in seven backen_vegea_elk.pdf easy steps, 2008 http://www.strovelstorp.nu/?page_id=338 Salevid, E., Skärbäck, E.,”After ‘Landscape and driving forces’: http://www.hembygd.se/sida/verksamhet/natur-och-mil- Can the CEMAT Rural Guide still contribute to the ELC in jo-2/hembygdsrorelsen-i-europa/

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Who Owns Neighbourhood Milieu? of communication. The communication aspect of accessibility could be effectively used by par- Kadri Semm, Hannes Palang ticipation in the neighbourhood gentrification, Centre for Landscape and Culture where different interest groups in landscape Estonian Institute of Humanities should have possibilities to offer their opinions Tallinn University and realise them in landscape. This is material Uus-Sadama 5 production and discursive representation, which 10120 Tallinn is often intentionally oppositional. The meaningful effect, in part, has been to inscribe different Within the context of heritage with a particular milieu ap- conceptions of land and ownership, which helps proach, we exemplify how specific planning discourse influ- to open the resistance to gentrification (Blomley ences accessibility in neighbourhood’s landscape. The milieu discourse in Tallinn, Estonia has a strategic aim in terms of 2005: 31). This kind of communicational aspect preserving neighbourhood’s architectural housing heritage of accessibility is supported by the environmen- and acknowledging the traditional understanding of the tal, communicative and competitive planning heritage value. In the collective knowledge the expert-based theories (Bond 2011) and also neighbourhood milieu discourse influences the specific perception of the term ‘milieu’ that will in turn influence the change of a neighbour- regeneration theories in social planning. On the hood’s social structure and its landscape. This discourse does community level this means dealing with differ- not consider the socio-spatial everyday life, which is significant ent needs in the neighbourhood, where new de- in terms of viable neighbourhood regeneration. It has an effect velopments are based on the community itself on accessibility in the neighbourhood. We introduce an expe- and on the integration of locals in political par- riential milieu approach, which could re-shape accessibility in landscape. To set this analysis to the contextual meaning of ticipation (Hall and Thomson 2012). legal accessibility, this paper aims to emphasise a communicational aspect of the term accessibility. Heritage and milieu discourse in Tallinn, Estonia Keywords: accessibility; communication; heritage; milieu; social planning The heritage topic allows an explanation of specific materialisation and place-making, where Introduction expert-based heritage preservation is connected with the concept of accessibility. Historical value Landscape accessibility, analysed in this paper, is has been claimed important for well-being. The based on Nicholas Blomley’s (2001, 2003, 2005) environmental coherence, completeness and studies on materialisation and visual commu- harmony are considered important by the lo- nication of legal rules in landscape. According cal people with the accent that the authenticity to Blomley when law has its spatial dimension, and emotional bonds, due to their personal na- it can play an even more significant role in con- ture, cannot be defined institutionally (Coeterier stituting legal consciousness. Spatially defined 2002). Current trends in heritage planning value environments can serve to reflect and reinforce different heritage environments by arguing legal relations of power that code, exclude, ena- that heritage creation begins already on the lo- ble, stage, locate etc. Here accessibility is justified cal, personal level with the strategic question of by discursive strategy, which influences material what kind of local milieu or place attachment we and social landscape formations. In this approach want to preserve (Malpass 2009; Schofield 2009). Blomley also introduces specific legal subjectiv- Having these values in mind when regarding the ity by highlighting the meaning of landscapes of everyday built environment, the vernacular ar- communication, where property is treated not as chitecture could be regarded as a hint for experi- realising individual ideas but as the importance menting with the presentation of the residents’

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 197 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 place attachment that reflects local cultural di- Tallinn”, the milieu subject is mainly described in versity (Moran 2004). The urban municipalities the chapter on heritage protection. The docu- often ignore vernacular urban landscapes, where ment defines the milieu-valued area as a coher- the question of power and ideology remains, for ent housing environment with streets and green whom and for which purposes the vernacular areas, which are qualitatively preservable. Urban architecture becomes valuable as heritage (Bru- planning experts and art historians determine mann 2009). the milieu areas for these documents. The milieu Analysing the values of institutional milieu par- valued city district neighbourhoods are regard- adigm in Tallinn, Estonia (see the full analysis ed as cultural memorials that should reflect his- in Semm 2013) we show how the domination torical, coherent housing areas and greening. It is process reproduces its power through the ordi- equally highlighted that people have an impor- nary everyday landscape without questioning tant role in the creation of a neighbourhood’s mi- its structure and values within it. With this ex- lieu, which is the preservation of chosen histori- ample, we analyse how a specific milieu term is cal traces of traditional coherent housing and the defined in the planning institutions and how it social environment, and its relationship between is accepted in everyday life, influencing the real, people and everyday practices. These arguments symbolical or psychological access to landscape are stated in the planning documents as neutral (Delaney et al. 2001). As the chosen strategies revelations, although they have specific educa- chosen have a direct influence on the neigh- tional content valuing the meaning of milieu as bourhood’s viability (Dakin 2003), we argue that heritage. in the institutional expert-based neighbourhood Indirect visual aesthetic expectations and hid- milieu planning, the current milieu discourse is den hierarchies of the milieu area designation constructed for the strategy of heritage preser- might be explained by another institutional sig- vation. Its constructive character is not brought nification practice having indirect influence on into public consciousness and discussed widely, the hierarchic aesthetics and narrowed milieu and rather introduced as neutral concept. The meaning in the neighbourhood. Besides the “mi- problematic side of this heritage-oriented milieu lieu-valued area”, the term “milieu area” is used discourse is that it is not bound with the actual in the planning documents. In 2007 on the mi- routine and everyday environment. Rather it cre- lieu area web page, it was stated that the milieu ates only preferred accessibilities in neighbour- area is only an abbreviation of the milieu-valued hood landscape. area, which is a historically developed structure The Culture and Heritage Department of Tallinn and an everyday environment in which historical City Government constructs the current milieu changes are also accepted. Meanwhile, although discourse in the planning process. The planning the word “value” has been excluded from the documents for the milieu-valued areas are called “milieu area”, specific values are expected, like a “Thematic Planning”, supported by the “Masterp- scenic compatible housing environment and its lan of Tallinn”. For the milieu areas the “Thematic supporting lifestyle: “Creation of valued architec- Planning” prescribes a specific value scale from ture begins with the right attitude towards the the less valued to the very valued. A milieu-valued architectural heritage/.../valuing of traditional building in this scale is typical for buildings in the historical architectural heritage is very important milieu area. Besides the heritage value, the the- in the assurance of security and stability’” (www. matic planning emphasises socio-cultural func- miljooala.ee). A daily newspaper article “Milieu tions of milieu value, which is the development is a Value” in 2008 pointed at bringing architec- of housing quality and of its symbolic evaluation tural value to people’s attention. The argument in people’s consciousness. In the “Masterplan of was about people having different value scales:

