An Analysis of Geography Educa.Tion in the · Protestant High Schooi.S of Montreal

. AN ANALYSIS OF GEOGRAPHY EDUCA.TION IN THE · PROTESTANT HIGH SCHOOI.S OF MONTREAL

Russell Andrew McNeilly1 :B.Sc., A.C.P.

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts.

Department of Education, August 1963 McGill University, Montreal. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This study1 which was carried out in the Division of Graduate Studies in Education, examines the learning and teaching processes of geography in the high schools of the Montreal area, and more particularly the high schools controlled by the Protestant

School Board of Greater Montreal.

To gain information for the thesis, the writer needed the assistance of members of various school boards, the principals of the high schools, the geography teachers in the high schools, and the committee of the newly formed geography teacherst association.

To all of these, the writer acknowledges his indebtedness.

Appreciation is expressed also to Prof. Harry Clinch, head of the Department of Geography, Sir George Williams University, to Prof. Trevor Lloyd, Chairman of the Department of Geography,

McGill University, and to Prof. Reginald Edwards, Chairman of the

Division of Graduate Studies in Education, McGill University. The writer wishes to offer thanks for their kind assistance.

Finally, the author owes a debt of gratitude to his director of studies, Prof. R.L.R. Overing1 of the Institute of Education, for his guidance, assistance and encouragement in the preparation of the thesis. TABLE OF CONTENTS :Page No.

Acknowledgement

List of Tables

Introduction

:PART 1 - :PRINCIPLES 1

Ch.l. A FRAMEVORK FOR GEOGRA:PHY EDUCATION 1

1 Introduction 1 11 The Nature and scope of geography 6 III The Existing dichotomy 9 IV The vital role of geograpby in present day society and in high school 12 v Two schools of thought in geography 18 VI The subdivision of geography 19 VII Electic view for high school geography in Montreal 24

Ch.2. COMPARATIVE HISTDRICAL DEVELOPMENT 26

I Early growth of school geography in Europe 26 II Modern development of school geography in Europe 27 III Modern development of school geography in the United States of America 29

IV Develop!llent of s~hool geography in Quebec 33 v Lead of the Universities in Canada 36 VI The influences of societies on geography education in Canada 39 VII Montreal's position against the historical background 42

PART 2 - .PROBLEM.S 46

Introduction 46 . Ch. 3. THE PRESENT STRUCTURE AND PRA.CTICE OF GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION IN THE HIGH SCHOOU> OF MONTREAL 49

I Geography in the Elementary School 49 II Geography in the High School 61 III Higher Educational Influences; the contribution of the universities 75

Ch.4. CONSIDERATION AND EXPLANATION OF THE CURRENT SITUATION IN GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION 81

I Definition of the problem 81 II Discussion of the problem 83 III Criteria for change in geographie education 90 (a) Comparison with England and u.s.A. 90 (b) Diversity of school education 91 (c) Career Opportunities 91 (d) Correlational Studies 93 (e) Community Differentation 94 IV Early prospects for geographical reform 95

PART 3 - PRINCIPLES

Ch. 5. SOME TECHNIQUES FOR RECONSTRUCTION OF GEOGRAPHY TEACHlNG 100

I Introduction 100 II Sorne major approaches of geography teaching 102 III Classroom changes in geography 108 IV Systematic geography 113 V Regional geography 118 A. The Laboratory Approach 119 B. The Field Approach 122 1. Local geography 123 2. Geographie Visits 124 3. Field Work 125 4. Sample Studies 131 c. The Aerial photographie &pproach 132 VI The geography room and the geography Teacher 135 VII Which is the best method? 140 . Ch.6. CONCLUSION AND EVALUATION 142

I Summary 142 II Recommendations 142 III Evaluation - Future Research 147

:B!BLIOGRAPHY 150

APPENDIX A. Geography Text-books in the Province of Quebec 1857 - 1963 160

APPENDIX B. Course of study in Geography - Quebec 1953 162

APPENDIX c .. Syllabus for Grades IV to VII 165

APPENDIX D. Syllabus for High Schoo1 Grades VIII to XI 168

APPENDIX E. Geographica1 Societies 171

APPENDIX F. List of Educationa1 Institutions 172

APPENDIX G. Questionaire used in interviewing Geography Teachers 174

APPENDIX H. Geography Committee of the Protestant School :Board of Greater Montreal 178

APPENDIX I. Population Statistics for 18 High Schools of Greater Montreal 179

APPEND IX :J. Students taking High School Leaving Examination in Geography1 1960-63 184 APPENDIX K. Population Statistics for L.c.c. and Macdonald H.s. 185

APPENDIX L. Analysis of Geography Teachers in 9 High Schoo1s 186

APPENDIX M. Macdonald Co1lege Geography population statistics 1962-63 187

APPENDIX N. High School Leaving Examinations, Qu b 1961 Paper 188 e ec 1962 Paper 193

APPENDIX O. Careers in Geography 198

APPENDIX P. Integrative power of geography 201

APPENDIX Q. McGill University Geography sumner schoo1 courses 203 LIST OF TABLES

Figure

1. Interrelationships of geography and the other sciences 17

2. Population graph of geography students 64

3. Symbole in Geography on Townplanning 130

4. The Lay-out of a Geography Room 137 INTRODUCTIO~

The purpose of this study is to examine geography education, at the high school level1 in the light of geography education in European Countries and the u.s.A. Geography is a study of the interrelations of man and the physical earth, and the relationship can best be understood by students if the spirit and dyna~ics of geography are presented by the use of the geographer 1s method of approach.

This thesis, the first to examine geography education in

Protestant high schools of Montreal, utilized the survey-experimental method in order to obtain an overview o~ geography_ education in the area at the present time. The investigator, through observation of high schools and related institutions, attempted to ascertain the structure, organisation and method of geographie education.

The thesis is divided into three sections, namely; principles, problems and prospects. The section on principles is designed to present the criteria by which the learning and teaching of geography may be assessed. _This includes-Chapter One which outlines a framework for ge ography education, and Chapter Two which outlines, very briefly, the historical development of geographie education in Europe, u.s.A. and

Que bec. The section entitled "Problems" includes Chapter Three and Four.

This section does not, as its title might imply1 condemn or condone practices. It presents and analyses practices. In Chapter Three1 the structure and practice of geography teaching in the area under examination are detailed, while in Chapter Four, problems or forces militating against the true spirit of geography are stated. The third section, represented by Chapters Five and Six, deals solely with prospects or factors calculated to improve the nature and extent of geography in the Montreal high schools. This section stresses methods that are practicable and suggests a number of conclusions that could lead to a change for the better.

Never was it more necessary than it is today to relate our thinking in the matter of actual classroom teaching to the changes about to occur in the administration of education in the Province of

Quebec. It is the belief of many that geography in Montreal has not kept pace with the changing times. Therefore, the need for this investigatory study is long overdue. PART 1 - PRlNCIPIES

CB.APTER 1

A framework for geography education

I. Introduction

Any examination of the teaching of geography must attempt to present various definitions by notable geographers and then to deduce what the subject really involves. It might be said that geography is basically a consideration of the earthrs surface, its physical features, climate, vegetation, production and population.

In the early days, it was regarded as a collection of varied and dull facts. Its scope seemed extremely broad and its nature appeared vague.

Geography draws from so many other subjects1 that in some instances it is in danger of losing its identity. The form of the earth is the concern of geodesy1 the physical features of the earth fall to geology1 the study of climate cornes under meteorology1 political considerations of the peoples of the earth are studied by the historian, and production concerna the economist. Only the earth 1 s surface is left to geography.

Strabo, organised geography into four parts: Human

Geography, Physical Geography, Astronomical Geography and Biological -2-

. Geography (l). While these divisions were forgotten for a time, they

were reviewed in recent times. In some cases geography is regarded

as a general knowledge subject composed only of a collection of facts

to be memorised and reproduced.

There are seven views worthy of special emphasis and

each will be examined briefly in turn. Finally an analysis will be

made to determine the common elements in the definitions. The

conclusion should fit modern day educational practice and retain

the spirit of the past.

Stamp, in his report on geography in Canadian universities,

states: "Modern geography may be regarded as human ecology, seeking to

trace and explain the lives and activities of man as influenced by the

varied environments to be found in the world. It adopts an analytical

method in attempting to separate the environmental factors; it attempts

also synthesis and adopta a synoptic view in trying to see the

environmental complex as a whole. n(2)

Some may feel that geography is a conglomeration of

many disciplines without a purpose or aim of its own. This is not the

(1) Incorporated Association of Assistant Masters of Secondary Schools. The Teaching of Geographx; in Secondarz Schools. London, George Philip and Son Ltd., 1952. P.lO.

(2) Stamp, L.D. Geographx; in Canadian Universities. Ottawa, Canadian Social science Research Council, 1951. P.15. -3-

. case because geography views the ecological relationships of man and

the land as a whole. Dr. Stamp in support of this view says,

"It is, indeed one of the great merits of geography

as an academie subject that it is synoptic. Geography

is a counterweight to specialisation. Social progress

must be by application of scientific progress to the

life of man. Geography has the task of providing the

logical, orderly approach to the complex problem.

Geography still remains a writing about the earth;

a study of places, but with a clear over-all view 3 point. 11 ( )

Related to Stamp's concepts, Newbigin says, 11Geography

deals with surface relief of the eart~,and with the influence which

that relief exercises upon the distribution of other phenomena, and 4 especially upon the life of man. u( ) In Newbigin 's account, detailed

consideration is given to physical elements. In some cases this

physical emphasis might be overdone. However, in many quartera, the

introduction of studies on towns, industries and historical geography

delineates an expanding horizon of the subject.

Contrary to the two previous points of view1 Fleure says that, 11Geography as a study is one of the most definite outcomes

(3) L.D. Stamp, op.cit., p.l7.

(4) Incorporated Association of Assistant Masters of SAcondary Schools, op. cit., p.ll. -4-

.of the desire and need which men feel for a vision of the world around

them, a need both for guidance in action and for investigation of truth•••

it has usually been concerned with the piecing together of knowledge of

many different kinds. ln a sense, most of the specialised sciences can

be considered as offshoots of geography1 and there is thus a widespread

overlap between geographical and other studies, and the delimitation of 5 the province of geography is unprofitable. ,.( )

The idea of place, the earth, relationships, and

differentiations has been borne out clearly throughout the early part

of this century. Vidal de La 'Blache says that, "Geography is the

science of places •••• The particular character of a country••• the 6 social diversities associated with the diversities of places. "( )

ln agreement with Stamp and La 'Blax:he,, Cholley

11 affirma that, uthe object of geography is to know the earth1 and the

combinations produced among the different phenomena, "because it is

these combinations which create the different physical and human aspects

which the surface of the earth reveals to us. It is an astonishing

variety of aspects which this cover reveals to us: oceans1 continents,

and, overlying them, all the diversity of vegetational landscapes1 of

systems of culture, forms of settlement and the organization of area

(5) Incorporated Association of Assistant Masters of Secondary Schools, op.cit., p.l3.

{6) Hartshorne, Richard. Perspective on the Nature of Geoa!aphz. Chicago, The Association of .American Geographers, Rand McNally and Company, 1959. P.l3. -5-

11 7 by human groups. ( )

The Glossary Committee of Eritish geographers reports

"geography is the science that describes the earthts surface with particular reference to the differentiation and relationships of areas. n(B)

This definition emphasises the regional concept of geography.

Some of the preceeding ideas may be seen in the 9 collection of concise definitions of geography according to Davis:( )

(a) Geography is the interpretation of the earth 1 s

surface and its climate1 and their relation to life.

(b) Human geography may be defined as the study of

the relation of geographical environment to human activities.

(d) Geography is a description of the surface of the

earth as the home of man.

(e) Geography is the exact and organized knowledge of

distributions on the surface of the earth, cul-

minating in the explanation of the interactions

of man with his terrestrial environment.

(7) Hartshorne, Richard. Ferspective on the Nature of Geographz. Chicago, The Association of American Geographers, Rand McNally and Co. 1 1959 1 p.l4. (8) Ibid.1 Hartshorne, p.14. (9) :(Àllton, R.C. The Teaehing of geoaraphz in Canadian schools. Montreal, McGill University (Unpublished Thesis)1 1955. P.lO. -6-

Stress, it is apparent, is laid on earth, landscape,

physical features1 area differentiation, and relationships. Geography presents the relationships between various physical factors and the manner in which these factors affect each other, as well as how factors

affect the environment and man, and the way in which man modifies his

environment.

Were we to examine other and different definitions we would find that some stress the subject as an art, some stress it

as a science1 and others follow an eclectic view. Moreover the subject seems to be gaining the status of both an art and a science at the

11 present time., lt is stated1 that1 geography is sometimes regarded

as a science, sometimes as one of the humanities, sometimes as both1 and sometimes, one fears, as neither.n(lO)

The definitions indicate that man on the one hand

is the controller of features1 and on the other hand the victim of circumstances. The two aspects emphasised are the earthts influence

on man and man 1 s possibilities in the use of the land. These two views have been the subject of contraversy since early times.

II. The Nature and Scope of Geography

It is necessary1 after seeing that geography deals mainly vith the relationship between earth and man, to examine its

(10) Mïnistry of Education. Geography and Education. Pamphlet No.39. London, Rer Majesty's Stationery Office, 1960. P.S. -7-

nature. Recognition of the duality between earth and man arose during the middle of the nineteenth century. Before that time, geography was regarded as a branch of geology.

A more liberal approach was introduced into geography as the human aspect of the subject came to be stressed. As a result of its widened scope the subject 'became divided into physical geography1 regarded as "real" geogra.phy and that which described foreign. countries and peoples.

Later1 educationists such as Somerville, Galton, and Mackinder(ll) maintained that the physical and human elements were inter- related and in no way contradictory. Mackinder thereafter introduced the regional idea. Finally1 the idea of geography as a unifying science 2 was introduced by Debe~ (l ) The subject now called for a careful interpretation of that which was seen.

Geography acts as an integrating force between the scientific and humanistic aspects of the school curriculum. Man-Land relationships are its central concern. It studies these relationships through the regional idea, which is characterised by experimentation and laboratory work. The study of geography helps to create a discrim- inatory eye; in other words1 persons with foresight who are able to

(11) Gopsill, G.. H. The Teaching of Geoax:aphy. London, Macmillan and Co. Ltd., 1956. P.6.

(12) Ibid., p.8. -8-

~nterpret and draw conclusions. The study of geography provides useful knowledge that can yield utilitarian value. This does not suggest the abandonment of an educational approach in favour of a utilitarian method.

The utilitarian purpose will follow if education is sound and meaningful.

If geography is studied strictly for purposes of vocational application, the subject loses its vitality and dynamics. Our teaching must reflect a dyna~ic purpose because a utilitarian purpose is one-sided.

Geography aims at developing the intellect and strength- ening the practical judgment. Geography can accomplish this by understanding the man-land relationship so as to bridge the humanistic and scientific aspects of learning1 and to apply knowledge gained to everyday life. GopsiU points out three aims: - the gaining of useful knowl- edge1 the acquiring of better understanding among peoples1 and the contribution to general education. (l3) GopsiUfurther affirms that,

"the study of geography is a profitable one for children, not so much because it prepares them for this or for that1 but because it can provide them with stimulating material which has immediate significance, and because it offers opportunities for keen intellectual exercise in the pursuit of the significant relationships between the various parts of its findings. 11 (l4)

Geography is a unique study because it provides students with many possibilities. ~n taught successfully it can train future citizens to talk intelligently1 to read critically1 to travel enjoyably1

(14) G.R. Gopsill, op.cit., p.l2. -9-

·and to apprecia.te man in his fight with physical conditions. To face

this task, geography must be vivid and accurate, and must provide an

explanation for the mental outlook of peo,le in different regions. It

is designed to help future citizens to solve their own social and

political problems the world over. A subject such as geography which

concerna the whole world1 natural as well as human, must develop the ability necessary for selection, co-ordination, utilisation and application

of facts.

Geography then is more than the study of a text book. It

must be learned from a study of original data, films, photographs, travel

stories, specimens, laboratory work1 statistics, and actual visita. The International Conference reports,

1 ' It is the association of related facts into ideas, impres-

sions, and attitudes, through the attempt to understand the cause and

effect ralationships of man on the earth. Geography is a light in the mind, not a load on the memory."(lS)

III. The Existing Dichot~

The study of geography has caused geographers many a

contrPversy which arose out of two opposing schools - environmentalism

(15) International Geographie Union. Report of the Cotmnission on the Teaching of GeoEaphy in Schools. (28th International Geographical Congress - Rio de Janeiro). Chicago, U.N.E.s.c.o. and Denoyer - Geppert Company, 1956. P.S. -10-

·and possibiligm. These reduced to philisophic terms pose the question

of determinism as against freedom. Environme.ntalists base their argttuent

upon determinism and possibilists upon freedom. Before 420 B.C. man

was seen as a victim mainly of his environment. This was the idea

propotmded by Rippocrates and Strabo.

Again, during the renaissance the problem was brought to

the forefront. MOntesquieu and Kant sought to find out the effect of

climate and soil on the natures of man. Kant pointed out that inhabitants

of very hot and very cold cotmtries were lazy beeause of climatic influ-

ences. Re affirmed that the extremes of temperature had an effect on

the viscosity of the blood and caused lethargy. This idea was changed

by Ritter and Humboldt who believed in the reciprocal action of man

on the earth.

During the nineteenth century1 with the influence of

Darwin, the environ ment a list school was again reviewed by Buckle

and Semple who expounded the Ratzelian belief that '1nan is a product 6 of the earth1 s surface,"(l ) and as such depended on nature to be

moulded. This extreme form of determinism was destined to become

unpopular.

Geographers could not hold for long the deterministic

view. ln its crude form it faced serious objections. The environ-

(16) Tatham, Geo-rge. "Environm.entalism and Possibilism" in Taylor, G., Geos.::aphy in the 20th Century. London, Methuen and Co. Ltd., 1960, p.l44. -11-

·ment could not alone explain the movements of man on the globe. Sometimes

similar environments did not yield the same response. It was Kirchoff

at this stage who stated that, 11man is not an automaton without a will 7 of his own 1 "(l ) and introduced the idea of freewill to cause a change over to the new school of thought.

The Rise of Possibilism

Geographers then began to believe that human activity

followed a pattern based upon man's courage and initiative to operate

within the sphere of natural forces. It was Febvre who introduced

the idea of possibilism. Modern possibilist thought is represented

by the writings of Vidal de La Blanhe and Brunhes in France, and of

Isaiah Bownam and Carl Sauer in the United States.

"Stop-and-Go" Determinism

Contemporary geographers strove to settle the problem of

determinism and possibilism. Professor Griffith Taylor, formerly head

of the Department of Geography of the University of Toronto, was the

chief proponent of "Stop and Go" determinism. This new school is a

modern variation of the old discredited environmentalism, and avoids

the pitfall of making man appear as the slave of his natural sur-

roundings.

(17) George Tatham, op.cit., p.l45. -12-

Taylor points out, that ti'Stop-and-Go" determinism is very different from the old form of determinism. It presupposes the idea of choice based upon a consideration of a goal that is a target of each individual. He suggested that it could as well be labelled 11pragm.atic possibilism." 1 (lS) Taylor goes on to say that man "is like a traffic controller in a large city1 who alters the rate but not the direction of progress; and perhaps the phrase 1 Stop- and-Go' determinism expresses succinctly the writer's geographical philosophy.n

This view seems to appear most useful in the teaching of geography at the high-school level. Chapter Five on the techniques to be adopted will presuppose the "stop-and-gon deterministic philosophy.

IV.. The Vital Role of Geography in Present Day

Society and in the HiSh-Sehool

The vital role of geography in present day society was 9 expressed categorically at the 1956 geography Congress, (l ) when it considered modern geography. The findings of the Congress held that modern geography embraces the active experimental investigatory methods of field work and close study of the earth. It encourages correlation between schoo1 subjects. It favours neither the separation of physical and human geography nor the fusion of geography with other subjects for by these means it loses its identity. Its aim is to help people

(18) G. Taylor1 op.cit., p.l59. (19) International Geographical Union, 1956, op.cit., p.S. -13-

· to face sensibly political and social problems.

Geography has much to contribute to the intellectual1

educational, social and individual growth of the nation. Wor1d War II

and the upsurge in modern transportation have created popular interest

in geography. Geography then plays a dynamic role because it is meant

11 2 to be a "1mique synthesis of the who le world in continuous evolution. ( 0)

Where geography falls short of this role1 the following reasons are

responsible:

(a) The type of geography taught has been of the "capes

and bays11 variety by means of which children were

asked to memorise only the names of tOWJ.II.s and chief

products in any country.

(b) The method of teaching has been too formal, passive

and didactic1 appealing to the memory only and not

to the understanding or imagination.

(c} Many teachers have had inadequate or no training

in geography and in educational methods. ( 2l)

The structure of geography is such that it does not facilitate

history and geography being taught as a composite subject. In fact,

(20) Koerner, G.E. "The vital role and scope of Geography, 11 Journal of

Geography, LVI (1957) 1 P.177.

(21) International Geographica1 Union, 1956, op.cit., p.4. -14-

.ngeography sets the stage on which all life is enacted; history 22 describes the drama of human life." ( )

Purposeful teaching of Geography allows the individual

to arrive at conclusions, principles and ideas for hfmself. It encour

ages the application of acquired ideas and principles to the solution

of future problems. It does all this by looking at total knowledge

by means of both social science and natural science.. As a result it

is a vital and integrating force among subjects.

23 The vital role of geography, according to Koerner, ( )

can be summarised as follows%

(a) To help students explore the physiography of the

earth in relation to all life;

(b) To show the interdependence of man with his environ-

ment;

of peoples;

(d) To see the need for soil, plant and animal life, and natur al resources;

(e) To be able to use geographical material - maps,

charts, pictures, graphs, research;

(f) To organize and formulate geographical concepts

(22) G.E. Koerner, op.cit., p.177. (23) Ibid, p.177. -15-

according to principles, and to apply them to

current affairs;

(g) To acquire desirable attitudes and a certain sympathy

for conditions of peoples in other countries;

(h) To realize one•s role as a citizen of a country and

of the worldJ

(i) To develop straight thinking and sound reasoning

through the scientific method;

The role of geography in the school is forcefully presented by Scarfe in an article entitled, nGeography across the curriculum."

His main thesis reads, '~dern geography, well taught, fits particularly well into the major theme of a complete education in the mid-twentieth century. ,.(24) He goes on to say that geography is related to all other subjects on the curriculum, especially if the curriculum is regarded as a body of themes or ways of relating neutral facts. Since geography is concerned with an investigation of the relationship between man and his physical world it must, of necessity, fit into the middle of the curriculum, which is concerned with man and the world. Geograpby develops thinking and does not teach conformity or uniformity. Its aim and purposes then fit closely into the core of modern education.

The difficulty, however, is that teachers have not emphasised sufficiently the reasons and purposes for which geography is taught,

(24) Scarfe, N. V. 11Geography across the curriculum, 11 Journal of Geography, LVIII (1959) 1 P.lll. -16-

· and have not related it to the stream of total useful knowledge.

Geography, as was seen, is partic.ularly fitted to be the

c.ynosure of the curric.ulmn in high school. This subjec.t is a thought

provoking scientific enquiry which requires the association of fac.ts

with ideas and conclusions. It lays the foundation for national and

international understanding and goodwill. It helps to solve prac.tical

problems of life because it gives voc.ational and leisure-time value.

Above all, it is the subject which provides easy means of correlation

with most school subjects (in Fig.l. following). Geography holds

strong claims then to play a vital role in the high-school. -17- Fig. 1.

Diagram showing interrelationsh.ips of geography and the other sciences.

(The diagram expresses the fundamental conception that sciences overlap and that each one of the specialized phases of geography belongs equally to some other science. Such a diagram will be helpful if not construed too strictly. In a loose way the central residual part of the circle may represent regional geography.)

[After: Dohrs, J.E., Sommera, L.~, and Petterson1 D.R. Outside Readi~s in Geo~aphz. New York, Thomas 1 Y. Cromwell Company, 1955. P.3.] -18-

v. Two Schools of Thousht in Geosraphy

Two schools of thought concerning geography have developed in u.s.A. and Canada in recent years. One school regards geography as a m.aster discipline of its own. A newer school regards geography as an integral part of "Social science. 11 Geography in this newer school is relegated to ~nor importance to the extent that it is stripped of its dynamics and made to appear non-vital. ln certain parts of Canada, geography is treated as part of the social science programme.

This problem will be termed the 11social science dilèmma".

Geography and history are, in some quarters, combined and taught as one subject. Although these two subjects have apparent similarity, they are opposed in certain respects. Geography deals with places on the earth and history deals with events in time. Ristory uses geography as a tool and geography uses history likewise. When geography is subsumed under social studies, geography loses its identity. To compress several areas of study into a single unit causes the individual subjects to beco:ne fragmented; geography being an individual subject suffers.

The social science approach was influenced by American progressive education. Geography is made a peripheral study of a series of social and economie facts. The teaching of social science emphasises history a great deal, probably moreso because most social science teachers possess basic training in history and little in geography. As a result, geography is under-emphasised and dismissed -19-

.lightly.

At an early stage in the primary school it is preferable

to teach geography as part of the social studies course, but at the

high school level, teachers must consider geography in its full setting.

Social science cannot include geography. Social science might best

include civics, economies, sociolo$Y and politics. Geography can surely

make a worthy contribution to social science. Wooldridge dismisses the

social science problem aptly when he says, '~ut let us not, drunk with

the wine of new doctrines, claim it as either chiefly or entirely our

own, or accept it as a substitute for our own synthesis. If we do,

then the ge-Will certainly be taken out of geography, and the baby

thrown away with the bath water."(25)

Oulton notes that some of our teachers in education in

Canada commented unfavourably on the grouping of geography and history

in social studies, which resulted in the stressing of history and the

failure to teach geography properly. He asserts that some maintain

that history and geography should be taught as individual subjects, 26 but must be correlated as much as possible. < )

VI. The Subdivisions of Geography

Geography can be divided into, at least, eight areas, each

(25) Wooldridge, s. W. "On taking the rGe' out of Geography, n in The Geography as Scientist. London, Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd~1956.

(26) in Canadian Schools. Montreal, npublished Thesis , 1955. P.15 • -20-

.of which should be given a place in the scheme of work of the high school.

