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Alexander Samoylov: Founding Father of Russian Electrophysiology

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Alexander Samoylov: Founding Father of Russian Electrophysiology Cardiology Journal 2010, Vol. 17, No. 5, pp. 537–539 Copyright © 2010 Via Medica HISTORY OF CARDIOLOGY ISSN 1897–5593 Alexander Samoylov: Founding father of Russian electrophysiology Alexander Samoylov (Fig. 1) was born on 27 March, 1867, in Odessa. After completing gymna- sium school, he began at the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics in Novorossiisk University, but before graduating changed his mind in favor of medicine. He enrolled in the medical faculty at the Universi- ty of Derpt (now Tartu) and graduated in 1892 as a Doctor of Medicine. In the same year, in St. Peters- burg, he presented his thesis “On the Fate of Iron in the Animal Organism” (Uber das Schicksal des Eisens im thierischen Organismus, Diss., St. Pe- tersburg, 1892), following which he joined the labo- ratory of the prominent Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov and became involved in his study of the physiology of digestion. In 1894, he accepted a job offer from another great Russian physiologist, Ivan Sechenov, in Moscow University, and there contin- Figure 1. Alexander F. Samoylov (1867–1930). ued his research. Samoylov’s main academic inter- est, however, came to focus on the field of electro- physiology. According to his own account, this was inspired by an encounter with the noted Russian and the sequence of electrical processes in the atria physiologist Nikolay Wedensky. In August 1883, the and ventricles (Archiv f. Physiologie, 1906, Suppl. Bd.). teenaged Samoylov heard a lecture by Wedensky In 1904 Samoylov met Willem Einthoven at the at the Seventh Congress of Russian Natural Scien- International Physiological Congress in Brussels tists and Physicians in Odessa, in which he report- and they soon developed an intense scientific co- ed on his studies of the processes of neural and operation and close friendship. In 1906, Samoylov muscular activity in animals using a telephone. That started to work with the string galvanometer, report so impressed the young Samoylov that he a device invented by Einthoven which offered signi- decided to devote himself to the study of these pro- ficantly greater capabilities than the capillary elec- cesses. However, unlike Wedensky, he chose to trometer (Fig. 2). examine them by eye rather than by ear. What The delicacy and refinement of Samoylov’s Wedensky had listened to, Samoylov wanted to see. technique in the use of the capillary electrometer At that time, the main research tool used to study electrophysiological processes was the capil- lary electrometer which Samoylov not only thor- oughly explored but also improved in many ways by AB increasing its mobility, which allowed the curves representing the electrical processes in the heart of a frog to be recorded without lengthy correction and rectification, as had been required previously. He designed a photographic recorder with a fast-mo- ving drum which could be used for reproducing elec- trical phenomena in the heart muscle on photogra- phic film or paper. His electrograms, together with the atrial and ventricular mechanical curves, dis- played all major phases of the cardiac cycle in a frog’s heart: the relationships between electrical and me- Figure 2. String galvanometer (A) and electrocardio- chanical processes involved in the work of the heart, gram recorded by it (B). www.cardiologyjournal.org 537 Cardiology Journal 2010, Vol. 17, No. 5 were demonstrated in his studies of the currents impulse exists in the central nervous system, of muscular activity induced by dual stimulation. a positive response in the muscle of a cat was either This technique, and the combination of the capil- totally absent or severely depressed. It was deter- lary electrometer with the string galvanometer, mined in this study that the inhibition of positive were discussed in a number of his papers (Le physio- response occurs not only when it is preceded by logist Russe, 1908, T.V.Archiv f. Physiologie 1908, inhibitory stimulation, but also when it follows the Suppl., Zentrabalt f. Physiol. Bd. 24, Pfugers Archiv, inhibitory stimulation (a positive response in this Bd. 143, 1912), where the multiple photography experiment was obtained by stimulation of m. semi- method used for the first time by Burdon-Sander- tendinosus through stimulation of n. peroneus on son in the 1880s was brought to perfection. the same side, and a negative response by stimula- In 1908 Samoylov published a paper titled “Ele- tion of the opposite n. peroneus). ktro-kardio-grammstudien” (Betrage zur Physio- From this experiment, Samoylov concluded logie und Pathologie), in which he presented exam- that the path of the inhibitory impulse to the effer- ples of electrocardiograms (ECG) with the identifi- ent neuron is shorter than the path of the excitato- cation of atrial and ventricular electrical activities, ry impulse (Pflug. Arch. Bd. 215, 1927). This study showed the effect of lead electrode positions on the was