LINGUA, JURNAL BAHASA & SASTRA, VOLUME 18, NOMOR 2, JUNI 2018

How Sees English Personal Pronouns Used as Preposition Objects

Ingatan Gulö 1) [email protected]

Abstract: This paper was a part of study contrasting functions of Nias personal pronouns with those of English. While English have only two types of personal pronouns, the subjective and the objective cases, Nias has four, all of which are possible to be made subjects or objects. Thus, describing how both languages realise these functions is complex. To see how they work, personal pronouns in both languages were collected from short stories and analysedfrom the perspective of contrastive analysis. One of the main findings was that Nias renders English personal pronouns being objects of prepositions in more complex constructions; not using its personal pronouns. This paper, focusing on discussing those constructions and, by doing so, aimed to reveal an aspect of Nias linguistics in relation to that of English.

Keywords: Nias, personal pronoun, Li Niha, preposition object

Abstrak: Artikel ini adalah bagian dari riset yang mengontraskan fungsi kata ganti bahasa Nias dengan fungsi kata ganti bahasa Inggris. Sementara kata ganti dalam bahasa Inggris hanya terdiri dari dua kelompok, satu untuk subjek dan satu untuk objek, kata ganti bahasa Nias terdiri dari empat kelompok yang hampir semuanya dapat berfungsi sebagai subjek atau objek. Karena itu, mendeskripsikan bagaimana kedua bahasa merealisasikan fungsi-fungsi ini adalah kompleks. Untuk menjawab pertanyaan tersebut, dikumpulkan data penggunaan kata ganti dalam kedua bahasa dari beberapa cerita pendek. Fungsi kata-kata ganti tersebut dianalisa dari perspektif linguistik kontrastif. Salah satu dari temuan utama adalah bahwa bahasa Nias merealisasikan kata ganti bahasa Inggris yang berfungsi sebagai objek preposisi dengan frasa-frasa yang kompleks, bukan dengan kata ganti. Artikel ini bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan struktur frasa-frasa tersebut agar aspek bahasa Nias ini dapat dipahami dalam kaitannya dengan bahasa Inggris.

Kata-kata kunci: bahasa Nias, kata ganti, Li Niha, objek preposisi

1) Lecturer of Universitas Teknokrat Bandar Lampung, Lampung, Indonesia 147

148 LINGUA, JURNAL BAHASA & SASTRA, VOLUME 18, NOMOR 2, JUNI 2018 Compared to other languages, Nias question. In line with what has been language, known as Li Niha (literally: the underlined by other researchers (Nazara, language of people) by its native speakers, 2019; Suprayogi, 2019), the objective was is one of unique languages in the world to pose linguistic features of vernacular (Bauer, 2001, p. 538; Blust, 2013, p. 673; languages like Li Niha through a globally Brown, 2001, p. 39; Ladefoged & known linguistic structures like English Maddieson, 1996, p.133-134).Although its (Pandarangga, 2015). main unique features are more phonological and morphosyntactic, its personal pronouns Table 2. Nias Personal Pronouns& have also attracted the attention of Possessives researchers (Arka & Nazara, 2002; Brown, Free Bound Person/ 2001; Crysmann, 2009).While English Pos personal pronouns (Table 1) consist of only Number UP MP PP PS two types, the subjective case used for 1stSg ya’odo ndra’odo u- -do -gu subjects in sentences and the objective case nd used for objects including preposition 2 Sg ya’ugö ndra’ugö ö- -ö -u/-mö objects (Greenbaum & Nelson, 2002, 3rdSg ya’ia ia i- -nia ø p.100; Radford, 2004, p. 46; Quinn, 2005, exc. ya’aga ndra’aga ma- -ga -ma 1stPl p.24), Nias personal pronouns are more inc. ya’ita ita ta- ø -ga complex. nd 2 Pl ya’ami ami mi- -mi -mi Seen from Table 2 (Arka & Nazara, 3rd Pl ya’ira ira la- ø -ra 2002, p. 270; Brown, 2001, p. 42, 71), Nias has a pair of free personal pronouns and a pair of bound ones. Further, the free Among the findings, it was found out personal pronouns consist of mutated and that English personal pronouns used as unmutated forms while the bound ones objects of prepositions did not have one to consist pronominal prefixes and pronominal one relationship to those of the other suffixes. language. None of Nias personal pronouns were used to render those of English. Nias Table 1. English Personal Pronouns sees those simple constructions of English Case preposition phrases containing personal Person/ Subjective Objective pronouns with complex syntactic and Number semantic structures. Common possibilities