The areas to be briefly discussed are as follows:

1. Physical geography1 2. Human and historical geography,

3. Biogeography,

4. Practical geography,

5. Regional geography,

6. Economie geography,

7. Social geography,

B. Political geography.

Physical geography is the study of the natural factors of

the envircnment. When man is brought into the picture and altera the

physical environment, then it is the domain of human geography. At

the high school level these two aspects must not be taught separately.

This is a duali~, remarks Hartshorne, that proved to be detrimental

to the purpose of geography.. It arose out of the philosophy which

tried to separate man from nature. Geography analyses earth features

in relationship to man in order to explain the interrelations, whether

they be in terms of natural or social laws. It is important to realise

that, "each special field in geography may therefore contribute its

share to the understanding of a particular group of partial integrations,

which can be built up into a more nearly complete comprehension of the

total integration whose variations over the earth constitute the subject -21-

·matter of geography. n(27)

Historical geography is the study of the land relations as they were in the past, and the changes which the physiography undergoes as man uses and shapes the land. Biogeography is the study of plant distribution on the surface of the earth. When man enters into a mathematical presentation of geographical data through cartography, mapping, surveying and graphing, he is delving into the field of practical geography. The geographer who studies selected areas or regions for similarities or differences is concerned with regional geography. When one studies the methods of developing and using the resources of the earth, one is dealing in the field of economie geography. Social geography is the study of men as members of society in relation to the earth, A study of the organization of the world into nations and states, and an investigation of boundary problems with their interrelationships fall into the sphere of politieal geography.

While it is realised that each of these branches cannot be taught separately, it should be noted that geography is a counterweight to specialisation. The teacher of geography must present the subject as a whole, and at the same time, allow students to synthesise the resulta obtained by the different branches.

The branches in geography which are studied most effeetively

(27) Hartshoren, R. ,l,erspective on the Nature of Geography. Chicago, The Association of American Geographers, Rand McNally and Company, 1959. P.so. -2.2.-

·in the high school are physical geography, historical geography, econœnic geography, social geography, and political geography. These branches will be discussed in more detail.

The purpose of physical geography is to provid.e data for human geography. This data from physical geography must lead to the tm.derstanding of the conditions which influence, coutrol and obstruct man's activity, and the limits of msnk.ind on the earth. lt must be noted

that physical geography canuot explain all the actions of human beings.

The school can convey a logical conception of physical geography into which students can fit their own experiences and find an explanation

for local and world conditions so as to lead them to rational reasoning

and fruitful action. On.ly that aspect of physical geography directly

affecting man should be included in the study. Therefore, the course

should include that which occurs or may occur near the surface of the earth. Two areas fall within the seope of physical geography. They are the morphological or the structural and the climatological. The morphological considera surface relief and the classification of principal

land forms. The climatological is concerned with atmospheric conditions and vegetational patterns. If there is need for a wider course, then

the scope of the study may be extended to include interrelation between

the biological, geological, meteorological factors and "cultural" ge ography.

Historical geography is the study of the influence of past -23-

~ents on geographical facts. On the other hand geographical history is the use of geographical facts in the interpretation of history. At the high school, both are regarded as an analysis of geographical conditions. One must take care not to abuse the concept of geographie control. If there is not enough time to follow a complete historical approach in topics that lend themselves naturally to such a method, the teacher should analyse the geographical conditions while briefly pointing out the importance of the historical and economical factors.

"EconO'llic geography may be said to be the study of man's 8 commercial activities as controlled by his physical enviromuent. 11 (Z )

Economie conditions are coupled with geographical influences in activities such as production, distribution, industry and trade. The geographer should confine himself to his field and to use economies when necessary.

Social geography approaches the study of society in relation to the earth. It sets a pattern to which the basic problems of community life may be referred. It is a useful study for the secondary school and serves a notable purpose if included in the course on regional geography.

Political geography is mainly concerned with frontiers, cities, state organisation, exploration, and exploitation. The teaching

(28) Incorporated Association of Assistant Masters of Secondary Schools, op.cit., p.88. -24-

pf geography in the past followed political lines, each nation or country being studied as a region. Care must be taken to let pupils understand that regions in the geographical sense often transcend political boundaries.

Political geography ought to be included in the high school geography course because of its practical interest and significance. It might be wise to defer the political considerations of geograpby to the later stages when knotty problems and legal implications can be understood.

VII. Eclectic View for High Sehool Geography in Montreal

Based on the foregoing concepts and practices of geography, it would be wise to adopt a philosophy which is not only realistic and useful in Montreal high schools but also praetieal and applicable in this modern day. The 11Stop-and-go" deterministic philosophy seems to the writer to be most practieable. It is a philosophy that can be interpreted by the high school student reasonably and intelligently.

Such a view will help the student to understand the problems he will face in world geography. Also, geography will be regarded both as an art and a science because geography has the tendency to merge the humanistic and naturalistic so as to maintain a balance.

Geography has the right to be considered as a full subject because of its significant nature and its wide seope. As geography derives many facts from a variety of disciplines it should be eorrelated to subjeets on the curriculum. Quoting from the Report of the Inter- -25-

national geographical congress it should be noted that1 "A sense of geography together with a turn for the geographical method make for 29 the unity and ordered continuity of the lessons.n< )

(29} International Geographical Union, 1956, op.cit., p.S. -26-

CHAPTE!t 2

Comparative Historical Development

I. Early Growth of School Geography in Europe

A brief description will serve to give an insight into the development of school geography in Europe and the u.s.A. This will show how school geography developed in Canada, and more particularly,

Quebec, after it was established in Europe and the u.s.A.

Scholars and explorera have eontributed to knowledge in the field of geography since the time of the ancient Greeks. Some of these, whose names stand out with great significance were Strabo,

Rousseau, Pestalozzi,Càmenius and Locke.

lt was Comenius (circa 1630) who recognised the importance of geography as a scho9l subject and helped it to acquire a firm footing in the German school. Re adopted the synthetic method and is regarded as the father of 11Home Geography". Later Jobn Locke (1633-1704) applied the analytical method to the study of geography and encouraged the use of maps and globes but detested learning through nature. Unike Locke,

Pestalozzi, who followed Rousseau' s idea of study through the medium of nature, developed a vivid teaching method which included excursions, observations 1 and the reproduction of areas by means of modelling in clay. Pestalozzi influenced both Froebel and Ritter, the latter of -27-

whom deve loped 11Comparative geography ~ 11 a study of various regions for likenesses and differences~ organising the subject into a unity.

These early geographers were destined to have a profound effect upon school geography in Germ.any~ England~ France and the United

States. The teaching of geography in the first three countries was to influence geography education in the United States. The direct effect of the teaching of geography in England and the U.S.A. has been felt in Que bec even up to this day. It becom.es neeessary then to examine the effect of the early teachers upon modern geographie education.

II. Modern Development of School Geography in Europe

Modern geography in Europe had its birth in Germany.

The German school was led by Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859) regarded as the founder of modern geography. Re emphasised the importance of the empirical approach and introduced a logical system of cause and effect into geography. Ris compatriot, Karl Ritter, was opposed to a purely descriptive geography and believed that geography ought to become a science. Humboldt and Ritter were both influenced by the tradition of humanism popular in their time. Therefore~ they embraced the human and humane approach in geographical education. They believed that the child was not to be suppressed by rigid discipline and stereo typed traditional methods of instruction. Instead1 they stressed the liberty of the mind and a critical examination of nature tbrough obser vation. -28-

School geography developed slowly in England until Sir

Joseph Banks (1770-1830) speeded its expansion. In 1833, a chair in geography was founded at London University. This chair was short-lived and school geography fell into unpopularity. In 1877, Archibald Geikie entered the scene and advocated "the claims of geography as an educational discipline of a high order."(JO) Geikie, drawing heavily from the German school pleaded for home-geography and the use of powers of observation.

The work of Geikie was supported by Sir Scott Keltie (1887) who criticised the lack of proper text-books, the paucity of equipment and the absence of adequate staff. Keltie observed that schools on the continent placed geography on equal statua with other subjeets. He found the subjeet in Canada and the United States far below the standard it had attained in England. Keltie encouraged the Royal Geographical Society to establish geography departments in the universities. Consequently, Oxford University in 1887 appointed as Reader of geography, Sir Harold Mackinder, who developed geopolitics, influeneed the teaching of geography in all departments of the school and furthered the concept of "regional geography". Mackinder prepared the way then for James Fairgriev-e, who as head of London University, Institute of Education, exerted the greatest influence on school geogra.phy. Ris a.uthoritative work on the scope and method of the subject pleaded for a grammar of geography and gained universa.l acclaim.

The development of school geography in France was

(30) Geikie, A. The Teaching of Geography. London, Macmillan and Co., 1887, P.4. -29-

somewhat similar to that in England in time as well as in effect. As with England, the French geographers derived their influence from

Germ.any through Ritter and lh.nnboldt. The master of French geography,

Paul Vidal de La Blache emphasised the significance of geology as a basis for regional differentiation. He caused the advancement of both the scientific and humanistic aspects of geography. His pupil, Albert

Demangeon changed the historical approach of geographical education to the scientific study of landforms. The French school then succeeded in merging the historical and geological aspects of geography. Along with the German and English schools, the French school was destined to exert great influence on the teaching of geography in both the

United States and Canada.

III. Modern Development of School Geogr;aphy in the

United States of America

Geography in the United States generally followed the pattern as it existed in England and was influenced largely by German geographers. Guyot, Semple, Davis, :Sowman and Sauer can be noted for 3 their relentless efforts to develop geography as a school subject. ( l)

However, it was not until the 1880's that geography was introduced into the high school curriculum as a descriptive study. :Sy the turn of the century geography had come to be regarded as a physical science.

A period of decline in importance followed and when geography reappeared

(31) Oulton, R.C., op.cit., p.56. -30-

later1 it was regarded as a branch of the social sciences.

Four stages in the development of school geography in the u.s.A. can be traced. These stages include: geography as a descriptive study1 geography as a physical science, geogrsphy on the decline, and geography as a social science.

In the esrly period school geography was a mixture of unorganized and unscientific msterial. The text-books were encyclopaedic and included concepts about the esrth that were too general. After 18501 Guyot used the scientific ideas of Ritter and Humboldt and change school geography from a descriptive to a physical study., Kennamer(3Z) observed

1 that in 18881 Hinman s book, Eclectic Physical Geogrs~hy, presented directly to high school students the ideas of Darwin and Huxley.

Kennamer also pointed out that the book wss scientific and had a technical bias. In explaining landforms, the author referred to the fields of geography1 astronomy and meteorology1 and in this msnner, attempted to place physical geography alongside the other sciences (physics, chemistry and biology).

Kennamer further explained the method of teaching adopted at that time. It was the laborstory approsch by which means, phenomene were observed and recorded while relationships were sought. The changes in content revolutionized the methods of tesching geography and caused

(32) Kennamer, Lorrin, G.(Jr.). "A Unique Change in Sehool Geography", Journal of Geography, LIV (1955), p.25 .. -31-

~edifications in classroom equipment and activity. Classroom equipment included relief maps, models, sand boards, and specimens. The new teaching comprised outdoor observation, map making and map interpretation.

Laboratory techniques, field methods and topical representations had to be studied. There was definitely a change from the enumeration and memorization of products and locations. An inherent weakness showed that teachers at that time, as teacbe.rs in Montreal at the present time, were not trained to face the change in geography education.

This new turn in school geography raised concern from several quarters and aroused a chain of criticisms. Sorne of tbe.se criticisms expressed by Kennamer in the same article were as followst

(1) The students were not prepared for the sudden change;

(2) The teachers were unprepared to teach the new content

by the radical methods proposed;

(3) The new approach demanded more space, ma teri al and

equipment;

(4) The leaders of the new movement eame frO'll the university

and were far removed from the high school;

(5) Teachers felt that the method of observation was an

inadequate teaching deviee;

(6) There was too great concern for the mechanical process

in teaching geography; -32-

(7) Teachers felt that if physical geography replaced

descriptive geography, it would be one-sided and

barren for children;

(8) Teachers believed that physical geography was too

narrow a foundation for school geography;

(9) The subject was placed in the curriculum because

of outside demand;

(10) Teachers believed that if both physical geography

and descriptive geography were taught the curriculum

would be over-crowded.

This attack led to a modification of geography and then

to its gradual displacement. By 1910, the movement had turned away

from physical geography to couu:nercial geography and the methods of

teaching changed.

Later, the belief developed that geography should be based on the physical environment as well as on economie and social conditions.

This belief arose after the First World War convinced some that ge ography ought to be centred around human groups and problems. As a result, geography became an integrated part of the social sciences, and newer teaching deviees such as the problem and project methods were practised. After the Second WOrld War geography became recognised in some high schools as a full subject once more. At present, there is the feeling that geography in the high school is undergoing another -33-

reconstruction beeause of the lead given by the universities.

This development of school geography in the United States is very significant in respect to the Montreal scene. Many of the difficulties that faced the United States are not unfamiliar to Montreal high schools. ln fact, the experience gained from the history of ge ographical development in the u.s.~ provides insight for the growth of geographie education in Canada.

IV. Development of School Geography in Quebec

During the nineteenth century there was no literature for the use of Canadian teachers setting out the philosophy and aims of geography. Teachers relied upon the text-books as there was little use of equipœ.ent such as maps; globes and pictures. The text-books yielded much information regarding geographical history in this period.

At the turn of the century, with the formation of Normal schoo ls, a greater interest was engendered in geography education.

Education (at that time) in the province of Quebec had been headed at first by the provincial secretary, whose educational duties are now in the bands of the Minister of Youth. The elementary schools included the first seven grades from age six to age twelve.

The high school covered grade eight to grade eleven, from approximately age twelve to approximately age sicteen. -34-

33 A list of text-books( ), following Oulton, used in the province of Quebec from 1857 shows in some degree the development of geography in the schools. This list supplies general characteristics of the development of geography. Oulton (34) pointed out the trend which was followed, and this included the text-book teaching stage, the period of experimentation, the social studies movement, and the period of insignificance. ln the recent past there has been an upsurge in geography education.

The text-books in the nineteenth century were encyclopaedic.

They contained simple concepts which had to be memorised. The authors of these text-books emphasised the physical aspect of geography but no attempt had been made to relate this aspect to man. They used political division as the means for regional delimitation.

An examination of the Lovell text-books revealed certain

limitations. These volumes were a series of four "Books of LesS<:ms" originally published in Dublin and adapted for use in Montreal. They

included lessons on natural history, geography proper, religion, political eeonomy and poetry. Very little mention was made of geography and no maps, illustrations or pictures were included. The fourth book of the series contained articles on Europe, Asia, Africa, America and parts of the British Empire. Articles on South America were written

(33) Geography Textbooks in the Province of Quebec, 1857 to 1963. See Appendix A.

(34) Oulton, R.C., op.cit., pp. 81-111. -35-

.by Alexander von Humboldt. Political geography was given a fragmentary

treatment. It was small wonder that in 18891 the annual report from the

Superintendent of Education made reference to the poor state of geography

teaching in the province of Quebec.,

During 1920 to 1935 there was an increase in the number of

text-books used in Quebec. Each text-book stressed the orderly arrangement of ideas and suggested a method of procedure in geography. J'ourney geography and adventme story-telling were st:ressed' in the elementary

school. The high school concentrated on· formal geography teaching.,

Economie and commercial geography, having gained impe tus from the American

school, tended to push out physical geography. It was a period of active

experimentation, when Canada was gaining a foothold on the international

1 scene.. The philosophy of John Dewey, the "Dalton plan" alld the project method had great effect on the teaching of geography at this time. llhile most of the provinces in Canada, after 1930, relegated geography

to a brallch of the Social s tudies ("Social Sciencen in the u.s.A..),

Quebec and Newfoundland continued to regard geography as a full subject.

But geography faded into insignificance in most parts of Canada, as well

as in Quebec and Newfoundland.

Throughout Canada in general, and Quebec in particular, geography did not gain full status as a high school subject because of

the lack of qualified teachers to teach it1 and the tardiness of the universities to include it in their programmes. In the last decade, -36-

improvements have been noted. It can be seen that many teachers have been studying geography1 the federal departments have made use of ge ographers and careers are now possible, and the univeréttfes have ex erted considerable influence. Text-books have also been improved to include pictures1 charts1 and laboratory hints designed to make ge ography meaningful and dynamic.

Some details of the course of study for 1953(3S) have been noted to show developmental trends. Since that time geography in

Quebec has been recognised as a Matriculation subject.

V. Lead of the Universities in Canada

The effect of the university geography department upon high school geography in England and the UD.ited States as well as in

Canada has beell significant. It was not until the universities iRcluded geography in their curriculum that geography education at the high school level was introduced.

Courses in geography were introduced into the Arts curriculum at Toronto University in 1906. ln 1910, the University of Moatrea1 began

1 giving lectures in this subject. During the 1920 s 1 the University of

~ritish Columbia recognised geography as a discipline. Then the uni versities of HCMaster and iestern Ontario introduced geography into

(35) Course of Study in Geography1 Quebec 1953. See Appendix ~. -37-

36 .their curriculum in the 1930 's. < )

The Second World war called attention to the need for ge

ography for municipal_, provincial and federal purposes. As a result,

geography was established at Laval University and the University of

Manitoba. The aim was to construct the groundwork for postwar expansion.

37 Stamp( ) called attention to the weaknesses of geography

education and in doing so paved the way for improvement. The subject

bad suffered from a lack of tradition and this resulted in notable

differences in practices and standards throughout Canada. Stamp pointed

out that geographers trained in Britain, France and u.s.~ continued

to foster their own ideas in which they were grounded. As a result,

the training throughout Canada possessed marked variations. This was

the situation which aroused the Canadian Social Science Research Council

to form a Committee to examine the situation. The council comprised

Prof. Mcilwraith1 chairm.an, Dean Itmis of Toronto University, Prof. Dagenais of the University of Montreal, and J. w. Watson, chairm.an of

the survey cormnittee on geography. The committee appointed Dr. D.L.

Stamp to make a survey of geography in Canadian universities. This

survey gave impetus to geography education in Canada and had far

reaching effects.

It must be observed that in 1947, four years prior to this

(36) Stamp1 L.D., op.cit., p.S.

(37) Ibid._, op.cit.1 p.6. -38-

.survey, Stamp accepted an invitation from his former student, Dr. G.H.T.

Kimble, the newly appointed professor of geography of McGill Uaiversity, to assist in the establishment of a McGill Geography summ.er school at

Stanstead, Quebec. This was a successful venture and, with the exception of a short break, the summ.er school has continued up to this day. The summ.er school developed to include, among its students, a number of geography teachers in the high schools. Dr. G.H.T. Kimble, its founder, left McGill to become Director of the American Geographical Society in

New York.

The method of external examination used by the University of Montreal is of interest in regard to the push given to geographie education. This method was adopted in the award of the Ph.D. degree to Dr. Kimble and Dr. Kenneth Rare, oœ~ime chairman of the Departm.ent of Geography, McGill University, and at present Dean. of the Faculty of Arts and Science at McGill Uaiversity. Stam.p believed that, "the policy of the Université de MDn.tr~al m.akes a real contribution to the advancement of scholarship" and pointed out 11the liberality of the view which permits candidates to present the resulta of their research 38 in either French or English. u( )

Today, most large universities of Canada offer geography.

McGill University, Sir George Williams University and the University of Montreal in the Montreal area maintain full depa.rtm.ents of ge-

(38) Stamp, L.D., op.cit., p.41. -39-

·ography. McGill University and the University of Montreal offer post

graduate courses in geography, while Sir George Williams University

offers a major at the undergraduate level. Macdonald Collage and Loyola

Collage offer selected courses at the undergraduate level. It will be

seen later how much of the work of the universities in Montreal is in

fluencing the present state of geography education in the high schools.

Reference will be made particularly to English-speaking universities

in the area.

VI. The Influence of Societies on Geography Education

in Canada

The study of geography owes much to the influence of ge

ographies! societies. The societies in the United States and Great

Britain aroused interest among students and laymen. Teachers and

professionals were brought together to discuss problems in geography.

Text-books and maps were improved through experimentation and important

discoveries were recorded in journals and magazines.

There are nine leading geographical societies(Jg) in the

United States and Great Britain. Four of these are lay societies and

five are professional societies. The object of the educational soei

eties is uthe improvement of the statua of the teaching of geography

in schools, and the encouragement of any methods of teaching which

(39) Geographical Societies, See Appendix E. -40-

·tend to the comprehension of geographie principles rather than isolated 4 facts. 11 (40) The main functions of these societies were:( l)

(i) the publication of documents so as to disseminate

geographical information and ideas;

(ii) the assembly and holding of meetings;

(iii) the collection and preservation of geographical

books and aids;

(iv) the stimulation and recognition of research and

educational achievement through the award of

honours;

(v) the encouragement of professional promotion,

that is to say1 undertakings to advance and protect the interest of geographers and teachers

collectively or individually.

As there are few societies in Canada, much stimulation

is gained from. journals published by the English and .American societies.

There are1 however1 two Canadian journals1 namely, the Canadian Ge- ographer and the Canadian .Journal of Geographi• The .Journal of Ge

ography is published by a society interested mainly in explorations

and does not concentrate on the teaching aspect of the subject. The

(40) Gopsill, G.H., op.cit., p.16.

(41) Taylor1 G. (Ed.) 1 Geography in the Twentieth Century, London, Methuen and Co. Ltd., 1960. P. 553. -41-

.other society records views on geographical education occasionally.

A more scholarly research is the Geographical :Bulletin

which was introduced in 19541 under the direction of Dr. J'. Wreford Watson, chief of the Geographical branch of the department of mines

and technical surveys at Ottawa. The :Bulletin contains articles in

English with resumes in French, and vice versa. It is still an active

effort.

The Socié'té de Géographie de Montréal publishes the Revue

Canadienne de Géographie. This revue presents resulta of geographical

research. The Société d tHistoire et de GéOgraphie de Quebec also

publishes articles of geographical interest.

Canadian geographers are permitted to be members of the

Association of American geographers. These geographers mak.e valuable

contributions to the publication by reporting developments in Canadian

geography.

The Canadian societies are not as active in the teaching

aspect of geography as are their counterparts in :Britain and the u.s.A.

In the latter two countries teachers have formed associations aimed

particularly at the promotion and progress of geographie education.

Here in Montreal, a society of this kind has recently been organised

among high school teachers and interested parties for the purpose of

considering problems with respect to geography education. -42-

VIII. Montreal's Position Against the Historical

Background

The formation of the Association of Geography Teachers of

Montreal is one of the forward-looking features to be found on the local scene. There are other features that mark progress and bring to the front some of the finest leaders in the field. Prof. Hills and Prof. Bird of McGill University are active in the publication of text-books for the high school level, while Prof. Lloyd, chairman of the D.epartment of G;eography, McGill University serves on cOUlillittees that are considering the future of high school geography and the training of geography teachers. It must be noted that Prof. George

Tomkins of the Faculty of Education, University of British Col~ia and one-time vice principal of Verdun Righ School, was co-author with

Prof. Theo. Hills of the text-book presently used in Grade XI in Montreal.

Prof. Clinch of Sir George Williams University, student of Prof. Griffith

Taylor of Toronto University, is also undertaking to improve geography education as he lectures to evening university classes of high school teachers interested in the teaching of geography and the development of knowledge in that field.

In 1951, Dr. D.L. Stamp felt that there was a comparative neglect of geography in the Canadian High School, no lesa so in the high schools of Montreal. Many national leaders who observed this neglect, have felt the need for more geography, a greater knowledge -43-

~f Canada and ber resources. His excellency, the Right Bonourable

Vincent Ma.ssey, at the twenty-eighth annual general meeting of the

Canadian Geographical society held at the National Museum of Canada in Ottawa, paid tribute to the society for bringing stimulating geographical studies to the attention of the Canadian people in an 42 attempt to fulfil the need. < )

One aspect of high school education that disturbed Stamp was the rigidity of the curriculum, which, in some cases, was extreme.

There is freedom in this regard in Great Britain allowing teachers to choose their own texts from a prescribed list and to adopt their own courses, all reaching in the end the same general level. In Canada, it is said, 11 the calibre and rapid turnover of teachers would m.a.ke such a system impossible. 11 Stamp added that, 1'1ma.t they achieved, of course, is a safe mediocrity for cramping the whole of the initiative of the minority who have ideas and the drive to mske advances in

11 4 educational methods and standards. ( J) The views were confirmed at the time and were admitted by some teachers during the present investigation.

Stamp believed that in such a system 11 there is little scope for the teacher with newer ideas or trained in modern methods."

He felt that raising of standards seems to depend on :

(42) Massey, Rt.Hon. Vincent. "Geographyt A Canadian 's reflections, 11 Education Bulletin, Faculty and College of Education, University of British Columbia, No.l CMarch 1957), p.6. (43) Stamp, L.D., op.cit., p.41. -44-

(a) the recognition of geography as a full matriculation

subject (both in junior and senior matriculation)

throughout Canada;

(b) the supply of specialist teachers (bonours graduates)

who will be given full opportuaities to develop

specialism;

the rigidity imposed by over-elaborate curricula and

prescribed text-books;

(d) equal opportunities for promotion in leadships, the

inspectorate, and so on.

This particular survey by Stamp has been specially considered in summary form because it bears great significance for Montreal, even at this time, more than ten years after. Most of these criticisms, it is feared, are still applicable in the Montreal high schools.

The historical examples of progress and pitfalls made in

Europe and the United States as compared with developments in Canada, and particularly Montreal, iudicate an urgent need for a positive and earnest approach and attitude towards geography education. The subject at the high school level does not appear to possess the statua gained by other disciplines or the importance gained in other English-speaking nations. With this preliminary background in mind, the investigator -45-

'visited high scbools and elementary schools of the area and interviewed

university professors of geography to learn exactly the position ge

ography fills and to ascertain its scope in this area. -46-

PART 2 - PROBLEMS

Introduction

Part Two of the thesis attempts to describe the methods adopted in the data-collecting proeess and to give a pieture of the extent of geography education in the high school. It outlines the techniques by Wbich the data to be presented in Chapter Three were eolleeted. Chapter Tbree analyses geography education in the senior grades of the elem.entary sehool and in all the grades of the secondary school. Chapter Four points out reasons for the main defieieneies in geography education.

ln this study, the tnvestigator examined geography edu cation in the Montreal area generally and more partieularly in schools under the jurisdiction of the Protestant School Board of Greater

Montreal. Eighteen high schools of the Protestant Sehool Board of

Greater Montreal were studied. Ten of these were observed directly, and the other eight were studied1 by means of reports and indirect methods. The additional schools considered were Chambly County High

School in St.Lambert, Lindsay Place High Sehool of the West Island

Sehool Board, Macdonald High School of the Macdonald Central Sehool

Board, and Lower Canada College which is maintained privately.

