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Home , Ceratosauridae, Coelophysidae, Gastrolith, Mesozoic, Sanmiguelia

MESOZOIC—DINOS!

VOLUME 9, ISSUE 8, APRIL 2020

THIS MONTH ! • Dinosaurs ○ What is a ? page 2 DINOSAURS! When people think , ○ / Lizard Hip? page 5 they think of scientists ○ Size Activity 1 page 10 working in the hot sun of ○ Size Activity 2 page 13 Colorado National ○ Size Activity 3 page 43 Monument or the Badlands ○ Diet page 46 of South Dakota and ○ Trackways page 53 Wyoming finding enormous, ○ Colorado and fierce, and long-gone Dinosaurs page 66 dinosaurs.

POWER WORDS Dinosaurs safely evoke • articulated: terror. Better than any arranged in scary movie, these were Articulated skeleton of the rex proper order actually living breathing • endothermic: an beasts! from the American Museum of Natural History organism produces body heat through What was the biggest dinosaur? be reviewing the information metabolism What was the smallest about dinosaurs, but there is an • metabolism: chemical dinosaur? What color were interview with him at the end of processes that occur they? Did they live in herds? this issue. Meeting him, you will within a living organism What can their skeletons tell us? know instantly that he loves his in order to maintain life What evidence is there so that job! It doesn’t matter if you we can understand more about become an electrician, auto CAREER CONNECTION how these lived. Are mechanic, dancer, computer • Meet Dr. Holtz, any still alive today? programmer, author, or Dinosaur paleontologist, I truly hope that Paleontologist! page 73 To help us really understand you have tremendous job more about dinosaurs, we have satisfaction, like Dr. Holtz! the famous dinosaur paleontologist, Dr. Holtz helping So, grab your shovels as we Dig with this issue. He will not only into Dinosaurs!

COLORADO STATE UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 4-H PROGRAMS ARE AVAILABLE TO ALL WITHOUT DISCRIMINATION

DINOSAURS! — What Is a Dinosaur? 2

Dinosaurs, , at American POWER WORDS are all big reptilian Museum of Natural History • acetabulum: the animals of the Mesozoic. What socket of the hipbone, are the characteristics that into which the head of make dinosaurs distinct from the the femur fits others? • characteristics: a feature belonging In Paleontology 5: Speciation, typically to a thing and activities focused on serving to identify it characteristics of organisms, • hierarchy: organization and how scientists use those to in which groups are separate organisms into a ranked one above the hierarchy (Domain, Kingdom, other according to Phylum, Order, Class, Family, at American status , species). Scientists use Museum of Natural History • perforate acetabulum: the characteristics of the (note: she was giving live birth!) dinosauria group organisms that are new or the (dinosaurs and ) same as the ancestor is defined by a characteristics to separate perforate acetabulum, organisms into different species. which can be thought of as a "hip-socket" Directions: • speciation: the • What do you think are the Pterodactylus kochi formation of new and characteristics of dinosaurs? found in Germany distinct species in the Record your answers. course of change • Examine the skeletal through time drawings of the Tyrannosaurus rex (Sue at the Field Museum in Chicago) and Prestosuchus Perforate acetabulum chiniquensis (at the (the hole in the hip where American Museum of Natural the ball of the upper leg History in New York City) on (femur) sits) allows pages 3-4. Compare the for upright stance. dinosaur and non-dinosaur to find differences between the ball of the upper leg two. Circle what you see is attaches so the different. dinosaur can stand • Characteristics for a dinosaur upright include: • That’s it! That is what ○ Number of fingers and defines a dinosaur from a toes (hand had the fourth non-dinosaur! finger—ring finger and fifth finger—pinkie finger reduced, and the foot had MATERIALS three toes) • Print pages 3-4 ○ number of vertebrae (3 or • Paper more) attaching to the hip • Pencil bones • computer with internet access ○ hole in the hip socket • printer (acetabulum) where the

DINOSAURS! — What Is a Dinosaur? 3

Above: Tyrannosaurus rex Sue, Field Museum Chicago, IL, a dinosaur Below: Prestosuchus chiniquensis, American Museum of Natural History NYC NY, a suchian

DINOSAURS! — What Is a Dinosaur? 4

0 1m

Above: Tyrannosaurus rex Sue, sketch of a dinosaur Below: Prestosuchus chiniquensis, sketch of a suchian reptile

DINOSAURS! — Bird or Lizard Hip 5

The proto-dinosaurs (ancestors, You will generate a list of POWER WORDS or dinosaur-like animals) were ornithischian and saurischian • bipedal: an bipedal (walking on two legs). dinosaurs, and collect some of using only two legs for With lots of time and mutations their data. Each table has an walking; bi = two, ped = that were favorable, dinosaurs example to follow. foot split into two major groups: bird- • clade: group of hipped (Order Ornithischia) Directions: organisms descended dinosaurs and lizard-hipped • Use only scientifically from a common (Order ) dinosaurs. supported information about ancestor In the first paleontology lesson, dinosaurs. There is a lot • mass: the quantity of there was an activity on these misinformation, so be matter which a body crazy science names, and what careful. Verify that you have contains—how much they really mean. ornith = bird, found sources from matter pulled down by saur = lizard, and ischia = universities or museums. gravity is weight ischium, one of Check the author, and verify • proto: original, primitive the three bones that person is an authority. • specimen: the of the hip (ilium, • Different dinosaur Families specimen, or each of a ischium, and (or Clades) are identified in set of specimens, on sacrum). the table. Search on the which the description The ischium dinosaur Family, verify the and name of a new (depicted or source you use, and read species is based about the Family (or Clade). Search for the Family or Clade’s “type specimen” and complete the information on that species. If you cannot locate the type specimen you can select any species within the Family species, and if you can (or Clade). find it, the estimated • Record Class (Ornithischia mass (weight). or Saurischia). • Under notes, record • Copy and paste an image of location it was found. that dinosaur in a word • Cut out your pictures and document, and resize to place on your timeline in about 3” by 3”. Identify the the correct time range. dinosaur. Identify if the dinosaur is • Record the time (or range of an ornithischian or circled in red directional arrows) time) that it lived. saurischian, and glue. points back towards the tail in • Record the length of this • Do you see any patterns? ornithischian like a bird’s ischium, but forwards, towards MATERIALS the arms in saurischian, like • computer with internet access (if you don’t have lizards. Note that the a computer or internet access, check out your ornithischian has a county library!) predentary bone identified in • print pages 6-9 (single or double-sided) green which is not present in the • color pencils saurischian skull. • pencil or pen

• glue stick or tape On page 6, is that dinosaur an • your Timeline ornithischian or saurischian dinosaur?

DINOSAURS! — Bird or Lizard Hip 6

Dinosaurs and other , , birds, POWER WORDS and all have the same basic structure • : bodily structure of humans, of their anatomy. Above is a labeled diagram of animals, and other living organisms dinosaur anatomy.

DINOSAURS! — Bird or Lizard Hip 7

Notes Herbivorous with a beak (no teeth). It could walk either on two or four feet. Found in , Mongolia, and Russia

Size 110 6 feet, pounds

100 - Age 120 MYA

Clade) Family (or Family Alvarezsauridae Ankylosauridae Ceratopsia (primitive Parrot or Frilled) Psittacosauridae Ceratopsia (Horned)

or Order Saurischia Ornithischia Ornithischia

verified

(verify) directory/ - Website https://www.nhm.ac.uk/ discover/dino .html

(type (type Species Dinosaur specimen) Psittacosaurus mongoliensis

DINOSAURS! — Bird or Lizard Hip 8

Notes Discovered by Andean goatherd, Victorino Herrera, Juan, found in San Argentina. One of the first dinosaurs.

Size 20 feet — 9 long, 770 pounds

Age 231.4 MYA

Clade) Family (or Family Deinonychosauria Diplodocoidea Hadrosauridae Iguanodontidae Ornithomimosauridae

or Order Saurischia Ornithischia Saurischia

verified

directory/ - Website https://www.nhm.ac.uk/ discover/dino herrerasaurus.html

(type (type Species Dinosaur specimen) Herrerasaurus ischigualastensis

DINOSAURS! — Bird or Lizard Hip 9

Notes Fossils found in Canada and the USA. Herbivorous dinosaur.