198 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective those who live in the milieu-valued area, and do in their own way is not considered as milieu val- not value the neighbourhood, should not have ue, but as disfigurement. Vernacular architecture the right to live in that area. that is often difficult to bind with a specific narra- At the beginning, mostly houses built before the tive is yet a current milieu reflection of the land- Second World War, two- or three-story wooden scape. This means that only certain discursive ar- houses with brick staircases and city bourgeois ticulations have power. The milieu meaning is ex- garden environments were named as milieu- perienced as self-explanatory and not discussed valued areas. The milieu value did not include at all. It is revealed as the correct representation the housing environment from the Soviet era, for of the everyday landscape, which is also the rea- instance multi-story blocks of flats. Now, there is son why these meanings are difficult to dispute. a trend that besides the historical housing archi- The average citizen can only “consume” these tecture, streets, squares, trees and other natural created views of the landscape scenes that are elements are considered under milieu value, already shaped in advance and presented as self- which means that the concept of milieu has evidential collective knowledge. gathered greater symbolic power, but still has Susan Dakin’s (2003) landscape assessment an unclear meaning. All this reflects the greater helps to explain the dominant strategic milieu significance and valuing of the signification prac- approach and acknowledge and emphasise the tice itself, where built environments from differ- importance of communicational accessibility. ent time periods are considered as milieu areas. She generalises and categorises landscape as- Verbal impression making has gained more im- sessment into three types: expert, experimen- portance, where the local milieu is the base con- tal and experiential landscape assessments. We dition to create a specific district’s prestige. In concentrate on expert-based and experiential. some articles the milieu value is considered to be Expert-based landscape assessment deals with the reason of risen prices in some deprived parts visible landscape elements, which are assumed of Tallinn. to contribute inherently to aesthetic quality. This is established by “objective” visual analysis, which is expressed by different design terms, Discussion such as forms, lines and textures. Expert-based landscape assessment leads to static landscape, As an outcome of the milieu discourse the mean- where the aesthetic is trivialised and reduced to ing of historical heritage seems to dissolve into visible features. This does not take into account the process of milieu signifying, where the milieu the opinions of local people. The experiential area and its symbolising practice have trans- type of landscape assessment, also defined as ferred into the rhetorical signification of places “participant-directed landscape imaging,” is fo- that is based on distanced visual examination cused on understanding landscape meanings. of the architectural heritage landscape in the It includes a holistic account of the human-envi- neighbourhoods. At the same time, the interpre- ronment interaction, where people are not mere tation of milieu meaning itself is not discussed in viewers of landscape but are locally responsive the media and the debate of milieu takes place and reflective participation-oriented. The value mostly between architects, art historians or spa- of the communication between interest groups tial planners. It appears in the current milieu dis- is significant. (Dakin 2003: 188-195) It acknowl- course that there is no possibility to link these edges the vernacular and habitual, often hidden, discussions with the residents’ opinions, activi- and ephemeral everyday landscapes of the resi- ties or suggestions. For example, the vernacular dents, which they make meaningful. Here milieu architecture that residents attempt to renovate is not a strategic tool for planning, but instead

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 199 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 defines a specific condition for further communi- institutional interest and readiness to deal with cation between different interest groups in order the preservation of housing environments. Yet, to change the surrounding environment. between the rhetorical naming process and fu- Our case study showed how planning institu- turist planning prospects is the actual everyday tions in Tallinn have main prominence in bringing environment and the residents’ neighbourhood the specific milieu discourse into the collective empowerment, which is especially important in consciousness, as their values are taken as self- the neighbourhoods “with development needs”. explanatory and trusted. The current milieu planning practice is restricted to the expert-based milieu creation (i.e. one strategy milieu dimen- Acknowledgements sion). Therefore, acknowledging the experiential This research has been financed by the Esto- milieu discourse would involve the residents’ so- nian Research Agency (IUT 3-2 Culturescapes in cio-spatial landscape that is significant in terms transformation: towards an integrated theory of of accessibility in landscape. Acknowledging the meaning making) and by the European Union constructive character of the current milieu dis- through the European Regional Development course in the planning allows the institutional Fund (Centre of Excellence in Cultural Theory) milieu discourse to develop into using the experiential approach towards milieu. If one wants to define landscape accessibility, one needs to un- Bibliography derstand the institutional rights regimes, power strategies and values. It means that one needs to Blomley, N., 2001, “Landscapes of Property,” in Blomley, N., invest into the knowledge. This is also the con- Delaney, D. and Ford, R. T, eds., The Legal Geographies dition for the communication process between Reader: Law, Power, and Space, pp. 118-128, Oxford; Mal- the actors in landscape accessibility. Accessibility den; MA: Blackwell. Blomley, N., 2003, “From ‘What?’ to ‘So What?’ Law and Ge- and conflict, or the lack thereof create the milieu ography in Retrospect,” in Holder, J. and Harrison, C., eds, in the landscape. Law and Geography, Current Legal Issues 5, pp. 17-33, Ox- frod; New York: Oxford University Press. Blomley, N., 2005, “Enacting landscape, claiming property,” Conclusion in Peil, T. and Jones, M., eds., Landscape, Law and Justice, pp. 26-35, Oslo: Novus. Bond, S., 2011, “Negotiating a ‘democratic ethos’: moving Although it might seem that the expert-based in- beyond the agonistic – communicative divide,” Planning stitutional designation of milieu areas is handled Theory, 20(2): 161-186. in negative terms in the case study, this is not the Brumann, C., 2009, “Outside the glass case: The social life of urban heritage in Kyoto,” American Ethnologist, 36(2): case. It cannot be denied that the naming of mi- 276-299. lieu-valued areas has a positive effect for scenic Coeterier, J. F., 2002. “Lay people’s evaluation of historic aesthetic landscape creation, where milieu areas sites,” Landscape and Urban Planning, 59: 111-123. are regarded as a specific “way of seeing” in the ur- Dakin, S., 2003, “There’s more to landscape than meets the ban landscape. A valuable outcome of this prac- eye: Towards inclusive landscape assessment in resource and environmental management,” The Canadian Geogra- tice has been the development of specific scenic pher/Le Géographe canadien, 47(2): 185-200. visual appearances that value the heritage of the Delaney, D., Ford, R. T. and Blomley, N., 2001, “Preface: Where historical housing environment through giving is Law?,” in Blomley, N., Delaney, D. and Ford, R. T., eds., new value to the neighbourhood. The designa- The Legal Geographies Reader: Law, Power, and Space, pp. xiii-xxii, Oxford: Malden: MA: Blackwell. tion of milieu areas has resulted in positive devel- Hall, C. and Thomson, P., 2010, “Grounded literacies: the opments in the valuing of historical architectural power of listening to, telling and performing community environments. It has had a positive impact on stories,” Literacy, 44(2): 69-75.