A study of four elementary schools was conducted in order to gain an idea of the geographie preparation pupils receive before -47-

. entry into secondary school. Three institutions of higher learning

were examined to ascertain the effect they wield on high school ge-

ography development. The institutions were Sir George Williams Uni-

versity, McGill University, and Macdonald College. A list of all 44 schools and institutions included in the study appears in the Appendix. < )

Since there are very few reports or eye-witness descriptions

of actual classroon practice in Montreal, it became necessary to observe

personally as many schools as possible. It was believed that actual

classroom observation of geography education would contribute substan-

tially to further research and experimentation. The idea of direct-

mail questionaires was ruled out because of the writer's belief that

the best way to gain insight into the literary, humanistic and scientific

approaches of geography was through direct observation.

The survey method used, included direct observation in

classr~, questioning of students1 interviews of geography teachers, interviews of administrators, attendance at staff meetings, attendance

at Geography Association meetings, and interviews of graduates of high

schools and the teacher's college. In addition, geography text-books,

note-books, and syllabuses were examined. The standardized questionaires

used in personal interviews of geography teachers are indicated in the (45) Appendix.

(44) List of Educational Institutions considered. See Appendix F. (45) Questionaire used in interviewing geography teachers. See Appendix G. -48-

In Chapters Three and Four the observations made apply to the Montreal area. A generalization can safely be made from these observations to suit the whole province. This generalization should be taken with caution since it is noted that rural schools may differ somewhat from urban schools. One must realise that rural schools may possess the opportunity for field work, but the gross shortage of qualified geography teachers would detract from the practical approach to this subject. The other Qonsideration favouring the generalisation is that the number of Protestant schools is greater by far in the Montreal area than in the area forming the rest of

Que bec.

The writer was pleased to attend a fewmeetings of the recently formed Association of Geography Teaehers of Montreal. The

formation of such an Association was recommended by Oulton in a 46 thesis in 1955. ( ) Chapter Four will present greater information on the 11Association." In three schools the writer discussed with guidance officers, questions about related courses and careers.

Chapter Four also examines this aspect of school geography and presents some early prospects.

The approaches and methods used gave a clear account, in Chapters Three and Four, of geography education as it is at present.

Chapter Three outlines structure and practice; Chapter Four locates the problems and the possible causes.

(46) Oulton, R.C., op.cit., p. 148. -49-

CHAPTER. 3

The Present Structure and Practice of Geography EducatiOn.

in the Highs Schools of Montreal

I. Geogr!fhl in the Elementa.ey School

There are 74 elementary schools of the Protestant School

Board of Greater Montreal. The investigator visited a s~le of four, the names of which are noted in Appendix D.

Here1 the approach to geography was rather formal. Class room.s were arranged in the rigid, traditional form with perfect rows.

There was no indication of experimental or practical work in the roans.

Little evidence of improvisations in the classrooms was apparent. One finds that the classrooms on the whole possessed ample space for the re-arrangement of desks to form large tables around which pupils can model or construct landform.s and earth features.

On the whole, the first three grades of the elementary school study their immediate environment in informal social studies classes. Grade Four begins journey geography in an approach which, as the syllabus states, ought to be informal. However, the approach was formal, and a lack of practical work w~s evident. Reference was rarely made to the children 's direct observation of phenom.ena. The approach in schools visited seemed to be academie and ''bookish". -so-

Such a bookish approach caused the teaeher to adopt a questioning role throughout lessons. This made the question and answer method prevalent. Pupils had to glean answers to the teaeher •s questions from text-books. Henee the m.ethod followed was wholly deductive.

Most teachers expeuded too much energy unnecessarily and perform.ed a great deal of activity whieh students eould otherwise have done for themselves and gained greater benefits. Teaehers did not allow the pupils to share in the experiences.

Classrooms contained a reasonable amount of aids, ge ographie and miscellaneous. Pupils in some classes, in a study of a country sueh as China or J"apan1 prepared art displays in the form and pattern of the people of those eountries. ln som.e instances, pupils presented reports, in large files on countries studied. Maps and pietures were ineluded in the reports. Som.e of the reports seemed too elaborate and demanding for the lower grades. The pupils appeared to have resorted to adult assistance at home.

Pupils appeared not to kn.ow the full m.eaning and use of the map. More map work on a simple basis seemed desirable. Few schools realised that the map should display main features elearly.

The practice was to inelude a wealth of data on one map 1 and to depend upon traeing religiously. In fact, little opportunity seemed to have been given for praetiee in basie map construction. -51-

(47) The map of the world used at the blackboard for studies of Europe in Grade Seven in most schools was not a clear one for use in large classes. Pupils at the middle and rear of classes could scarcely distinguish areas. The large maps or sketches of

Europe alone were not used. Students were, as a result1 weak at reproducing simple, meaningful maps. They seemed not to realise that much writing could be avoided if appropriate data were represented on the map. There is an apparent need for a considerable amotm.t of practice in mapwork.

During the winter when weather restricts excursions, field trips1 outdoor classes, rambles, and direct association with and observation of the environment, few substitutes are adopted to any degree. :Pictures, photographs, and film strips are used occasionally. Not a lesson was given with other aids and no use of the text-book. It was not a practice to give a geography lesson based upon an illustration, a drawing of a sketch map, or a photograph.

Some classrooms bad very meaningful displays of plants, pictures, and models, etc. In one school where a remarkable geography class was seen, strong motivation was aroused by the teacher and profound curiosity was developed among pupils. They asked thought- provoking questions to a visitor whose native country was being studied. The teacher made use of the outside visitor and the pupils gained in experience.

(47) Philips school room map of the world. -52-

In certain classes outlines were presented on the black board for the purpose of guidin.g the pupil 1s study.. The story approach was adopted and quizz:ès were used advantageously. A review technique

in one instance was used so as to present a new view of the whole lesson.

Finally a problem was posed to the students in order to give a nseful

starting point for the next lesson. This was the elosest seen to the project method_, an approach which was sparingly practised.,

The training of teaehers at the elementary school level continues to be a prob lem. Greater coneern seems to be needed in this direction. When one considera that all teachers in elementary sehools must teach geography, one realises that a certain level of geography content and methodology must be attained by teachers. Probably only a small minority of elementary school teachers do possess the basic

training needed.

In order to gain a further insight into the senior grades of the elementary school eomplex, the syllabus of 1957 which is in use at the present tim.e will be examined. Along with this, suggested mod ifications by the elementary school comm.ittee will be detailed. There will also be an outline of a sample programme based on the organization of studies in tbree grades in the local area.

Syllabus for Grades IV to VII

The details of the syllabus for Grades IV to VII are -53-

· recorded in the Appendix(4S)•

The aims outlined for the course as a whole emphasised

three main aspects; knowledge of the physical and cultural distri

butions, sympathetic unierstanding of peoples, and a recognition of

the interdependence of peoples. The introiuction of the syllabus goes

on to point out the significance of journey geography in the early

stages and of the globe and map in the later stages. Emphasis is

placed upon the value of correlation and the importance of as much

practical work as possible. The syllabus directs teachers to use

that visual material and varied apparatuses necessary for a systematic

presentation of geography.

Grade Four studies 11Journey Geographyn and uses the text,

Visit in other Lands by Atwood and Thomas. This section of the syl

1 labus presents hints on planning the year s work1 planning a unit of work, and it outlines the development of a sample unit.

Grade Five etudies "Canada and the United States" using

the text, Canada and Her Neighbours by Taylor, Seiveright and Lloyd.

This part of the syllabus presents a content outline and three sample

units to serve as a pattern for other units. The syllabus outlined

unit topics such as, Introduction to North America, Canada as a whole

and the Province of Quebec. A list of possible activities that may be

(48) Syllabus for Grades IV to VII. See Appendix c. -54-

• attempted as part of a unit is recomm.ended.

Grade Six studies "Southern La.ndsn, and uses a text by

Taylor, Seiveright and Lloyd. The syllabus outlines the course content

and suggests the number of periods for each aspect of the year 1s study.

A sample Study on South America is outlined and a teachers1 reference

book is recommended.

Grade Seven studies Europe and Asia from either the book

entitled Old World Lands or the book called Lands of Eurgpe and Asia.

11 A content outline is detailed and. a Sa"llple study unit on The British

Isles" is included.

An important note is stressed tbroughout the syllabus.

The syllabus states in three places that, nTeachers are not expected

to adhere strictly to this suggested scheme, but it is essential that 49 the years programme should be planned in advance. u( ) _ ln actual

practice, it seems that this note is disregarded entirely. ln fact1

teachers adhere religiously to the syllabus as it appears in the Rand-

book.

This syllabus is a rigid one and attempts to cover a

broad spectrum of material. It seems that the methods of practice

are at variance with the aims which are expressed in the Handbook.

(49)Dep~ of Education. Handbook for Teachers in the Protestant Schools of the Province of quebec. Quebec, 1957. Pp. 831 89, 91. -55-

·The result is that a reliance upon the text-book becomes inevitable.

Elementary Committee Report

Concern over elementary geography teaching grew and in 1959

a preliminary analysis of the 11Teacher -pupil load survey11 indicated

a feeling on the part of teachers that the course in geography in Grades

V~ VI~ and VII was an extremely heavy one. At a meeting on February 4~

1959, the Elementary School Committee appointed a Geography cornmittee

to investigate the matter. (50)

The terms of reference of the Geography Committee were as

follows:

1. To study ways of interpreting the present geography

course to teachers;

2. To study modifications in the programme that might

lessen the load in the various grades;

Severa! experienced teachers and principals constituted the Committee(5l).

In presenting the geography course to teachers, the committee

felt that a clear interpretation of the curriculum might help to reduce

the teacher-pupil load which has probably been aggravated by the fol-

(50) Protestant School Board of Greater Montreal. Report of the Ge ography Committee. (J.H. Patrick, Chairman), Montreal, Unpublished Pamphlet, Feb.l959. (51) Elementary School Geography Committee members. See Appendix H. -56-

• lowing factorst

1. There appears to be misunderstanding of the concept of

"a one-cycle coverage of the major countries of the

world in Grades V, VI, and VII. 11 Teachers do not realise

from the Handbook that "all units need not be studied

with equal emphasis. 11

2. There is evidence, from replies to questionaires sent

to teachers1 which indicates a lack of effective use of the available teaching aids.

(a) Manuals as listed in the prospectus,

(b) The Handbook which can prove invaluable for

(i) Aims and objectives,

(ii) Content, with suggested time allotments for

various units,

(iii) The development of sample units,

(iv) Approaches to teaching and suniry activities

which the pupils can carry out independently,

thus reducing time for formal teaching.

Modifications that were suggested in the geography course

arose from the feeling evidenced by teachers that they were obliged

to teach everything contained in the prescribed text-book. The com

mittee held that this was not the case and suggested that before any -57-

. wide revision, certain conditions should be observed:

1. Teachers are free and, indeed, should be strongly urged,

after consultation with their principals, to make their

own modifications in the suggested courses, according

to the needs and abilities of their respective classes.

2. Preparation and planning will make possible a more

adequate coverage of the existing course and consequently

reduce the need for change. The Handbook stresses

throughout the need for advanced planning.

3. The committee has prepared additional material for the

guidance of the teacher at each level. This material,

serves merely to illustrate, how the present course can

be modified within the framework of its own aims and

objectives.

The committee made the following recommendations:

1. That consideration be given to the provision of super

visory assistance to teachers in the interpretation

and necessary modifications of the geography programme.

2. That, in addition to manuals listed in the prospectus,

teachers be provided with and encouraged to use other

materials which may be obtained from the curriculum

department on request: -ss-

(a) Geography objectives (including grade content out

tines),

(b) Suggested modifications for the teaching of geography.

(Separate suggestions for each grade, prepared by the

committee and appended to its report).

3. That teachers be assured that they are not expected to

provide for a page-by-page coverage of the authorized

text-books. Rather, with the advice and assistance of

their principals and supervising assistants and through

the use of the reference materials mentioned in the re

port, they should be encouraged to plan their own ge

ography prograumes which will be consistent with the

needs and abilities of the pupils in the respective

classes.

The committee raises a few interesting points. For teachers who wish to make minor modifications in the suggested courses, the com mittee held that it is necessary to consult with principals. It feels that a modification of the course in the classroom seems to be the teacher's everyday prerogative which is dependent upon the situation at the time in question, in the particular place and for the particular group. However, it would .appear on the basis of interviews conducted that some teachers are discouraged, from introducing changes, by prin cipals who do not share their point of view. Again, the committee1 in -59-

.oposition toits earlier view on ~odifications in the syllabus, attempts to justify the study of entire text-books, as recorded in the Handbook.

It seems unusual that chapters must be outlined instead of concepts of

study and suggested chapters to fit the areas of study. Finally1 ad ditional information printed for teachers on sample unit studies cannot

be as effective as sound training_ given teachers at training institutions

and summer workshops. The point that should be stressed is not the in

stilling of geographical information but the ingrafting of the geographical

insight.

Sample Unit

In one school a sample unit of study programme was constructed ·

by the principal for the guidance of teachers. This was prepared on the

"Prairie Provinces" for Grade V. It included those general concepts,

the true undercurrent of which must be basic of the study of the Prairie

provinces. Then it included in the outline, headings under which the

area could be studied. Activities suggested included general pupil

activities, art activities and arithmetical W?rk. Books for further

reading, film str1ps1 and films available were all listed. Finally, sample questions for class discussions were noted.

The Sample Study suggested eight questions for the teachers

use when assessing the outcome of the study:

1. Do children understand the importance of the western -60-

provinces in the Canadian economy?

2. Do pupils have an appreciation of the effect of

mechanization in farming?

3. Do children gain a general knowledge of the ge

ography of the west 'l

4. Do children realize the importance of climate as

a determin1ng factor 1n the way in which people

live?

s. Do children appreciate the work of such men as "Saunders" in the development of the West?

6. Do pupils take pride in the work done7

7. Can pupils name the provinces with their capitals7

8. Do children realize that we have a diverse pop

ulation with each ethnie group contributing to

the building of a Canadian culture?

This sample unit lacked a comparison with the home area, a feature which helps to engender the development of sympathy and real understanding. Units, following this pattern, however, were prepared for the other grades.

The presentation of the syllabus, the report, and the sample unit seems to give an indication of the structure in the end stages of the elementary school. Although much ~ore needs to be -61-

.attempted at the teaching levet, it is only fair to say that geography

is offered to all grades in the elementary school. Teachers, on the

whole, try to present geography with as much meaning as possible. What

happens in the high school to promote or impair this subject will be

seen in the section immediately following.

II. Geography in the Righ School

There are eighteen high schools under the control of the

Protestant School Board of Greater Montreal. Each high school includes

grade eight to grade eleven. The average age for grade eight is thir

teen years and that for grade eleven is sixteen years. In no more than

two high schools are the grade eight classes housed elsewhere. Outremont

Righ School conducts its grade eight in Strathcona Academy which is in

close proximity. This is done in order to cope with accommodation prob

lems. Only in one high school of the Greater Montreal Board, the Righ

School of Montreal, is there a Grade Twelve or Senior Matriculation

class, in operation, and this serves the whole Greater Montreal area.

Rowever, at this. grade level geography is not offered. There is another

grade twelve class in Lindsay Place Righ School under the control of

the West Island School Board. Geography is not taught at this level

there.

Two schools of the Greater Montreal School Board are

experimenting with subject promotion. They are Rosemount Righ School -62-

and Mount Royal High School. The investigator was interested to learn if this experiment had any influence on the number choosing geography.

This experiment which was "initiated in September 1960, in order to make better provision for individual differences among students ia now 5 entering its third year of a five•year test period."( l) It seems that in the experimental schools there is an even distribution of students electing geography every year. Students who wish to study geography are free to do so at each grade. In both of these experimental schools geography students are submitted for the junior matriculation examination every year.

In a number of the high schools, at present, no candidate is submitted for the high school laaving examination or junior matriculation examination in geography. The schools of the West Island School

Board and the Chambly County School Board must submit grade ten students for Quebec external examinations.

An idea of the population of students studying l?ieography at present in the Greater Montreal area can be gained from the Appendix(SJ)•

The numbers taking geography in Grade VIII to Grade IX are indicated for each high school and compared with the total enrolment in the respective grades. This gives an idea of the proportion of the total school population interested in geography. The figures show a decrease in the

(52) The Protestant Sehool Board of Greater Montreal Curriculum Council. Annual Report1 1961-62. Montreal, Directory of Committees, 1962-63. (53) Geography Population Statistics of 18 Montreal high schools. See Appendix I. -63-

.number taking geography as students progress from Grade VIII to Grade XI.

The summary for the high school system of the Greater Montreal

School :Board is as followst

Montreal (March 1963)

Grades Total Enrollment No. Taking Geography

VIII 6_,050 3,131 IX 5,438 2,630 x 4,873 937 XI 3,987 618

Grand Total 20,348 7,316

These figures, gained from the principals of the high.

schools, reveal a decline in the number of students who elect geography

from year to year. They also indicate that 15.5 per cent of all Grade

XI students take geography as a junior matriculation option. The graph

on the next page gives a clear picture of this situation.

There are two examinations offered at the end of the

Grade Xl level. They are the high school leaving examination offered

by the Protestant Department of Education, and the Junior Matriculation

of McGill University. This latter examination is taken by private high

schools mainly1 such as Lower Canada College.

The population figures for Macdonald High School are shown Bar graphs of Geography Students and Total School Population. (For 18 High Schools of the Protestant School Board of Greater

0 0 llJ (.!:>

G-RAD~S.

2000

.tOOO

G R A D E S.

FIG-. 2. -65-

54 . in the. Appendix < ). Such a fa:vourable picture apparently can be ac- credited to the senior geography teacher who coordinates the teaching

of geography throughout the whole school. The figures for Lower Canada 55 College are also shown in the Appendix < ). In both Macdonald High

School and Lower Canada College1 great interest is developed in geography learning and teaching. Some of the most meaningful work in geography

was seen at these two schools. Mention must be made of the extensive

project work attempted at Lower Canada College, especially because

project work of this level was not seen in any other high school visited.

A number of schools were visited specifically. Of this

group some schools were visited several times so as to gain a sounder

impression.

The schools visited are as follows;

1. Baron Byng High School,

2. High Schoo). of Montreal,

3. Montreal llest High School,

4. Mount Royal High School1

5. Northmount Righ Schoo11 6. Outremont High School,

7. Rosemont High Schoo11 a. Verdun' High School,

9. llesthill High School,

(54) Macdonald Righ School, Population Statistics in Geography. See Appendix K.,

(55) Lower Canada College, Population Statistics in Geography. See Appendix K. -66-

10. lfestmount High School1

11. Lindsay Place High Schoo11

12. Macdonald High School1 13,. Lower Canada College.

All of the schools visited are organized in such a way that rooms are provided for experimentation in the sciences, in physical education, in music, in dr8!I1.&1 and in conmercial and practical courses. Only in one, Vestmount High School, was there a roœt labelled the geography room, and this was merely an ordinary classroom somewhat more spacious th.an the other classrooms. There were no tables, cupboards, and troughs for practical exercises, and no resemblance to the layout of a geography room presented in Chapter Five.

On the time table, geography is taught in Grades VIII and IX for three periods a week, each period being of forty minutes duration. In Grades x and n, the number of periods of geography instruction increases to four per week. In subject-promotion sahools geography is taught during a period of fifty minutes a day, every day in the week. However, in these schools the course work for two years, very often must be completed in one year.

The Hiah School Syllabus

A summary of the syllabus for Grades VIII to XI can be -~-

·seen in the Appendix(56). The main aim of the syllabus~ taken after

Fairgrieve1 is "to train future citizens to imagine accurately the conditions of the great world stage so that they may think sensibly

11 57 about the social and political problems of the world. ( )

The syllabus stresses systematic geography at the

Grade VIII and IX levels. Yet it warns that there should be no sharp

distinction between physical and human geography1 a fact disregarded in most of the schools visited. The truth is that the text-books for

these grades are wholly systematic and outlined in the syllabus. This

resulta in a strict adherence, as in the case of the elementary school1 to the text-books.

The syllabus also refers to the use of local examples

and products of student's own observation. On the basis of inter-

views, it would appear that this is done very rarely. There is def

initely a lack of field work1 observational exercises and reporting1 laboratory activity, and project work. The examples (features, prod

ucts, etc.) in teaching come from the text-books. The courses throughout

highs school are clearly bookish and pointedly academie. The courses

seem entirely routine for there appears to be little variety. The other

suggestions in the syllabus with respect to assignments1 mapwork and films are generally closely followed.

(56) Syllabus for High School. See Appendix D.

(57) Department of Education, Handbook 1 op.cit., p.92. -68-

The Grade XI syllabus is contained in the Grade XI Ge ography Syllabus pamphlet for 1962. The course at this leve! is divided into two distinct units. Since the assigned text-book is a source-book that is very detailed, it is necessary to be selective in order to com plete a basic study of North America. The authors assume that any use made of the book will be based on a selective syllabus. It is left to the teachers to supplément this selective study with broad ideas of their own and of the class. So that, in order to fulfil the requirement of selection it was necessary to observe the following directions;

1. To create a core in the form of compulsory chapters,

2. To list optional chapters as an extension of this

core,

3. To select material to be studied in both compulsory

and optional chapters.

By this means the course in the Grade XI was limited from the text-book point of view, and scope was given for greater freedom in the use of reference works. However, there still appears to be a "bookish" approach in this grade. In cases where the teacher in charge is experienced more students have selected geography as a subject at this grade, and the resulta have been gratifying.

Text-Books and Library

The Grade VIII and Grade IX text-books attem.pt to pre- -69-

·sent a thorough physical background so as to make geography appear a full scientific subject. Teachers are tempted to follow these text books religiously with little outside application. The course then becomes somewhat dull and uninteresting. Though the syllabus advises teachers to apply geographical concepts to the region~ allowing for a field trip ( a minimum requirement ) 1 yet the text-books seem to be all that is followed.

These tezt-books are well written and possess a schol arly and logical approach. While realising these advantages of the texts~ teachers were of the opinion that less physical or systematic geography should be attempted1 and that more regional geography should be introduced. In other words, it is believed that pupils at the

Grade VIII and lX levels should study both physical and regional ge ography concurrently. This would result in the application of sound and fundamental geographical data to the region.

The illustration in the text-books could be larger and clearer. Some colour would make them stand out meaningfully. On the whole, these textbooks present fairly accurate and complete in formation, and give a reasonably up-to-date picture of conditions.

The Grade X text-book, while attempting to cover the whole world in very broad outline has fallen short of useful details.

The general complaint from students, in this stage prior to the year of graduation, is that the approach is too naive. -70-

However, the colour plates in this text and the statistics in its appendix are invaluable. This text-book can be a noteworthy aid if the mode of presentation is revised and the content is modified.

The Grade XI text-book is a sound and useful aid. It is brought up-to-date and emphasises the home continent, an area which makes interesting study. There are various exercises, questions and practical activities for students. The text is exhaustive and teachers are advised to use only a part of it to form the core study. It is a needed reference at this leve1.

The frequent resort of the teachers to the text-books in geography teaching is too often seen. The geography text is used for comprehension study as in the case of English language. ln certain instances teachers actually lecture from the text-book. Though the text is invaluable as a guide1 it cannot reasonably be expected to take the place of real teaching and training in the scientific approach. The use of the text alone appears to be able to develop only a static geography.

It is apparent that active class teaching and laboratory work are needed to develop a dynamic approach.

Each high school possesses a library which is classified according to the Dewey decimal system. While there is a stock of literary and fictional books, only a few travel novels yielding a limited amount of geographie information are available. The geography sections in these libraries definitely need enlarging. However1 the libraries include -71-

among their works, encyclopedias and large maps which are on demand by senior students, especially those doing research projects.

Methods and Classroom Practice

The method of approach most popular is the lecture- recitation type. ~ith this goes the rigid use of the text-book sometimes supported by the use of a school atlas. This method is applied in classrooms which are characterised by their uniformity in arrangement and inflexibility in seating accommodation. There is great lack of movement and all pupils use a uniform set of materials. Students are conditioned to listening and reciting roles. On very rare occasions are students allowed to engage in group activity. The teacher in auch a class situation has two roles, that of lecturer or of listener. There is an emphasis on the acquisition of facts and skills as an end in themselves. One recalls the handbook of suggestions for teachers, printed by Her Majesty 1 s Inspectors, as saying, "the curriculum is to be thought of in terms of activity and experience, rather than of knowledge to be acquired and facts to be stored."(SS) From the survey 1t is clear that geography teaching is thought of as knowledge to be acquired and facts to be stored.

The blackboard appears to be almost used exclusively for drill on facts and skills. Other aids and apparatuses are sparingly

(58) Smith, ~.o. Lester. Education. Hunt, Barnard and Co. Ltd. 1961, Quoted from H.M.s.o. Report, London, 1945 reprint, P. 93. -72-

~tilised. There are few charts and only a fair collection of maps.

In lessons seen and heard, little relation is made to current affaira

and economie and political c~es. Moreover1 little or no attempt is made to show or deduee geographie causes for everyday phenomena.

~re there is preparation for a project in the form of maps 1 stencils, charts or specimens, the teacher performs all the preliminary activity

by himself. Teachers fail to enlist students r, assistance in the

preparation of aida, apparatuses and project material.

ln one school pupils are allowed to work in teams and

this arouses renewed interest. These pupils then compile very enter

prising reports in their workbooks. In certain cases observed in other

schools the note-books are too elaborate. Most of the note-books include

assignments which take the usual form of summaries from the text-book.

This is a rather tedious exercise1 one which apparently saps the interest from students of Grades VIII and IX.

In many note-books inspected, the map is only an occa

sional tool, indicating that insufficient significance is given it.