Size 33 feet, 3.9 33 feet, tons

Age 74 MYA - 76

Clade) Family (or Family Ornithopoda Oviraptoridae Pachycephalosauridae Scelidosaurus Stegosauridae Therizinosauridae

or Order Saurischia Ornithischia Ornithischia

directory/ -

Website https://www.nhm.ac.uk/ discover/dino parasaurolophus.html (verified)

(type (type Species Dinosaur specimen) Parasaurolophus walkeri

DINOSAURS! — Size 10

The sauropod dinosaurs • Each image has the different POWER WORDS reached the upper hypothetical dimensions of the dinosaur. • hypothesis (plural limits of how big a terrestrial For example, Tyrannosaurus hypotheses): proposed animal can be. The largest rex is 12 feet high at the hips explanation made predator to ever walk the Earth and 42 feet long. limited evidence as a was the . Not all • Use the tape measure for starting point for further dinosaurs reached the these body length and body height. investigation massive sizes. The smallest If you are working in the • hypothetical: best dinosaurs were the size of grass with the streamers, estimate or education chickens or crows. leave a bit of streamer guess weighted down with rocks. • terrestrial: of or In the last activity, you • After you have the basic relating to the Earth conducted a computer search measurements, outline the on different dinosaurs, including shape of the animal, using their sizes and collecting the images to guide the images. All the images were drawing. Stand back to get a scaled about the same size to better view, and correct the add to your timeline, but they outline as needed. are actually different sizes. In • A fossil this activity, you will observe specimen has evidence of T. those sizes for yourself. rex marks on it’s frill. They lived in the same area Directions: at the same time. • Collect the materials and supplies and head outside to 4’ | 1.3 m

MEASUREMENTS • Body length measurement is from nose to tip of tail (do not include horns) • Body height is measured 12’ | 4 m from the highest limb, e.g. from the hip to toes in the T. rex, and from the shoulders to the fingers in Argentinosaurus

a large area, like a park or MATERIALS school yard. • steel tape measurer (i.e. 25’) • If you have a large grassy • print pages 11-12 (single or double sided) area, use the crepe paper • ~5 large sidewalk chalks streamers. Even better, If or you have a large blacktop • ~5 crepe paper streamers (bright color) play area or parking lot, use and sidewalk chalk. You can • you might want to grab some friends or family sketch the details of each to help you animal’s features in chalk.

DINOSAURS! — Size 11

North America

—

Europe like/

- — looked - Length 42 feetLength42 hips the feet atHeight 12 feetHead4 3 feetJaws Talons inches 8 Arms inches 30 Length 2 feetLength2 foot Height 1

Tyrannosaurus rex Late • • • • • • Compsognatus Compsognatus longipes Late • • dinosaurs -

what - know - scientists - do - results.html?search=Argentinosaurus - resources/how - directory/search - https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/dino https://www.sciencefriday.com/educational

DINOSAURS! — Size 12

Frill

North America

— Argentina

—

Length 30 feetLength30 the shoulders Height 9.5foot at feetHead8 long 3 feetacrossFrill 12 tons 3.3feet Forehead horns

Triceratops horridus • • • • • • Length 130 feet Length130 shoulders the feet atHeight 24 feet Hind limb 15 length feet23 toHip length shoulder (upper110tons estimate)

Argentinosaurus huinculensis Argentinosaurus CretaceousEarly Upper estimates: • • • • • -

directory/triceratops.html - https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Argentinosaurus_BW.jpg/330px https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/dino

DINOSAURS! — Size 13

This next activity is another way • Your mission, should you together. Use some of to comprehend the size, with a choose to accept it, is to put the margins for overlap to life-sized puzzle of a the puzzle back together. tape, and trim the Tyrannosaurus rex skull. The • Print pages 15-42. unwanted margins. image was taken at the • Find a large space, and start • Hang up your T. rex American Museum of Natural to put the image back puzzle! History in 2004 of the T. rex on together. At this point, do display (full image above). not trim the margins. • Tape or glue your picture Directions: • The Tyrannosaurus rex MATERIALS image was cropped to just • computer with printer the skull, and then enlarged • print pages 15-42 single-sided to life-sized of 46 inches by • paper 41.33 inches. It was divided • scissors into 9.5” x 7.5” grid, with the • glue stick or tape right margin and the bottom • a large area to lay out your puzzle margin in smaller pieces. • The image was cropped into each grid.

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The final puzzle is of this picture, but enlarged to life-size.

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This is the final activity on size. • Notice how the bone is POWER WORDS In the first two, you were only contoured. It is largest at • circumference: the looking at two dimensions. It the top where it articulates distance around would be the same as outlining with the acetabulum in the something and drawing a full-sized school hip bones. • contour: outline bus on the parking lot, then the • Wear old or work clothes bounding the shape or real school bus parking next to with long sleeves and long form of something your drawing. pants to protect yourself from • dimension: length, chicken wire scratches. breadth, depth, and/or Do this outside. It is MESSY. • Collect all the supplies, and height measurements Generally the items are head outside. This activity is • excavate: remove inexpensive and easy to find, really messy. Check with an earth carefully and but for this one, you will need adult where you can make systematically from (an chicken wire. Your local building your mess, and cover the area) in order to find supply or farm supply store can area with a tarp. buried remains help you. • Wear work gloves and use • femur: the bone of the safety glasses or goggles. thigh or upper hind Directions: Ask for help if you need it. limb, articulating at the • Below is an image of a • Form the length of the femur hip and the knee dinosaur femur as it was with chicken wire. The • tetrapod: a four-footed being excavated in dimensions (rounded) are: animal, especially a Argentina. It is not an ○ femur shaft length: 8 feet member of a group Argentinosaurus, but its ○ femur circumference: which includes all closest known relative, 4 feet at the narrowest in higher than Patagotitan mayorum. the center of the shaft fishes • Locate the femur on the • Spend time shaping your

Only a few bones of Argentinosaurus were found, and therefore size is just an estimate. It is thought that this dinosaur was the heaviest ever found. The femur assigned to Argentinosaurus is 2.5 meters (8.2 ft) long. The femoral shaft has a circumference of about 1.18 meters (3.9 ft) at its narrowest part. image of dinosaur anatomy MATERIALS on page 7. It is the upper leg • 10 pounds flour • pipe cleaners bone. The femur is usually • newspaper (lots) • shop paper towels the largest bone in a • scissors • cloth tape measurer tetrapod’s body. With • large bucket • paint and brushes dinosaurs, we have talked a • 8.5’ x 5’ chicken wire • markers lot about the perforate • masking tape • large mixing spoon acetabulum (hip socket). • wire cutters • computer with printer The ball of the femur fits into • work gloves • print pg. 45 (optional) the acetabulum. • safety goggles • tarp