st shown by the Nias data varied from using 1 Sg I me one to two prepositions and combined them nd 2 Sg You you two a possessive and sometimes with a fem. she her nounin it. These theoretically add to what 3rdSg mas. He him has been elaborated by a Nias researcher It it (Nazara, 2006) about the natures of common object in Nias. 1stPl We us nd 2 Pl You you METHOD 3rd Pl They Them Because the languages are not socio- culturally linked, they were studied from The study was thus done on the personal contrastive analysis perspective (Fisiak, pronouns of the two languages. How the 1985, p. 3; Gast, 2009, p. 1; Willems et al., functions of the four types of Nias personal 2003, p. 1). This method examines how a pronouns shown above in Table 2 rendered universal category X realized as Y in a those two types of English was the main language is rendered as Z in another

Gulö, Personal Pronoun Used as Prepositional Objects 149 language and analyses the consequences of data being discussed. applying this to a given field. This centered personal pronouns as a language universal FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION present but realised differently in all From the data collected, there were languages. With this perspective, the way fifteen English prepositions found, each of personal pronouns used in both English and which was used with personal pronouns as Nias were examined. their objects with different amount of times. English data were obtained from a short After analysing and contrasted them to the story entitled The Seven Poor Travelers Nias data, it was found out that these (Dickens, 2005) and Nias data were phrases were equivalent to four groups of obtained from some short stories and different constructions in Nias, namely khö- writings posted on Niasonline.net (Halawa, possessive, preposition plus khö-possessive, 2013). The English data source was quite noun-possessive, and preposition plus long and more than enough data were noun-possessive. As seen in Table 3, four obtained from just the one. The Nias data English prepositions fall under Khö- sources, in contrary, were short, some of Posphrase, three under Prep + Khö-Pos, which were only one page long. There was five under N-Pos, and three under Prep N- no particular reason to choose the above Pos. English short story since data related to the use of English personal pronouns could be Table 3. Findings of obtained from many different sources. English Preposition vs Nias Equivalence Writings Nias languages, however, were English Nias still limited but from the ones used here Prepositions Equivalences have already been obtained enough data to to, with, in, for Khö-Pos arrive at the conclusion made. of, from, about Prep Khö-Pos Sentences employing personal pronouns before, behind, in front N-Pos were examined to find out how each type of of, under, above Nias personal pronouns was structurally among, beside, on Prep N-Pos and semantically equivalent to either those of English.After collectingEnglish personal As the English data discussed are pronouns being objects of prepositions, consistent, prepotition phrases with they were compared to those of Nias. This personal pronouns as their objects, the was done in two different ways. First, the findings are presented here based on the English phrases (or sentences) were above four of Nias construstions. English translated into Nias. By doing this, it was sentences are presented first under each found out how those prepositions were point in order to have the same perspective rendered into Nias. Second, Nias sentences on the Nias linguistic elements that follow. from short stories were examined to see the For abbreviations and symbols, notes are equivalentsof these translations and provided in the end of the article. contrasted back to those of English.While doing the two steps, the researcher also Khö-Possessive took notes for other possible usages. This In Nias, one of ways to understand means that although all of the English English personal pronouns being objects of prepositions containing personal pronouns prepositions is by using Nias preposition and the Nias constructions presented here khö-along with a possessive. It was found were found in the short stories, other that prepositions to, with, and inalong with examples were also given to enhance the the personal pronouns functioning as their