Some teachers complain that students write a great deal of information

in their term examination without using maps. This clearly is a reflec

tion on the quality of the teaching and on the nature of the examination

question paper. In two schools very useful term examination question

papers are set. These examinations present varied questions, which

included the objective and essay types. A remarkable feature of the -73-

examination papers is their demand for sketches, maps and drawings.

On the whole, however, there seems to be a lack of practice in map

work, scales, symbols, contours, projections and the interpretation

of aerial photographs.

Recently, a question on aerial photographs was introduced

into the junior matriculation examination. This caused a stir as many

students could not identify features on the photographs. Many teachers,

it would seem, cannot use the stereoscopes to focus the photos into

perspective, and understandably the technique involved in the correct use of aerial photographe is not mastered by students. Only in three

schools was there a copious supply of aerial photos and a few stereoscopes.

Along with aerial photogi:aphs one might expect that films

would be used regularly for geographie illustration. This does not

appear to be the situation despite the fact that films can be acquired,

on request, from the School :Board through the School secretary1 and that teachers are supplied with a list of films from which they can make their choice. In many schools the geography department finds some difficulty in using films because of the lack of geograpby rooms and competition with other subjects for the use of dark rooms.

It must be observed that as a result of a rigid syllabus in geography and the misinterpretation, or rather, literal interpretation of this syllabus, the subject loses attraction for many students. The outcome is a situation where enrollments in geography decrease from -74-

·year to year. The num.beT of students taking geogTaphy falls to a low ebb at the final grade. However, the number of students taking the

Quebec Lea:ving examination at the end of Grade XI over the last tbree 59 years has been rising slowly. < ) ln some schools there are no students whatsoever taking geogTaphy in Grades X and XI. On. the basis of interviews conducted among students in Grades X and XI two points of view

are expressed. It appears that the weaker students find geogTaphy difficult and confusing1 while the brighter students believe geography to be an unsophisticated subject. This latter view arises from the

fact that some teachers encourage the average or below average student

to take geography.

During the winter period it would appear that field- work,local visita and observational activity cannot be performed to advantage. The investigator was interested to learn what could be done to compensa te for this drawback. Some teachers take advantage of the changes in weather, such as the appearance of fog and other

climatic features, in teaching Grade IX the basic elements of meteorology.

Visits to the meteorological station at Dorval are made by others.

However 1 preparation and follow-up exercises of geographical visita, such as this, are not done carefully enough, and do not appear to

form part of the learning experience. During the winter, then,there

is little activity in geography and, with the absence of geography

(59) Population Statistics of Geqgraphy Students for the Period 1960- 1963. See Appendix J. -75-

i'ooms 1 there is no laboratory work. For most of this period1 geography

follows the traditional pattern of classroom lectures.

6 With respect to teachers of geography ( 0), it must be reported that very few are qualified at the bachelorts level with an honours or a major in the subject. The table in Appendix 12 indicates

that 63% of the geography teachers in 9 high schools do not possess degree preparation in geography of any sort. Sorne teachers of geography have studied a course or two at the University level and many have only taken geography at the high school level. On the other hand, most ge ography experts were made to teach additional subjects. The reason advanced for the discouragement of specialisation is the matter of

timetable adjustment. It seems then that the students of geography are made to suffer from the lack of a better quality of geography teachers simply because of administrative gymnastics.

III. Higher Educational Influences - The Contribution

of the Universities; Sir George Williams University,

McGill Universityt Macdonald College

Geography in the province of Quebec1 as in every province of Can6.da1 became recognised as a full subject in the university long after the turn of the century. In Chapter Two, mention was made of the

(60) Analysis of Geography Teachers in 9 High Schools, See Appendix L. -76-

universities that took the lead in introducing geography on their curricula. It was noted there that in 19511 when Stamp made a survey pf geography teaching itn Canadian universit1es1 he recognised that the subject was being offered in many universities, but that few chairs were founded. The principle formulated from thisstudy was that as long as geography was not recognised as a university subject, the high schools did not include it on their currtcula.

At the time of Stamp 1s survey~ Sir George Williams

University did not offer geography., Now this university offers 14 courses in geography and has a staff of five attached to the geography department. The investigator visited the geography department of this university and interviewed members of staff to find out what influence the university is exerting upon high school geography education in

Montreal.

The number of students studying geography at Sir George

Williams University is 300. There are approximately lOO evening students every year in geography1 and about one-third of this number is composed of teachers. These are teachers of the hi~~ and senior elementary schools who1 presumably, are improving their knowledge of geography.

The university is active in improving the quality of ge ography teachers. The evening branch of the university is geared to training more teachers of geography. The university is aware that many teachers with no decent training in geography are asked to teach ge- -77-

·ography in schools. As a result of this the university felt that by

offering courses in geography at the evening branch, teachers would

find it convenient to avail themselves of further training. By this

means Sir George Williams University is able to fulfil a need in a

unique way.

There are three introductory courses in geography to

suit different tastes. They are Human Geography specially designed

for arts students1 Economie Geography for commerce students, and Geomorphology and Climatology for science students. This year, 21

graduate students are taking ad.ditional geography courses to expand

their training and prepare for a Mastèr of Arts degree.

It is important to note that in ten years the Depart

ment of Geography at Sir George Willia;:ns University has grown from

an offering of two courses to an offering of fourteen courses. The

Department is doing all in its power to raise the level of geographie

appreciation among teachers who avail themselves of courses offered.

McGill University has been the leading institution of

higher learning in the field of geography in the province of Quebec.

At the time of the survey by Stamp in 19511 a department of geography was already established. At the end of Chapter Two, some aspects on

the history of the geography department and the growth of the summer

school were presented. Suffice it to say, that McGill University

offers continuation courses in geography at the bachelor's levels. -78-

· Both the M. A. and M. Sc. 1 depending upon the nature of the topic and

the method of investigation, are offered. Finally the Ph.D. degree

is awarded after a minimum of four years of study beyond the bachelor's

level.

In the last 10 years, many students have taken under

graduate progranmes of study in geography1 and this would include a number of candidates who live in the province. At the graduate level

we notice a different trend. Most students who read for the M.A. or

Ph.D. degree are foreigners to this province. Consequently, McGill

university does not supply many specialists in geography to staff the

high schools of Montreal. Moat of the graduates in geography are

attracted to teaching assignments and higher positions in various

universities and specialist fields. It is therefore felt that more

graduates of geography are needed.

McGill University has initiated various new courses

of study in geography. These courses are Statistical geography, the

Economies of Economie Geography, The Arctic1 the Soviet Union, and

the Rumid Tropics. The university conducts a number of research

projects in the Arctic, in Barbados and in British Guiana. It sends

professors to other universities as visiting lecturers, and makes

use of visiting lecturers from many universities. Most of the senior

professors have contributed and are contributing to the teaching of

geography in the high school in Montreal by sitting on committees, -79-

,writing or editing text-books1 and setting the final question papers

for the Matriculation examinations. All these research activities and

leads by professors are intended to provide stimulation to high school

teachers and attraction to students.

Macdonald College of McGill University situated at

Ste.Anne de Bellevue trains teachers for service at the eLementary and

secondary school levels.

There are seven classes of teachers out of whom only

four groups take academie geogra:phy. The table in the Appendix (Gl)

shows the total number of students in each group and the number taking

geography in the four groups that utilise this preference., Many

elementary teachers in training (generally with no degrees), take a

lim.ited number of hours of methods of geography. Of the 86 candidates

for the Class 1 Dip loma (wi th bache lor 's degrees), who made up the

1963 graduating class, 19 elected to take geography methods as a full

course, although many of this 19 had not studied geography at the

university level. In fact, fifty per cent of this group, had taken

no geography at University.

The authorities responsible for teacher training in

the Province of Quebec appear to have little grasp of the problem of

the training of high school geography teachers. The Institute of

(61) Macdonald College Population Statistics in Geography. See Appendix M. -80-

·Education cannot1 in one year1 train for high school geography teaching1 teachers who have studied little or no geography at the bachelor 1s level.

The Institute cannot do anything in this regard without the cooperation

of various School-Boards1 whose philosophy of non-specialist teaching is unrealistic if their hope is to provide sound geographie education. -81-

CH.APTER 4

Consideration and Explanation of the Current Situation

in Geography Education

I. Definition of the Problem

From the evidence recorded in Chapter !bree, there appears to be a definite problem. The problem seems to be that geography does not possess the status of a fully recognised subject and suffers as a result from neglect. The causes and forces militating against the progress of geography will be discussed.. Early signa of improvement based upon the framework presented in Chapter One will also be advanced.

The problem is seen to exist among students in elementary as well as high schoolJ. The elementary school student is subjected to dull classroO'll. work in geography. The high school student finds the subject uninteresting1 fragmented,and sometimes difficult. In certain instances, the high school student regards geography as a study for the academically undernourished. Among teachers1 the difficulty is that they lack training to present the subject in a vital manner. Too many teachers at the high school level do not possess minimum quali fications in geography1 a fact shown by the table in Appendix L, which analyses teachers' qualifications. Stamp (1951) referred to this problem when he said,

I have been told repeatedly in most of the provinces -82-

of Canada that the improvement in geography teaching

in high schools is hindered mainly by an absence of

trained teachers. I have also been told repeatedly

that there is no market for geography specialists in

the high schools and that1 therefore, prospective teachers do not take geography. The breaking of this

vicious circle lies with far sighted students who get 62 in on the ground floor. < )

This criticism is still true in Montreal today as it was then for Canada as a whole.

Among principals and school authorities, the matters of time table and syllabus are allowed to act as obstacles in the path of geography. Geography is treated as the "step child" in the curriculum. This treatment has discouraged many a student from doing further work in the field. ln fact1 very few students take geography at university for the purpose of teaching. This "step child" treatment is further experienced in certain districts where there is a definite discrimination against geography because it does not lead directly into a profession such as medicine, law, or engineering.

Finally, there is a lack of reality and of basis for truth in the whole approach to the subject. Stamp again says,

(62) Stamp, L.D., op.cit., p.54. -83-

The whole of this study lacks Teality if it is considered

in vacuo - in the classroom or libTary. Geography must be

based on field work; on seeing reality in situ whilst the

space relationships and distributions which the geographer

studies are meaningless unless constantly seen on maps.

Geography is thus essentially both a field and laboratory subject. (63)

II. Discussion of the Problem

Although the syllabus meets the criteria in modern geography in certain ways, it is evident that the basic philosophy of geography is not applied in the classroom. The concept of man-land relationships is taken for granted and not impressed in the classroom. Evidence of regional synthesis (stated in Chapter Two) developed by Vidal de La

Blache, Gallois, and de Martonne in France, is rarely seen. The observer feels that a pTovince such as Quebec with its early influence partially from France should be further ahead in geographie progress.

Information on various aspects of geography is presented by means of texts1 lectures and teaching dialogues. Whether this information is tied together or not is doubtful. It seems that courses are presented in unrelated doses and students do not get the opportunity

(63) Stamp, L.D., op.cit., p.l9. -84-

· to see unity and coherence. In Chapter Two, it was se-en that Hwnboldt

and Ritter, under the influence of Kant and Rousseau, observed unity

in nature and established a casual inter-relation of all forces in

nature., This point of view is lacking in the high school geographical

out look.

The basic educational principles necessary for imparting

knowledge in geography seem rarely adopted. Reference was made earlier

to three great teachers who influenced geography education., we recall

the name of Rousseau with his doctrine of education through nature;

that of Pestalozzi, with his theory of intuition based on sense perception;

and that of Froebel, who emphasised as basic to the learning process,

the childs 1 activity. These three educators have emphasis-ed the areas

of observation, experience and sense perception as paramount in the

understanding of geography. Direct observation and experience so basic

in the geographie process, are sadly lacking in the schools of this

area because of the absence of geography laboratories and the limited

number of field trips undertaken.

There is a lack of perception among teachers to see the

Montreal area as a veritable geographie laboratory. The geology of

the area is varied and interesting. The history of the development

of landforms which influence the people of the area is revealing. It

appears that the St.Lawrence River and Seaway are not given emphasis

in lessons on home geography, and are not used to advantage for corn- -85-

·parative purposes. If this were done then there would be the application

of the principle of progression.

Geography education should proceed:

1. from the known to the unknown,

2. from the easy to the difficult,

3. from the local to the distant, 4. from the early times to the modern times, s. from the realm of experience to the realm of possibility.

The Montreal area is not shown as the centre of routes, as

a nodal centre for rail, road and air travel. The ability and means

adopted to face winter is scarcely studied. The geographie implication

of the various nationalities and predominant cultures do not appear to

be observed. The significance of all these forces needs to be explored.

Many teachers interviewed felt that heads of departments

should be appointed to coordinate the work of geography in the schools.

The geography heads, they asserted, should take charge of planning

courses, guiding geography teachers' meetings, directing young teachers,

arranging field trips, and overviewing the geographie possibilities of

the school. The appointment of heads of departments in geography1 it is believed, will do much to improve the status of geography.

This status suffers greatly in the Montreal area among

the public. ~ile people sympathise with the cause of geography, many -86-

·feel that the subject as given at the elementary school level is quite

enough for ~ife. Little do they realise that any well-informed community

needs much more geographie knowledge than the elementary rudiments. The

reason for this is that the world has grown so small and yet so complex.

It is a sad mistake of many parents to decry geography as a subject

because it does not yield any clear-cut utilitarian value. Public

lectures, talks over the television and radio, and publication of an

up-to-date journal on geography are not in vogue to any significant

extent.

Staffing is a further difficulty. The small number of ge

ography specialists in high schools are asked to teach other subjects

as well. Logic would seem to suggest that these specialist should be

allowed to teach geography only. By misusing specialists1 the situation is weakened even more than is necessary. The schools are not training

enough people who would proceed to University to continue the subject.

In fact1 many students are forced, through lack of motivation or encouragement to delete geography from their scale of preferences.

Much has already been said about the rigidity of the

curriculum and the limiting nature of the syllabus. This is another

feature which has a dampening effect upon teachers and students. lt

is true that the syllabus mentions freedom in many places. In practice1

the writer has gathered1 that the interpretation is different. The text-book guides, however unnatural, are expected to be followed strictly. -87-

·The mere attempt at page guides is restricting. Subject matter headings in the syllabus seem to be enough for the trusted teacher.

The question of a rigid syllabus throws light on the fact that Grade VIII and Grade IX courses are extremely dull. The idea of field trips and laboratory work is abandoned in favour of lecture and text-book study. It is not difficult to understand then the drop in the number of students taking geography after Grade IX. From Grade x, the number taking geography drops by 50 per cent. The total for the eighteen Montreal high schools for the year 1962-63 dropped by 64 per cent after Grade IX. It seems that the placing of inexperienced geography teachers to instruct in these grades may be largely responsible for the drastic drop in numbers. Principals ought to realise that a significant principle in education is disregarded. It is that foundation classes are most important in the high school and these should have the services of confident and established teachers. Geography suffers more than any other subject in this regard, a fact emphasised by most teachers interviewed. This subject is being virtually truncated in the classroom.

Another aspect of vital importance is the matter of examinations. The final exa.minations in all grades are too long and aim at text-book knowledge. They appear to be an exercise in memory of geographical data and not an experience in the geographie method. The 64 Quebec High School Leaving Exa.minations ( ) 1 for exa.mple, definitely

(64) High School Leaving Exa.mina.tions, Quebec, 1961 and 1962. See Appendix N. -88-

·demand much more than candidates can give in return. They do not allow

pupils graduating from high schools freedom to organise their own an

swers. They include questions that are lengthy and detailed. The better

type of questions are those on mapwork and on aerial photography. Many

questions, on the other hand1 are very discouraging. Question 3 on the

1962 Leaving Examination is a typical one in such a group.

Prairies, steppes, pampas, veld, svanna are major

grassland types of the world. Discuss them under

the following headings:

(5 marks) (a) Distribution, " (b) Physical characteristics and controle of each type, (c) History of human occupance and contempory use,

.. (d) Mhat is the potential of each type for increased

human settlement?

This question seems very demanding. It is one question

of five to be attempted in two and a half hours. Yet, half an hour

of this time seems to be necessary to read the question paper and plan

answers. This leaves two hours to write the answers and prepare

appropriate maps. To ask a question on one type of grassland or, at

most1 a comparison between two types, under these headings seems more practicable. Only a sketchy answer could be expected in Question 3.

If a sound answer is given1 it will only be done at the expense of other answers. -89-

It was Sir John Scott Keltie who observed that the progress

of geography in the high schools in England did not come until the

universities recognised geography as a subject. For eve~ a decade ge

ography was recognised as a subject in the universities of Montreal and

it has developed very rapidly in these institutions. The highs schools

in Montreal have still lagged far behind. This means that the universities

have to do much more to push the progress of geography in the high school.

How this is to be accomplished is the concern of another study. Suffice

to say that the universities must take a firm stand in the training of

geography teachers.

This lag of geographie progress has also been caused by

the geography teachers themselves. Apparently geography teachers do

not seem to be sufficiently effective in convincing students about the

significance of their subject. They are not firm enough in their demand

for the necessary recognition the subject should acquire.

Moreover, many teachers underrate geography as it does not

lead directly into an occupation at the end of high school. They have

missed the point of a high school education for its basic educational

enrichment. They do not realise that the high school does not produce

professionals. It might be said also that many teachers are influenced

by parents who desire their children to study Mathematics and natural

sciences for utilitarian purposes andfur prestige value. However, it must be remembered that a graduate of high school should be one who -90-

·possesses a balance of values, one who may be able to proceed to a

university or take his place in some technical or humanistic field,

and one who responds as a useful citizen in the community. To stress

science to the extent that it is done in most high schools visited is

to reduce education at this level to a one-sided and one-tracked state.

Based on these foregoing reasons we must conclude that a

change is needed in order to lift the statua of geography in the high

school. This change is necessary in Montreal because of the increasing

importance geography has attained in any walk of life and in any en

lightened country. The following sections advance certain criteria and

support for such a change.

llL Criteria for Chanae in Geographie Education

(a) Comparison with England and United States of America:

Chapter Two pointed out the reason for the rapid development

of school geography in England and the United States. ln England espe

cially1 geography progressed in the high schools after chairs were es

tablished in the universities. Geography then became one of the most

important subjects on the curriculum of the high school. ln the

Teachers t Training Colleges and Institutes of Education lecture'Qi were

appointed to teach geography and to present the latest methods in ge

ographical education. Similarly in the United States geography progressed

rapidly after it was motivated by the universities and associations. ln -91-

certain areas of the. u.s.A. a numbe.r of experimenta are be.ing pe.rformed for the improvement of the subject at the high school level.

"Wb.en we. compare the Montreal situation with that of Great

Britain and the United States of America, we see that a great reconstruc tion in Geography education in Montreal needs to be. implemented.

(b) Diversity of School Education:

The diversity of school education provides opportunity for geography to become the central subject in the curriculum. The. cur riculum possesses a large variety of subjects a fact that makes it confusing for students to select satisfactorily. This confusion can be reduced by the choice of geography which, in trying to merge the scientific and humanistic aspects of the curriculum, would help to lessen the diversity of subjeets1 and to provide for greater unity, a concept seen in Ghapter One. A change in te.aching method and approach is necessary if geography is to survive in the face of this diversity.

The writer proposes that if one asserts that education is many-faceted, then no subject is better able to inter-relate and cor relate all these facets than geography. It is for this reason that geography should be a compulsory subject throughout the high school.

An increase in geographie education is demanded be.cause -92-

·of increased career opportunities. The major opportunity in Montreal is 65 geography teaching. Students should know what are the careers( )

available through the study of geography at high school and at university.

They should know how a study of geography can help in various forms of

employment. The lack of this form of motivation in high schools has

caused feelings of anxiety, and ignorance of the possibilites that ge-

ography has to offer.

A booklet on careers in geography would be valuable for

students of geography. This would show pupils the applicability of

geography and encourage more students to study the subject.

66 A memorandum of the Royal Geographie society ( ) pointed

out that geography has the virtue of combining an objective scientific

approach with powers of individual judgment and library skill. The

trained geographer is accustomed to analyse a landscape from the point

of view of many diverse branches of knowledge. He can balance factors

and see the problem in its unity1 he can synthesize elements of the

landscape and see it in its unity. He seeks correlations of varied

and apparently disconnected phenomena. He ean draw together the data

of natural and social investigation. Therefore, the memorandum affirma,

he is well-fitted for employment which demanda a wide scientific and

human outlook. This is a fact that the whole community of educators

in Montreal should realise.

(65) Careers in ueograpny. oee appendix o.

(66) Memorandum. ucareers for Geographers. u The Geographical Journal, Royal Geographical Society, London, CXXVI (1960), Pp. 451-454. -93-

{d) CorrelatiQnal Studies:

The fact that geography combines very easily with many subjects on the curriculum, and has a close relationship at different levels with several of them, points towards a need for change in the attitude towards it. As geography can help to integrate many high school subjects1 it can justly claim a central position on the cur riculum. Sample integrations of geography with other subjects are 67 shown in the Appendix. < )

As an integrative subject geography can provide background for understanding many of the world problems which have their roots in various other subjects. Sorne of the problems that may be introduced into everyday lectures are as follows~ nuclear disarmament among major world powers; Canada's relationship with the u.s.A.; Great Britain's entry into the European common market; the choice of a site in Montreal for the ~rld's Fair of 1967; the economie wealth of the Congo, and the crisis; Russian and Chinese relations; India's takeover of Goa from the Portuguese; boundary problems between India and China; the

Korean problem; the problem of Laos; the break-up of the ~st ludies federation and the East African federation; Latin American revolutions; the St.Lawrence Seaway and the Erie Canal; McGill's university experiment in weather at Barbados (H.A.R.P.); and the importance of the

International airport at Dorval. These examples show that geography

(67) Integrative power of Geography. See Appendix P. -94-

-can be correlated with a number of subjects, which are necessary to produce the informed citizen.

{e) Community Differentation:

The preference, of the majority of people or students

in an area or school, for certain subjects causes these subjects to gain a traditional popularity and certain other subjects to fall into unpopularity. Vith parents there exists a certain anxiety for science and a consciousness of the utilitarian worth to be derived. This attitude is transferred to the student and reflected in the school.

It seems strange for a school which offers geography to have no students electing it, even by chance, in Grades X and XI. One assumes that the subject is underscored at these levels either by staff or parents.

Five schools are noted for the strongest departments of geography and a tradition of sterling geography teachers:

Verdun High School,

Vesthill High Sehool,

Montreal High School,

Macdonald High School,

Dunton High Sehool.

The schools that show a definite lag in geographical interest are as follows: -95-

Northmount High School,

Outremont High School1 Westmount High School.

To implement change, it would be desirable to strengthen community interest and build a sound geographical tradition in the schools.

IV. Ear ly Prospects for Geographical Reform

The Protestant School Board of Greater Montreal and ge ography teachers have noted problems and are attempting to solve some of them. A few years ago geography was reeognised as a junior matric ulation subjeet, a move which gave encouragement to geography teachers.

Also1 more geography courses are offered at the Institute of Education.

Two courses in geography are offered to the B.Ed. students and the two-year diploma students., The Greater Montreal School Board has arranged to send teachers during the summer vacation as representatives at Geography conferences in the United States. A liason committee between high school teachers and elementary school teachers is being arranged by the Protestant School Board of Greater Montreal. This committee aims at making the needs of the high school in geography known to the elementary school. It was observed that at westmount a geography room was provided. Although this room was not equipped, it marked a precedent for future schools. McGill University has been -96-

.assisting in the line of text-books, examination papers, in-service

training programes, and committee plânning. It is fortunate that some

geography teachers are recruited from Eritain. If these teachers are

allowed to teach only geography, the geography departments would benefit

even more.

The McGill summer school has been an invaluable aid to

teachers. This school is internationally recognised and meets the needs of teachers, educational administrators, college students and

interested parties. Courses are of two kinds(GS), those of general

interest, and those of a more specialised character. This school is being held for the eleventh year at Stanstead College, Stanstead, Quebec.

Members of staff and students live in residence during the period, July 2

to August 14. A number of field trips, excursions and outdoor activities

is undertaken. In addition seminars are led by visiting lecturers, and

film shows, travel talks1 and field work are offered. The emphasis of

the summer school is on school etudies, laboratory work1 and local studies. It is interesting to note that the chairman of the geography

department at McGill hopes to see instituted an ~A. programme in ge-

ography1 which high school teachers can acquire through attendance at summer schools and part time study. This programme is designed to

improve the standard of qualification among existing geography teachers.

Another major aspect aimed at promulgating greater interest

(68) McGill Geography Summer School courses. See Appendix Q. -97-

'in geography is the formation of the "Association of geography teachers of Montreal." The first general meeting was held at the Greater Montreal

School Board Building on February 26, 1963. At this meeting of thirty- three members the constitution and by-laws were accepted. Its main purpose is as followsz

To advance the status and teaching of geography as a

subject of the school curriculum by providing a teachers'

forum for the exchange of ideas, by supplying teaching

aids and by presenting suggestions for the consideration 69 of the administrative authorities concerned. < )

The association at its meeting discussed the nature of courses to be given to geography teachers through scholarships1 the summer school for teachers, committees for investigation of the geography syllabus for Grade Eleven, excursion trips for geography teachers1 and a pamphlet on the teaching of geogr~phy by G. Tomkins1 w. Gage and Company, Toronto. Some dissatisfaction was voiced over the present syllabus. The meeting appointed several committees for specialised tasks.

The formation of a geography committee to reconstruct courses suitable for "C" streams is another indication of the need for improvement. Arising out of a study of subject-promotion schools1

(69) Association of Geography Teachers of Montreal; Constitution and By-laws Montreal, Protestant School Board of Greater Montreal, Feb.26., 1963. (Unpublished bulletin) -98-

the sub-committee on courses and guidance concluded that several subjects

11 should be reconstructed to suit "C streams in Grades IX1 x, and XI. In June 1962, Mr. Perks appointed the geography sub-committee to outline a

"C" stream course at the Grade IX level and another at the Grades X and

XI levels.

The committee(70) were given four terms of reference and included the following:

1. Miss A.E. Miller, Vice principal Northmount High School,

2. Miss Grace Fletcher, westhill High School,

3. Mr. J.H. Taylor, Principal Elizabeth ~allantyne School,

4. Mr. J.H. Patrick, Vice principal westhill High School.

The committee made recommendation for new co~ses, suggested new books, worked out sample units, and prepared a list of aids and apparatus that would be useful. Two problems were foreseen; one relating to the suitability of text-books, the other to the inadequacy of training of teachers of geography. The experiment is still going on, but all augers well for the improvement of courses for various streams.