DINOSAURS! — Size 44

femur. Use the image on your fingers to remove POWER WORDS page 45 as a guild to the excess paste, and cover the • distal: situated away shape. The better this upper side of your femur. from the center of the framework is, the more For the final layer of paper, body or from the point realistic your final sculpture use shop paper towels of attachment will be. instead of newspaper. They • fibula: the outer and • Clip off any extra chicken will give your femur a usually smaller of the wire with the wire clippers. smoother finish. Tear the two bones between the • Carefully stuff the inside shop paper towels into strips, knee and the ankle, chicken wire with crumpled dip them in your paper parallel with the tibia newspaper. This will help mâché paste, and add them. • tibia: the inner and give your femur stability. • Allow to dry for several days typically larger of the • Cut your pipe cleaners in suspended between two two bones between the half, and use them to chairs. Be sure that your knee and the ankle connect the chicken wire femur is covered in case it parallel with the fibula shaft together. Space them rains. Drape the tarp over about 4-6” apart along the the chairs while it dries. chicken wire seam. Push the • Turn your femur over. ends of the pipe cleaners to • In the large bucket, add 5 the inside of the femur. pounds of flour with 10 cups • To better form the ends of of hot tap water. your femur bones, use • Mix the flour and water until newspaper and masking you form a smooth paste. tape to shape the ball of the • Turn over your chicken wire femur where it articulates bone, and repeat adding the with the hip, and the distal newspaper strips to your Cover with a tarp end, where the femur bone. articulates with the tibia and • For the final layer of paper, fibula of the lower leg. use shop paper towels dip them in your paper • To make the paper mâché instead of newspaper. They mâché paste, and add paste, tear the newspaper will give your femur a them to your femur. into long strips about 4” wide smoother finish. Tear the • Allow to dry for several and the length of the shop paper towels into strips, days (image above). newspaper. It works best to • Paint your dinosaur bone. tear, forming rough edges. They stick better. • In the large bucket, add 5 pounds of flour with 10 cups of hot tap water. • Mix the flour and water until you form a smooth paste. • You can optionally set the WEBSITES: femur between two chairs or place on the tarp. • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3QUK8gN1oSY • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o8Q8xubfOts (which • Lay your chicken wire bone on the tarp. Dip a are NOT dinosaurs in the video?) newspaper strip into the • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YeCGYIoqUQM paper mâché paste. Pinch (which are NOT dinosaurs in the video?) your index and middle finger • Make a paper mâché clay dinosaur mask! with the strip between, and https://www.ultimatepapermache.com/paper-mache-clay gently slide the strip between and https://imgur.com/gallery/eBpke

DINOSAURS! — Size 45

femur Study images of fossils online and tetrapods arm and select colors that leg bones have will make your a pattern: femur look like a fossil femur. One • Compare this bone to a chicken femur (the drumstick bone). Measure your chicken bone. How many times bigger is your dinosaur femur?

Argentinosaurus femur chicken femur

tibia and fibula

Two

talus and calcaneus

Few (there are usually more bones in the ankle than shown in this dinosaur)

metatarsal bones

Many

phalanges

DINOSAURS! — Diets 46

Teeth are comprised of the chew the jerky? Where do POWER WORDS hardest organic material. you place the food item to • cartilaginous: of Sometimes, all we know about a tear off a piece. Where is cartilage; firm, whitish, fossil is from teeth. Much we the food in your mouth as flexible connective know about ancient mammals you chew? Does your jaw tissue found in various are from their teeth. Shark teeth grind differently? forms in the larynx and fossilize, but the cartilaginous • Look at the images on pages respiratory tract, in skeletons usually do not. Much 48—51 of different structures such as the we know about ancient sharks teeth by diet (, external ear, and in the are from their teeth. , omnivores, and articulating surfaces of some miscellaneous diets). joints What else can teeth reveal How would each animal grab • extant: still in existence about an animal? Diet. the food to eat it? How is the • extinct: having no consistency of the food living members In this activity, we will look at different? Would they tear it • gastrolith: a small extant mammal species teeth to first? Where would they stone swallowed by a evaluate what foods they eat. grind or slice the food? bird, reptile, or fish to We will then look at dinosaur • After you have done this aid in the teeth to predict what they may thought experiment, look at have eaten. the images of the 8 • organic: relating to or dinosaurs on page 52. derived from living Directions: Except for Fruitadens, there matter • Paleontologists use extant is a picture of the skull with • serrated: having or species to better understand the teeth, and then an denoting a jagged how extinct animals lived. enlarged tooth at the bottom, edge; saw-like In this activity, you will right margin of the image. examine the teeth of • What kind of diet did each mammals to compare tooth dinosaur have, based on the structures to diets. teeth? For the herbivores, • One mammal characteristic would their teeth help to strip is that we have four different leaves from branches? kinds of teeth: incisors, Would they grind vegetation? canine, premolars and We have found gastroliths serrated knife. molars. As you examine in dinosaurs. These are Spinosaurus, one of the these teeth, you will find that small stones swallowed to largest carnivores, did not this is generally true, but not aid in digestion for animals have serrated teeth, but always the case. that do not chew food. Tyrannosaurus, with it’s • Examine the diagram on • Look carefully at the teeth. 12” teeth, did. page 47. What kind of teeth Some of the carnivorous • Check out your guesses do we have? Omnivorous dinosaurs had serrated on the internet. Were you teeth. edges on their teeth, like a right? • Prepare a snack with a MATERIALS carrot, piece of lettuce, and a • carrot piece of jerky. Watching • lettuce closely with the mirror, • jerky observe how you bite and • mirror chew each of these three • images on pages 47—52 (not necessary to items. How is it different print) when you bit and chew a • computer with internet carrot from a lettuce leaf? Is it different than when you

DINOSAURS! — Diets 47

Carnivores have teeth to grasp and hold prey, as well as tear flesh. Herbivores have teeth to crush and grind vegetation. Omnivores have teeth that can grasp, hold prey, tear flesh, as well as grind vegetation. What kind of teeth do humans have?

DINOSAURS! — Diets 48

Orca (killer whale)—

Puma (mountain lion)—carnivore

Coyote—carnivore

DINOSAURS! — Diets 49

American black bear—omnivore Grizzley / brown bear—omnivore

Racoon—omnivore

Human—omnivore

DINOSAURS! — Diets 50

Whitetail deer—

American bison—herbivore

Horse—herbivore

DINOSAURS! — Diets 51

Ord’s Kangaroo Rat—granivore (eats primarily seeds and nuts)

Mole—insectivore (worms, spiders, , etc.)

Giant Ant Eater—insectivore (specializing on social insects—no teeth, but a long sticky tongue)

Vampire bat—sanguinivore (feeds on blood)

Answers page 74 DINOSAURS! — Diets 52 a. e.

Fruitadens haagarorum, the smallest known orthnischian dinosaur. Four individuals were found in Fruita, Colorado.

f.

b.

g.

c.

h.

d.

DINOSAURS! — Trackways 53

Fossil tracks provide different your feet steps directly on POWER WORDS types of information about the the aluminum foil. • horizontal: side to lives of the animals that made • What can you tell about this side; parallel to the them. Researchers study the footprint? You can tell that plane of the horizon; at characteristics of the track- the heel took the most weight right angles to the maker's feet, the posture of and sifted to the toes. Look vertical animals, and how they moved, at the sole of the shoe. • track: a mark or line of and even estimated height of the Could you match that to the marks left by a person, animal. The tracks are not actual shoe? Notice that the animal, or vehicle in enough to identify a species. weight is carried on the passing outside of the foot, not • trackway: a path evenly distributed. It is formed by the repeated fainter on the instep (see treading of people or yellow arrow). I broke my leg animals when I was 12 old, and that is how it healed. I place more weight on the outside of my foot than the weight being evenly distributed. • Ask family members to make For example, three toed track an aluminum foil footprint. above were made by a theropod What can you tell about them (T. rex is a theropod). We may just from the print? Did they never know which species. have any injuries to help Analyzing multiple trackways, explain their step? researchers can find clues about how ancient animals interacted Estimated Height with each other. (Please note, this works better for adults than youth.) their foot. After you have Directions: • Recruit your family and calculated their friends (adults and youth) for approximate height, you this activity and divide them will measure their height into two groups (mixing ages to verify it is close. and heights of each person). • Each person needs to be You will measure the length barefoot or in socks. of the left foot and the height Stand up straight with of each person in group one. heels against a wall. In group two, you will Place the ruler on top of determine their approximate that person’s head, and height by just measuring level the ruler until it is

Footprints MATERIALS • 2 12” aluminum pans • Tear a piece a aluminum foil • aluminum foil • 2 clean milk jugs about 12” x 12”. • print pages 61—64 • 1 sponge / person • Place on soft ground (like a • color pencils/markers • variety tempera paints rug or grass). • tape measure • 2-4 paper towel rolls • Stand next to the aluminum • ruler • broom foil, and walk 5 steps away. • calculator • plaster of Paris • Turn around. Walk towards • meter stick • paint stir stick the aluminum foil, adjusting • large kraft paper roll • Vaseline your stride so that one of • scissors • 8 ounce paper cup

