Writing for Dictatorship, Refashioning for Democracy: German Women Journalists in the Nazi and Post-war Press by Deborah Barton A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of History University of Toronto © Copyright by Deborah Barton 2015 Writing for Dictatorship, Refashioning for Democracy: German Women Journalists in the Nazi and Post-war Press Deborah Barton Doctor of Philosophy Department of History University of Toronto 2015 Abstract This dissertation investigates how women journalists acted as professional functionaries in support of the National Socialist dictatorship, and later, a democratic West Germany. As a project that examines the intersections between the press, politics and gender, this study makes three contributions to the study of German history. The first is for the understanding the expansiveness and malleability of what constituted politics in the Third Reich and the nature of consensus between the regime and the population. Nazi gender ideology proclaimed that women belonged only in the private sphere. Correspondingly, Nazi press authorities dictated that women write only about topics pertaining to this area. The regime labeled such news apolitical. However, soft news from a cheerful perspective was an indispensible part of Nazi media policy: it provided the façade of normalcy and morale building under Hitler. In return for their support, the state offered women journalists a status not open to most women. The study of women journalists further unravels the draw of National Socialism for those Germans the regime deemed politically, socially and racially acceptable: increased possibilities and social prestige. The second contribution relates to the study of women in the professions, which has often been overlooked. This project demonstrates that the National Socialist regime needed female journalists and thereby emphasizes women’s roles in major events. Not an insignificant number ii of women built diverse and influential careers in journalism both within and outside of Nazi gender parameters, often with the expressed desire of Nazi press officials. The third contribution is for understanding the cultural interchanges that affected the relationship between the Western Allies, international audiences, and West Germany in the post- war years and the ways in which gender and the experiences of women in Third Reich helped Germany move forward. In the decades after the war, women presented their professional experiences during the Third Reich in a manner that served to distance not only themselves but also the press and Germany as a whole from Nazism. By repressing, reimagining and remembering the Nazi past, the women’s personal writing became a vehicle that helped West Germany build and maintain a stable democracy. iii Acknowledgements This dissertation would not have been possible without the incredible support of a number of people. I am extremely grateful to my supervisor, Doris Bergen. She played a key role in my intellectual development and in the shaping of this project. I have benefited enormously from her brilliance, generosity and encouragement. She provided insightful critique and continually pushed me to develop my ideas further. Without her I would not have been able to see this project through. I am also very fortunate to have worked with a wonderful dissertation committee. Lynne Viola provided invaluable advice and guidance throughout the course of this project, including many useful suggestions on how to revise the manuscript for publication. I am grateful for her enthusiasm and her generosity with her time. Thank you to Jennifer Jenkins who supported my work from the very beginning. Her thought-provoking feedback challenged me to deepen my analysis and reconceptualize ideas that I had struggled with. Her advice significantly influenced the final shape of this project. I would like to thank Piotr Wróbel and Anna Shternshis for joining my dissertation committee. I know I will benefit enormously from their comments and suggestions. Thank you to Michaela Hoenicke Moore for taking the time to serve as my external examiner. Her scholarship proved very valuable to my project and I know her feedback will help strengthen it. This dissertation is primarily based on archival research. I am therefore indebted to the archivists and librarians who offered their assistance along the way: the Bundesarchiv branches in Berlin, Koblenz and Freiburg, the Staatsbibliothek Berlin, the Landesarchiv Berlin, the Archiv der Akademie der Künste Berlin, the Institut für Zeitgeschichte Munich, the Staatsarchiv Bremen, and the British National Archives London. iv I am grateful for the generous financial support that allowed me to conduct my research in Germany and England and to write up my findings. At the University of Toronto, the Joint Initiative for German and European Studies, the School of Graduate Studies, the Faculty of Arts and Science, the Department of History, the Department of Political Science, and the Centre for Jewish Studies provided funding at various points throughout my PhD. A scholarship from the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) allowed me to spend several months in Berlin. The Federal Government of Canada and the Government of Ontario awarded me grants that helped me during the writing phase of this dissertation. I would like to thank the German Historical Institute in Washington, D.C. for the opportunity to gain worthwhile feedback on my work at the 2013 Transatlantic Doctoral Seminar. I owe a great deal to an incredibly supportive network of friends who provided feedback, fun and a sympathetic ear whenever I needed it: Rebecca Carter-Chand, Erin Hochman, Tomek Frydel, Seth Bernstein, Fabien Theofilakis, Ned Richardson-Little, Julia Sittmann and Rachel Seelig. Lilia Topouzova inspired me with her energy, intelligence and kindness. I am grateful for our friendship that grew out of the graduate school experience. How to even begin to thank Stacy Hushion? We went through the PhD process together and I cannot imagine having done it without her constant encouragement, insightful comments, unparalleled editing skills, and most important, friendship. Thank you to Doriann Shapiro, James Porter, Gabriel and Maddy for including me as part of your family. You provided a refuge whenever I needed it. I would also like to thank my wonderful family. Although they never quite understood my desire to make German history my career, they always encouraged me in my pursuit. A special thank you to my incredible parents-in-law, Tony and Joan Barton. They were determined that I see this project through to the end, and with their support, enthusiasm, and love, helped v ensure that I did. I would never have begun or completed my PhD if not for the unwavering love and encouragement of my beautiful husband, Graham Barton. I struggle to find the words to truly express his influence on my life: He was my constant cheerleader and my rock. His courage, generosity, humour and love stay with me always and inspire me every day. This is his achievement as much as it is my own. This work is dedicated to his life and memory. vi Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgments .......................................................................................................................... iv List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... viii List of Charts.................................................................................................................................. ix Abbreviations .................................................................................................................................. x Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1: How to Write for the Reich: The Professional Training of Female Journalism Candidates, 1933-1945 ................................................................................................................. 34 Chapter 2: Prettying up Politics: Rhetoric, Reality and Female Journalists, 1933-1945 .............. 87 Chapter 3: Crossing Borders: Journalists as “Unofficial Diplomats” in the Pre-war Years ....... 136 Chapter 4: Opportunity, Influence and Total War ...................................................................... 176 Chapter 5: Cleaning up the Mess: Women Journalists as Mediators for Germany’s Post-war Rehabilitation ............................................................................................................... 235 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 296 Appendix ..................................................................................................................................... 302 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................... 304 vii List of Tables Table I. Women’s Use of Pseudonyms ....................................................................................... 107 Table II. Membership Numbers for the Verband Ausländischer Pressevertreter ...................... 159 viii List of Charts