150 LINGUA, JURNAL BAHASA & SASTRA, VOLUME 18, NOMOR 2, JUNI 2018 objects fall into this khö-Pos construction. [5] It stayed with us the whole year. English sentences [1] and [2] below [6] Tola isausi niha bö’ö demonstrate the use of preposition to and personal pronouns as its objects. Mod PP.TV NP [1] I read it to him. can it.influence people other [2] She never addressed the word to It can influence other people you. sifariaŵö khöra. Following the preposition to above, Con.IV Pre.Pos objective cases him and you of English who-befriend with.their personal pronouns are used. Nias does not who are friends with them. use either free or bound personal pronouns as equivalent constructions for these The preposition phrase with us in [5] preposition phrases. It is the combination of above, in which the personal pronouns us preposition khö-, which literally means to, acts as the object of the preposition with, witha possessive which is used. This is grammatically corresponds to khöra in [6]. illustrated by two Nias sentences presented Again, the preposition khö- is bound to the below. possessive -ra‘their’ that follows. The preposition with refers to ‘accompaniment’ [3] Adöni dödöda khönia. and is rendered in Nias this way. As seen in Adj N.Pos Pre.Pos the previous examples, the English phrase attracted heart. Our to. his/her here comprises two elements in two words We are attracted to him (her). while that of Nias comprises two in just one word. English preposition in in the datum [4] Ihatö’ö ia khöda sogömi-gömi. below is rendered the same way in Nias. PP.IV MP Pre.Pos NP [7] I would rather see this in you. it.approach it to.our darkness [8] Khönia usöndra da’ö. Darkness gets closer to us. Pre.Pos PP.TV Pro in.his/her I.find that As seen from both translations of [3] and I found it in her. [4], khönia and khöda in Nias data above are equivalent in meaning and function to The preposition phrase in you in [7] is English preposition phrases to him and to the samein structure as khönia ‘in his/her’ you in [1] and [2]. Structurally, however, in [8]. The striking future here between the they are different. Although the given two languages is that unlike in you, khönia phrases of both languages consist of the is put in the beginning of the sentence. same number of elements,those of English Syntactically, khönia can be put after are free morphemes but those of Nias are usöndra or even after the pronoun da’ö. bound ones. Preposition khö- is attached to Either position is grammatically acceptable the possessives -nia ‘his/her’ in [3] and -da but with a slight difference in meaning ‘our’ in [4]. This differs the given phrases when it comes in the middle and in focus or in both languages. The English phrases emphasis when it comes after the pronoun. consist of two free elements namely a The constructions discussed show that preposition and a personal pronoun. The the simple structure of English phrases Nias phrases, in contrary, also consist two containing a preposition and an objective elements but are elements combined in just personal pronoun is realised as complex in one word as both of them are bound forms. Nias. First, it is the bound form of khö-, not There are other English prepositions treated the free one (Hämmerle, 2013, p.108; Lase, this way such as with and in. 2011, p.183-184), which is used. Second,

Gulö, Personal Pronoun Used as Prepositional Objects 151 unlike that of English, it is the possessive, moroi khönia. not the personal pronoun, which is attached Pre Pre.Pos to the preposition. These apply to from to.his/her prepositions denoting beneficiary like to in from him. [1] and [2], accompaniment like with in [5], and locative like in in [7]. It was found Another English personal pronoun from the data that preposition for was also rendered into Nias this way is the one that rendered this way in addition to those three. functions as object of the preposition about. In the sentence below, there are objective Preposition + Khö-Possessive cases of English personal pronouns I and Some English preposition phrases she. Me is indirect object of the verb tell containing personal pronouns are also and her is the object of the preposition rendered into Nias by using the above about. construction but in combination with other [11] The matron had told me about her. prepositions. For that reason, it is referred to as preposition + khö-possessive Comparing [10] to the sentence below in construction. As listed in Table 3, there are [12], Nias free preposition is also used in three English prepositions used in this way. addition to the construction khö-Pos. The They are rendered into Nias by using a free preposition ba alone means at or in. The preposition and bound preposition khö- that construction khöra alone means tothem or is attached to a possessive. The preposition for them. It consists of dative preposition From that begins the sentence below takes khö- and possessive pronoun -ra. When ba personal pronoun them as its object. Typical and khöra are combined, however, they position of English preposition phrases like form two possible meanings about them this is in the end of clauses or sentences andin their house. Context helps in (DeCapua, 2017, p.245; Murphy, 2019). determing which of the two is at work. However, although they are put in the beginning, like in [9], they do not influence [12] Lö huhuo sanandrösa grammatical structure of the sentences and the internal structures of the phrases. Adv N RP.V [9] From them I gathered the greatest No talking which.refer part of the property. There is no discussion As seen here, English personal pronouns used as objects of prepositions are always ba khöra. from the objective case. In Nias, Pre Pre.Pos preposition from is rendered by translating at to.their it into Nias preposition moroi ‘from’. The about them. process does not stop here. It is obvious from the sentence in [10] that moroi is Looking back at the preposition phrase followed by the construction khö-Poskhönia in [11], this is the way to render the ‘to/for him’. When these two elements are prepositionabout and the personal pronoun combined, they mean from him or from in it. Compared to the previous heronly, eventhough there are two elements construction, they have similarity in the being prepositions in the phrase. way khö- is used with the possessive. These two linguistic elements have to be attached [10] Sökhi tafandröndröu ita together. However, in addition to the bound Adj PP.IV MP preposition khö-, a free preposition is used good we.avoid we here. It is good if we keep away