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Malpass, P, 2009, “Whose housing heritage?,” in Gibson, L. the Institutional Designation of Milieu Valued Areas in and Pendlebury, J., eds., Valuing historic environments, pp. Tallinn, Estonia, “ Journal of Housing and the Built Environ- 201–214, Farhnahm: Ashgate. ment, 28(3): 489-504. Moran, J., 2004, “Housing, memory and everyday life in con- Schoﬁeld, J., 2009, “Being autocentric: Towards symmetry in temporary Britain,” Cultural Studies, 18(4): 607-627. heritage management practices,” in Gibson, L. and Pend- Semm, K., 2013, “Towards the Experiential Meaning of Mi- lebury, J., eds, Valuing historic environments, pp. 93-114, lieu for Neighbourhood Regeneration: Discussions on Farnham: Ashgate.

P. Alborno, Happiness, Fourth Edition Peoples Landscapes

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How Can Bottom-Up, Collaborative Practices formations. According to the constructivist ap- Innovate Landscape Management and Gover- proach, understanding landscape as a social on- nance Processes at the Local Level? Some Em- going construction implies a shift of attention pirical Evidences and a Case Study from Italy from the shape to the action that produces the shape. Community engagement, within a col- Sarah Stempfle lective decision-making context, often supplies sstempfl@stud.iuav.it, [email protected] more effective integrative devices for common Elena Gissi, Assistant Professor goods management at local level, especially [email protected] from a landscape perspective. At the same time, Matelda Reho, Full Professor its activation seems to offer new opportunities [email protected] for different sense-making and organisational “Government and Governance of Landscape’s Transforma- processes, leading the transition to more sus- tions” Research Group tainable local development paths. Department of Design and Planning in Complex Environment A rich and non-exhaustively explored contribu- IUAV University of Venice tion in this sense comes from innovative rural Santa Croce 1957, Ca’ Tron – 30135 Venezia practices, increasingly contaminated with urban culture. Abstract: Landscape, as a common good, needs different forms of intervention and management, calling for social responsibility interplaying with policy support and expertise advo- From grass roots rural innovations to caring practi- cacy. This paper aims to discuss collective action approaches ces: stewardship as a possible framework for dealing for agro-environmental and landscape management, within contexts of intensifying rural-urban interaction. It explores the with common goods in a landscape perspective enhancing role of civic society, community mobilisation and organisation in promoting innovative initiatives. They seem In response to a multiverse of individual to be able to provide (new) common goods and services (such needs and social demands, in the last decades as landscape/environmental preservation) but also to enrich landscape practices of social and ethical implications, as offer- emerged a constellation of grassroots inno- ing immaterial and relational goods, improving identity and vations, which the literature mainly refers to community building and creating civic welfare spaces. ‘repeasantisation’ and neo-ruralism dynamics, The focus will be put on the emerging grassroots practices of or to civic agriculture and alternative food net- land or landscape stewardship, red on two interpretative levels: works building. 1) as opportunities to redefine some collective action frames in order to use, (re)produce and manage common goods in col- Multifunctionality in agriculture had already laborative, participated and proactive way; 2) as laboratories consolidated the consideration and valorisation for finding alternative patterns for local governance, moving of non-commodity outputs of farming, intro- out of the classic public-private dichotomy, towards a collec- ducing new market/policy-based instruments tive perspective. for common goods and services co-production Keywords: collective action, collaborative management, social (not only offering sectoral replacement oppor- responsibility, landscape stewardship, bottom-up practices tunities, but also vehiculating social and territorial responsibility). This approach has been progressively driven Introduction through other social action fields, contributing to the elaboration of new frameworks for Endorsing a collective and ethical (more than collective agro-environmental and landscape an aesthetic) viewpoint on landscape brings management. Indeed, keeping by-products to stress the strategical importance of social or explicit caring attitudes are being gradually action, interacting with environmental trans- enacted into grassroots agro-food and leisure