DINOSAURS! — Trackways 54

horizontal to the floor. length of 100%. Therefore, POWER WORDS • Ask the person to step away, the foot measurement is 15% • equivalent: equal in (keep the ruler level). It is of the total body length: value, amount, function, easiest if the person you ○ 15 ÷ 100 = Length of Foot meaning measured finds the distance ÷ person's height • proportion: a part, between the ruler and the ○ Example: share, or number floor with the tape measurer foot = 9 inches. considered in while you hold the ruler 15 9.5” comparative relation to steady. Record height in = 100 height a whole inches on the data table ○ rearrange terms • ratio: the quantitative (page 61). 15 x height = 9.5” x 100 relation between two • Measure the length of each 15 x height = 950” amounts showing the person’s left foot from the height = 950” ÷ 15 number of times one heel to the tip of the longest height = 63.33” value contains or is toe (usually the big toe). • How close were your contained within the Record the foot length approximations? The table other measurement in inches on helps you with the the data table . calculations. • Examine the numbers. Do • Each species has a different you see a pattern? ratio between foot length • Divide the length of each and height, stride and height, person's left foot by his/her and other measurements. height. In your calculator: Scientists can use these ○ enter the foot length measurements to get more ○ hit divide by (÷) information from trackways. ○ enter the height ○ hit equals (=) ○ hit multiply (x) ○ enter 100 (to find the percentage) ○ hit equals (=) ○ What do you get? • The results of your calculations should be about 15%, demonstrating that the length of a person's foot is approximately 15 percent of his or her height. As stated at the beginning of this activity, it works better for adults than youth. • Find out the approximate height of each of your friends FASCINATING FACTS and family in group two by • Dinosaurs are a group of reptiles that have measuring their foot and lived on Earth for about 245 million . charting it on a spreadsheet. • In 1842, the English naturalist Sir Richard Proportions are really easy Owen coined the term Dinosauria, derived from (and fun) math that have two the Greek deinos, meaning “fearfully great,” equivalent ratios. You will and sauros, meaning “lizard.” use the ratio of the length of • Dinosaur fossils have been found on all seven the foot is 15% to the body continents.

DINOSAURS! — Trackways 55

Mystery Tracks the first 15’ paper. You may POWER WORDS • Footprints can leave a telling need to add some weights • debris: scattered story. You can determine if (rocks, heavy branches) to pieces of waste or someone is hopping, keep it from being lifted by remains running, or walking by the the wind. Place them at the • locomotion: the ability footprints. If the footprints edges of the paper, so you to move from one place crossover other prints, you don’t trip while making the to another can determine which was footprints. made first, second, and so • Set up a station at each end on. You can tell which of the paper. Both sides will direction each person is walking. • You need three family and friends to help you. This activity MUST be done outdoors on a sunny day. • Measure 15 feet of rolled paper cut it. Repeat to make five 15’ strips. Brown craft roll paper ( check home improvement stores in the paint section) works great and is inexpensive. • Gather the following supplies to take outside: ○ five 15’ cut paper rolls have the following: ○ 2 large disposable ○ Fill the aluminum pans aluminum pans with the water from the ○ 2 gallon milk jug filled milk jugs. There only bottom of your shoes. with water needs to be a couple The water and paper ○ sponge for each person inches of water in the towels are to help clean ○ tempera paint (different pan. Leave one of the up the mess. You should color for each person jugs of water. have enough water to ○ towels or paper towels ○ Place paper towels (or replace each pan a ○ broom rags) by the water. couple of times. ○ pencil/marker/pen ○ Place some of the • The first roll of paper is to • You need a hard surface tempera paint. examine different (like blacktop or a sidewalk) ○ Place a sponge patterns of walking free from rocks and debris. • The tempera paint and locomotion. Label it Sweep the area and unroll sponge are to paint the “Locomotion—Walking”

FASCINATING FACTS • All non-avian dinosaurs went extinct about 66 million years ago. • There are roughly 700 known species of extinct dinosaurs. • Modern birds are a kind of dinosaur because they share a common ancestor with non-avian dinosaurs.

DINOSAURS! — Trackways 56

FASCINATING FACTS • Paleontologists use fossil evidence preserved in ancient to discover how long-extinct animals lived and behaved. • In most cases, a fossilized bone is actually a rock made out of minerals, with no trace of the original bone material. • The discovery of dinosaur eggs and nests provided evidence for the behavior of some dinosaurs.

with a pencil or marker. person runs, paint the bottom • One at a time, just before the of his or her shoes. Stand person walks, paint the up on the edge of the paper bottom of his or her shoes and run normally from one (use different colors). Stand end to the other. You can up on the edge of the paper start from either side of the and walk normally from one paper. Do not walk over end to the other. You can another person’s track. start from either side of the When each person reaches paper. Do not walk over the other end of the paper, another person’s track. step one foot at a time into When each person reaches the water to clean the sole of the other end of the paper, the shoe. Use some of the step one foot at a time into paper towels to clean any the water to clean the sole of additional paint from your the shoe. Use some of the shoes. Set aside the paper paper towels to clean any additional paint from your FASCINATING FACTS shoes. Set aside the paper to dry. Record on the paper • To discover how organisms lived in the past, with the marker or pencil paleontologists look for clues preserved in which color paint each ancient rocks—the fossilized bones, teeth, person used. eggs, footprints, teeth marks, leaves, and even • Repeat with the next roll of dung of ancient organisms. 15’ paper, but this time, label it “Locomotion—Running.” • One at a time, just before the

DINOSAURS! — Trackways 57

to dry. Record on the paper the other team. POWER WORDS with the marker or pencil • Repeat the steps with your • e.g.: Latin abbreviation which color paint each for: exempli gratia, person used. meaning for example • Repeat with the third roll of • mean: in math, the 15’ paper, but this time, label average set of it “Locomotion—Order” numbers; to calculate, • One at a time, just before the add up all the numbers; person walks, paint the divide by how many bottom of his or her shoes. numbers there are Stand up on the edge of the • pace: as a unit, a paper and walk normally 20” double step, or from one end to the other. returning to the same You can start from either foot (e.g. left to left foot) side of the paper. This time, • step: as a unit, the second, third, and fourth alternating feet, right, person needs to walk over left, right the footprints that are already • vertical: the top is there. You don’t want to directly above the cover the footstep bottom completely, but zig-zag so you can see which is on top 23” and which is on the bottom. • For example, in the image to the right, the red footprint is on the bottom, then the dark blue, then the light blue, then the yellow footprint on top. • When each person reaches 15’ paper, but this time, the other end of the paper, label it “Mystery step one foot at a time into Footprints.” the water to clean the sole of • One at a time, just before the shoe. Use some of the the person moves across paper towels to clean any the paper, paint the additional paint from your bottom of his or her shoes. Set aside the paper 27” shoes. Stand up on the to dry. Record on the edge of the paper and run paper with the marker or normally from one end to pencil which color paint each the other. You can start person used. from either side of the • You have two more rolls. Divide everyone into two FASCINATING FACTS groups. Hopefully you were able to recruit at least 4 • By comparing the of Protoceratops of people per team. Decide different ages, paleontologists can draw how you want to make your conclusions about how some dinosaurs grew. tracks. Do you want to dance across the paper? How about hop or skip? Do you want to tell a story in the footprints? Do not share with