~e have shown a need for greater development in high school geography. ~ have also shown reasons for the deficiencies in geography education and have observed emerging prospects. A comparison with ge-

(70) R.eoort of Geography sub-committee ·Courses for "C" stream in Grades IX, x, XI. Montreal, Protestant School ~oard of Greater Montreal, July 1962. -99-

·ography teaching in England and the u.s.~ showed a lack of true ge

ographie education in the Montreal area. Examination in the light of

the framework for geography developed in Chapter One revealed that the

practice of the subject in the Montreal high schools has not been in

tune with modern principles. We are now faced with certain obvious

questions.

Whàt can be done to improve the situation in the school?

How can vitality and dynamism be gained? When will we make the subject

1~?

A presentation of recent methods that can improve geography

practices and create a positive interest and appeal will be the concern

of the next chapter. Sorne of the techniques to be discussed will not

all be new, but are approached in different forms. These techniques

are adopted with due regard to the situation as seen. The techniques

are extracted from sources of the most successful practices in geography.

A detailed study was made in search of sorne methods to improve the

teaching of geography in Montreal as well as to give the subject statua

and make it the most uplifting and enriching course in the high school

curriculum - a position it rightly deserves. -100-

PART 3 - PROSPECTS

CHAPTER 5

Some Suggestions for Reconstruction of Geography Teaching

I. Introduction

Arising from a consideration of the problem in the pre vious chapter1 it would seem necessary to suggest certain major ap roaches and techniques that could be applied to reconstruct geography teaching. These approaches1 if used to advantage1 can prove valuable in adding considerable meaning to geographie education. The enter prising teacher would vary the approaches that will be suggested to suit the situation. That is to say1 he would use the approach which fits naturally into the topic under study. It must be borne in mind that certain areas of geography lend themselves invariably to the use of more than one approach at anY one time.

On examination of the problems it is imperative that certain classroom situations must undergo change if the philosophy of Chapter One is to be maintained. But a change in classroom situations would, in fact, presuppose a change of the syllabus in current use. Since a change of the syllabus is a matter of policy1 it is suggested that minor classroom reorganisation and teaching method reconstruction can be introduced in the meantime. The idea -101-

"of teaching physical and regional geography concurrently must, of

necessity1 gain the approval of the School Boards. This is the ideal

which Chapter One dictates1 and on which significant classroom changes

depend. Wh.ile such obstacles are being removed1 classroom changes can

be implemented to a certain degree.

The study of we.ather will be treated as an example of the

way in which systematic geography can be approached to take into account

the elements of the framework of the first chapter.

The techniques for regional geography shall be the lab

oratory approach1 and the field approach including local and sample

studies, geographie visits1 field studies1 and aerial photographie studies.

The framework outlined in Chapter One mentioned the sig

nificance of the scientific method and the consequent importance of

a geography room to permit the application of this process. There

is a section which shall deal briefly with this aspect which was

shown to be necessary for the implementation of change.

Finally, no metamorphosis can occur if1 in addition to

a new turn in the syllabus, the te~cher in geography is not adequately

qualified to face the situation. The closing section of the chapter

points out the quality of training necessary for geography teachers

in the light of the philosophy advanced. -102-

II. Some Major Approaches of Geograpby Teacbing

Our examination of current practices discloses tbat there is a lack of v~iety in the teacbing of geograpby. A survey of the literature reveals that a variety of approaches exists, the most common of whicb can be classified as follows:

The Regional Approach1

The Systematic Approach1 The Project Approach,

The Topical Approach,

The Problem Approach,

The Experimental Approach.

the suggestion is not that teachers will follow a

single approach. Rather, on careful consideration the appropriate

approach, which fits into the aims and purposes of modern geography, must be applied. In certain instances it is not unlikely that a

combination of approaches might be preferred.

In the eighteenth century men such as Ritter and

Humboldt, as we saw in Chapter Two1 tried to systematise the facts of geography. But there came the division of the subject into physical aspects and human aspects. It was at this point that regional geography appeared. Regions were delimited by means of political boundaries. But towards the end of the eighteenth century, the political -103-

divisions were abandoned in favour of river basins as the criterion of delimitation.

Regional geography as it is t.m.derstood today was slow to develop chiefly because of the lack of criteria for delimiting areas.

The methods of describing human activities and their correlation with natural phenomena were also drawbacks. However, at the beginning of the twentieth century1 the French geographers overcame the problem.

Vidal de La Blache, as was seen in Chapter Two1 showed the need for regional studies in which the influence of a variety of factors could be applied. He maintained that from detailed regional studies one could synthesise factors and develop a comparative study. Demangeon, an associate of Vidal de La Blache, observed that delimiting factors could be such features as soil, atmosphere, plants and man. Later1

Gallois used the features of climate1 altitude, and structure as delimiting factors of the region(]!)•

In Chapter Two also we saw that the German Schoo 1 was, at this time1 making progress in regional studies. Then the

English school t.m.der Herbartson1 in 1904., prepared a format for world regions based on climatic distribution. Herbartson used the controls of configuration, climate and vegetation, and stressed that there would be no definite lines of demarcation between regions, but that regions would merge gradually into each other. In 1913 Herbartson

(71) Oulton1 R.c., op.cit., p.l4. -104-

.revised his earlier consideration and extended his controls to include

man's place. He used the term 11natural regions" instead of 11 regions"

alone. Unstead, in 1916, introduced a synthetic method for regional

delimitation, which included both human and physical elements. The

idea of human elements received support from Prof. P.M. Roxby. Some

geographers of the u.s.A. introduced the concept of "human-use11 regions, but this classification tended to detract from the physical side of ge

ography. There are a few geographers, however, who feel that the de

limitation of regions is done for the sake of convenience.

The regional approach has been criticised by Prof.

Kimble (formerly of McGill University) on the basis that there is no

one set of criteria for regional delimitation, and no such division

can do justice to all the available data or phenomena.

On the whole1 the regional approach1 in accordance with the framework for geography, has contributed the following values;

l. It has provided geography with a synthesis, thus

causing the encyclopedie study to disappear.

l!_ It has rejected political boundaries as divisions

for geographical material.

,h lt has placed the physical element of geography

in its true position and has caused the old deterministic view of ge

ographie to be outmoded. -105-

4. It ha.s become the main method of approach of

the professional geographer.

1:_ It engenders in the child a habit of thought based on so'l.md reasoning and careful discrimination.

6. It has ruled out the geography based on def-

initions 1 and ha.s provided a basis for experience by means of which

the student is able to generalise and to draw conclusions for himself.

Richard Rartshorne in his work1 Pers~ctive on the

Nature of Ge.ography, compares regional geography with systematic or general geography. Regional geography1 he says1 organises inter related forma of aerial differentiation into individual units of

area1 which can be divided or subdivided throughout the earth •s

surface.

Systematic geography, on the other hand1 is organised around phenomena of general geographie significance, the areas studied

in any particular group being related by the phenomenon of general geographie significance. Systematic geography cannot express all its data in universals. The systematic approach is auch that, 11the object of study in geography, the earth 's shell, was formed of a series of more or less separate shells1 each representing the category of phenomenon included within a systematic science."(7Z)

(72) Hartshorne, a., op.cit. p.lll. -106-

It must be observed that both regional and systematic

approaches are necessary for a sotmd tmderstanding of geography. Ge

ography cannat do without the systematic approach that studies particular

kinds of phenom.ena, and the regional approach that studies the way in which these phenom.ena are related. Both of these approaches are essen

tial for a unified study. The systematic and regional approaches are basic because they lay the foundatiQn for areal differentiation and

interpretation.

The remaining approaches, the project, topical, problem and experimental are methodological and pedagogical in nature. These approaches will be examined brie fly.

The project approach is a cooperative undertaking.

It is psychological rather than logical. The project in geography may draw from subjects such as arithmetic1 science, history, economies and art. It would be impractical to confine a project to a single

subject because a project is a sample from life. The te~type study of geography is a controlled project and has arisen as a corrective for the recitation-type study or memorisation form of approach adopted in an earlier day.

The topical approach attempts to aid in the classi fication of geographie details in an effective manner. It would adopt for study an outline of topics,. say on physical features1 such as -107-

· position, physiography1 winds1 climate, soils, vegetation, and drainage

patterns; or on transportation such as roads1 rails, rivera, canals, seaways, and airways. Each topic is studied in fair detail. This

method fails to take into consideration the full interests of students.

lt has little purpose because of its vast and probably disconnected

set of details. It does not give any indication of the utility of the

data. Of greater interest would be current-affairs geography which

is an outgrowth of the topical approach.

As a result of the weaknesses which became apparent

in the topical method1 the problem method was introduced to supply a corrective. "'Within this approach the pupils are confronted with a

definite challenge and they seek to answer it by delving into the

facts to investigate and make evaluations. ln such a case pupils

are motivated and the facts gain meaning.

The experimental approach bears some similarities

to the problem method in that it too places before the students a

challenge. The experimental method allows the student to perform

practical activities in order to test an hypothesis before arriving

at a conclusion. These activities can be performed in the field, or

in some instances especially during winter1 in the laboratory or in

the geography room. Sorne geographical findings can be reached in

the chemistry or physics laboratory, while other activities such as

building landforms, drafting maps 1 and reconstructing physical -108-

· processes are best done in the geography room. The method of exper

imentation generally evokes considerable interest and awakens profound

curiosity.

III. Classroom Changes in GeograJ>hY

If more effective geography teaching is to result1 it becomes evident that certain classroom procedures must be altered.

This can be done if the varied approaches described in the preceeding

section replace the recitation-type lecturing1 and dullness and monotony give way to more meaningful practice.

One of the most obvioua problems, pointed out in

Chapter Three, is that students do not see the need for geography.

To combat this, at the beginning of every term, the teacher should

present the students, in as clear a manner as possible, with the aima and purposes of the geography to be studied during the period.

Along with this, the extent of the course for the same period should

be outlined in a graphie form so that students may gain a 11gestalt11

picture of the course content to be covered. Each lesson should

commence with a statement of its importance in the geography course as a whole.

Physical classroom organization ought to be made more flexible. Instead of rigid rows and a mathematical arrangement -109-

of seats and tables, there should be an arrangement of furniture more in accord with the nature of the lesson which might involve practical activities, team work or group discussion. tessons which require the latter will call for a circular arrangement. Other lessons which require modelling or constructing will need longer tables or a combination of smaller tables to form a larger table area. The blackboard should be used for sketches, outlines, sample maps, illustrations and summaries.

As a valuable teaching aid, the blackboard is intended for use imme diately, and it ought not to be under-estimated. The use of contrasting colours carefully chosen mak.es interpretation easier. A large wall map of the world is highly necessary and can be used for revision studies, comparative studies and correlational studies. lfuere the world map contains too many details and cannot be seen at the back of the class, large scaled maps of the particular areas under study can be used instead. It is possible for any school to construct a map of Canada

(the home country), four times as large as the school world map ..

Various groups mount on cardboard a province of Canada. All groups use the same scale, making possible the fitting together of the maps of the provinces into a very large map of Canada. This is a very valuable aid which makes detailed study of the home country more rea lis tic.

Pictures are extremely useful aids in the classroom and ought not to be used as ends in themselves. They are really means to ends, in that they are supposed to aid in the better understanding -110- of some geographical concept, feature or principle. Pictures must be instructive, must arouse an emotion, and must stimulate imagination.

They ought to be relevant to the topic at hand1 and ought to possess certain aesthetic qualities. Diagrams must be clear and well-lettered, and where used in the early stages of high school, should illustrate few geographie principles. As the students progress, diagrams should become increasingly complex. Linear diagrams which involve quantities

(of commodities, etc.) can be interpreted in terms of height and length of the symbols used. A number of diagrams can be mounted together to form a wall chart1 which can be used as a basis for comparison, contrast, or developmental studies. In this category film strips and projected pictures can be used to approximate actual field conditions.

Main apparatuses for geography teaching can be obtained from school authorities. The globe, atlases, and certain specimens such as sample rocks are obtainable through the School Boards. Greater use can be made of the globe in lessons on time1 projection and seasons. It would be sound to introduce simple lessons on map-projections to seniors by means of the globe rather than a flat map which already adopta one type of projection - a fact that weakens such a lesson.

Atlases are bibles of geography and should be used during all lessons taken in the classroom. It is recommended that students write important related notes or pointers in the atlas beside appropriate maps because this is a rewarding practice which enlightens them especially at times of revision. -lll-

Many other forms of apparatuses should be prepared

for teaching purpose by the teacher and class. The writer believes

that students ought to be directed in the making of most of the aids

and apparatuses. Students who engage in this activity gain sound

geographie exercise and are afforded pleasant moments by working in

groups. Many students are talented and artistic1 and will certainly do as good an assignment as the teacher.

The teacher will find it beneficia! to consider not only group work but also :individual teaching. This method, along with special assignments, finds an important place in geography learning

and teaching. Differences among students with respect to ability, aptitude, intelligence, itt:erest, temp~rament, and health must be

taken into consideration. A weak class or a group which is below the mean ability of the class must be accorded a different treatment.

Individual assignments and guidance here can be adopted to fulfil the need. The teacher 1s task is to give the individual students confidence in their own powers and to arouse a persona! desire and interest in geography. On the other hand1 time can be gainfully utilised if the team method is adopted. In a class composed of "Au and 'tn• students1

2 the "A ' students can be engaged in team work1 while the •ann students can resort to individual work. In sorne cases the whole class may t.mdertake team work at the same time. Sometimes it will be found profitable to divide the class into teams, with each team comprising a fair proportion of the more intelligent and weaker pupils, so that -112-

.the weaker ones may be encouraged to give tbeir best efforts.

Team work may take the form of weather reporting1 climatic

atudies1 surveying the local area, building relief models with papier

~hé or plaster-of-Paris1 investigation of the growth of conurbations such as Montreal, Toronto, or New York, and identification and cata-

loguing of geo logical rock samp les. The se examp les can take an entire

term or a prescribed period of time. The idea is to allow the pupils

to work in teams as much as possible_, and in the case of duller students,

to give them remedia! individual assignments and guidance to allow them

to gain confidence for the true exercmse of learning to be gained from

working in groups.

Another activity that yields great value in bath individual

and group work is the making of note-books. Montgomery and :Baxter speak

of three types1 the research note-book1 the resource note-book, and 73 the diary note-book. ( ) In the research type material gained through

reading and observation is organized. In the resource type, there is

a summarization of the entire unit usually gained through class teaching.

The diary type includes records of journeys1 field trips, and articles.

In all the note-books, maps, charts1 diagrams, pictures, statistics

and graphs should occupy a prominent place. These aids will show

whether or not the students have grasped the use of the tools of ge-

ography. Originality and creative ability in the organization of

written and graphie material should be cultivated.

(73) Montgomery and l3.axter. "A geography note-bookt a purposeful activity"1 Journal of Geography1 LVII (1958), P.41. -113-

A few other classroom activities, that ought to be considered

in the situation, can only be mentioned in passing. They are the geography news section in the school magazine, the geography club and the meeting of

senior geography students in area conferences from time to time.

lie ha:ve seen from the philosophy of school geography1 that

there exists a need to teach both physical and regional geography concur rently. It is believed that the physical geography taken at present in

Grades VIII and IX should be alloted to the four grades in high school.

As a result of this adjustment, the regional geography taken solely in

Grades X and XI will be shared over the four years of high school. This would provide for a greater and immediate correlation between the two major branches of the subject. Such a change will be more beneficia!

to the students and highly realistic for the teachers.

IV. Systematic Geoea;ehy

From the approaches presented in Section II of the present chapter we have seen that the systematic and regional approaches are the two most valid. An example from systematic geography may help to clarify in the reader's mind how this approach might be applied in a manner consistent with the framework established in Chapter One. We shall examine the study of weather, as an example, to see how the frame work advanced and the difficulties observed are taken into consideration.

Consistent with the principles established in the framework -114-

·that students should record their own data~ it becomes necessary that

the high school should possess its own weather station. This will take

some time to establish but :tt is worth do:tng because the benefits to

the students are legion. Studies in weather, climate and basic mete-

orology are attractive to children. These studies bring children close

to nature and mankind, and form a necessary component of geography.

Jones, in an article on 1'Meteorology in Schools" sa.ys that it is important

for secondary school pupils to make daily observation and keep records because it :ts a. means of ea.sy contact with nature. <74) Dur:tng the time

when the school does not possess a. weather station, it is necessary to

acquire three useful instruments, which can be constructed by the teacher

and students without difficulty. The instruments are a thermometer, a

rain gauge and a wind vane. The thermometer must be shaded from the

direct sun and read at noon each day. A rain gauge, which may be

improvised, should be capable of holding, at least, two pints. A w:tnd

vane can be made in the metal work department. The cardinal points

are indicated on the wind vane by horizontal rods, and the arrow which

tells the direction of the wind must be at balance. With these modest

instruments daily weather reports and synopses may be made. Graphs

and wall charts may be produced from the reports. The statistical work

involved provides a correlation between geography and mathematics, and

the instrumental reading provides useful exercise for future engineers,

physicists and meteorologists.

(74) Jones, P.A. "Meteorology in Schools", Geoaraphy, XXXIX (1954), P.l82. -115-

Prudden •a article on "Daily Weather Reports11 provides a variety of exercises that may be attempted during the latter period of high school in an established station. The topics on which these exercises can be based are summarised as follows:

1. Weather chart symbolst

Symbols to record weather

Symbols for temperature, precipitation, cloud amounts, wind speed and effects

2. North Atlantic contrasta:

Study of continental variations

3. North Atlantic weathert

(Especially related to oceans) (Use of symbols studied)

4. Consecutive weather

Study of diurnal weather changes and the development and passage of pressure systems

5. Atmospberic pressure

Depressions and anticyclones High pressure versus low pressure Construction of a section along the Greenwich line

6. Air masses and fronts;

Study of a good example of air masses and fronts, which are difficult to discern from the chart

(75) Prudden, H.C .. , "Daily Weather Reports", Geographyt XXXIX (1954), P.l88. -116-

7.. Time and place d,eterminationl

Lessons on solar time

B. Monthly weather reports;

Use of graphs and statistics

9. Display of daily weather reports:

Actual weather at real places. (This conforms to the best teaching principles - reality and experience)

These examples may not all be attempted at first hand., It would be beneficial to students to be given direct practice in at least three topics; the other topics may be approached in class situations through investigation and research on a general basis. Such an approach will aid a comprehensive study of weather and climate, and instil considerable interest.. Lemaire, in an article entitled, "A sequential study of weather and climate in a geography curriculum••, outlines the main items that should be derived at the conclusion of the elementary and secondary stages. A summary of these aspects follows; (? 6)

End stages of Elementary School

Climate maps

Temperature and pressure arrangements

Isotherms and Isobars

~ather elements

(76) Lemaire, M.E., "A Sequential Study of Weather and Climate in a Geography Curriculum, 11 Journal of Geography. LVI (1957), P.269 .. -117-

Analysis of earth and sun arrangements

~ather maps (synoptic charts)

Knowledge of cyclones and anticyclones

End stages of High School

Simple scientific study of meteorology

Use of weather station

Fundamentals of all stages of daily weather - observation,

description, interpretation

The implication of atmosphere

The role of the sun in producing weather

Air pressure and its effect upon weather

Theory of cyclones analysed

:Pattern of the distribution of climatic elements - area

and world

Factors influencing climate - Latitude1 Longitude, altitude, land and water distribution, ocean currents, wind system,

mountain barriers

Reasons for contrasta and similarities in climate

Significant h~ aspects of weather and climate - study

of food, clothing1 shelter1 health and energy1 occupations, industries, transportation. -118-

Schools engaged in various practical approaches1 of this nature, in geography1 whether about the immediate environment, the field or the world1 must have a fair proportion of news to report on the school paper or at area conferences. Some of the best reports or articles, produced mainly by senior students, may be edited by the teacher and presented for publication. This would help to create greater interest among students in Montreal High Schools and promote an awareness of the importance and significance of geography. Systematic geography treated in this manner and linked with regional geography has clearly followed the principles and procedures of the dynam.ic framework.

V. Regional Geoçaphy

As with systematic geography1 so too regional geography can be taught in a manner which ma.kes use of those principles and practices acceptable to experts of geography. Regional geography can be made to correlate with various subjects on the curriculum, can draw upon intellectual and practical judgment1 can ably develop man-land relationships1 can demonstrate the stop-and-go deterministiè. philosophy1 and can ma.ke full use of field methods. All the principles in Chapter

One can find easy means of application in the study of regional ge ography.

Along with the distribution of systematic geography over the four grades of high school, it is suggested that the course in -119-

regional geography should be divided over the same period.

Regional geography may be taught effectively in three ways.

These approaches are as follows:

A. The Laboratory Approach

B. The Field Approach

(1) Local Geography

(2) Geographie Visita

(3) Field Work

(4) Sample Studies c. The Aerial Photographie Approach lt must be pointed out that systematic geography also makes use of all these approaches to be treated here under Regional Geography.

A. The Laboratory Approach:

Many teachers rely solely on the text in regional geography. lt is evident then that the laboratory technique will be useful in avoiding this abuse. The Laboratory technique is a practical approach which involves the application of the tools of geography. This approach makes use of the pragmatic idea and is practical in nature. It answers the questions: what?1 Whent, where?, why?, and how?. Two types of laboratory techniques are considered here,namely, the method of ex perimenta,. and the method of mapping and charting. -120-

Experimenta are easily performed in the geography room, but if necessary can be improvised in the classroom, or, if permission is granted, may take place in the seience laboratory. The geography room will be equipped for building and construction of landforms in troughs, and for analysing rock samples, only to mention a few. If the school possesses no geography room, the synthesis or analysis may be undertaken in an im.provised classroom equipped with troughs and long tables. lt is desirable to apply this method in lessons (either of a systematic or regional nature) that yield naturally to practical activities. ln certain lessons which call for the use of chemicals, it is most appropriate to use the physics or chemistry laboratory.

Such lessons may include concepts on high and low pressure regions, the use of the barometer1 and soil analysis. Experimenta serve to clarify many difficult concepts which might otherwise remainvague generalities in the geography classroom.

Praetical classes in simple cartography may be held in the geography room or improvised classroom. Maps and charts are basic tools in geography and hsve a central place in the classroom, the laboratory and the field. Therefore, sorne knowledge of the principles of map making and map interpretation needs to be acquired by all students of geography. Students should be so well acquainted with the form of the map that they gain the confidence to draw sketch maps for illustration without tracing. This practice saves a considerable amount of time, especially during examinations. -121-

The student should realise that 11a map is a simplified picture 77 or plan of a part of the earth1 s surface."< ) Students ought to be introduced early in high school to serious work on map reading, map making and map interpretation. The first maps should be simple and clear, and should aim at showing a single feature. As the student •s ability develops in high school, the level of complexity in mapping incre.ases. In the first year of high school simple plans of the school 's precincts and i:mme.diate local districts may be. drawn.. Towards the end of high school, in this field, the students should be in a position to produce fairly accurate city and topographical maps. Each map must include certain indicators which make interpretation meaningful, and thèse include. the title, a key or lege.nd, and the scale. adopted.

Interpretation of maps will be made conside.rably easier if pupils have bad practice in producing maps for themselves. There can be no sotmd interpretation of maps without the appreciation of methods of construction. Â stude.nt must know how to construct a map in order to profit from the story behind the map.

Contours are a very important part of mapping. In order to read and appreciate contours, the student must be able to visualize the three dimensional from the plane map.

Contour reading is not an easy topic to teach. Therefore, the teacher must present it in a few well-graded !essons. Simple conical

(77) 1iarman, B,.J., 11Hap Reading: A Teacher-Student Guide for Hap Learnings 11 in Secondary School1 Journal of Geoaraphy, LVII (1959)1 :P.217. -122-

· contours can be considered quite early in the series. The concept of

contours, which are boundaries between areas at different levels1 can

be created soon after. The methods used to trace out contours a.nd to

represent them in two-!dimensional form will come next. 'Basic terms

used must be examined as the series progresses. Finally, contour maps

can be correlated with the production of block diagrams. Students

should then be prepared for exercises in interpreting contours and in

constructing simple contours from areas in the field.

'B. The Pie ld Approachl

The field approach, which involves actual practical inves

tigation in the outdoors should form an integral part of all geography

courses. It will be discussed under four headings, namely1 local ge

ography, geographie visits1 field studies and sample studies. We saw

earlier that this is the approach which all real geography should try

to develop fully. In fact, the field approach and true geography are

synonymous.

In Montreal, the severity of winter curtails field activities

for the greater part of the school year, so that field activities must

be approximated in the classroom. It becomes necessary to make use of

early autumn for as much field work as possible. The months of September

and October are ideal for this programme. In the early spring1 April

and May, field work is again possible, and can be accomplished, as a

result of further training, much better than the way in which it was -123-

· attempted in the autumn. The students will have had enough practice in geographie skills to apply the scientific method now with profit.

(1) Local Geography:

Local geography involves field work in the local area.

Local geography may be integrated with other aspects of the geography

course. Its value is that it is realistic, it yields information

first-hand1 and it makes use of learning through investigation and informed teclmiques. Pupils are given practice in the use of large

scale m.aps, and a standard of scale and comparisœt is gained for use

in areas studied second-hand. There are certain limitations for which

compensation is made through research. ln urban areas, food production

cannot be investigated directly. ln rural areas, complex industrial

occupations are invariably absent. Time could be wasted over trivial

details, therefore the teacher must direct the student to significant

facts.

'Briault defines local geography as "the study of a sm.all

area in which individual features and details of physical and human

aspects of geography can be investigated.n{7S) Local geography, he

maintains1 may take three different formsl

a) The study of the i.nnnediate home and school area;

b) The study of an area visited in a day excursion, or

11 (78) Briault1 E. W.H. The Study of Local Geography as an integral part of the School Course," Geo&Eaphy1 XXXVIII (1953) 1 P.29. -124-

during a schoo 1 camp or h.oliday;

c) The study1 without visit1 but by means of maps, printed

materia11 photographs and specimens.