202 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective practices. Connecting everyday life dimension A case study from Italy: the bottom-up stewardship and individual behaviours with territorial issues, project “Adopt a terrace in the Brenta River Valley” they trace alternative land use and management patterns. By promoting environmental and Turning now to more empirical aspects, we’d landscape quality together with well-beingg like to point out some evidences from the case and social inclusion, many different experiences study of the bottom-up project “Adopt a terrace stand for accountability in a collaborative way: in the Brenta Valley”. Born in 2010, it regards the farmer’s markets, procurement schemes, nested little municipality of Valstagna (VI), located in markets, social farming, community supported the highlands of the Veneto Region (northeast agriculture, urban agriculture and community Italy). The project aims to contrast the heavy gardens, agro-environmental agreements, peri- degradation process of the neglected terraced urban parks, land trusts. lands of the Brenta River Valley, whose mountain With different degrees of organisational com- slopes are characterised by 240 km of dry stone plexity, they produce similar socio-technical, walls (traditionally called “masiere”), support- socio-economical, and socio-institutional nov- ing little level plots of land. The impressive ter- elties, overall forming an underestimated niche raced systems represent a very scenic landscape, of innovation. but above all a collective, meaningful historical Among the most remarkable caring practices, heritage, embodying the symbol of the excellent it is necessary to highlight land stewardship: a balance gained between the anthropic and the specific strategy of environmental and cultural natural realm. landscapes preservation, based on sustainable The terraces where build since the 17th century, practices, acting as a voluntary mechanism in at first as s basic answer to the desperate culti- unison with regulatory tools, and in combina- vable soil’s scarcity on the narrow valley bottom, tion with other policy areas (such as agriculture, then evolving into the specific outcome of an rural development and social cohesion). It di- emerging socio-economical local organisation: rectly involves landowners and users, together they were able to establish complex and rich re- with public administrations, enterprises and lationships, on which the whole valley life was organised civil society, in order to achieve com- based. Especially due to the extensive tobacco mon goals. growing, they reached their maximum extension Stewardship represents a decentred and col- and majesty during the 19th century, becoming laborative meta-governance approach based known as “the magnificent terraced landscape”. on responsible use, management and protec- Of course, the maintenance of such delicate ar- tion of resources, to be implemented through tefacts required huge, continuous and diffused integrated and multilevel actions, calling for land-care practices. This necessity prompted the social accountability. Citizens engagement in development of specific skills and local exper- decision-making and implementation process- tises, shared by the valley’s inhabitants or carried es tends to improve the quality of the policies, by specialised workers; besides, it encouraged and also to help moving towards more delibera- the raising of a collaborative and mutual social tive and participatory democratic perspectives, model, highly capable to run the local gover- sometimes offering alternative patterns for the nance. local governance. This approach comes across being versatile and However, after the Second World War, the adaptable, and its commitment and effective- great modernisation’s consequences and the ness degree varies in relation to the local and tobacco growing breakdown led to a steady practical initiatives being enacted. decline of the terrace-based model of territo-

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After a long-running institutional inattention and planning inability to contrast the degradation process, the project “Adopt a terrace in the Brenta River Valley” is trying to experiment a social rescue of the threatened heritage, by rein- troducing grassroots caring practices in a landscape perspective. In particular, it counts on the active contribute of new users in taking care of the abandoned or maintenance-lacked terraces (especially through horticultural uses and leisure activities), thanks to a particular “adoption” procedure. Given the owners agreement, everybody is also enabled to access and manage the terraced ﬁelds, complying with some basic rules of “good run”. The initiative is primarily oriented towards the nearby urban dwellers, who increasingly manifest an interest in accessing rural resources and spaces, but also carry a new perception of the terraced landscape as a collective heritage, rehabilitating some values from which the valley inhabitants had moved away. The idea of adopting terraces was conceived Fig. 1 Terraces in the Valstagna area, photographed by Guido Medici (2005) within a research project of the University of Padua (conducted by the PhD Luca Lodatti and rial use and management. So, it rapidly ended the professor Mauro Varotto), in collaboration up to collapse, turning this land into the cur- with the Municipality of Valstagna and the lo- rent “abandoned landscape”. During the last cal section of the Italian Alpine Club. It follows 50 decades, indeed, the combining processes a decade of studies and territorial animation of human neglect and of a runaway natural activities, which had been very important to reforesting have been producing a serious address the public attention and perception degradation of the terraces, deprived of the about the valley context, its resources and fundamental care. Nowadays, only a few ter- values: new local and external actors entered races are still actively cultivated or managed, the arena, territorial issues were reframed, and whereas over the 50% of them are completely different forms of intervention were discussed. abandoned and overgrown, and nearly the The “Adopt a terrace” initiative has also been 60% of the dry stone walls are in ruin. Because able to reap the benefits of the previous re- of this, important losses occurred, both on the discovery path, continuing walking through cultural and on the environmental point of its trail; nevertheless, it fundamentally springs view: on the one hand, the compromising of from the observation of some informal rap- landscape recognisability and territorial iden- prochement and reappropriation practices, tity; on the other hand, the compromising of which were exploring new ways to enjoy the biodiversity, of ecological functionalities, of terraced mountain slopes as usable spaces in water drainage, of slopes stability and of bot- contemporary life. In particular, the inspiring tom valley security. spark has come from some successful spon-