DINOSAURS! — Trackways 58

paper. When each person that person’s head, and FASCINATING FACTS reaches the end of the level the ruler until it is • Fossilized jaws, teeth, paper, step one foot at a time horizontal to the floor. and dung provide into the water to clean the ○ Ask the person to step important clues about sole of the shoe. Use some away, (keeping the ruler what non-avian of the paper towels to clean level). It is easiest if the dinosaurs ate. any additional paint from person you measured • Series of fossilized your shoes. Set aside the finds the distance footprints, called paper roll to dry. Do not between the ruler and the trackways, reveal some indicate who used which floor with the tape intriguing evidence color tempera paint this time. measurer while you hold about dinosaur • It takes about one hour for the ruler steady. Record behavior and the paint footprints to dry. height in inches on the locomotion. Play some games while you data table. Until recently it was are waiting. When they are • Enter the data on walking • dry, roll them up and take and running in the Mystery believed that feathers them home with all your Tracks datasheet. This will were unique to birds. other supplies. Clean the give you a baseline for Recent discoveries, area as best you can, pick up human trackways. Instead of however, have trash, even if it isn’t yours. It measuring each step, we will unearthed evidence for is an excellent habit that measure a pace. feathered non-avian when you leave, the place is ○ Identify each person by dinosaurs. better than when you arrived. their color footprint and/or • On the Locomotion— name. Walking, and Locomotion— ○ Add up all the left foot toe Running paper rolls, use the to toe distances. meter stick to make ○ Find the mean pace measurements of the walking length. In the example on and running distance for page 57, 20 + 23 + 27 = you or a friend picked each person. Measure the 70 ÷ 3 = 23.33 mean. black tempera paint, you left footprint from toe to toe. • There is a graph on page 63. will use the black color Write the distance on the The X axis (the horizontal pencil to identify the point trackway (see the example line) is the average number where height and walking left). of paces. The Y axis (the average pace meet and vertical line) is the height of put a small circle at that Interpreting the Evidence your friends and you. Use a point. You would find the • On the datasheet table color pencil that matches height and average Mystery Trackways identify their footprints. Use a small running pace, and put an each person by the color of circle for walking and an X X. The example has their footprint and their for running. For example, if been added, but do not name. • Measure the height of each FASCINATING FACTS of your friends (if you don’t have their heights from the • Most theropod dinosaurs, such first activity, Estimating as Tyrannosaurus, had teeth that were pointed, Heights). slightly curved backwards, and serrated. The ○ Each person needs to be sharp points pierced the meat, and the barefoot or in socks. serrations helped slice it by catching and Stand up straight with tearing muscle fibers. Meat eaters didn’t chop heels against a wall. or grind their food; they swallowed chunks Place the ruler on top of whole.

DINOSAURS! — Trackways 59

use it when you talk about the paper: POWER WORDS what your graph means. ○ What can you tell about • bipedal: using only • What similarities are there each person’s footprint? two legs for walking among the walking paces? How tall? • quadrupedal: four- What differences are there ○ What is the stride length footed; using all four among the walking paces? for each track? feet for walking and • What similarities are there ○ How was each person running among the running paces? moving across the paper? What differences are there ○ What order were the among the running paces? footprints made? • Is there are relationship ○ Do the tracks tell a story? between the stride and the What is it? height of each person? How • When you have extracted as long are their legs? If you much information as know the leg length, then you possible, get back together can estimate the height. with the other team. Share What else can you determine what you found in their from these footsteps? footprints, and they can add • Next analyze the Trackways more information, details, Order paper roll. Based on and make corrections. They can share what they were

able to discover from your tracks, and you can add more information, details, and make corrections. • You now have the concepts in determining information from trackways. Let’s switch from friends and family to DINOSAURS! YEAH! Dinosaur Trackways • Obviously, humans and dinosaurs are very

FASCINATING FACTS the footprints alone, can you • From an individual footprint, scientists can determine the order that you estimate the height of the dinosaur that made it. and your friends made the A rough estimate of leg length is obtained by tracks? multiplying the print length by four. • Swap the Mystery Trackways. You and your partner roll out the other team’s trackway. Explore the following, recording it on

DINOSAURS! — Trackways 60

different. The techniques to This is the largest trackways POWER WORDS evaluate stride length, found in the United States. • depression: running, walking, injuries, There are over 1,900 prints landform sunken or height, and even figuring out in 130 separate trackways. If depressed below the the story the tracks tell are you are interested in seeing surrounding area the same. The ratios and them for yourself, you will • sedimentary proportions we use are find the information at the rock: made when different ratios and USDA Forest Service , mud and pebbles proportions. Those are website: https://www.fs.usda.gov/ get laid down in layers species specific traits. That recarea/psicc/recarea/? and eventually, the just makes sense! recid=77620 layers are turned • Our data from dinosaurs are • Examine the images on page to rock from skeletons. The 65. What can you determine measurements are not, about those tracks therefore, the true height of the animal, but the height of the bones. It does not include the underlying muscle and skin/scales on top of the skeleton. • The image below shows seven different species of dinosaurs and their footprints. Which animals walk on two legs (bipedal), and which animals walk on four legs (quadrupedal)?

• Examine each footprint. How are they similar? How are they different? • The next activity is from the American Museum of Natural History in New York City (https://www.amnh.org/learn- teach/curriculum-collections/ dinosaurs-activities-and- lesson-plans/be-a-trackway- Examine the image above. explanation of the tracks? detective). It is a great way What do you think happened? How many different stories to take what you learned with Is there more than one does this image tell? human tracks and apply that information to dinosaurs. FASCINATING FACTS • Examine page 64’s image, • A footprint can also provide clues about the and answer the questions to kind of dinosaur that made it. A three-toed, the best of your ability. sharp-clawed print means it was likely a • Check the answers. How did theropod—usually a carnivore. A three-toed you do? print with rounded toes probably belonged to an • This next activity is ornithopod dinosaur—an herbivore. Pairs of examining actual dinosaur unequal-sized prints were probably the work of tracks found in Picket Wire the four-legged, long-necked, long-tailed Canyonlands, Colorado. sauropods dinosaurs, also herbivores.

DINOSAURS! — Trackways 61

How Were Trackways Made? • With the paint stick, mix the POWER WORDS • How could dinosaurs leave plaster of Paris and water. • depression: their tracks in the rock? You need at least 1” of landform sunken or • The rock, during the plaster of Paris in the pan. If depressed below the dinosaur’s time, was not a you need more, add 2 more surrounding area rock. It was part of a scoops of plaster of Paris, • sedimentary shoreline, a mudflat or even and one cup of water. rock: made when the bottom of a shallow sea. • After you have your plaster sand, mud and pebbles The tracks dried and of Paris ready, coat the get laid down in layers hardened. Have you ever bottom of your left shoe with and eventually, the found dirt that was almost the Vaseline. layers are turned like a rock? Depending on • Be sure that you take a step to rock the amount of clay in the soil, (shifting your weight from it can get really hard. heel to toe) rather than just • Over time, another layer of place your foot into the sediment filled the prints, plaster. It will give a more protecting them from erosion natural track. or damage. You can see that • Use the paper towels to wind will blow dirt, and it will clean the Vaseline from your fill protected depressions. shoe. • Over millions of years, these • Gather everything and go layers of sediment hardened back home. into sedimentary rock -- the • Time how long it takes for same type of rock that the plaster to dry. preserves dinosaur bones. • This is a speed version of • Remember, we don’t usually how tracks are made. find fossils until the rock • Examine your track. around them begins to erode. Same with these footprints. They remain protected until they finally erode, and we can see them. • This is another outdoor activity. Gather the following supplies: ○ 1 12” aluminum pan ○ 1 clean milk jug filled with water ○ paper towel roll ○ plaster of Paris ○ 8 ounce paper cup ○ paint stir stick FASCINATING FACTS ○ Vaseline • A footprint can also provide clues about the • Place the aluminum pan on a kind of dinosaur that made it. A three-toed, flat surface. sharp-clawed print means it was likely a • With the paper cup, add 2 full theropod—usually a carnivore. A three-toed scoops of the plaster of Paris print with rounded toes probably belonged to an in the aluminum pan. ornithopod dinosaur—an herbivore. Pairs of • Measure 1 full paper cup of unequal-sized prints were probably the work of water, and add to the the four-legged, long-necked, long-tailed aluminum pan. sauropods dinosaurs, also herbivores.

DINOSAURS! — Trackways: Estimated Height 62

Name Height in inches Foot Length Divide Foot by Times by 100 to in inches Height find Percent Example 5.5’ = 65” 9.5” 65” / 9.5” = 0.146 100 x 0.146 = 14.6%

Group 1 Group

Name Foot Length times 100% Divide by 15% Actual Height in inches measured in inches Example 9.5” 9.0” x 100% = 950 ” % 950 ” % ÷ 15% = 63.3” 64”

Group 2 Group

DINOSAURS! — Trackways: Mystery Tracks 63

Name / Color / Pace lengths Total How Many Mean—Divide Height Numbers? Total by How Many Numbers . Example / Black/ 46” 20 + 23 + 27 70 3 23.333

Walking

Name / Color / Pace lengths Total How Many Mean—Divide Height Numbers? Total by How Many Numbers . Example / Black / 46” 29 + 27 + 30 86 3 28.67

Running

64 DINOSAURS! — Trackways Run X

Walk ●

44 46 48 50 44 46 48

Example

X

Mean inches Pace in

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 36 38 30 32 34 26 28 22 18 24 20 14 16 8 1012 6 2 4 0

72 70 68 66 64 62 60 58 56 54 52 50 48 46 44 42 40 38 36

Height

Answers: page 75 DINOSAURS! — Trackways 65

Color each dinosaur track as indicated below (the first one is already colored).