further developed in his last, posthumous pub- ECG pattern, human respiration phases, and dem- lication devoted to the analysis of a single tetanic onstrated a monophase current curve of ventricu- contraction, which had been first described by We- lar activity and other electrophysiological parame- densky. The nature of this phenomenon is that, ters. Samoylov devoted much time to upgrading the when a sub-threshold tetanic stimulation inducing methodology of the string galvanometer, developed no response in a muscle is applied to the nerve, and techniques for eliminating the tremble of the gal- at the same time a single maximum stimulus is ap- vanometer string, rotating images from vertical to plied higher to the same muscle, the resulting con- horizontal, studying the effects of magnetic fields traction will be tetanic rather than single. Howev- on the galvanometer string etc. (“Praktishe Noti- er, if the strength of stimulus is increased above zen zur Handhabung des Saitengalvanometers”, a certain limit without any change in frequency, the Archiv f. Physiologie, 1909). contraction effect in the muscle will be reduced He studied the changes in the ECG of a frog rather than enhanced. Wedensky had demonstrat- induced by cardio-damaging factors and stimulation ed that stimulation and inhibition in the organism of n. vagus (Pfluger Arch. Bd. 135, 1910). The in- occur in a parallel manner, and that every co-ordi- fluence of the parasympathetic nervous system on nating movement leads to contraction of some mus- the heart of a frog was discussed in a number of cles and relaxation of others. This led Wedensky Samoylov’s papers in which he demonstrated that to suggest the principle of reciprocal innervation. the effect of n.vagus stimulation transforms the The maximum impulse leaves increased exci- terminal portion of the T wave on ECG and, at the tability in the neuromuscular apparatus for several same time, a shorter period of activation is record- seconds, something Wedensky regarded as a func- ed in the basal ventricular segments. He was the tion of the nerve. Samoylov saw it as a function of first to study the influences of muscarine and atropine the nerve endings, based on the assumption that the on the heart (Zentralb. F. Physiol. Bd 27, 1913, nerve ending exudes an unknown excitatory agent Pflugers Arch. Bd. 155, 1914). While studying the which acts on the muscle as a stimulant transfer- ‘Gaskell phenomenon’, which refers to the enhance- ring neuromuscular excitation from the nerve to the ment of quiescent currents under stimulation of muscle, or from one cell to another. At the same n. vagi, Samoylov noticed that the ventricular quiescent time, the periods of decomposition of the agents currents are increased by the stimulation of n. vagi inducing excitation and inhibition were different. which directly results from the influence of the para- The agent inducing excitation decomposed in a hun- sympathetic nervous system, rather than as an indi- dredth of a second, whereas the one inducing inhi- rect influence via the lungs as some of his contempo- bition decomposed in a tenth of second. The exci- raries believed. This observation had great importance tation transfer theory formulated for the first time for the development of electrophysiological theory. in this paper was later dubbed the humoral theory The last ten years of Samoylov’s life were de- and provided a baseline for the mediated transfer voted to the study of the fundamental problems of theory. The results of research of the chemical na- neuromuscular physiology, electrophysiology and ture of the delay were reported in 1926 at the In- the chemistry of neuromuscular inhibitory trans- ternational Physiological Congress in Stockholm. In mission (Pflug. Arch. Bd. 208 B, 1925, American 1929, Samoylov described having received in 1908 J of Physiology vol. XC, # 2, 1929, Pflug. Arch. 225 a monophase curve ECG article which had formed B., 215, 1930). Examining the length of a single in- the basis for an explanation of changes of an ECG hibitory impulse after the stimulation of n. vagus, at a myocardial infarction. In experimenting on the he proved experimentally that, while an inhibitory heart of a frog, partially having cut atrio-ventricu- 538 www.cardiologyjournal.org Leonid Makarov, Alexander Samoylov: Founding father of Russian electrophysiology lar connection, he for the first time described the phenomenon of partial blockade named in a subse- quent periodical ‘Samoylov-Venkebach’. In 1930, his article “Ring rhythm of excitation” proved the electrophysiological mechanism of occurrence of atrial flutter. The works of Samoylov were always distinguished by the accuracy, precision and inte- grity of his experiments. He used to attach great importance to the qua- lity of obtained ECG and continuously upgraded the equipment used in his studies. Samoylov always sought to steer his scientific accomplishments into practical applications. On 30 January 1908 he had reported on the prospects and possibilities of ECG in diagnosing heart diseases at the annual meeting of the Mos- cow Therapeutic Society.
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