204 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective taneous adoption experiences of abandoned, tutes an essential element of the terraces rescue municipality-owned plots, occurred since project. 2009. So, the purpose of the project was to During the first 3 years of activity, more than extend those isolated cases into a general, re- 100 terraces - covering a total amount of over producible approach, within a larger territorial 4 ha - has been recovered by more than 90 requalification project, valorising the grass- “fosters”. No particular dimensional, typologi- roots contribution to the management of com- cal, structural, altitudinal or positional char- mon goods - such as land, environmental and acteristic emerges as a preferential adoption cultural heritage - in a landscape perspective. requisite. Bad conditions, fields and water A remarkable merit of the project can also be access difficulties don’t seem to discourage seen in its capacity of recognising unexpressed the adoption practice: the custody of every forms of social projectuality and reshaping available terrace has been given, and now the them into a concrete territorial policy device. adoption demand overtakes the plots avail- In a short time, the initiative has met whit a ability. Most of the “fosters” come from the certain success, revealing good achievements nearby lowlands cities; smaller percentages in landscape requalification through collective come from the valley itself, but also from the action, and also showing the emulative power provincial areas of Vicenza, Venice and Padua of good practices. (up to 100 km off). Overall the distances, the The organisational and juridical subject that time and travel costs, and the hard effort to promotes and manages the project is its own run a terraced field, seem to place adoption Committee, funded in August 2010. It both behaviours totally at odds with any economi- represents the adoptive members’ association, cal rationality. and the ‘Trust’ whom the owners give the cus- Thus, the willingness to contribute to land- tody of their fields. Individuating the neglected scape preservation and to territorial quality fields, intermediating between the owners and improvement appears to be a very strong mo- the other privates, supporting the terraces res- tivational factor among the “fosters”. Although cue with training, counselling and collective self-reliance in food production, horticultural activities, and monitoring the members’ job, leisure, and the opportunity of a direct rela- the Committee acts as a ‘Custody entity’. At the tionship with nature are declared as the main same time, it allows interplaying on a horizon- adoption reasons, a more wide meanings’ tal level an articulated map of actors, including: background is almost entirely shared by the the nearby urban dwellers, the local commu- participants: environmental sensibility, land- nity, public actors and administrations, experts scape values awareness, and orientation to and university. common goods preservation without deple- Two different adoption forms have been pro- tion. vided: direct or long-range. Contrary to the ini- The bottom-up, non-institutionalised practice tial expectations, the former one is having the of terraces adoption is producing significant biggest success. The legal instrument of the di- effects on environment and landscape quality. rect adoption is a free of charge leasing agree- Especially due to the collective decisional, or- ment (with a last of 5 years, renewable), which ganisational and working moments, they are guarantee the owners’ property. Beside, a basic also facilitating innovative forms of interaction code permits to harness and regulate the forms and exchange between actors, which enhance of use and management of the adopted fields, relational resources, contextual expertise acqui- making them converge on landscape and envi- sition, social capacitation and social cohesion, ronmental quality goals: in this sense, it consti- among a newborn community of practice.

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Conclusion can innovate both landscape management and governance processes at local level, towards In summary, “Adopt a terrace in the Brenta River more sustainable, ethical and social-resilient Valley” represents a winning example of com- scenarios. mon goods collective access and management The harnessing and harvesting role of policy without appropriation, implemented through support and of expertise advocacy still remains grassroots, collaborative land-caring practices. irrevocable. Considering the complexity of the participants’ motivational sphere and the variety of the generated effects, this experience may be fully Essential references framed as an innovative landscape practice. Moreover, it is totally involved in the refram- Lodatti L. (2012), Paesaggi terrazzati tra eredità storica e in- ing of broader territorial issues, such as: the novazione: il caso del Canale di Brenta, Tesi di Dottorato in relationship between urban and rural worlds; Scienze Storiche, Università di Padova the construction of an integrative, civic welfare Lodatti L. (2013), “Ritorno alle terre alte: l’adozione di ter- razzamenti in abbandono nel Canale di Brenta”, in Agri- space based on the proximity agriculture’s out- regionieuropa, n. 33 comes; social awareness and participation on Brown J., Mitchell B. (2000), “The Stewardship approach and environmental and landscape matters. its Relevance for Protected Landscapes” in The George Write Forum - Land Stewardship: new directions in conservation of Nature and Culture, Vol. 17, N.1 Although it represents a small experience on a Brunori G., Knickel K., Rand S., Proost J. (2009), “Towards a very local scale, it suggests interesting openings better conceptual framework for innovation processes in to different conceptual and operational frame- agriculture and rural development: from linear models to works for collective action. Its peculiarity is to systemic approaches”, in The Journal of Agricultural Educa- operate multiple shifts of focuses in the territo- tion and Extension n.15 Brunori G., Marangon F., Reho M. (2007), La gestione del pae- rial intervention’s ratio: from normative regula- saggio rurale tra governo e governante territoriale, Franco tion to proactive social action; from landowners Angeli, Milano and properties concerns to user-oriented and Hubbard R., Paquet G., Wilson C. (2012), Stewardship. Collab- access rights remarks; from functionalistic and orative Decentred Metagovernance and Inquiring Systems, Invenire Books, Ottawa, Canada productivity-based values to ethical, shared so- Jongman R.H.G., (2004), The New Dimensions of the European cial visions, through whose lens reframing the Landscape, Springer common resources management strategies. In Penker M., Enengel B., Mann C., Aznar O. (2013), “Under- this case, the terraced landscape governance standing Landscape Stewardship – Lessons to be Learned strategy operates in a collective perspective, in from Public Service Economics”, in Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 64, N.1 which the ‘private’ and the ‘public’, the ‘individu- Ploeg van der I.D. (2009), I nuovi contadini, Donzelli, Roma al’ and the ‘collective’, the ‘personal profits’ and Reho M. (2012), “Multifunzionalità dell’agricoltura e svilup- the ‘social interests’ are continuously redefined. po sociale”, working paper Sabaté X., Basora X., O’Neill C., Mitchell B. (2013), Caring together for nature. Manual on land stewardship as a tool to The analogies with similar experiences, such promote social involvement with the natural environment as the international ones of Land Stewardship, in Europe, LandLife documents seem to reveal a little but growing drift of in- Seyfang G., Smith A. (2007), “Grassroots Innovations for creasing civic engagement in providing com- Sustainable Development: Towards a New Research and plex public goods and services, calling for social Policy Agenda”, in Envirnomental Politics, Vol. 16, N. 4 Zasada I. (2011), “Multifunctional peri-urban agricolture. responsibility in decision-making and imple- A review of societal demands and the provision of mentation processes. In particular, community goods and services by farming”, in Land Use Policy, Vol. action and bottom-up collaborative practices 28, Issue 4