Local study can be arranged .as an intensive course in a consecutive study. The syllabus can be interspersed with local study units at various convenient points. The homeland region may be studied by means of local geography on a comparative basis. Briault justifies the study of local geography when he says,

"the starting point of some homeland area investigation

helps to place the child in his ge-ographie settling1

in his homeland and in his world1 so sorne large scale

study of a distant region helps to make that region

seem to the child equally to be the real home area of other children. u(Jg)

Local geography develops from the particular to the general, avoiding broad generalizations. It is realistic, includes exploratory investigation and fosters a sense of the geographie setting.

(2) Geographie Visitsl

This approach is a means by which visi ts for educational purposes are made to various places of geographie interest. Visita

(79) Briault1 E.w.a., op.cit., p.29. -125-

•may be made to the museum, the geographie exhibition, and areas of ge-

ographic significance such as the Wharves1 the Seaway and the Locks.

These visita serve to clarify geographie problems and give pupils an

opportunity to see features in the field. ln Montreal, visita to the

harbour, the Seaway, the lndian reservation, the international airport

and meteorological station at Dorval may be very useful as part of the

geographie and educative process.

It must be pointed out; however, that careful preparation

for and follow-up of these visita are necessary if any usefulness is

to be gained from such geographie visita.

(3) Field "Work:

Wb.ereas local studies deal with individual features and

physical or human details in the field, field work covers all aspects

of geography of an area, not necessarily the home area.. Field work

then is much broader than local studies. Wooldridge observes that the

aim of field work is as follows:

a) To deve lop an 11eye for country"

b) '!'o develop a comparison of ground with map

c) To create an order of working from the ground to the map

and not vice versa. (80)

(80) Wooldridge, s.w., uThe Statua of Geography and the Role of Field Work,u Geos_r:a;ehy, XL (1955), P.,73 -126-

Field work also helps to relieve geography of its bookishness.

It is 1 as Hutchings says 1 "a means of acquiring knowledge through the

11 8 observation and exp lorati on of our terres trial environment. ( l)

Field work is best undertaken with senior students after they have gained some experience with local studies in the immediate home area.

At first the students may find the country simple and lacking details.

But with practice by observation and preparation in the classroom students learn to see with a discerning eye. Field work in MOntreal has not gained respect because the scientific approach is too much at variance with the traditional form of geography teaching. It is imperative that teachers introduce field studies if they want students to develop the ability to derive facts for themselves and to draw conclusions based on the facts. But before field work is adopted in MOntreal schools1 students must be shown how the experienced geographer approaches it.

If the preliminary work is not done1 field studies become idle guided tours. Students must be shown how to observe and interpret geographie features.

In planning a field trip, the teacher shoU[d consider routes which possess points for geographie study1 alternatives which provide points of interest, and preparatory briefing to set the criteria for the trip. There must be a thorough rehearsal. Students must draw sketch maps1 prepare outlines of maps 1 work out map exercises, and

11 (81) Butchings1 G.E., Geographical Field Teaching,'' Geo&;t:aphy, XLVII, Part 1. (Jan.l962) 1 P.l. -127-

· record data in field note-books. The teacher should prepare simple

assignments for junior students. These practical exercises may be

based on points of geographie interest whieh the teacher would stress

in a lesson on the area. A list of guiding questions on the particular

area may be given to the more experienced students. These questions

must be designed to give direction to students and must demand careful

observation, mapping, examination and reporting.

The class may also be divided into groups, eaeh of which

can be asked to plan for itself a walking expedition in a determined

direction from the focal point. Each of these groups would examine

a certain geographical feature of the area, as for example, the physical

features of a part of a river valley; the comparison of two villages>

the examination of differences in S{)il types and rock structure, and

the examination of flora and fauna. Some form of map study ought to

be undertaken before the groups set out for a certain length of time,

and each group should possess a compass.

Fractice in surveying and practical map making may be given

in field studies, especially in areas such as the Laurentians, the

Eastern Townships, and the North of Montreal. Certain field trips

should concern themselves solely with surveying.

The use of the protracter, the compass, and plane t&ble

gives practice in the fundamentals of observation and recording of

regional phenomenon along the route. All this takes time and so too -U8-

·much must not be attempted at once. This aspect of the course is

best undertaken at week-ends or at a holiday geography camp.

lt might be wise to give an introduction to surveying

at the grade eleven stage. The instruments must be simple in order

to be economical. Surveying provides students with a skill which

can be used when further studies or employment are undertaken. Sur

veying is performed in the field and provides students with opportunity

for correlation with trigonometry1 geometry1 language usage, history, reporting techniques, mechanical drawing and physies. The basic work

in Trigonometry should be completed before work in surveying commences.

Surveying should be undertaken in the fo llowing order~

1. Simple measurements in the classroom,

2. Plans of school compounds and history of surveying1

3. Route survey1 (Signalling and Lettering) 4. Chain survey, (Use of Instruments) s. Plane Table survey, (Calculations) 6. Triangulation. (Simple Techniques)

Some of the instruments that may be used are the chain,

arrows, linen tape, a prismatic compass, sighting staves, plane tables,

alidade and a simple theodolite. A sextant is useful if it can be

obtained. A course over a week or two would serve to create great

interest and support from students. In this area of concentration, -129-

· the boys especially, would gain a sense of satisfaction in doing

something of a utilitarian value.

A useful exercise may also be undertaken. In the city

of Montreal simple surveys may be made of city block.s1 and clear

plans can be produced. This seems to be more an aspect of local

studies. But where a school cannot accomplish serious work in

field studies this aspect of town study proves a useful substitute.

A method of exercising and applying urban knowledge is advanced by 82 Gross. ( ) This activity permits direct observation and comparative

evaluation with other communities. Certain features are to be

inserted on given blank maps of part of the city with the street

network shown. 'l;he features include the followingl showing direc-

tions; computing a scale; analysing of total land use; and !den-

tification of some relationships among elements of local landscape.

The symbols such as those shown, in figure 3 on the

following page, would be given on the question sheets for pupils

to use on their maps.

~ have seen then that field studies are useful in

that they help to form a comparative basis for the geography of

other countries. Studies of this sort develop an appreciation

of~sttiàl. space and time, present eyewitness evidence of both

(82) Gross, H.H .. , "An experiment in Home Community Geography'', Journal of Geography, LIV (1955) 1 P.403. -130-

1 N 5 w+E ~ , s LARGE DEPARTMEl'iTAl- STORE.

2. 6>. DWEJ...LING- HOUSE. a ~ L!BR.ARY

3. 8

~ SCHOOL ~ FACTDRY.

4 --- ~ ~ --- ANY SUS L..INES SCHOOl. OR ROUTES.

' 5 10. ;\ ~ ' R.AllROAD CHURCH FIG-. 3 . SYMBOLS IN GEOGRAPHY ON TOWNA..ANNING-.

(After: 1-t.H.Gross, op· cit.7 p- lt03.) -131-

· stability and change, provide for the consideration of plant and

animal ecology, and give the student som.e specialized knowledge and

sympathetic understanding of the relation of man to earth and vice

versa.

(4) Sâmple Studies:

Sample studies are a particular type of field work per-

formed :Ln the classroom. A samplestudy, says Suggate, is that form

of regional work which involves making a detailed study of one example

of something typical of a region and fitting it to its regional back 83 ground. < ) The aims of sample studies are to provide a psychological

basis for generalizations and to bring a necessary element of reality

into the classroom. Robertson and Long report that sample studies

were recommended as early as 1935 by James Fairgrieve1 and that the 84 tradition continued with Mackinder and Scarfe. ( ) The aim of handling

the sample study is to lead pupils to see geographical relations from

the raw material presented. Sample studies may conveniently lend

themselves to field study. Detailed records of field study are

adapted for use in the class when outdoor regional study is not feasible.

The approach through sample studies can be undertaken by Montreal Righ

Schools during the winter period.

(83) Suggate, L.s., "Aspects of Geography Teaching in a Grsnun.ar School", GeoaraphYt XLI (1956), P.l.

(84) Robertson, :s.s., and M. Long, "Sample studiest the Development of Method, 11 Geography, XLI (1956), P.248. -132-

Robertson and Long advise three stages in sample studies. (85)

(i) The sample must be accurately located;

(ii) The presentation must be varied

a) Maps - sketches, topographical maps, atlases, b) Pictures - clear geographie content,

c) Tables and diagrams of seasonal activity-analyses1 d) Descriptive passages - comparison and analysis, e) Sketches or diagrams of houses, equipment, landscape - adaption to environment.

In addition use can be made of projected pictures,

slides, blackboard, and duplicated materials.

(iii) Generalization.

Sample studies utilize field methods in the classr~

They seek to make lesson content real and vivid.

They allow pupils scope to select significant material necessary for a careful generalization. They are time saving approaches. c. The Aerial Photoscaphic Approach;

Aerial photographe afford a very stimulating study1 train pupils in the identification of forma, and give a gestalt picture of large areas. They are most useful to regional studies in that they

(85) Robertson, B.s. and Long, ~~ op.cit., p.250. -133-

·aid in the delimitation of regional observation, and they add reality

to the study of specifie features by permitting three dimensional ap-

proaches. Students gain first-hand experience of geographie features

by being able to correlate two-dimensional with three-dimensional forms.

Aerial photographe do form an important teaching deviee.

At first glanee objecta on aerial photographs look un-

familiar1 but with practice and by the use of a stereoscope, which permits seeing the third dimension, and a stereo-pair of pictures, accurate in-

formation can be revealed. For streoscopic study, two pictures of the same objecta, each taken from a slightly different position; are required.

The pictures are laid alongside each other with the objectto be studied

spaced out at the same distance as the distance between the eyes, making

stereoscopie vision possible.

In the identification of objecta, pupils need to gain

practice and experience. Railroads follow long, sweeping curves and rivera follow long, sinuous curves. Natural landscape features follow

curved and crooked !ines, and cultural features possess angularity and regular geometrie patterns. The appearance of the object on a photo

depends upon the quality and quantity of light reflected by it on the

lens. The greater the reflection the lighter the object will be.

Heimonen advances the following characteristic tonal values for natural objecta: (86)

(86) Heimonen1 H.S. 1 "A Laboratory Exercise in Aerial Photo Inter pretation.. , Journal of Geography, LVI (1957), P.. 286. -134-

1. Plougbed land is lighter than grassland or forests,

2. wet land is darker than dry land,

3. Deciduous forest is light in winter and dark in summer,

4. Coniferous forest is dark the year around 1 5. Lakes and streams are nearly always dark in tone.

Exercises given to students can be the determination of the photo scale by means of which photo distance can be compared with map distance; the making of measurements on aerial photographe, and the interpretation of cultural change. Teachers and students must be trained to read aerial photographs intelligently in order to gain full appreciation of their value.

A notable exercise, which can be rather expensive has been recorded by Richardson. (S7) This is an approach by which a field trip is made by helicopter for the purpose of getting an aerial view and taking aerial photographe. Many features unnoticed on the ground become clear from a relatively close range in the air, thus adding greater meaning to local and regional study. It is possible that some students might gain the opportunity of taking such a trip and on this occasion the teacher should prepare students to make full use of their experience in the classrrom. If students are motivated in this direction, they may organise trips of this nature during the summer vacation.

11 (87) Richardson (Jr.), :S.F., "A Geogr aphy Clas sroom in the Sky 1 Journal of Geography1 LVIII (1959) 1 P. 317. -135-

VI. The Geography R.oom. and the Geography Teacher

ln order to fulfil the basic aims outlined in Chapter One, it is nec.essary to provide in each school a geography room and well qualified teachers, while the geography room will be designed to provide scope for laboratory work1 the whole programme cannot be effective unless the teachers are thoroughly conversant with the basic knowledge and skills of modern geography. Therefore it becomes essential to make a study of these two important aspects that are most significant in the remodelling process.

(i) The Geography Roomt

The geography room should be used only by geography classes, should have maximum seating arrangement for about fifty students, should be provided with long tables along the side and rear walls, and should possess cupboards for storage and display materials.

Gopsill advances reasons for a special room to be used in geography teaching. The reasons are summarised as follows:(SS)

1. Apparatuses can be stored,

2. lncomplete assignments and models can be left in

the geography room without interference,

3. Collection of models and specimens can be stored

(88) Gppsill, G.H., op.cit., p.261. -136-

and displayed whenever necessary,

4. Special equipment auch as tracing tables, globes,

sand-table are kept in the room,

5. A certain atmosphere of a laboratory and scientific

type and a distinctive climate are gained.

It is necessary in building the new high schools to plan

geography rooms. The design and arrangement of the room along with the

equipment to be used must be considered seriously. The design, shown on

the following page, which was devised by Gopsill, can be adapted to the needs of the MOntreal high schools.

ln some instances it will be found necessary to provide

another smaller room or annexe for the storage of bulky material, maps

and for the location of duplicating machinery. This would be a com mendable arrangement. The annexe or subsidiary room could be used as

a dark room for the development of photographs. A source of water would

be useful in the annexe.

Certain high schools in the Montreal area might find

it impossible to provide a new room specially for the purpose of ge

ography. It would be necessary then to convert an existing classroom

and fit some of the major geographie apparatuses into it. It is most beneficia! to have space and ecope for laboratory work, so that ge

ography can acquire meaning and gain its true significance. 1

......

17;1

l-lo

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6 • ir

Il'

are

space.)

desks

same

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well

feet.

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square

equally

200

w1NOow

op.cit.

will

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thal).

G.H.

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DDDDDD

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D.D

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Gopsi11

made

_for

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&MCh

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Mop-Chq,s't

,..,.,d<>l

tables

but

Ca.:te

l"!u.:til-""1

allowanee

shown

(Area -138-

·(ii) The Geography Teacher~

As we have noted already, it is necessary that geography should be in the hands of competent teachers. The writer recognises the fact that the teacher must possess a certain facility with methods, but it is unfortunate if the teacher knows little or no geography, because he will have nothing to teach. To be able to teach geography in high school efficiently, it will be agreed, that a teacher must possess not only a knowledge of teaching methods but also a sound knowledge of the subject matter of geography. There can be no compromise at the high school level in this regard.

The Institute of Education can contribute a great deal more in this respect to the training of teachers of high school ge ography. A teacher desirous of teaching geography at the high school level must be in possession of a degree which includes a major, con tinuation or honours in the subject. Such a teacher must take, as part of the requirement for the First class Teacher 1s Diploma, two courses. These courses will be methods of teaching geography and

11 11 Geography Techniques and Practices , the latter of which will be an innovation. This new course must be taught by a specialist (at the

Teachers' College) who will be employecl only for the purpose of teaching the two courses in geography.

The writer has worked out a number of course-topics which the specialist would offer to teachers at the Institute of Edu- -139-

·cation. Teachers in training for elementary schools should have the

benefit of certain of the course topics that are most appropriate. The

following are suggested course-topics to be undertaken:

1. Map making

2. Map projection

3. Surveying 4. Practical geology 5. Construction of geography slides

6. Audio visual aids

7. Laboratory techniques

8. Field techniques

9. Interpretation of aerial photographs

10. Simple meteorological studies and the setting-up

of a simple weather station

11. Basic astronomy

12. Space geographical studies

13. Methods of geographical research and reporting

14. History of geographical thought

15. Mathematical and Statistical geography

16. Current Geography (Geography in the news)

Doerr supports the idea that a teacher must possess

thorough and exact knowledge, must be kept informed, and must acquire

a facility in teaching1 which does not include the reading of notes -140-

89 .before the class. ( ) The training of the teacher of geography needs

serious consideration by the lnstitute of Education and the Department

of Education in the province. To improve the learning situation, there

must be improvem.ent in the quality of teaching.

VII. 1ih.ich is the best Me.thod?

There is no single m.ethod of teaching geography that will

act as the "open sesame" to the solution of the problem. The method

will vary to suit the topic1 the class and the situation at the moment. It is important to keep in mind that the beat method is the one which

gives the highest resulta in the quickest possible time with the least

expenditure of energy.

With respect to the teaching of geography in particular,

the beat approach is the method or combination of methods which makes

little use of t~ traditional and formal text-book procedure. This

method or combination of methods must create interest and develop

meaningful concepts. It must always show a relationship between man

and the earth. It must wed the humanistic and scientific aspects of

the subject. It must make geography the core of the curriculum. It

must not rob geography of its observational, recording and inductive

processes.

(89) Doerr 1 A. 1 "Some Observations on Teaching Geography and the Training of Geographers at a College or University," Journal of Geography, LIV (1955) 1 P.299. -141-

Varied use of the approaches outlined will arouse greater interest and make use of elements noted in the framework. By such means students can develop the true knowledge and spirit of geography. Renee, it could be said with Dean Scarfe, 11 certainly the careful reconstruction of the content, purpose and function of geography, together with the application of modern psychology to its teaching seem to be the means of resuscitating the subject in the schoo1."(90)

(90) Scarfe, N.V., "Geography and Social Studies in the U.S.A.", Geography, XXXV (1950), P.86. -142-

CHAPTER 6

Conclusions and Evaluation

l. Summary

Ye have noted in Chapters One and Two the criteria for a

sound geographie education and have traced1 very briefly, a history of the development of geography in Europe, u.s.A., and Quebec. Chapter Three observed the pattern of learning and teaching geography in the

senior stages of the elementary school and in the high school. Chapter

Four concluded that geography lacked statua among high school academie subjects, and advanced reasons for this co~clusion. Chapter Five sought

to present approaches which were designed to raise the statua of ge ography and cause this subject to become the core of the curriculum.

A number of influences outside the high school must neces

sarily be mentioned if the approaches are to be implemented satisfac

torily. These agencies include the school board, the geography teachers'

association, the university, the department of education and the com munity. The recommendations following pay due concern to each agency.

Il. Recommendations

(a) The writer wishes to recommend the use of field methods and laboratory techniques which can be applied in different ways. Where

the school is situated in the heart of the city, field methods become -143-

·difficult to arrange. The school in this situation would undertake sample studies in the geography room and local studies in the immediate environment. This would apply to most of the high sehools of the

Protestant School Board of Greater Montreal. On the other hand, schools situated away from city limita may find greater opportunity for field studies. For both types of schools, a greater amount of practical instruction ought to be arranged by geography teachers. The techniques for varying classroom procedures are designed to make geography mean ingful and to accelerate the learning process. All the approaches in

Chapter Five are fundamental and can be channeled to suit any classroom situation.

(b) The syllabus in geography should be reeonsidered to take into account the full concept of regional geography. An equal proportion of both systematic and regional geography every year will bring more meaning and purpose to the course. The present plan of systematic geography only in the first two years is to be discouraged.

The outline of the syllabus in the "Handbook" need not include an analysis of topics from the text-books. The syllabus should not follow any particular text-book as rigidly as this. Rather, the syllabus should contain topic-headings and suggestions for detailed study.

There should definitely be a basic philosophy which must be stated precisely in the construction of the syllabus.

not as end-products in geography teaching. The slavish use of text-books detracts from the true spirit of geography. This form of teaching under mines the use of practical experimentation and laboratory exercise. The examination at the end of each year and the junior matriculation exam ination might in part be cited as responsible for this situation. Consid ering this reason, then1 the writer suggests that the Grade XI final exam ination should be based on topic headings in the syllabus and that ques tions should not emerge directly from reading material in the text-books.

Instead questions should demand the use of information gained from ex perimentation rather than knowledge stored for mere regurgitation. The writer suggests that if geography is introduced into the Grade XII, no special text should be assigned. Allow each school to choose its own texts at this stage.

(d) There is grave need for more teachers specially qual ified to teach geography. Therefore a method of awarding teaching scholarships to high school graduates for the study of geography at a university in Montreal should be found. These scholars may be allowed to study towards the one-year diploma in education and to enrol for the courses, geography methods and geography 11 techniques and practice11 offered by the specialist geographer attached to the Institute of

Education. In the near future, presently unqualified geography teachers shall be relieved to teach subjects of their own speciality.

(e) Experimentation in geography, inter alia, ought to be -145-

·conducted by the school boards in conjunction with the Institute of

Education. A certain amount of experimentation should be attempted before a course for 11:811 standing (weaker) students is devised. :Before preparing examinations for all students some form of trial or pilot practice is necessary. Changes should be introduced only after exper imental procedures to ascertain the reliability of conclusions have been a pp lied.

(f) Geography rooms are urgently needed in all the high schools in Montreal. The school boards should seriously consider erecting and equipping geography rooms in all new high schools. A study should be made of the possibility of providing geography rooms in already existing and established schools. With the accommodation of geography laboratories in special rooms, geography will be placed alongside subjects such as physics, chemistry and biology.

(g) The recently e~tablished Association of Geography

Teachers of Montreal is a move in the right direction. It is important that geography teachers be vocal about their subject, so that they may convince the community and their superiors of the significance of the subject in any school curriculum. The fact that geography teachers have come together shows that there exists active interest in this subject. Geography teachers ought to gain full recognition for the association. They can also assist in developing the subject further by the release of useful information through an annual journal of -146-

·proceedings and feature articles. There should be a scheme whereby persona,

who read papers at conferences or publish new ideas in the name of the

association, can be recognised. This recognition may take the form of a

life membership or the award of a Fellowship in the Montreal Geographical

Society, bearing the initials, F.~G.s. The fellowship awarded may be

patterned after the Fellow of the Royal Geographical society usually

designated by the initials, F.R.G.S. The association might find it

beneficial to reach out to the community in general through broadcasts

over the radio and television networks.

(h) The school boards ought to take greater interest in the

development of geography. The boards should organise the preparation

and publication of monthly bulletins in geography to keep teachers in

formed of the latest methods and apparatuses introduced. There should

be an advisor in geography appoint~d to assist in the programme. Heads

of geography departments should be appointed in each school to coordinate

the teaching of geography tbroughout the school. Teachers should be

allowed to improvise in the classroom; to change freely aspects of

work in the syllabus; and to teach only geography at the high school

level. The idea of teaching three or four subjects1 including geography, is to be deplored because justice cannot be meted out to any one subject

in the circumstance. Again1 the board should give the Grade XI teacher permission to organise field trips so long as it does not interfere with

the smooth flow of the school. The school board along with the geography

association can provide a place where the Grade X students may have a -147-

.holiday geography camp during the sunnner preceeding their final year.

This would be a worthwhile feature at that level and should help to prepare the students for the heavy course of Grade XI.

(i) 'When the status of geography is improved and interest

in high school is aroused~ more students will be prepared to take the

subject at the University level for the purpose of teaching. If this

trend should continue~ there will soon be a greater number of geography

specialists teaching in high schools and a greater proportion of students studying it. Geography will then truly become the core subject of the curriculum. At such a stage, industrial and private concerna will be

convinced of the importance and usefulness of geography. Geographers

then will find it easier to gain positions in planning~ organizational

and administrative fields.

Full recognition of geography in this area will only come when the high school lays a sound and solid foundation. The old method of teaching must give way to the new.

III. Evaluation

This thesis has attempted to examine geography education in the high schools of the Montreal area. It presented certain ctfteria which it showed were not satisfied by the high school. It concluded that geographie education occupied an inferior position and cited reasons for this conclusion. Approaches for the improvement of geography ed- -148-

.ucation were advanced and recommendations were prescribed for the

implementation of these approaches.

The writer made personal surveys by visiting the high

schools named. He aimed at being as objective as possible and at

arriving at useful generalizations. There could, of course, be minor

errors in interpretation. However, the writer conducted interviews

with a majority of geography teachers, and from the similarity of

their replies, justified his observations.

The present study has yielded useful information on the

teaching of geography and has exposed many needs. It has reconunended

desirable changes for the future and has indicated future avenues

of research. There were limitations in the method of survey and in

measurements employed. These, however, did not alter the resulta

appreciably. In addition, acltoal classroom teaching is not, as yet,

subject to fully reliable methods of investigation. On the whole,

teachers were very cooperative in the data-collection process.

Suffice to say, that the only thesis which gave some

information on geography in Canada was written in 1955 by Ou~ton.

Therefore, the present study was the first on geography education

concerning the Montreal area.

There is need for further research on geography. Analyses

can be done for the primary level and university level. Experimentation -149-

-should be undertaken to determine the nature of the '~" progranune (for weaker students) and the structure of the syllabus. The scientific approach in geography ought to be applied. Research on geography ed ucation in Catholic Schools, if undertaken, will complete a survey of all high schools in the MOntreal area. There should be analyses of the subject at every five-year interval, and a report of these analyses should be made available to all teachers. A central authority should be responsible for this undertaking.

The thesis succeeded in presenting some problems of ge ographie education in the Montreal area. It also indicated possible solutions for the improvement of the position of geography in the high schoo 1 curriculum. -150-

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Keltie1 Sir John Scott. The Position of Geography in British Universities. New York; American Geographies! Society (Research Series No.4.)1 . 1921.

Kennamer, Lorrin, G., nA Unique Change in School Geography, n Journal of Geography, LIV (1955) 1 P. 25.

Kilheffer1 E., and llarman, R.J. 1 "The Evaluation of Geography Teaching,'' Journal of Geography; L~II (1958)1 P.308.

Koerner, Grace, E., "The Vital Role and Scope of Geography", Journal of Geography, LVI (1957) 1 P.l77. -154-

11 .l..anding, James, ''Fundamentals in Modern Geography1 Journal of Ge ography, LVIII (1959) 1 P.l99. Lemaire, M.E., nA sequential study of Weather snd Climate in a Ge 11 ography Curriculum, Journal of Geographz, LVI (1957) 1 P.269.

11 1 11 Long1 Mrs. M., Children s Reaction to Geographical Pictures1 Ge ograPhyt XXXVIII (1953) 1 P.lOO.

Long, Mrs. M., 11Research in Picture Study, 11 Geoaz:aphz, XLVI (1961),_ P.322.

Long, Mrs. M. 1 ''The Status of Field Work," Geoaraphz, XLVII (1962) 1 Pp. 72-84.

Lyons, H.,R., uLocal Geography in a Grammar Sehool," Geographz1 XXXIV (1949) 1 P.65.

Macdonald, "Williâm., 1'Geography in the English School, 11 Journal of Geographz, LX (1961) 1 P.310.

Mackinder1 H.J., The Teaching of Geographz and Historz, London, George Philip and Son Ltd., 1918.

McMurry, Charles, A., Special Method in Geoaz:aphz. New York, The Macmillan Company 1 1905.

Memorandum of Secondary Schoo1s Committee. "Essentials of a Good Secondary Schoo1Atlas," Geoaz:aphz, XXXVIII (1953)1 P.331

Memorandum. "The Place of Geography in the Education of Boys and Girls 11 of 15 to 18 years1 Geographz, XLII (1957) 1 P.l74.