152 LINGUA, JURNAL BAHASA & SASTRA, VOLUME 18, NOMOR 2, JUNI 2018 How does the use of this preposition [13] We left a long tail of fragrance +khö-possessive relate to khö-possessive behind us. alone? There are two tests that can be used [14] He didn’t see the pit in front of him. to answer this question. First, if moroi in The preposition behind in [13] takes the [10] and ba in [12] are omitted, the personal pronoun us as its object. The sentences are still syntactically well-formed preposition of or in front of in [14] takes and they convey the same meanings. For him as its object. Both of these English this reason, it is proposed that khö- personal pronouns are from the objective possessive is the commonone. Second, if case. As seen here there is consistency in free prepositions moroi and baare inserted using the objective case when English before khö-possessive phrases in [3], [4], personal pronouns are used as objects of [6], and [8], only [3] and [8] will work. prepositions. Nias, in contrary, has different They are not applicable to [4] and [6]. This ways in rendering English preposition means that although khö-possessive is the objects. For the kind and structure most common between the two, the use of discussed here, the language uses nouns and free prepositions is not merely an option. attach them to the possessive pronouns. By To conclude, using the construction khö- doing so, phrases equivalent to the English Pos alone like discussed in the first point is preposition phrases above are made. not the only applicable way in rendering [15] No musindro ira furinia. English adverbials in which personal Adv IV MP N.Pos pronouns are used as objects of already stand they back.his prepositions. Shown by the sentences They had stood behind him. elaborated under this point, there are cases in which khö- with the possessives need [16] Ilau dandra free prepositions to precede them in order PP.TV NP to semantically complete the constructions. s/he.do sign She did miracles Noun-Possessive Another way of rendering English sahöli-höli dödö fönada. personal pronouns functioning as objects of Con.Adj NP N.Pos prepositions into Li Niha is by combining which.amazed heart front.our nouns with the possessive pronouns. Shown which is amazing in front of us. in the table of the findings, there are five English prepositions found from the data In Nias sentences [15] and [16], for that are equivalent to this Nias construction. instance, the noun furi- ‘back’ is attached to This is a relatively different way from the the possessive pronoun -nia ‘his/her’ and other two discussed above. Eventhough a the noun föna- ‘front’ is attached to the possessive pronoun is also used here, it is possessive pronoun -da ‘our’. Looking at not combined to the bound preposition khö- the English meanings of furi- and föna-, Instead, it is attached with a noun. This one might conclude that they are pure makes the construction a noun phrase, not prepositions. They are not, in fact, as in preposition phrase like that of English. addition to their capability to be ‘owned’ by Both English transitive sentences in [13] the possessives, they semantically refer to and [14] contain adverbials namely behind the place that is in front or the place which us and in front of him. The first adverbial is behind. Based on this consideration, this can be moved in front of the sentence kind of structured is referred to as (Brown and Miller, 2016, p.34) without N-possessive. influencing the structure of the other There are three other words that carry functions. the same semantic content with these two.

Gulö, Personal Pronoun Used as Prepositional Objects 153

They are tou ‘under’ and yawa ‘above’. In addition to behind and in front of, Semantically these words are equivalent to after constrasting data from both languages English spatial prepositions above and like in the translation of Nias data presented under. above, it was also found that English [17] Hana ö’agö tougu? prepositions before, under, and aboveare Adv PP.TV N.Pos used this way.In other words, along with why you.stay under.my behind and in front of that have been Why are you there under me? discussed, these prepositions are used with Nias possessive personal pronouns.When Although not all of the Nias words in used in this way, the prepositions are [17] have one to one relationship with those attached to the possessives. in the English translation, the phrase tougu To conclude, in addition to using is equivalent to under me in khö-possessive and preposition + khö- meaning.However, as can be seen from the possessive, Nias employs noun with a gloss, tougu does not consist of a possessive in rendering English personal preposition and a personal pronoun like the pronouns being objects of prepositions. English preposition phrase it is translated When contrasting, although both given into. While tou- can be translated under, it phrases in both languages carry relatively actually means more than that as it refers to the same meaning, but they are structurally the place which is below or lower. In other different. words, it is a noun. This is why it can be attached or owned by the possessive -gu Preposition + Noun-Possessive that follows. The combination thus forms a There are cases in which English noun phrase, not a preposition phrase. personal pronouns functioning as object of Another reason for this conclusion is prepositions are rendered into Nias by obtained by looking at the clauseö’agöthat combining a preposition to a noun attached precedes tougu. This clause might look like to a possessive. This is different from the a phrase but it is not as ö- here is second previous one in the sense that this takes a singular personal pronoun you being the Nias free preposition and combined it with subject and -agö is the verb. The gloss and the N-Pos construction. As shown in the the translation can be confusing as in table of the findings, three English English stay is intransitive and are prepositions were found rendered this way intensive. These are the closest translations. into Nias language. However, structural-ly, -agö is transitive as [19] They made a little fête among them it can not stand alone. It needs object which in the garden. is fulfilled by the noun phrase tougu. [20] Lö ba gotaluada zilö [18] Yawami so ndra’aga. Adv Pre N.Pos NP N.Pos IV MP not in middle.our who.not above.your exist we There is no among us who We are above you.