1. How many individual 6. Why are the yellow tracks animals were here? ______two different sizes? ______

2. How many different 7. Were any dinosaurs animals were here? ______running? Can you tell? ______

3. Did the animal that left 8. What is the order tracks the red tracks move on were made? ______two or four limbs? ______4. Did the dinosaurs that left yellow tracks travel ______together? ______9. Is there anything else you can determine? 5. Why do you think that? ______

DINOSAURS! — Trackways 66

Picketwire Canyonlands, Otero, CO

Dinosaur Ridge, Jefferson County, CO

Dinosaur Ridge, Jefferson County, CO

DINOSAURS! — Colorado Fossils and Dinosaurs 67

Colorado is rich with Mesozoic You can collect invertebrate FASCINATING FACTS fossils. In and around Pagosa fossils. For instance, I collect • -eating dinosaurs Springs, you can find the marine trilobites, invertebrates from the had various shaped reptile Mosasaurus teeth almost . Collecting teeth designed for their as easy as finding pinecones. invertebrate fossils is perfectly particular diet. Fruitadens haagarorum, the fine. If you, however, find a new Triceratops had smallest ornithischian, has very species of animal (which you hundreds of teeth that interesting teeth. The name can in Colorado), and do not formed a solid “wall” with “Fruitadens” means Fruita donate it, it could be lost to sharp ridges. The teeth (Fruita, Colorado) dens (teeth). science forever. Fossils are were used to chop off Too cool! national treasurers. vegetation. Other plant eaters, like Anatotitan, The last activity in this month’s If it is an important find, donate it had wide flat teeth that newsletter is where you can go to one of the Natural History they used to grind up in Colorado to see these fossils Museums: tough vegetation. (dinosaurs as well as other • Colorado School of Mines in Sauropods, such fossils you can find throughout Golden as , had long time). • Denver Museum of Science pencil-like teeth that and Nature in Denver they used to rake the Both Dr. Holtz and I belong to • Museums of Western leaves off branches. the Society of Colorado: Dinosaur Journey They swallowed the Paleontology. As scientists, we Museum in Fruita leaves whole. They also ask that if you find something, • May Natural History Museum ingested small stones, tell us about it. Send us images in Colorado Springs called gastroliths, most that are in clear, sharp focus • Morrison Natural History likely to grind up the with something to determine Museum in Morrison food in their stomachs. size, like a quarter. You can find • Rocky Mountain Dinosaur the “Ask a Paleontologist” Resource Center in team’s email addresses here: Woodland Park Museums: http://vertpaleo.org/What-is- • University of Colorado • The list to the left is a Vertebrate-Paleontology/Ask-a- Museum of Natural History in good starting point for just Paleontologist.aspx Boulder seeing fossils at museums. Find the Fossils belong to all of us, and With that said, let’s explore for museum closest to you. as scientists, we strongly Colorado Fossils! • In addition to the list, here oppose the purchase, sale or are some other Natural trade of important specimens. History locations: ○ Dinosaur National Monument (located in Moffat County and

MATERIALS • Computer with internet access

DINOSAURS! — Colorado Fossils and Dinosaurs 68

East, into Utah) 5. Moab, Utah FASCINATING FACTS ○ Florissant Fossil Beds 6. Hanksville-Burpee Dinosaur • Modern birds, National Monument in Quarry, Utah paleontologists call Florissant 7. Grand Staircase—Escalante avian dinosaurs, have ○ Garden of the Gods National Monument, Utah skeletal features that Visitor and Nature Center 8. St. George Dinosaur are almost identical to in Colorado Springs Discovery Site, St. George, some non-avian ○ Picketwire Canyonlands Utah dinosaurs. south of La Junta 9. Jurassic National Monument, ○ Dinosaur Ridge near Cleveland / Elmo, Utah Morrison 10. Prehistoric Museum, Price, ○ Royal Gorge Dinosaur Utah Experience ○ Garden Park Fossil Area near Cañon City ○ Delta County Museum, in the Delta County Historical Society, Delta

I found this website from CNN that includes not only Colorado, but also Utah.

https://us.cnn.com/travel/article/ dinosaurs-utah-colorado-scn/ FASCINATING FACTS index.html • Feathers evolved before flight and may have 1. Natural History Museum of functioned as insulation to keep dinosaurs Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah warm, or for display as a way to attract mates. 2. Museum of Ancient Life, • Paleontologists looking for dinosaur fossils Lehi, Utah begin their work by surveying areas to find 3. Dinosaur National sedimentary rock from the Mesozoic . Monument, Jensen, Utah Finding the right spot takes experience and a 4. Grand Valley and Dinosaur keen eye. Journey Museum, Fruita, CO

DINOSAURS! — Colorado Fossils and Dinosaurs 69

Finally, here are a couple of web FASCINATING FACTS resources for you to explore • Fieldwork is only a fossils and dinosaurs. Some small part of what have already been identified in paleontologists do. different activities. They also work in the lab, examining the specimens they’ve found as well as fossils collected years earlier. They spend a lot of time classifying specimens, examining their characteristics, and determining their biological relationships.

• Paleontology Portal: this is • Another Paleontology Portal, one of my favorites. It is a but this is from the American site from University of Museum of Natural History in California, Berkeley’s New York City. It is one of Museum of Paleontology. the world’s great museums The information in it is founded by President Teddy invaluable. I have Roosevelt. This one downloaded all the maps of describes how museums the different Periods in acquire, store, track, and Colorado together with the share fossils. http:// geological information collections.paleo.amnh.org/ (pages 69-73). What age of rock is exposed closest to where you live?

Fossil collections at AMNH

• The Colorado School of FASCINATING FACTS Mines Colorado Geological • During the Mesozoic Era (a period of more than Survey has a wonderful site 180 million years), a species of non-avian about fossils found. It is dinosaur emerged into a species of avian currently under construction, dinosaur. This avian dinosaur is the first bird but is still in full operation. and the forerunner of all birds. Every non-avian https:// dinosaur went extinct 66 million years ago. coloradogeologicalsurvey.org /geology/colorado/fossils/

DINOSAURS! — Colorado Fossils and Dinosaurs 70

Precambrian: rocks form the core of the : The area that is now Colorado lay near the and include metamorphic rocks as old as 2.7 billion years equator during the Cambrian and rocks of this period are and intrusive igneous rocks around a billion years old. The primarily sandstones that lie on eroded rocks. only Precambrian sedimentary rocks in Colorado are The Cambrian sandstones were deposited in a shallow sea located in the extreme northwest corner of the state on the that covered much of the state at this time. Burrows, tracks, eastern margin of the Uinta Mountains. No fossils have and trails of marine animals can be found in some of these been reported from these rocks. sandstones. undifferentiated rock units

Ordovician: A shallow tropical sea covered Colorado : The only examples of Silurian rock are fragments during the , and the resulting sedimentary rocks preserved in diamond-bearing igneous intrusions near include sandstone, shale, and dolostone. A mudstone near Fort Collins containing distinctive Silurian marine fossils Canon City in central Colorado contains abundant bone ( and corals) indicating that part of the state fragments from some of the earliest fish, and another site was covered by shallow water. Uplift of the land occurred nearby is known for its diversity of marine trace fossils. some time after these marine sediments were deposited, draining the sea from the state. Erosion then removed most undifferentiated rock units of the Silurian rocks. undifferentiated rock units