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Publicity and Propriety: Democratic Etiquette to force someone to walk nearest to traffic if they in the Public Landscape have their back to it. In Britain, this rule did not seem to apply, though the latter part of it does Tim Waterman appear in the Highway Code, the official govern- Senior Lecturer in Landscape Architecture ment guide for all road users. “Where possible, Writtle School of Design avoid being next to the kerb with your back to Writtle College traffic.” Unfortunately this treats the pedestrian Chelmsford, Essex CM1 3RR as private and solely responsible for his or her United Kingdom own conduct. In practice, people walk to the left [email protected] or right as they will, with many who are able to exercise their dominance preferring the inside of Abstract: The erosion of public etiquette - the set of rules by the sidewalk away from traffic at all times, some which people negotiate public spaces - creates problems for trying to keep left as rule, some trying to keep the design of public landscapes such as streets and squares. In Britain in particular, much pressure has been brought to bear on right as a rule, and others ducking and diving to design for the public realm to provide visual cues for behaviour, find the path of least resistance. For someone usually with very mixed results and a preponderance of signage. who knows what an impressive lubricant to pe- The relative absence of rules creates problems not just for design destrian passage such a simple rule can be, its but for the comfort and safety of individuals, and also for civility, recognition, and democracy in society as a whole. practical absence is a source of constant frustra- Democratic public life depends upon a compact between citi- tion. It also makes me constantly aware of the zens; an agreement as to what is proper in a public context. multiplicity of unnecessary micro-aggressions The notion of propriety has long been associated with sancti- that comprise life as a pedestrian. On a relatively moniousness, of ‘polite society’. Put simply, though, propriety uncrowded surface people have ample time to is a form of ownership; individual ownership of the self and its relation to the public world at large. Propriety is defined by cus- adjust to one another’s relative positions, but tom, and custom, at its best, is not a dogmatic and inflexible on a narrow sidewalk in a crowd it is either the framework, but rather is formed by everyday life and everyday most aggressive pedestrian or the person who practices. can project the greatest air of entitlement that The Highway Code is one of the few places where agreed etiquette is disseminated across British society. It contains rules for wins. Many Britons to whom I have spoken about etiquette on roads and paths, but comes into conflict with itself. this profess not to notice; that it is a fact of life It treats pedestrians as private, but motorists and cyclists as pub- and beneath notice. Others have expressed dis- lic, which results in unique conflicts and significant discomfort in may that I would dare to suggest that personal negotiating passage, though few Britons realise the full extent freedoms could be infringed upon. of the problem due to their acclimatisation to the existing condition. The privacy of the pedestrian also results in a struggle of The constant friction the lack of sidewalk eti- primacy and deference, or kowtowing and condescension that quette causes, as well as larger issues of public renders passage a tense ballet. The lack of clear and agreed etiquette have caused me to ruminate partly frameworks for propriety and behaviour reinforces classism, on its implications for design, and partly for the ageism, sexism, heterosexism, and racism by repeated acts of ceding primacy in public space to those who are most assertive, problems it poses for civil society. To know what namely those who feel most entitled or privileged. is ‘proper’ is not an antique frippery, rather it is key to creating democratic civic spaces - spaces Keywords: Etiquette, Public life, Public space, Civics, Landscape where the commons can continue to emerge. This essay will ask a provocative question. How When I returned to Britain to live ten years ago, can we design and how can democratic society I was struck by the difficulty of navigating the succeed in the public landscape if people don’t sidewalks. As an American, I was accustomed know their place? to the general rule that one should keep to the The idea that it is important to know one’s place right on the sidewalk, and further that it is rude will no doubt make many bristle, as the dark side

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 207 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014 of etiquette is invoked by the phrase. Manners relation to others, and not necessarily within a which reinforce class hierarchies, sexual or racial hierarchical social order. Propriety is the under- divides, or normative heterosexuality have been standing and awareness of what is one’s own, consistently challenged over many years, though and in etymological terms it is firmly linked clearly many negative affectations persist. What with property, both in terms of possessions and I am proposing is not a return to some form of of real estate. So much so, in fact, that in feu- natural law whereby civil society is ordered ac- dal times there would have been a conflation cording to an atavistic vision of how things of physical property and personal propriety: “... ‘ought’ to be, but rather a landscape focused vi- where political status and authority had to do sion of society that values publicity as something with family heritage, position in a hierarchy of that is both situated and embodied, collectively landholdings, and inalienable connection to a and mutually subjective. Civil society, then is (generally) male-controlled estate.” (Douglas constructed of the interconnections of shared 2007, 12) We need now to negotiate what pro- localities and of the sum of them: the ideal civil priety should be in a public landscape in which society, as Michael Walzer says, “is a setting of set- we may identify as ‘commoners’ as the first place tings: all are included, none are preferred.” (Walz- of individual and mutual empowerment. Again er, 1990, 5) Richard Sennett’s work reinforces this, Michael Walzer: “Civil society is sufficiently dem- and in his book Together, his definition is worth ocratic when in some, at least, of its parts we are quoting at length, particularly as it stresses the able to recognize ourselves as authoritative and interdependence of civil society, land(scape) and responsible participants.” (Walzer, 1990) the commons: In Britain’s consumerist society, the balance “The common law of the land is rooted in cus- between perceived personal rights and pub- tom, which is an expression of community prac- lic agency and the conflict between perceived tice... It is because custom is rooted in this ‘com- personal rights and personal agency create nu- mon usage’ for ‘time out of mind’ that custom merous problems for the understanding of and ‘lies’ upon the land. The word law derives from design for the landscape of the public realm. the Old Norse liggja, meaning to lie, and is akin Capitalism has a tendency to fragment society to the plural of lag, meaning ‘due place, order’. into particles. These individuals, thus isolated, The law, this suggests, was laid down, layer-like, become needier and less empowered individu- through practice, thereby establishing a sense als and thus better consumers. This erosion of of emplaced order - the lay(out) of the land. cooperation and shared know-how has deleteri- It was in this way that customary rights in the ous effects on the public realm. Each individual, land, such as rights in the commons, created a shorn of obligations to and expectations of the sense of belonging to, and having a place in, the community around them, must negotiate public land. (2012, 252) space with little, if any guidance. Thus it is easy Civil society, in order to function well and dem- to perceive of public life as one in which dog ocratically, requires of at least a majority of citi- eats dog rather than one in which dogs benefit zens that they are capable of exercising public- from the mutual aid provided by the pack. One ity, usually within the bounds of propriety, and has the sense that the public would have known always in a specific place. Publicity is a personal what was meant when, in the 1935 edition of quality, wherein the individual is able to under- the Highway Code, it exhorts road users, “As the stand that there is a difference between acting manner in which you use the road affects a large publicly and privately, and to conduct them- number of others, show care and courtesy at all selves accordingly. Propriety begins with the times ...” (Ministry of Transport, 2) In the 2007 edi- ability to define the self and its boundaries in tion this statement is one of the very few to have