The phrase yawami ‘above you’ in [18] irai mamondrongo da’ö. is also the same. Although from the English Adv TV Pro translation of yawa- one might say it is a ever hear that pure preposition but in Nias it actually never heard that. refers to a place. Thus, combined with the possessive -mi ‘your’ they form a noun The data above exemplify this kind of phrase and become an adverbial to the construction. It is obvious in [19] that intransitive clause so ndra’aga. preposition among is directly followed by

154 LINGUA, JURNAL BAHASA & SASTRA, VOLUME 18, NOMOR 2, JUNI 2018 personal pronoun them as its object. Again, The same preposition structure is also in English, there is consistency to use seen whencomparing detenia‘its top’ to the personal pronoun from the objective case as pronoun it coming after the preposition on object of preposition. From Nias linguistic in [23] above. Further, the preposition ba in perspective the preposition phrase among [24] is followed by a noun phrase which them is translated ba gotaluada in which ba consists of mutated form of nountete ‘top’ is a preposition, gotalua- noun, and -da and possessive pronoun-nia. As shown by possessive. This applies to sentence [20]. the data discussed so far, the preposition ba The preposition bais needed but in turn, its thus can convey various meanings, presence requires a noun, in this case according to what kind of word it is gotalua (mutated form of otalua) combined. ‘center/middle’, as its object. This noun, Besides those three spatial words otalua, however, needs the possessive pronouns - singa, and tete, ngai ‘side’ is also used this da ‘our’ in order to ‘create’ the sense of our way. Theycan be used with a possessive center or our ‘middle’. Combined with the pronoun to form a noun phrase. It has to be preposition ba, this phrase means between underlined, however, that Nias nouns are or among us. mutated. This mutation system relies on at [21] He stood beside them. least two things. First, mutated and [22] No so zatua ba zingami. unmutated forms show syntactic functions Adv VP N Pre N.Pos of the nouns used. Second, mutation affects already exist parent in side.your the first of the nouns. Although not Parents are beside you. all nouns are mutated, it is because the first letter of a given noun falls under a group of If beside them in [21] is translated into letters that do not undergo mutation, not Nias, the preposition made is exactly the because mutation is inconsitent. This same as that in [22]. Their constructions, explains why otalua, singa, and tete above however, are different from each other. The are in mutated forms gotalua, zinga, and phrase in [21] simply consists of dete. preposition beside and personal pronoun Unlike the construction preposition + them as its object. In [22], ba is a khö-possessive above, however, in which preposition but, as seen from the gloss, its some of the free prepositions can be object is not a personal pronoun. Instead, it omitted, here none of the free prepositions is a noun phrase. The noun in it is mutated can be omitted. In other words, the phrases form of singa ‘side’ and is combined with have to be ba gotalua, ba zinga, ba dete, possessive pronoun -mi ‘your’. Together and ba ngai plus the possessives attached to these two elements form the object of the them nouns preposition. [23] My hat was on it. CONCLUSION [24] Itaria labe’e fakake In conclusion, while English personal Adv PP.TV N pronouns used as objects of prepositions are Sometimes they.give thing always from the objective case, Nias Sometimes they put things employs various kinds of constructions which are khö-possesssive, preposition + ba detenia. khö possessive, N-possessive, and Pre N.Pos preposition + N-possessive. From these on top.its four, only particular prepositions are on it. optional in preposition + khö-possessive

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