DINOSAURS! — Colorado Fossils and Dinosaurs 71

Devonian: A shallow sea covered much of the area during : Shallow seas expanded in the Early this time interval, and a number of formations are Carboniferous (), covering most of the state exposed along the flanks of the Rockies. These rocks are and depositing a thick sequence of . Later generally poor in fossils, but exposures near Ouray in igneous intrusions in the area of the Elk Mountains in southwestern Colorado contain a well-studied marine northern Colorado metamorphosed some of this limestone fauna, including brachiopods and other fossils typical of to marble. Yule marble is the state rock of Colorado and shallow tropical seas. Limy sediment was deposited on the was used to build the Lincoln Memorial. floor of this sea across the state. undifferentiated rock units In the Late Carboniferous (), the Ancestral Rockies rose near Denver and the Uncompahgre Range formed in west-central Colorado. The low-lying areas between these ranges consisted of coastal and shallow marine environments. Some of the coastlines were arid, and evaporation of the seawater in these areas formed thick layers of gypsum. Nearby marine shale deposits contain the remnants of a rich fauna that includes sharks, trilobites, brachiopods, and crinoids. The terrestrial sedimentary deposits contain some of the earliest , tree lycopods, and the huge horsetail, Calamites. Sediments deposited along the flanks of the Ancestral Rockies consist of red sandstones and conglomerates that make the signature scenery of the Colorado Front Range, including Red Rocks Amphitheater and the Flat Irons of the Boulder area. There is some evidence that there was glaciation in the Uncompahgre Range during this time. This is a controversial hypothesis because of the equatorial : Erosion of the Ancestral Rockies near Denver in location of Colorado at that time. a semi-arid climate produced abundant sand and led to the undifferentiated rock units deposition of extensive dunes. These sand dune deposits are mined today for flagstones. Tracks of insects and unknown reptiles that lived on the dunes can be found on these flagstones. Manganese dendrites on the flagstones are commonly mistaken for fossil . undifferentiated rock units

DINOSAURS! — Colorado Fossils and Dinosaurs 72

Jurassic: Little sediment accumulated in Colorado during : During the Triassic, erosion lowered the Ancestral the , but the deposition of Rockies, burying them in their own debris. Extensive red sediments in the finally covered the last beds formed adjacent to a shallow seaway that lay to the remnants of the Ancestral Rockies. The Morrison Formation north in Wyoming, and Colorado hosted its first dinosaur. formed as a series of streams, lakes, and rivers traced Other Triassic fossils include armored aetosaurs, - across the region, depositing a thick sequence of like phytosaurs, large amphibians, conifers, and the very sandstone and mudstone. Fossil dinosaur bones were first enigmatic plant known as Sanmiguelia. Portions of the discovered near the town of Morrison, just west of Denver, Triassic section near Denver were formed in a coastal in 1877. This discovery soon led to others, and it became environment and contain abundant limestone . apparent that the Late Jurassic was a time of large undifferentiated rock units dinosaurs. Major quarries in western Colorado have yielded Cretaceous: In the early part of the Cretaceous, Colorado many kinds of large sauropods, as well as smaller lay at sea level and topographic relief was minimal. By 100 dinosaurs such as stegosaurs, allosaurs, ceratosaurs, and million years ago, shallow seas moved into the area, laying camptosaurs. Subsequent discoveries of fossil , down a layer of beach sand and coastal sediments known mammals, lizards, and plants make the Morrsion one of the as the . Dinosaur footprints and fossil most famous formations in the world. flowering plants are common in the remains of this forested and swampy coastal area. As the seas deepened, the western portion of the state received a thick deposit of marine mud, while the eastern portion of the state accumulated chalk and mud. This marine rock is extremely rich in fossils, including dinoflagellates (single-celled algae), giant clams, ammonites, baculites, giant fish, , and plesiosaurs. Expansion of the western shoreline around 75 million years ago formed a thick sequence of coastal sediments all the way to the center of the state. Four million years before the end of the Cretaceous, the seas retreated and the Rocky Mountains began to rise. A new fauna that included Triceratops, Tyrannosaurus, and moved into the region, which was covered by broadleaf trees and palms. The K-T (Cretaceous-) asteroid impact devastated the Colorado landscape, destroying all the large animals and about 50% of the plant species.

DINOSAURS! — Colorado Fossils and Dinosaurs 73

Tertiary: During the Tertiary, the Rocky Mountains rose, Quaternary: Erosion sculpted the modern Colorado began to erode, and were buried in their own debris. landscape during the Quaternary. Mountain glaciers were Tropical rainforests grew along the eastern slopes of the present in the Rockies, but did not extend far onto the young Rockies in the Early Tertiary, and volcanoes rose, Great Plains. True prairies appeared for the first time, and shedding debris and ash into the . Mammals, mammoths, camels, bison, horses, sloths, lions, cheetah, , and turtles are the most common animal fossils bear, peccaries and other large mammals were fairly from these areas. In northwestern Colorado, uplift of the common. mountains left low-lying areas between the ridges, which filled with water to form huge lakes. Algae accumulated with the lake bottom mud to form oil shales that are the source of fossil fish, leaves, and insects. Cooling later in the Early Tertiary (late ) encouraged the growth of forests in the Rockies. Mudflows near Florissant (central Colorado) preserved standing trunks of these huge trees. Large volcanic eruptions in the southern half of the state in the Early to Mid-Tertiary (late Eocene and ) formed the core of the San Juan Mountains. Ash from these eruptions covered the eastern portion of the state and preserved a variety of mammal fossils, including titanotheres, rhinos, giant pigs, gomphotheres, and bear dogs, to name but a few. Grasslands appeared across much of the state near the end of the Tertiary.

The maps and geological information are directly from Paleontology Portals, University of California’s Museum of Paleontology, Paleontology Society, the Society of , and United States Geological Survey, funded by the National Science Foundation.

The site contains a wealth of information about North American fossils, locations, collections, and so much more.

Visit: http://paleoportal.org/ for a fascinating journey through time and space!

MEET A PALEONTOLOGIST — Dr. Thomas Holtz 74

Meet Dr. Thomas Holtz, County, VA. I loved most of my sitting on a hill trying to Dinosaur Paleontologist science classes, but also understand the local (The following was an interview history. I was a college student geology, then noticed I was with National Park Service) at Johns Hopkins University in sitting among a bunch of Baltimore, MD, and did my fragments of dinosaur What is your job, and what do graduate work at Yale University eggshell! But in general, you study? in New Haven, CT. My favorite whether it is egg, bone, I am a vertebrate paleontologist classes as a college and tooth, seashell, leaf, track, or - a scientist who studies ancient graduate student were, not any type of fossil, it is always animals with a bony skeleton. surprisingly, about paleontology, amazing to think that when More specifically, I am a evolution, and geology! you open a rock to see a dinosaur paleontologist who fossil that you are the first specializes in the anatomy, Was there an experience you person in the history of the evolution, and behavior of the had that made you realize you world to see it! carnivorous (meat-eating) wanted to be a dinosaurs, most especially paleontologist? Do you have any advice for Tyrannosaurus rex and its I have wanted to be a aspiring paleontologists? closest relative. paleontologist since before I Read a lot of books about all have memory; in other words, I sorts of natural and scientific I am also the Principle Lecturer can't remember a time when I subjects, not just about at the University of Maryland, didn't want to be one. My paleontology. In order to where I teach paleontology, parents told me that I evolutionary biology, historical first wanted to be a geology, and global change dinosaur when I grew science. up, but when they said that was impossible I On top of said I would study them that, I write instead. Which is what I books on did! paleontology for the What is your most general memorable experience public. working with fossils? Once, on the first day of What are the field season I was you working on now? Among many other projects, I am investigating the patterns of changing geography on dinosaurian diversity, and on make sense of the world how tyrant dinosaurs like you have to understand Tyrannosaurus may have how it works. But get your changed in behavior throughout nose out of your books their life cycle. when you can, and just explore Nature! Where did you go to school? What were some of your favorite classes that you took? https://www.nps.gov/articles/ I went to public schools in meetapaleontologist- Nassau Bay, TX and Fairfax thomasholtz.htm