208 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective been simplified rather than expanded, and it says very basic elements that indicate the boundaries merely “always show due care and consideration of a pedestrian realm such as kerbs, railings, and for others”, though now without any hint of why, planting. Legibility depends upon the common and without reference to courtesy. (Department use of a shared language, and public democratic for Transport, 5) etiquette in Britain is anything but. Designers The Highway Code is one of the few places simply can’t program public spaces for gracious where agreed etiquette is disseminated uni- human interaction without such language being formly across British society. It contains rules for in place. At present, despite many calls for the re- etiquette on roads and paths, but comes into duction of street clutter, the answer is to provide conflict with itself. It treats pedestrians as private, automated signals and posted signage, such as but motorists and cyclists as public, which results the ubiquitous ‘keep left’ signs in the London in unique conflicts and significant discomfort in Underground (though sometimes these incon- negotiating passage, though few Britons realise sistently direct commuters to ‘keep right’). Thou- the full extent of the problem due to their accli- sands of gallons of paint poured out to divide matisation to the existing condition. Though all lanes could be saved by the provision of simple vehicular modes of transportation are provided rules of conduct. with clear rules in regard to their interrelation on A variety of measures that would greatly improve the roads, they are merely asked to give priority the comfort and aesthetic beauty of our common to pedestrians. Pedestrians are, with only one or urban landscapes could be put in place if simple two exceptions, expected to behave however and uniform rules for basic public etiquette were they wish, which has the result that their behav- put in place. Further, there are implications for all iour is utterly unpredictable, inconsistent, and road users. If, for example, pedestrians were asked selfish. They are private beings in a public realm, to keep left as a general rule, this might make it even in relation to one another. The privacy of possible to desegregate all shared cycle and foot the pedestrian thus results in a struggle of pri- ways, including towpaths and minimise friction macy and deference, or kowtowing and conde- between users. Pressure could also be brought to scension that renders passage a tense ballet. This bear to eliminate one-way systems for motorised situation has been further compounded in recent vehicles as they are often hazardous to pedes- years by the increase in bicycle use, the provision trians. If the same simple rules should apply to of shared surfaces, and the ubiquitous public use pedestrians everywhere, a similar simplified set of the mobile telephone. of rules could apply to other modes. The lack of street etiquette creates problems for Hopefully it is clear that the argument I have the design of public landscapes such as streets sought to make to establish better street eti- and squares, and in particular for tricky shared quette in public landscapes as a way of building spaces such as towpaths, where tensions be- stronger civil society is very different from the tween pedestrians, bicyclists and dog walkers standard set of arguments encountered about can and do escalate into violence. Designers are road use. Commonly evidence-based studies commonly asked to make public landscapes ‘leg- and computer models are used to try to predict ible,’ to provide visual and spatial cues to guide behaviour so that it may be accommodated. users. This can work quite well when built typolo- This, though, allows the foundational questions gies direct people to spaces designed for specific of what our public realm is for, who it serves, and uses, such as those apparent at a park gateway, a how it functions democratically and for commu- railway station, or a pub, for example, but there nities to be set aside. We must ask first how our are few ways to help guide pedestrians to be- public landscapes serve our highest common have with regard to one another, short of the ideals, and then work the rest out from there.

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Bibliography Olwig, K., 2002, Landscape, Nature, and the Body Politic: From Britain’s Renaissance to America’s New World. Madison: Department for Transport, 2007, The Official Highway Code University of Wisconsin Press. (Revised 2007 Edition). London: The Stationery Office Olwig, K., 2005, “Representation and Alienation in Political Douglas, M., 2007, Property: Meanings, Histories, Theories. Land-scape” Cultural Geographies 12: 19-40. London and New York: Routledge. Sennett, R., 2012, Together: The Rituals, Pleasures, and Politics Fraser, Nancy, 2000, “Rethinking Recognition” New Left Re- of Cooperation. London: Penguin. view 3 107-120. Walzer, M., 1990, “The Civil Society Argument” Gunnar Myrd- Ministry of Transport, 2012, 1935, The Highway Code (Facsimile of al Lecture, University of Stockholm. the 1935 edition). London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office.

A. Parente, Light in dark pinewoods, Fourth Edition Peoples Landscapes

210 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective

THE 6TH CAREGGI SEMINAR COMMON GOODS FROM A LANDSCAPE PERSPECTIVE Florence, 16thand 17th January 2014 Faculty of Architecture of the University of Florence, Via Pier Antonio Micheli

Coordinated by Saša Dobričič, University of Nova Gorica, Carlo Magnani, University I.U.A.V. of Venice, Bas Pedroli, University of Wageningen and Amy Strecker, University of Leiden

Programme Thursday 16 january 2014 9:00 Welcome and introduction Saverio Mecca, Dean Faculty of Architecture of Florence Carlo Magnani, IUAV, President of UNISCAPE,

10:00 Session 1. Epistemology (Chair: Saša Dobričič) Moderator: Marco Devecchi 1. Leila Adli, Ecole polytechnique d’architecture et d’urbanism (Algérie) On the river landscape as a common good. A case study of Algiers town. 2. Giuseppe Caridi, Università Mediterranea di Reggio Calabria (Italy) Toward the soil as a common good 3. Marius Fiskevold, Sweco Norge AS (Norway) Articulating landscape as a common good – lay men’s share in expert terminology 4. Chiara Garau, Pasquale Mistretta, University of Cagliari (Italy) The territory and the city as a common good 5. Cristina Girardi, University of Bologna (Italy) From commodity to common good: the drama of the landscape in Christo and Jeanne Claude 6. Laura Menatti, University of the Basque Country (Spain) Landscape as a common good: a philosophical and epistemological analysis 7. Juan Manuel Palerm, School of Architecture of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (Spain) The Architecture requirement for the common good. From the perception, narration and representation of the space to the Landscape-project 8. Elvira Petroncelli, University of Naples Federico II (Italy) Landscape as a common good 9. Cecilia Scopetta, Sapienza University Rome (Italy) Sustainable shared choices: shifting from traditional concepts and approaches. 10. Giacinto Taibi, Mariangela Liuzzo, Sebastiano Giuliano, Salvatore Savarino, University of Catania and University of Enna (Italy) Endemic and comparative analysis of an urban landscape 11. Giacinto Taibi, Mariangela Liuzzo, Tiziana Patanè, University of Catania and University of Enna (Italy) Harmony and Synaptic tune for the governance of a place 12. Michela Tolli, Fabio Recanatesi, Sapienza University Rome and Tuscia University (Italy) Monumental trees as a common good: the census at the base of good landscape planning

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014

13. Rita Valenti, Giuseppa Maniscalco, University of Catania (Italy) Ideational Landscape: an epistemological approach for a shared governance of stratiﬁed urban landscapes.