Memorandum. 11Careers for Geographers," The Geo~aphical Journal, Royal Geographica1 Society' London, CXXVI 1960)1 P.451.

"Memorandum on Geography Teaching, n Geography, XLVII (1962) 1 Pp. 63-71.

Meyer, A.H., 11The Stature of Geography: Stake or Statua," Journal of Geographz, LX (1961)1 P.30l.

Miller, G.J.(Ed.)1 Geographz: How to Teach it. Illinois, McKnight and McKnight, 1934.

Miller, G.J.(Ed.), Activities in Geosrapbz. Illinois, McKnight and McKnight, 1937.

Ministry of Education. Geographz and Education, Pamphlet No.391 London, Rer Majesty's Stationery Office, 1960. -155-

·Montefiore and "Williams. "Determ.inism and Possibilism, •• in Geographical Studies, Vo1.2. 1 No.l.(1955) 1 P.l., Birbeck College, London.

Namowitz1 S.N., Stone, D.B., and Bird, Brian~., Earth Science, Book 1, The World 1le Live In. Toronto, D. Van Nostrand Ltd., 1956.

Namowitz1 S.N., Stone, D.B., and Bird1 Brian ~., Earth Science, Book 2, Backaround to Man. Toronto, D. Van Nostrand Ltd., 1956.

National Council of Education. Report on the Survey of Text-books used in Canadian Schoo1s. Winnipeg, Office of the General Secretary, 1926.

National Council for Geographical Education. Geography and Conservation Education. National Council of Geography Teachers of the Journal of Geography1 Professional Paper No.l31 March 1952. National Council for Geographie Education, Forces contributing to Changes in Geographie Education. National Council of Geography Teachers

of the Journal of Geography1 Professional laper No.l6, March 1958.

Oulton,

Peattie1 R. 1 Geoaraphy in Human Destiny, New York, George w. Stewart (Publisher) 1 1945.

Phelps, Jewell1 "Geography behind the news: An Experiment in Educational Television, u Journal of Geograph;y, LIV (1955) 1 P .187.

Phillips, ~V., '~ing effective use of current events in a High School Geography Class", Journal of Geograph;y, Li'I (1957), P.70.

Platt1 Robert, s., Field Stud;y in American Geograph;y, Research paper No.61. Chicago, University of Chicago Geography Department, 1959.

Protestant Committee of the Council of Education. The Educational Record of the Province of Quebec1 V:ols. 71-72. Quebec, Quebec News papers Limited1 1955-56.

Protestant School Board of Greater Montreal. Report of the Geograph;y Committee. (J.H. Patrick - Chairman) Montreal, Unpublished, Pamphlet, Feb. 1959.

Protestant School Board of Greater Montreal Curriculum Council. .Annual Report {1961-62). Montreal, Directory of Committees, 1963. -156-

.Prudden1 H.c., "C1assroom Work on the Daily Weather Report," Geography, XXXIX (1954); F.l88.

Redway, ~.~.,The New Basis of Geoaraphy, London, The Macmillan Co., 1907,

Report, "A One Day Conference on the Teaching of Geography," Geography,

XLV (1960) 1 F,300,

Report by the Educational Committee of the Royal Geographical Society. "Geography and Education, 11 The Geographical Journal, CXXI

(1955) 1 P.l90. Report of the Geography Sub-Committee, Courses in Grades IX; x, and XI. Montreal, Protestant School Board of Greater Montreal, ~uly 1962,

11 Resnick1 A., A Unique Study of Cities'', Journal of Geography1 LV (1956) 1 P.247.

Review on "The Teaching of Geography by Gopsill;" Geoeaphy, XLI (1956) 1 P,214,

11 Review on The High Calling of Geographer 1 " The GeograJ>hical Journal, CXXIIl (1957) 1 P,392.

11 Richardson, B,F.(Jr,}, "AGeography Cla.ssroom in the Sky 1 Journal of Geogravhy. LVIII (1959) 1 F.311, Robertson, B,S., and Long, M., "Samp1e Studies: The Development of MetQ.od,'' Geoeavhy, XLI (1956), F. 248.

Scarfe, N,V., "Teaching Geography in Schools,n Geoeavhy, XXXIV (1949) 1 P,57.

Scarfe1 N.V,, "Geography and Social Studies in U,S.A.," Geogravhy; XXXV (1950) 1 P,86,

11 Scarfe, N. V., "The Teaching of Geography for International Understanding1 GeoSEaphy, XXXV (1950) 1 P.l86.

Scarfe, N.V., Handbook of Suggestions on the Teaching of Geosravhy. Paris,

U,N.E.S,C.0, 1 1951,

Scarfe1 N.F., "Geography Education and Teaching method1 " Journal of Ge oeaphy, LV (1956) 1 P,57,

11 Scarfe, N, V. 1 nGeography across the Curriculum, Journal of Geography, LVIII (1959) 1 P,111.

Scarfe1 N, V. 1 "Geography; the core subject,'' Educational Bulletin, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, No,31 Ma.rch 1959. -157-

.Scarfe, N. V. 1 "Our Educational Environment and Geography Teaching1 " Journal of Geography, LlX (1960) 1 P.l03.

Scarfe1 N.V., "Sequential Development of increasingly difficult concepts 11 tbrough the High School, Journal of Geography1 LX (1961) 1 P.351.

Shaw, E.B. 1 "Forces Contributing to Changes in Geographie Education, n Journal of Geography, LVII (1958), P .. 55.

Simpson, C.A., The Study of Local Geog;-aphy, London, Methuen and Co. Ltd. 1 1950.

Smith, J.R., "Bulletin Boards in Geography1 " Journal of Geoe;raphy, LVIII (1959) 1 P.301.

11 Smith, V.B. 1 Material for a One Year Course in Geography1 " Journal of Geography, LX (1961) 1 P.262.

11 11 Sparrow1 G."W.A., Geography with 11-year-old "C" Streams 1 Geography, XXXV (1950) 1 P.l90.

Spate1 O.H.K., "How Determined is Possibilism1 u in Geographical Studies1 Vo1.41 No.l., London, Birbeck College1 19571 P.3.

Stamp1 Dudley, Geography in Canadian Universities. Ottawa, Canadian Social Science Research Counci11 1951.

11 Stevens, George, D., "Geography - a Path to World Understanding1 Journal of Geography, LIV (1955) 1 P.359.

Strachey1 R., Lectures on Geogra;ghy1 London, Macmillan and Co., 1888.

Suggate1 L.s., ..Aspects of Geography Teaching in a Grammer School," Geography, XLI (1956) 1 P.l.

Switzer, "W.J., "The Map Exercise as a Basis for Critical Thinking in High School Geography," Journal of Geograehy, LlX (1960), P.314.

Taylor1 G. (Ed.), Geog;- aphy in the Twentieth Century. London, Methuen and Co. Ltd. 1 1960.

11 Taylor, H.M. 1 The Use of the Project Method in Geography,n Journal of Geogra;ghy1 LVII (1958) 1 P.418.

11 Taylor, H.M., "The Use of Problem Solving groups in Teaching Geography1 Journal of Geograehy, LIX (1960), P.l87.

11 Thomas 1 A. K. 1 and Raup 1 H.J. 1 Photography for the Geogr aphy Teacher," Journal of Geography, LV (1956) 1 P .243. -158-

.Thralls, Zoe1 A., The World Around Us. Toronto, W.J. Gage Ltd. 1 1959.

11 Thralls, Zoe, A. 1 "The Importance of Developing Geographie Concepts, Journal of Geography, LIX (1960), P.279.

Tomkins1 G.s., and Hills1 Theo.L. 1 A Regional Geography of North America. Toronto, W.J. Gage Ltd., 1960.

Tomkins, G.s., "Geography in the Elementary School," Educational Bulletin, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, No.6., December, 1961.

Tomkins, G.s. and Hardwick, F.c., "Current Trends in School Geography with Special Reference to the Responsibility of the Professional Geographer and Some Commenta on the Training of Geography

Teachers 1 " The Canadian Association of Geographers, British Columbia Division, No.4. (June 1963) 1 Pp. 89-114. Travers, Robert, M.w., An Introduction to Educational Research. New York, The Macmillan Co., 1961.

U.N,E.s.c.o. Geography Teaching for International Understanding. Paris, United Nations, March 1952.

11 Vanaria1 L.M., Geography Associations and the Teacher, u Journal of Ge oaraphy, LVIII (1959) 1 P.238.

Van Burkalow, Anastasia, 11Teaching Map Projections in lntroductory Ge 11 ography Courses 1 Journal of Geography, L-lV (1955) 1 P. 82., Warman, ll.J., "Geographie Approaches to Social Education, 11 Geography, XXXV (1950) 1 P.32.

Warman,

Warman1 H.J., "Telecasting Techniques in Geography,'' Journal of Geography, LV (1956) 1 P.217. Warman, H.J., 11Changing Emphases in Geographie Education, 11 Journal of Geography, LVII (1958) 1 P.219.

Warman, H.J. 1 ''Map Reading; A Teacher-Student Guide for Map Learnings in Secondary School," Journal of Geoar;aphy, LVIII (1959) 1 P.217.

11 Warman1 H.J. 1 Are these the General Aims of Geography?" 1 Journal of Geoaraphy, LX (1961), P.l83.

Weir1 T.R., and Russell, W.J., "The Statua of Gegoraphy in the Social Studies Curricula of Canadian Schools," Journal of Geoaraphy, LVIII (1959) 1 P.280. -159-

·welch1 D.J., and Stone, A., nGeography Workshop for Elementary Teachers," Journal of Geography, LV (1956) 1 P .395.

"Whitak.er, J.R., Geography in School and College. Tennessee, Bureau of Publications, George Peabody College for Teachers, 1948.

Wise, Prof. M.J., 11The Role of Geography in Technical Education, 11 Geography, XLVI (1961), P.342.

11 11 Yoo1dridge, S.ll.1 0n Taking the nGe". out of Geography , Geog;:aphy, XXXIV (1949), P.9.

lloo1dridge, s.w., and East, W.G., The Spirit and Pureose of Geograehy. London, Hutchison*s University Library1 1955. 'Wooldridge, s.w., "The Status of Geography and the Ro1e of Field Work," Geograehy, XL (1955) 1 P.73.

Wooldridge, S.ll., The Geograeher as Scientist. London, Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd., 1956. -160-

APPENDIX A

Geography. Textbooks in the Province of Quebec.

(1857 to 1963)

(After Oulton: Teaching of Geography in Canadian Schools, Pp. 82-83)

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

1857 Books of Lessons Lovell

1890 New introduetory geography Calkin Introductory geography Lovell Intermediate geography Lovell

1907 New elementary geography Cr afton Introductory geography Calkin

1920 New elementary geography Calkin

1926 New geography Frye-Gammell

1950 Visit in other Lands Atwood and Thomas

1953 Southern Lands Taylor, Seiveright and Lloyd

1954 Old world Lands Barrows, Parker and Sorenson

1957 Canada and Rer Neighbours Taylor, Seiveright and Lloyd Lands of Europe and Asia Taylor, Seiveright and Lloyd

HIGH SCHOOL

1890 High school geography Chase -161-

1904 E1ementary physica1 geography Davis Physica1 geography Tarr Physical geography Hinm.an

1907 Longman 1s primary physica1 geography

1911 Ontario high school physica1 geography

1921 New physical geography Tarr

1924 Canadian school geography Cornish

1937 A world geography for Denton and Canadian schools Lord

1945 New physica1 geography Tarr and von Engelin

1947 The wor1d Stamp Geography for today Stembridge (North America and Southern continents)

1957 The world Stamp and Kimble

Earth Science1 Book 1: Namowitz, Stone The Wor ld We Live In and 'Bird

Earth Science, Book 2~ Namowitz, Stone Background to man and 'Bird

1962 The "World Around Us Thralls, Z.E. A Regional Geography of Totnkins and North America Hills -162-

APPENDIX. :S

Course of Study in Geography - Quebec.

(Sununary)

(Quoted in Oulton: The teachina of geography in Canadian Schools. 1955. Taken from the Handbook for Teachers in the Protestant schools in the Province of Quebec, 1953 Ed.)

Social Science - Grades 1 to IV.

Grade I. Social development in home and school1

The home, school, form1 seasons, pets.

Grade II. The community and child 1 s contacts,

(a) Helpers who bring us food - Milkman1 grocer, etc. Il Il (b) produce clothing - Tailor1 shoemaker, etc. Il Il (c) build homes - Carpenter1 painter, etc. Il Il (d) provide transportation - Engineer1 pilot, etc. (e) Il Il Il communication - Postman, radio operator, etc.

Il Il Il (f) health and sanitation - Doctor1 nurse, street cleaner1 etc. (g) Il Il prote ct us - policeman, fireman, etc. (h) Il Il provide education - teacher, minister, etc.

Grade III. Geography of the home area, To train observation and to aid interpretation. (a) Earth and sun, local weather,

(b) Local landscape1 1 (c) Man s needs1 (d) Map reading and map making, (e) Early life in the area. -163-

·Grade IV. Journey Geography1 Relationship between man and his environment.

(a) How people live together1 (b) People in other lands,

Grade v. Canada and the u.s.~ The human use of the Natural regions of North America.

Grade VI. Southern Lands Mexico, Central and South America, Africa in part,

Australia1 New Zealand1 The Pacifie Islands.

Grade VII. Further Regional Geography,

Asia1 Africa1 Australia, the Pacifie Island, the British Empire, Europe in part.

Grade VIII. Physical Geography (general).

(a) Globe study - Earth1 rotation, revolution, land and water, position, latitude and longitude, international date line1 (b) Map study and map reading - Projections, contour, topographical maps 1 (c) Land forms - Rocks, mountain, plains, glaciation, drainage, (d) Climate - Temperature, pressure,. rainfall, (e) Regional study of North America.

Grade IX. Southern Continents (Economie) (a) Comparative local conditions, (b) liorld conditions,. (c) Regional study of Africa, (d) Il Il Il South America, (e) Il Il Il Australia, (f) Il Il u New Zealand. -164-

·Grade X. Study of Europe and Asia.

Use1 contrasta, effects. (a) Surface features, climate, vegetation, (b) Regional study of certain areas, (c) The Mediterranean Region, (d) The Monsoon Lands, (e) Choice of study of three regions.

Grade XI. Knowledge of students own Country and Adjacent lands. Two parts:

(1) General geography - 2 months (2) Regional study: Canada - 3 If U.S.A. and Mexico - 2 11 Il British Isles - 1

Grade XII. Physica11 Regional and Practical Geography.

Part 1: (a) Structure of the Earth, (b) Rocks - Formation, classification, etc. (c) Forces of construction in building landforms - Volcanoes, etc. 11 (d) " destruction of landforms - Glaciation, etc. (e) Landforms and their uses, (f) weather and climate - Isolation, winds, precipitation, hum.tdity, (g) Climatic Regions,

(h) Resources of the earth - water1 soil1 minerals.

Part 2: Either Geographical Realms - Hum.id, dry, polar reabns, Or Regional geography of the continents in Taylorrs, Geosraphical Laboratory.

Part 3t Laboratory exercises from Taylor's Geosraphical Laboratory. -165-

APPENDIX C

Syllabus for Grades IV to VII.

(Handbook for Teachers in the Protestant Schools of the Province of Quebec.

Department of Education, Quebec1 1957 Edition; and Department of Education, Supplement to the Handbook for Teachers, Quebec, 1962.)

GRADE IV - J'ourney Geography.

Text: Atwood and Thomas, Visit in other lands. Specifie Aimsl

1. To help the child understand the kind of world he lives in; 2. To develop specifie skills as a basis for further geographical study.

The presentation of a sample unit is divided as follows: (i) Introduction and planning period - 1 week,

(ii) ~ork and study period - 4 weeks, (iii) Culmination, review, evaluation - 1 week.

GRADE V - Canada and the U.S.A.

Text: Taylor, Seiveright and Lloyd, Canada and her neighbours, Ginn.

The text is designed to promote an understanding of geographical information rather than the memorizing of geographical facts.

The syllabus divides the work into eleven units with suggested time allotments based on a hundred periods for the year. The authors'

Foreword to teachers states clear objectives and suggests practical ways of teaching geography. -166-

Content Out line

:t. Introduction to North .America 11 periods II. Canada as a whole 5 11 III. Province of Quebec l5 Il JY. Maritime provinces and Newfoundland 9 IJ v. Ontario 11 " VI. Prairie Provinces 9 Il VIl. British Columbia 8 11 VIII,. Yukon and Northwest Terri tories 3 Il IX. Review of Canada 3 Il x. The United States 22 " XI. Review of North America 4 Il

100 periods

GRADE VI

Mexico, ~st Indies and Central America, South America, South America, Pacifie Islands, New Zealand, Australia, Africa.

Textl Taylor, Seiveright and Lloyd, Southem 1ands1 Ginn Teacher~ reference book - Agnes Rotherby, South American Roundabout, McCleeland and Stewart.

Content Outline

I,. Review of map reading 2 periods

Il. ~st Indies, Mexico, Central America 18 Il III,. South America 30 tf IY. Antar tica 1 Il v. Pacifie Islands 4 Il VI,. Australia 12 H VII,. New Zealand 8 Il VIII. Africa 25 Il

100 periods -167-

GRADE VII - Europe and Asia

Text: Either Barrows, Parker and Sorenson, Old World lands,

Gage; or Taylor, Seiveright and Llôyd1 Lands of Europe and Asia, Ginn.

Content Out line l. Review of map reading 2 periods Il. Introduction to Eurasia 14 Tl Ill. The British Isles 14 n IV. Scandinavian Countries 4 If v. France, Belgium, the Netherlands, n Germany1 Switzerland, Austria 18 Il VI. Poland1 Czechoslovakia1 the Danube lands 5 Vll. The Soviet Union 9 Il VIII. Me di terr anean Europe 12 If

Il IX. Southwest Asia, lndia1 Pakistan, Ce y lon 10 x. China, Japan, Southeast Asia 12 If

100 periods

A sample study on the British Isles is outlined. -168-

APPENDlX D

Syllabus for Hi~h School - Grades VIII to XI.

(Handbook for Teachers [1957 Edition]; the supplement to the Handbook, 1962;

and the Grade Xl Geo~aphy Syllabus p~hlet, 1962.)

GRADE VIII

Text: Namowitz, Stone and Bird1 Earth Science, Book 1, The world we live in, Van Nostrand •

Unit 1 - The Earth and its landforms1 Unit II - The Earth and the Universe.

GRADE lX

Text: Namowitz, Stone and Eird1 Earth Science, Book 11, · Back~ound to man.

Topo~aphic maps (Earth Science, Book 11 Chapter 4) should be reviewed.

The Canadian Oxford Atlas is authorized for use in Grades

VIII to Xl.

GRADE X

Textt Thralls1 Z.E., The world around us (revised Canadian Edition, Gage).

Previously1 the text used for Grades X and Xl was The ~rld by Stamp and Kimble, Longmans. This is now a reference book. -169-

More time should be spent on Europe and Asia than on other continents.

GRADE XI

Texts Tomkins and Hills, A Regional geography of North America, Gage, Toronto, 1962.

The Canadian Oxford Atlas, reference.

A Teachers t Guide to a Regional Geography of North America.

References: Moore, DictionSEY of geography, Penguin.

Stamp1 A glossary of geo~raphical terms, Longmans. Namowitz and Bird, Earth Sciencet Books 1 and 2.

Thralls1 The ~rld around us. The references included in the text.

Materials Required: Wall maps; 1. North America, 2. Canada, 3. u.s.A., 4 .. Mexico, 5. World - Vegetation, Clim.ate, Physiography, Pressure, Rainfa111 Temperature.

Globes; Printed globe of the world, Slated Il Il Il Il

Topographie maps; at least one set of topographie maps, preferablw a map of the school area.

Appropriate Filmstrips; The National film board list.

Master stencils of maps for duplicating purposes; North America, Canada and regions of Canada, The United States. -170-

Unit 1. Canada 40 periods The u.s.A. 20 Il

Unit 2. One of four parts 30 " -171-

.APPENDIX E

Geogr!Phical Societies

11 (From "Wright, J.K.. 1 "The field of the geographical society 1 in Taylor: Geography in the 20th Century. Pp. 551-552.)

LAY SOCIETIES

General

1. The Royal Geographical Society founded in 18301 2. The American Geographical Society founded in 1852, 3. The Royal Scottish Geographical Society founded in 1884.

Educational

4. The National Geographie Society ÇResearch) founded in 1888.

PROFESSIONAL SOCIETIES

General

1. Association of American Geographers founded in 19041 2. Institute of British Geographers founded in 1933.

Educational

3. British Geographical Association founded in 1893,

4. American National Council for Geography Teachers founded in 1914,

S. American Society for Professional Geographers (Research and educational society) founded in 1943. -172-

APFENDIX F

List of Educational Institutions

Greater Montreal: Address: Principal;

1. 13aron :Syng High. 4251 St. Urbain Mr. w.s. Trenholm, 2. Dunton High., 5555 Mtee de St.Leonard Mr. R.,G. Anderson, 3. High School for Girls, Montreal 3449 University Dr. Dorothy J. Ross 1 4. High School of MtL. 3449 University Mr. H.E. Wright, s. John Grant High. 2751 36 Av., Lachine Mr. E. Davidson, 6. Lachine High. 5050 Sherbrooke, Lachine Mr. G.T.P. Graham, 7. Malcolm Campbell High. 3400 Nadon Mr. A.D. Talbot, s. Monklands High. 4400 Westhill Mr. c.G. Hewson, 9. Mtl. West High. 189 Easton Mr. B. S. Schaffe lburg, 10. Mount Royal High. 50 Montgomery, T.,M.,R. Mr. G.L. Drysdale, 11. Nortbmount High. 6755 Lavoiè Mr. R.J. Anderson, 12. Outremont High. 500 Dollard Mr. F.W. Cook, 13. Rosemount High. 3737 :Beaubien, E. Mr. W.J. Sargeant, 14. St.Laurent High. 880 Cardinal Mr. H.,G. Taylor, 15. Sir Yinston Churchill High. 2505 Ct. Vertu Mr. D.T. Trenholm, 16. Verdun High. 1201 Argyle Dr. H.E. Grant, 17. Wes thi 11 High. 5851 Somer1ed Mr. R.J. Rivard, 18. Westmount High. 4350 St.Catherine w. Mr. N.W. Wood. Chambly County School 'Boardl

1. Chambly County High. 675 Green St., St.Lambert Mr. E.Y. Templeton,

West Island School 'Board:

1. Lindsay Place High. 111 Broadview Ave., Valois Mr. Clowater, 2. Macdonald High. Ste.Anne de Bellevue Mr. Clarke, Private School Board:

1. Lower Canada College 4090 Royal Ave. Dr. Penton,

Elementary School:

1. Willingdon School 5870 Terrebonne Ave., Mr. A. Pitcairn, 2. Devonshire 11 3835 Clarke St. Mr. c.w. Locke, 3. Iona Il 5000 Iona Ave. Mr. H.H. Cooke, 4. Bannantyne Il 4222 :Sannantyne Ave., Mr. N. Ellis. -173-

University: l. Sir George Williams Drunnnond St., Prof. H. Clinch, 2. McGill Montreal 21 Prof. Trevor Lloyd, 3. Macdonald College Ste.Anne de Bellevue

Total number of institutions = 29 Number viaited = 20 -174-

APPENDIX G

Questionaire used in Interviewina Geography Teachers

School: • . . .. • • • Principal: • • • • • • • Address: • • • • • • Geography Teacher: .. . .

Data: • • • • • • • •

I'RINC:œAL;

1. Is geography a compulsory subject • • • • • • • • • • • or an optional subject • • • • • • • • • • • 2. What place does it take among school subjects: Superior • • • • • • • • Average • • • • • • • • • • • lnferior • • • • • • • • • • •

3. Time Table allowance in High school • • • • • • • • • • • in Elementary school ...... 4. Brief history of geography teaching in school (Optional qu.) Early beginning ...... Special features ......

5. Qualifications of geography teachers • • • • • • • • • • •

GEOGRAPHY TEACHERS:

6. What do you think is the purpose of teaching geography in your school?

For History • • • • • • • • • • • Future citizens ...... -175-

International understanding ...... Conservation plans ...... Town planning ...... Leisure • • • • • • • • Maps • • • • • • • • Man on the land ......

7. Which branch is emphasised:

(a) Physical Geography • • • • • • • • Il (b) Economie • • • • • • • • (c) Human Il • • • • • • • • (d) Regional Il • • • • • • • •

s. Conment on the suitability of the Text:

Grade 8 Earth Science, Bk.l . . • • . • .. • Il Il 9 Il Bk.2 . • • • • • • • Il 10 -The Wor ld around us: Thralls • • • • • • " 11 - Regional geography of N• .America . • • . . . •

9. What are the library facilities for geography students;

Novels . • • • • • • • Fiction • • • • • • • • At lasses • • • • • • . • Year books • • • • • . • • Encyc lopedias . • • • • • • •

10. What aids and apparatuses are used1

(a) Who constructs diagrams and charts • • • • • • • (b) What is the amount of pupils 1 planning . . . . • •

11. Wh.ich of the methods are generally used in your school?

(a) Procedure from interesting descriptive details to generalized relationships ••••••••••••••••••••••• -176-

(b) Procedure from generalized relationships to interesting descriptive details ••••••••••• (c) The scientific process of observing, recording, describing1 correlating •••••••••••••••••••••• (d) Using audio-visual aids, outdoor visita as a basis for pupil study ••••••••••••••••••••••

(e) Drill in names, products, map drawing1 note- making ·····~····•·••••••••••••••••••••••••• {f) Following of Text-books ••••••••••••••••••••

12. Can you give an indication of the geography room or equivalent • ••••••

13. (a) What is done in place of local studies and journeys during winter? • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • (b) What is the extent of practical and experimental work? •••

14. At what grades are the following introduced?

(a) Globes with topographie features • • • • • (b) Atlases, with maps of continents on separate pages • • • • •

(c) Topographie maps of small scales- 1:501 000 1 11100,000 ••••• (d) Contour maps • • ••• (e) Aerial maps • • • • • (f) Studies of home area in detail • • • • • (g) Studies of home1and in detail ••• • • (h) Systematic study of countries other than the homeland • • • ••

15. Which forma are used for testing?

{a) Factual essay type • • • • . (b) Problem essay type .. • • • • (c) Objective factual type • • • • • (d) Objective comprehension • • • (e) Objective attitude test • • • • .