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND CITATIONS 75

AUTHORS Answers to page 52 • Dr. Barbara J. Shaw, Colorado State a. Fruitadens haagarorum—omnivore Richard University Extension Western Region Youth J. Butler, Laura B. Porro, Peter M. Galton, Development Luis M. Chiappe - Butler RJ, Porro LB, 4-H STEM K/12 Specialist Galton PM, Chiappe LM (2012) Anatomy • Dr. Thomas Holtz, University of Maryland and Cranial Functional Morphology of the Department of Geology, Senior Principle Small-Bodied Dinosaur Fruitadens Lecturer and Director College Park haagarorum from the Upper Jurassic of the Scholars—Science and Global Change USA. PLoS ONE 7(4): e31556. Program doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0031556, CC BY • Tom Lindsay, retired Portland State 2.5, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php? University instructor (geology and paleontology); HS science teacher (AP and curid=19051958 IB Chemistry, Physics, Biology, and b. —herbivore https://www.nhm.ac.uk/ Calculus) discover/search-for-the-real-iguanodon.html c. Tyrannosaurus—carnivore https://www.si.edu/ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS newsdesk/releases/t-rex-fossil-skeleton-will-arrive- • Funding for this project provided by Colorado smithsonian-april-15 State University Venture Capital Fund d. Psittacosaurus—herbivore • CJ Mucklow, Colorado State University Extension e. - herbivore https:// Western Regional Director www.sciencemag.org/news/2019/10/giant-sauropod- • Monique Mull, Colorado State University dinosaurs-may-have-sported-turtlelike-beaks Extension Western Regional Administrative f. Velociraptor—carnivore https:// Assistant • Dr. Joe Cannon and Marketing Strategies dinomuseum.ca/2018/12/04/the-real-velociraptor/ students Berlyn Anderson, Jenna Balsley, Rachel g. Diplodocus—herbivore http:// Kassirer, Rachel Richman, Colorado State www.angelfire.com/mi/dinosaurs/ University, College of Business, for marketing dinosaurs_diplodocus.html strategies and h. Troodon—carnivore https://i.pinimg.com/ ST[EMpower] graphics originals/c9/65/33/ • Doug Garcia, Colorado State University Creative c96533e611ac64e5dcf2cda8887e8181.jpg Services Communication Coordinator/ Designer b. e. Sauropod teeth—herbivore https:// CITATIONS www.paleogallery.com/userfiles/ Information: REVToothComp001b-(2).jpg • Braus, Judy (1989) Digging Up Dinosaurs. Ranger Rick’s NatureScope, National Wildlife Federation , Washington DC. • Brett-Surman, M. K., Holtz, Thomas R., Farlow, James O. (2012) The Complete Dinosaur (Life of the Past) Second Edition. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN. • Holtz, Thomas R. and Rey, Luis V. (Oct 23, 2007) Dinosaurs: The Most Complete, Up-to-Date Encyclopedia for Dinosaur Lovers of All Ages. Random House Books for Young Readers, Random House, NY. • Munsart, Craig A. (1993) Investigating Science with Dinosaurs. Teacher Ideas Press, A Division of Libraries Unlimited, Englewood, CO. • Scotchmoor, Judith G., Breithaupt, Brent H., Springer, Dale A., Fiorillo, Anthony R. (2002) Dinosaurs: The Science Behind the Stories. Society of Vertebrate Paleontology, The Paleontological Society, and American Geological Society. • Dinosaurs: Activities and Lesson Plans, American Museum of Natural History. Captured 2/28/2020 https://www.amnh.org/learn-teach/curriculum-collections/dinosaurs-activities-and- lesson-plans • Smith, Dave Dinosauria: Morphology. University of California Museum of Paleontology, Berkeley captured 3/2/20 from the website: https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/dinomm.html. • General information: Paleontology Portal http://paleoportal.org/; American Museum of Natural

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND CITATIONS 76

History https://www.amnh.org/dinosaurs/dinosaur-facts.

Images: • Shaw, Barbara J., Ph.D. American Museum of Natural History or Museo de La Plata, La Plata, Argentina images not specifically identified • Pterodactylus kochi: https://www.nationalgeographic.org/media/pterodactyl-fossil/ • Dinosaur skeleton: https://www.fieldmuseum.org/visit/maps-guides/visiting-sue-t-rex-what-know-you-go; https://eesc.columbia.edu/courses/v1001/twomed.html; https://www.sciencefriday.com/educational- resources/how-do-scientists-know-what-dinosaurs-looked-like/ • Prestosuchus chiniquensis; https://www.reptileevolution.com/prestosuchus.htm; https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Prestosuchus-chiniquensis_(2).jpg • Perforate acetabulum: https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/proxy/x93HsfJ_lKLwqiwgnLvQYP4gD- qQNcCI95m1yry6xgmZtfAnxOrsgYKDhqRqO7lTgbFuJtmrrJupBhbK_u_c3YilN4hJDHlNvzczm740Ofe0z6r yo0cxF-ysirMZ7wHXP7N-ZnFfsKNqC6Cw_2pcxpS0IaVLiGhN-exE7bFtXrbqvOo • Dinosaur anatomy: https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/images/dinoskeleton.gif; http://vertpaleo.org/ Society-News/Blog/Old-Bones-SVP-s-Blog/June/dinohips.aspx; http://www2.ca.uky.edu/agcomm/pubs/ ASC/ASC202/ASC202.pdf; https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/SC-027-A-Komodo- Skeleton-f-Lo.jpg; https://www.dimensions.guide/element/t-rex-tyrannosaurus; https://www.bbc.com/ news/science-environment-27441156; https://cdn.britannica.com/07/99107-004-B9666996/Bones-foot- tarsal-bones-talus-metatarsal-calcaneus.jpg; https://i.redd.it/pxyinli9pja31.jpg; https:// www.vivahealth.org.uk/wheat-eaters-or-meat-eaters/teeth-dentition • Teeth: https://www.mammalogy.org/search/asm_custom_search/skull?page=1; https:// animaldiversity.org/ • Trackways: Martin A. J. (2006) Introduction to the Study of Dinosaurs, Second Edition. Blackwell Publishing; https://image.shutterstock.com/image-photo/kid-hand-foot-prints-260nw-1093338632.jpg; https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn% 3AANd9GcSjzEhT4Zk1cz5FGZsSyqCA126Lm5qF_5KQc0Z0Oz45X7uiLPC6; https:// www.istockphoto.com/illustrations/foot?mediatype=illustration&phrase=foot&sort=mostpopular ; http:// www.biggerhammer.net/manuals/23-10/ch8.htm; http://southerncolorado.info/attraction.php?id=70; https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaur_Ridge; https://www.outtherecolorado.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/ Dinosaur-Ridge-Morrison-Colorado-James-St.-John-Flickr-OutThere-Colorado-1024x760.jpg; https:// science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/earth/geology/stone-dinosaur-track1.htm; https://pals.sri.com/ tasks/k-4/Follow1/directs.html; http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0001- 37652011000100016; http://www.bvda.com/en/foot-and-tireprint-kit2 • Other: https://www.visitgrandjunction.com/family-activities/dinosaur-journey-museum

Answers to page 64 1. How many individual animals were here? (Answer: five adults and one juvenile.) 2. How many different animals were here? (Answer: five different animals.) 3. Did the animal that left the red tracks move on two or four limbs? (Answer: two.) 4. Did the animals that left the yellow tracks travel together? (Answer: Probably.) 5. Why do you think that? (Answer: they are very close together.) 6. Why are the yellow tracks two different sizes? (Answer: An adult and a juvenile traveled together. The adult made the larger tracks, the juvenile the smaller tracks.) 7. Were any dinosaurs running? Can you tell? (Answer: There is not enough information on the trackway to determine whether or not any dinosaur was running.) 8. What is the order tracks were made? (Answer: The animal with the black tracks was first, if the yellow tracks were made at the same time (only the smaller tracks are on top of the black tracks). Other tracks are imprinted over it. Since the other tracks do not overlap, we cannot determine the order.) 9. Is there anything else you can determine? (Answer: You may be able to determine some of the general groups of dinosaurs e.g. ceratopsian, theropod, etc. See page 59.)