14:30 – 18:00 Session 2. Collective decision-making (Chair: Bas Pedroli) 1. Selena Bagnara Milan, University of Nova Gorica and University IUAV of Venice (Italy) The “integration principle”: a “common” governance strategy for addressing the landscape agenda? 2. Patrizia Burlando, University of Genova (Italy) Dilemma: landscape requalification or low-growing vineyards conservation. A case-study of Tramonti (Liguria-Italy) 3. Alessandro Ciambrone, Second University of Naples (Italy) Public participation as common good for the province of Caserta, Italy 4. Carolina Collaro, Nova Gorica University (Italy) New insights and collective decisions on European landscape: the pan European stakeholder strategy for IPBES 5. Alessandro Coppola, Politecnico di Milano (Italy) Shrinkage landscapes. Experiments in alternative urbanism in the Rustbelt 6. Isabella De Meo, Maria Giulia Cantiani, Alessandro Paletto, Agrobiology and Pedology Centre CRA-ABP, University of Trento and Forest Monitoring and Planning Research Unit CRA-MPF (Italy) Landscape changes and shareholders’ preferences in the Baselga di Pinè commons 7. Kenichi Hashimoto, Nine Steps Corporation (Japan) Role and importance of awareness-raising and popularization of the idea of common goods in landscape planning 8. Giampiero Lombardini, University of Genova (Italy) Landscape as a common good: the experience of some recent Italian landscape planning. 9. Rita Micarelli, Giorgio Pizziolo, University of Florence (Italy) Collective decision-making, governance and non-institutionalized practices 10. Eva Salevid, Landscape & Citizens (Sweden) Implementing the ELC effectively. 11. Kadri Semm, Hannes Palang, Estonian Institute of Humanities (Estonia) Who owns neighbourhood milieu? 12. Sarah Stempfle, Elena Gissi, Matelda Reho, University I.U.A.V. of Venice (Italy) How can bottom-up, collaborative practices innovate landscape management and governance processes at the local level? Some empirical evidences and a case study from Italy. 13. Tim Waterman, Writtle School of Design (UK) Publicity and Propriety: Democratic Etiquette in the Public Landscape

Friday 17 January 2014

9:00 – 12:30 Session 3. Land use (Chair: Amy Strecker) 1. Luca Di Giovanni, University of Florence (Italy) The Landscape’s use in Italian property law

212 Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective

2. Maria Freire, Isabel Ramos, University of Évora, New University of Lisbon (Portugal) Agriculture soils – a fundamental common good in urban areas: a strategy for recovering their identity. 3. Adriana Galvani, Riccardo Pirazzoli, University of Bologna (Italy) Ruresidential Land 4. Andrea Giraldi, Matteo Massarelli, Massimo Tofanelli, University of Florence (Italy) Taking care of places: experiences 5. Katharina Gugerell and Antonia Roither-Voigt , University of Groningen (The Netherlands) and City of Innsbruck (Austria) Complex Landscape. Linking Landscape, Lieux de Mémoire and Governance” 6. Jonna Majgaard Krarup, The Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, Schools of Architecture, Design and Conservation (Denmark) Climatic changes – identity and identiﬁcation 7. Marinella Mandelli, Graziella Belli, Comune di Gardone Riviera Del Garda (Italy) The experience of “I Giardini del Benaco” 8. Viviana Martini, University of Nova Gorica (Italy) Common goods in the perspective of the Historic Urban Landscape approach 9. Francesco Minora, European Research Institute on Cooperative and Social Enterprises (Italy) The relevance of collective properties in building cultural landscape 10. Francesca Muzillo, Fosca Tortorelli, Second University of Naples (Italy) The Architecture of the Wine Landscape: marginality as equivalent for quality 11. Federico Nurra, University of Sassari (Italy) Landscape and Archaeology. Representing history for places 12. Omaida Romeu Torres, Ignacio González Ramírez, Andrea Galli, Osmany Melendres Ceballo, Polytechnic University of Marche (Italy), Sancti Spiritus University, Sancti Spiritus (Cuba) Ecomuseums and rurality: a case study in Cabaiguàn (Cuba)

12:30 – 14:00 Round Table (Chair Bas Pedroli, Director UNISCAPE), Saša Dobričič -University of Nova Gorica, Amy Strecker -University of Leiden, Carlo Magnani -University I.U.A.V. of Venice, Gian Franco Cartei -University of Florence, Pavlina Misková -Coordinator for the ELC in Slovakia

Organized by UNISCAPE, Villa Medicea di Careggi, With the support of the Viale G. Pieraccini 15, Firenze (Italia) Tuscany Region

Proceedings of the Fifth Careggi Seminar - Florence June 27-28, 2013 / Firenze 27-28 giugno 2013 213 Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 6/2014

M. Makan, We are all together, Fourth Edition People’s Landscapes

Proceedings of the Sixth Careggi Seminar - Florence January 16-17, 2014 / Firenze 16-17 gennaio 2014 Issue 06 No. 06 I QUADERNI DI CAREGGI 6 / 2014 Common Goods from a Landscape Perspective Coordinators and Guest Editors: Saša Dobričič (University of Nova Gorica) Carlo Magnani (University I.U.A.V. of Venice) Bas Pedroli (University of Wageningen) Amy Strecker (University of Leiden)

Quaderni di Careggi - Issue 06 / No. 6 - 5/2014

ISSN 2281-3195