16. (a) Are the pupils aware of the careers in geography? • • • • • (b) What are sorne careers in this area? ••••••• • • • • • 17. What is the attitude of other teachers toward geography education •••••• -177-

· 18. Is. ther.e a geogr aphy society among1 (a) Senior students • • • •• • • (b) Teachers in Montreal Area •••

19. Comment upon;

(a) Notable aspects of geography education in your sehol ••••• (b) -weak Il Il Il n ft Il ••••• (c) School »oard ta attitude to geography education ••••••••••• (d) Qualifications of geography teaehers •••••••••••••••••••••

20. Is the university, in your opinion, playing a part to improve the status of geography in Montreal? ••••• "Wha.t? • • • • •

21. ~at are your suggestions for improvement of geography education in this area?

(a) School ••••• (e) Syllabus ••••• (b) Board •••••• (f) Examinations •• (c) Te achers ••• (g) Apparatuses ••• (d) Students ••• (h) Approach •••••

22. What are some of the books used to supplement the courses? .....

23. Does the school take any geographical periodicals for senior students'l ••• • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

24. Do you have meetings of Geography teachers in your school?•••••

25. What encouragement is reeeived from the board? (a) Extra salary for head of department ••••• (b) Reports from education officers on latest methods ••••• (c) Journals for geographer teachers ••••• -178-

APPENDIX H

Geography Committee of the Protestant School :Board of

Greater Montreal

(From: Protestant School :Board of Greater Montreal: Report of the Ge

ography Committee of the Blementary School Committee1 February 1959; unpublished pamphlet.)

Mr • .J.H. l'atrick1 Chairman Principal, WOodland School Mrs. E.T. :Barrington Merton School Miss Grace Fletcher Westhill Righ School Mrs. F. Cytrynbaum Van Horne School (Grade VI) Mrs. E.H. Green Royal Vale School (Grade VII) Mrs. M. Heazel Morison School Miss P.M. McGlashan Bannantyne School (Grade VII) Mrs. V.B. Munro Principal, Surrey Gardens School Miss F. Law Education Officer Miss S.D. Silverstein Nesbitt School (Grade VII) Mr • .J.~ ~bster 1 Secretary Principal, Algonquin School Mr. N. llood Curriculum Department Mr. P. Austin Il Il

Consultant

Mrs. ~ Finlayson Former principal, Cartierville School -179-

APl'ENDlX I

Population Statistics for 18 High Schoo1s of

Greater Montreal (on March 1963)

1. BARON !YNG: Gr. Total Geography Students

8 284 226 9 236 236 10 166 20 11 149 35

835 517

2. DUNTON;

8 369 279 9 328 241 10 212 161 11 115 82

1,024 763

3 .. HIGH SCHOOL FOR GIRLS, MONTREAL:

8 252 221 9 205 72 10 215 11 92

764 293

4. HIGH SCHOOL OF MONTREAL - :BOYS: -180-

Gr. Total Geograpby Students

8 270 210 9 210 140 10 210 62 11 90 30

780 442 s. JOHN GRANT:

8 233 92 9 182 79 10 128 16 11 63 15

606 202

6. LACHINE:

8 334 180 9 339 120 10 300 70 11 354 33

1,327 403

7. MALCOlM CAMPBELL:

8 350 36 9 280 30 10 375 80 11 195 55

1,200 201

8. MONKLANDS: -181-

Gr. Total Geoseaphy Students 8 402 352 9 339 339 10 353 40 11 225 35

1,319 766

9. MONTREAL 1ŒST: 8 357 100 9 341 159 10 289 11 252

1,239 259

10 .. MOUNT ROYAL: (Subject Promotion)

8 257 36 514 9 257 35 10 293 26 585 11 292 26

1,099 123

11. NORTHMOUNT:

8 402 33 9 380 10 10 373 91 11 335 29

1,490 163

12. C>U'TIŒMON'r: (Inc1uding Strathcona Academy - Gr.B)

8 436 165 9 374 164 -182-

Gr. Total Geography Students

10 327 11 436

1,537 329

13. ROSEMOUNT: (Subject Promotion)

8 360 83 165 given 9 352 82 10 239 46 92 n 11 256 46

1,207 257

14. ST,. LAURENTt

8 152 140 9 139 10 106 11 108

505 140

15. SIR 'WINSTON CHURCHILL:

8 455 288 9 385 288 10 224 34 11 163 26

1,227 636

16. VERDUN: (Approx.) 8 400 360 9 360 280 10 340 210 11 310 140

1,410 990 -183-

17. -wEST HILLt Gr. Total Geography Students

8 462 245 9 496 275 10 419 41 11 321 46

1,698 607

18. ilES '!MOUNT:

8 275 86 9 235 80 10 304 40 11 231 20

1;045 226

SUMMARY FOR 18 HIGH SCHOO!B OF GREA.TER MONTREAL BOARD:

Grand Total Geograph;y Students

Grade 8 6,050 3,131 f1 9 5,438 2,630 Il 10 4,873 937 u 11 3,987 618

Full High Sch. Pop. 20,348 7,316

35.9 % of Total Studying Geograph;y -184-

APPENDIX J

Students taking High Schoo1 Leaving Examination in Geography for 18 High

Schoo1s of Greater Montreal

(1960 - 1961 - 1962 - 1963)

(From Annua1 Statistical Reports of the Protestant Schoo1 :Board of Greater Montreal)

YEARS TOTAl. TAKING GEOGRAPHY TOTAL TAKING GEOGRAPHY IN ALL GRADESt 8,91 10, IN GRADE 11 11

1960-61 6549 386 1961-62 6747 505 1962-63 7210 499

Num.ber in each High Schoo1 Grade for Period 1960-63

GRADE: VIII IX x XI TOTAL

1960-61 3163 2334 666 386 6549 1961-62 3158 2400 684 505 6747 1962-63 3252 2648 811 499 7210 -185-

APPENDIX K

Population Statistics for Lower Canada College (~c.e.)

Grades: Geography Students:

8 50 9 50 10 50 11 18 (choice between Geography and Physics)

The high school leaving examination offered is the Junior Matriculation of McGill University.

Geography is offered from Grade III - Regional geography is taken first and fo11owed by physica1 geography.

Population Statistics for MacDonald High Schoo1

Grades: Total Students: Geography Students:

8 223 154 9 204 176 10 150 73 (Quebec Gr.lO Exam.) 11 147 70 (Quebec High School Leaving) -186-

APPENDIX L

Analysis of Geography Teachers

in 9 High Schools

Total No. No. of No.Trained No. with No. with Schools: of Geog. outside Hons. or no geography Teachers: Teachers: Montreal; Major in at ------~~eël! ___ ~!~E!!!l~

1. Montreal High 48 6 5 2 4 2. Mount Royal 59 4 1 2 2 3. "Westhill 78 4 2 2 4. Westmount 54 4 1 1 3 5. Verdun 60 5 1 3 2 6. Baron Byng 42 6 3 3 7. Rosemount 65 5 5 B. Nortbmount 72 5 2 3 9. Macdonald 36 4 1 1 3

43 9 16 27

Total Geography Teachers in 9 High Schools = 43 No. with honours or major in Geography = 16 No. with no geography at Degree = 27

Percentage of Geog. Teachers without degree preparation in geography:

= 63% -187-

APPENDIX M

Macdonald College GeograPhy Poeulation Statistics 1962-63.

Groups: Total: No.taking Ge- Methods in Ge- ography (Uni- ography (Full versity courses) course or partial course)

T.P. 112 Partial 112 (One year diploma from Gr.XI) 2 s 89 Partial 89 (One year diploma from Gr. XII)

1 G 86 Partial (19) (One year graduate Full (19) diploma in Education) None 48

Freshman Diploma 166 Partial 166 (First of two-year *(Geog.lll) = 74 course in Ed.From Gr.XI)

2 D 132 Geog.lll = 18 Partial 132 (Second of two-year *(Geog.212) = 51 course in Ed.from Gr.XI)

:B.Ed.l. 57 Partial 57 (Freshm.an in 4"!'ye_ar. Geog.111 = 34 :Bachelor 1 s course)

:B.Ed.2. 59 Partial 59 (2nd year in :4_-year Geog.lll = 1 Bachelorts course) Geog.212 = 24

* Geography 111 - Human Geography * Geography 212 - Economie Geogr aphy -188-

APPENDIX N

Hish School Leavi!l_8 Examinations guebec

MONDAY, JUNE 261 from 1: 30 to 4 P .M. GEOGRAPHY

Five questions are to be answered. The following are compulsory: Question 1 from Section A, one question of your choice from Section B, Question 5 from Section c, and any other two questions from Section c. All questions are of equal value. You are provided with one photograph for Question 1 and two attached sheets of maps for Question 5.

Values SECTION A

1. Glaciation in one form or another has been responsible for cpnsiderable erosion and deposition at the earthts surface. The photo that has been supplied with the examination illustrates several aspects of active gla ciation. The following questions can partly be answered from study of the photograph.

2 (a) Name the two major types of glaciation, 1 (b) 'Which type is most important during an ice age? 2 (c) 'What were the approximate southern limita of glaciation in North America during the last ice age? 2 (d} Name two regions of extensive glaciation in North America at the present time. 1 (e) Suggest a location in Canada where the scene in the photo might well be located. 3 (f) Glacial ice takes a variety of forma. Three of these forms are illustrated in the photo. Identify the forms marked A, B and D. 3 (g) Explain the relationship between A, B and D. 1 (h) Suggest a possible connection between D and the Grand Banks to the east of Newfoundland. -189-

2 (i) ~t depositional feature is generally associated with B and E? How is this feature generally classified? (j) C is located in the centre of an erosional feature. What name is usually given to this type of feature? Exp lain its origin and at the same time identify F.

SECION B

2. In your text, The ~orld 1 the authors discuss geographical control or geographical influence and a diagram is used to illustrate geographical influence and man. 6 (a) Try to reproduce this diagram. 6 (b) Discuss what is meant by geographical control or influence. 8 (c) Discuss in detail the relationship of man and the physical environment in any two of the following geographical regions - The Mediterranean Lands, Cool Temperate Deciduous Forest Lands, Mid-Latitude Grasslands and the Tundras.

3. Between Southern Mexico and the North Pole there is a considerable range of climate. Five of the major types of climate are represented in the following climatic data.

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul ~ Sep Oct ------Nov Dec Year A Temp. 77.9 77.7 78.8 80.4 82.6 82.8 82.6 80.8 81.1 82.9 80.2 78.6 80.5 Precip. 0.6 o.o o.o o.o 1. 7 16.5 6.0 6.3 14.7 5.9 1.9 o. 7 54.3 B Temp. 13.0 14.7 25.4 41.1 55.1 64.7 69.3 67.0 58.7 46.7 32.7 19.1 42.3 Precip. 3.7 3.2 3.7 2.4 3.1 3.4 3.7 3.3 3.5 3.3 3.4 3.7 40.4 C Temp. 54.2 57.3 62.8 68.8 75.4 80.6 82.4 82.2 79.2 71.0 61.6 55.6 69.2 Precip. 4.3 4.2 4.7 5.2 4.6 5.9 6.4 5.8 5.0 3.3 3.1 4.8 57.3 D Temp. 45.8 50.1 54.3 58.1 63.3 69.4 73.2 72.9 69.3 62.9 53.6 46.2 59.9 Precip. 3.7 3.0 2.6 1.5 0.8 0.1 0 0 0.4 0.9 1.9 3.0 17.9 E Temp. 5.5 10.5 23.4 40.5 51.0 57.2 61.1 59.2 50.2 41.1 24.7 14.3 36.5 Precip. 0.9 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.8 3.2 3.4 2.4 1.4 0.7 0.7 0.8 17.4

5 (a) Locate A,n,c,D and E, using the name of city if possible, or the name of the region, or portion of state or province.

5 (b) For each of A,B,C1 D and E provide a climatic regional name such as those used in your text, eg., Warm Temperate East Coast Climate and justify each answer. -190-

2-1/2 (c) ~at type of vegetation do you usually associate with each of the cltmates1 as represented by A1! 1 C1 D and E? Explain the dominance of each vegetation type.

3 (d) Explain for A1 B1 C1 D and E how the architecture has been adapted to the nature of the cltmate.

1 (e) ~ch of the climates has the highest rate of eva poration?

1 (f) ~ich of the cltmates has the most effective precipitation? 2-1/2 (g) Associate with each of the climates the typical agriculture. 4. The following are factors some of which are always involved in the development of cities1 other usually1 but not always.

site r aw materials 1 position good communications, power labour water supply climate 8 (a) Explain the significance of each of the above factors in the development of cities. (b) For a city in which the iron and steel industry is of major importance which of the above factors would need to be particularly favourable? 2 (c) Where a city•s chief function is to be the capital of a country, which factors would need to be favourable? 2 (d) Which factors need to be favourable for the deve lopment of an aluminum manufacturing centre? 2 (e) For the development of a tourist centre which factors need to be especially favourable? 4 (f) Which factors have played an important role in the development of London, England?

SECTION C

20 S. On two of the .three sheets supplied with the examination there are four maps of North America. For each of the maps marked A1 B1 C and D there is a set of questions in the examination paper. On each map there are numbers corresponding to the numbers of the questions. Alongside

each number there is a blank space1 in which the answer to each question is to be written. Each answer is to be written on the sheets of maps 1 not in the examination book. Do not forget to fold the sheets and place them in your examination book. -191-

·s MAPA Numbers 1 to 4 are cities, Numbers 5 to 8 are rivera, Numbers 9 and 10 are lakes. Name them.

5 MAP » Numbers 11 to 15 represent the locations of major mining towns or regions. Name the town or region and the most important mineral mined at that location.

5 MAP C Numbers 16 to 20. Give the approximate annual rainfall of each of these regions. Number 21. Give the approximate mean July temperature of this region. Number 22. Give the approximate annual snowfall of this region. Numbers 23 to 25. Name the types of rock (igueous, volcanic, sedimentary1 metamorphic1 glacial deposit, alluvium) that are found at the surface in these regions.

5 MAP D Numbers 26 to 28. The outlined areas are agri cultural regions. Name them. Numbers 29 to 31. The outlined areas represent major soil types of the continent. Name them. Number 32. Name the dominant vegetation of this region. Number 33. Name this fishing ground. Number 34. Name this gulf. Number 35. Name this island.

6. Southern Quebec cau conveuiently be divided into tbree major geographical regions, namely, the Southern Fringe of the Canadian Shield (The Laurentians), the St.,Lawrence and Ottawa valleys and the Appalachians. 6 (a) Justify the division of southern Quebec into these three regions. 5 (b) Discuss the relationship of the tbree regions to each other. 3 (c) Vlhich of the three regions is best served by communications 1 Vlb.y? 3 (d) In which region is there the greatest scope for an increase in agricultural production? Why? -192-

. 3 (e) "Wb.y has Montreal become the focus of all tbree regions? 7. The following cities are major centres within geographical regions of the »ritish Isles. As major centres they reflect characteristics of their hinterlands within these regions. cardiff Belfast Ma.nchaster Leicester Leeds Dundee Stoke Glasgow 2 (a) What is a hinterland? 18 (b) Select six (6) of the above cities and discuss each of them, in turn, under the following headings; the geographical region of which the city is a centre, the extent to which the city reflects the charac teristics of the region, the nature of communications with other parts of the country and the world.

USE SKETCH MAPS TO lLLUSTRATE THE LOCATION OF EACR CI'IY.

8. The Great Plains and the Canadian Prairies are sections of a major physiographic region of the North American continet. The settlement, subsequent development and present state of economie deve lopment has been simi lar throughout the · region regardless of the existence of an international boundary. 10 (a) Describe lndian occupancy, settlement by peoples of European origin and the present economie activities of both regions.

10 (b) Now1 explain fully why the experience of human beings over the last two or tbree centuries, in both regions has been relatively uniform.

9. The rivers of North America have played a major role in settlement, transportation and in the development of economie life in general. 5 (a) Draw a sketch map of North America (in size, sufficient to cover one page of your examination book) and on it show the following rivers: Mississippi, Missouri, Arkansas, Platte, Red River (southern), Rio Grande, Ohio, Tennessee, Colorado, Sacramento, Columbia, Fraser, Mackenzie, Athabasca, Saskatchewan, Nelson, St.Lawrence, Ottawa, Richelieu, Hudson, Mohawk. -193-

5 (b) Discuss the ro1e that these rivers1 or combinations of rivera and lakes1 p1ayed in the early economie 1ife (fur trade, timber trade1 etc.) of North America. 5 (c) ~t role did they play in agricultural settlement? 5 (d) Name the rivera that have been important lines of communication and transportation throughout this century, and· explain their present fun.ction.

20 10. 1ilb.en a traveller journeys in a continental region the changes he observes from place to place are due to a variety of physical and cultural factors. Take an ima ginery journey from Mexico City to Quebec City via the following regions: west Texas, Mississippi Delta1 Appalachian Ridge and Valley Province, Manhattan Island, the White Mountains and the St.Lawrence Lowlands. Choose six points along the route of the journey with Mexico City being one of thea, and discuss the influence of geology altitude latitude cultural background

upon the landscape of the surrounding region.

1962

High Schoo 1 Leaving Examinations Que bec

TUESDAY, JUNE 261 from 1:30 to 4 P.M. GEOGRAPHY

Five questions are to be answered. The fol1owing are compul soryl Question 1 from Section A, one question of your choice from Section B, Question 5 from Section c, and any other two questions from Section c. All questions are of equal value. You are provided with four photographe for Question 1. ln answering each question please follow the suggested outline as closely as possible otherwise it will be difficult to obtain full marks. -194-

SECTION A

Values 1. PHOTO A. 1 (a) What type of physical feature is il1ustrated in this photo? 2 (b) Draw 2 or 3 sma11 diagrams to show the way in which this feature has probably been deve1oped. C1early mark all characteristics of significance.

1 (c) ~ich of the typical characteristics can be identified in the photo? 1 (d) What use does man make of such a feature of the landscape?

PHOTO B. 1 (e) Not all landforms are at the surface of the 1ithosphere. Some such as the feature in the photo are located underground. What is this feature? 2 (f) Explain the origin of this feature. 1 (g) Name the two distinctive characteristics of this type of feature that are illustrated in the photo. 1 (h) What use does man make of such a feature?

PHOTO C. 2 (i) Explain the size of the boulders in the foreground of the photo. 1 (j) Explain the co1our of the water. 1 (k) In the middle of the photo to the right, and at the foot of the mountain are heaps of stones and boulders. What are these features called and how do they develop? 1 (1) What type of mountain occurs in the photo and how has it developed its present form?

PHOTO D. 2 (m) Describe the physical features in this photo. 2 (n) There are three major types of land use in the photo. What are they? 1 (o) The mouth of this river acts as a sma11 port. Exp1ain what has been done to improve its navigability. -195-

SECTION B

20 2. Discuss the nature and geographical significance of the atmosphere and in the course of your discussion be sure to describe and explain the following phenomena:

Pressure Westerlies Pressure belts of Land and sea breezes the earth Temperature Monsoons liater vapour Fohn liind Depressions Trade winds Hurricane

~rks will only be awarded if the above phenomena are described and explained in the course of a properly organized discussion.)

3. Prairies, steppes, pampas, veld and savanna are major grass land types of the world. Discuss them under the following headings1 5 (a) Distribution, 5 (b) Physical characteristics and controls of each type, 5 (c) History of human occupance and contemporary use1 (d) 5 Mfuat is the potential of each type for increased human settlement?

4. Select either lakes or mountains. 8 (a) Present a classification based upon the way in which they are formed. 8 (b) Provide several examples of each types in your classification.

4 (c) Discuss the significance of ea~h type to man.

SECTION C

5. lirite all answers and answers only in your answer book. 2 (a) Name four of the six major crops of Canada, 2 (b) Name four of the six leading cities of the United States, by population, 2 (c) Name four leading cities of Mexico, 2 (d) Nane four of the top six minerals produced in Canada, -196-

2 (e) Name four of the top six minerais produced in the United States, 2 (f) Na~e four Pacifie Coast ports of the United States, 2-1/2 (g) Name the states or provinces in which the following cities are located: Regina, Fresno, Kamloops, Peterborough, Birmingham, 2-1/2 (h) ~ich of the following cities has an annu~l precipi tation of 40 inches or more: Vancouver 1 Kamloops 1 ~innipeg 1 Montreal, San Francisco, Denver, St.Louis, New York, Los Angeles, New Orleans, Mexico City, 1/2 (i) ~ich of the fo11owing trees do you not find in the boreal forest? spruce1 red pine1 jack pine1 cypress, balsam fir1 1 (j) In which state does chaparral occur extensively? 1/2 (k) lr.~ich one of the following rivera is not a tributary of the Mississippi: Red, Arkansas, Missouri, Gila, Ohio, 1/2 (1) Which one of the following mountain ranges is not located in the United States? Ozarks1 Sierra Neva da, Selkirks, Blue Ridge, Catskills, 1/2 (m) Which one of the following islands do not occur in the Arctic? Manitoulin1 Baffin, Melville, Axel Heiberg, Ellesmere,

20 6.. Montreal is the largest city in Canada in terms of population and it is also the major manufacturing centre. The port of Montreal is extremely important but it is not the only reason for the development of the city. Present a brief geographical analysis of Montreal, in the course of which you should exp lain the factors - physical, historical1 political, economie, etc. - that have played a role in development.

20 7. ~ite an essay on either the fishing industry of Canada or the forestry industries of North America.

8. North America is a major producer of wheat and iron ore. Discuss either wheat or iron ore under the following headings:

5 (a) Centres of production (sketch map) 1 5 (b) Major routes and means of movement within North America (sketch map) 1

5 (c) International trade - exporta and imports1 5 (d) Major centres of processing and consumption. -197-

9. The following ten towns can be conveniently grouped in pairs for sound geographical reasons. Tampico Minneapolis Port Arthur Dallas Richmond Tuxpan Winston-Salem Fort Worth St.Paul Fort William 10 (a) Group these towns in appropriate pairs and draw sketch maps to show their location, (b) Explain as fully as possible the functions of each town and why they are paired geographically.

10. In Mexico three major zones are recognized1 the tierra caliente1 tierra templada and the tierra fria. 6 (a) What are the altitudinal limita of these zones?

7 (b) ~ich zone is of the greatest significance in terms of the Mexican population and economy? 7 (c} Describe as fully as possible the major geographical characteristics of each zone. -198-

.APPENDIX 0

Careers in Geography

I. Fields in Geography:

(From: A.A.G. and N.C.G.E., Joint Comm.ittee on Careers; A career in geographll The Geographical Research Institute.

Denoyer-Geppert Company1 5235 Ravenswood Ave. 1 Chicago, u.s.A., 1962, P.2.)

Agricultur al geogr aphy 1 Industrial geography1

Biogeography1 Marketing geography,

Cartography1 Political geography1

Climatology1 Regional geography1

Demography1 Resource geography,

Cultural geography1 Settlement geography1 Geomorphology, Urban geography and planning. Historical geography.

II. Areas of Employment for Geographers:

(From: Royal geographical society, Careers for geosraphers

in the Geographical Journal, Vol. 1261 1960. Pp. 451-4.)

A. Business and Commerce, B. Public Service, c. Planning, D. Teaching.

~ Business and Connnerce;

Managerial traineeships1

Secretaryships in business firms1 Posts in buyers, freight dispatch and export departments

of large firms 1 -199-

Market Research1

Trading concerns in oil1 aluminimn1 motor vehicles1 and mercantile marine, Business organization,

Editing and producing books, periodicals1 maps; editing films and filmstripsJ Journalism - foreign correspondents, special correspondents, leading writers, Transport - shipping and aircraftJ

Econ~ic department - especially if geography is combined with economies.

B. Public Service:

Administration in Civil Service, Senior branch of foreign service, Technical branches, Research in Ministry of housing and Ministry of local governnent, Research in Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Civil hydrographie department, Map Research offices,

Overseas Surveys1 National Parks Commissions, Hydraulics Research Station,

Soi 1 SurveyJ River Boards, Meteorolmgical services.

C. Planning;

Local planning authorities, Assisting in planning with Architect, Economist and Civil Bngineer. -200-

· D. Teachingt

Specialists, Primary and Secondary schools,

Teachers' Colleges and Universities1 Statistics. -201-

APPEND!X P

lntegrative Power of Geography

(From: Hutchings1 G.E.: ''Memorandum on Geography Teaching" in Geogra.phy, Journal of the Geographical Association,

Vo1.47 1 Part 11 No.2141 Jan. 19621 P.69)

Geography can be presented with aspects of each of the following subjects:

Mathematics; Latitude and longitude; size and shape of the earth1 movements of the earth and time; very simple surveying; scales as ratios; direction and bearings; use and construction of graphs and diagrams.

English; Travel and exploration stories; dia.ries of explorers1 past and present; written and oral expression on ge ographical topics.

Physics; Pressure and winds; altitude and temperature; other aspects of weather and climate.

Chemistry; Composition of the atmosphere; uses of fertilizers; study of soils.

Biology; Types of vegetation; types of agriculture; climate and man; effects of diets; diseases; evolution in relation to physical geography or geology.

Craft; Making modela of physical features1 villages, types of

housing1 factories and mines; modela from Ordnance survey maps; making simple measuring and surveying instruments; making instruments for meteorological observations. -202-

History; Explorations; influence of physical features and climate upon peoples in the past; developments of agriculture and industry; local study.

Arts; Simple field sketches; murals with geographical content.

Religious Education; Geographical factors as a background to Bible study; man within his environment.

Languages; ~ere pupils study foreign languages, a study of of the country involved will add much to the reality of the language. -203-

APPENDIX Q

McGill University Geoaraphy Summer School Courses

(From: McGill University, Geography Summer School Bulletin, 1963)

Place: Stanstead College1 Stanstead1 Quebec. History: llth year.

Time: Ju1y 2 to August 141 1963.

COURSES:

A. School geography workshop1 B. Introduction to Geographyl physical and human geography in the field and laboratory,

c. Physical geogr aphy1

D. World resources and Industries1 E. Canada: with special reference to the St.Lawrence area,

F. Quantitative methods in geography1

G. The Polar Lands - A geographica1 introduction in collaboration with the Arctic Institute of North America.