Optics for Engineers

Engineering OPTICS for Engineers OPTICS for Engineersfor The field of optics has become central to major developments in medical imaging, remote sensing, communication, micro- and nanofabrication, and consumer technology, among other areas. Applications of optics are now found in products such as laser printers, bar-code scanners, and even mobile phones. There is a growing need for engineers to understand the principles of optics in order to develop new instruments and improve existing optical instrumentation. Based on a graduate course taught at Northeastern University, Optics for Engineers provides a rigorous, practical introduction to the field of optics. Drawing on his experience in industry, the author presents the fundamentals of optics related to the problems encountered by engineers and researchers in designing and analyzing optical systems. Beginning with a history of optics, the book introduces Maxwell’s equations, the wave equation, and the eikonal equation, which form the mathematical basis of the field of optics. It then leads readers through a discussion of geometric optics that is essential to most optics projects. The book also lays out the fundamentals of physical optics—polarization, interference, and diffraction—in sufficient depth to enable readers to solve many realistic problems. It continues the discussion of diffraction with some closed-form expressions for the important case of Gaussian beams. A chapter on coherence guides readers in understanding the applicability of the results in previous chapters and sets the stage for an exploration of Fourier DiMarzio optics. Addressing the importance of the measurement and quantification of light in determining the performance limits of optical systems, the book then covers radiometry, photometry, and optical detection. It also introduces nonlinear optics. This comprehensive reference includes downloadable MATLAB® code as well as numerous problems, examples, and illustrations. An introductory text for graduate and advanced undergraduate students, it is also a useful resource for researchers and engineers developing optical systems. K10366 OPTICS for Engineers Charles A. DiMarzio MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB® software or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB® software. CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Version Date: 20110804 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4398-9704-1 (eBook - PDF) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the valid- ity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. 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Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com To my late Aunt, F. Esther DiMarzio, retired principal of Kingston (Massachusetts) Elementary School, who, by her example, encouraged me to walk the path of learning and teaching, and to my wife Sheila, who walks it with me. This page intentionally left blank CONTENTS IN BRIEF 1 Introduction 1 2 Basic Geometric Optics 35 3 Matrix Optics 59 4 Stops, Pupils, and Windows 83 5 Aberrations 111 6 Polarized Light 133 7 Interference 181 8 Diffraction 233 9 Gaussian Beams 277 10 Coherence 307 11 Fourier Optics 335 12 Radiometry and Photometry 361 13 Optical Detection 411 14 Nonlinear Optics 439 V This page intentionally left blank CONTENTS Preface xvii Acknowledgments xxi Author xxiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Why Optics? 1 1.2 History 4 1.2.1 Earliest Years 4 1.2.2 Al Hazan 4 1.2.3 1600–1800 4 1.2.4 1800–1900 5 1.2.5 Quantum Mechanics and Einstein’s Miraculous Year 5 1.2.6 Middle 1900s 6 1.2.7 The Laser Arrives 6 1.2.8 The Space Decade 7 1.2.9 The Late 1900s and Beyond 8 1.3 Optical Engineering 8 1.4 Electromagnetics Background 9 1.4.1 Maxwell’s Equations 9 1.4.2 Wave Equation 13 1.4.3 Vector and Scalar Waves 18 1.4.4 Impedance, Poynting Vector, and Irradiance 18 1.4.5 Wave Notation Conventions 20 1.4.6 Summary of Electromagnetics 22 1.5 Wavelength, Frequency, Power, and Photons 22 1.5.1 Wavelength, Wavenumber, Frequency, and Period 22 1.5.2 Field Strength, Irradiance, and Power 23 1.5.3 Energy and Photons 24 1.5.4 Summary of Wavelength, Frequency, Power, and Photons 25 1.6 Energy Levels and Transitions 25 1.7 Macroscopic Effects 26 1.7.1 Summary of Macroscopic Effects 27 1.8 Basic Concepts of Imaging 27 1.8.1 Eikonal Equation and Optical Path Length 29 1.8.2 Fermat’s Principle 31 1.8.3 Summary 33 1.9 Overview of the Book 33 Problems 34 VII VIII C ONTENTS 2 Basic Geometric Optics 35 2.1 Snell’s Law 36 2.2 Imaging with a Single Interface 39 2.3 Reflection 40 2.3.1 Planar Surface 41 2.3.2 Curved Surface 44 2.4 Refraction 46 2.4.1 Planar Surface 47 2.4.2 Curved Surface 48 2.5 Simple Lens 51 2.5.1 Thin Lens 53 2.6 Prisms 55 2.7 Reflective Systems 56 Problems 57 3 Matrix Optics 59 3.1 Matrix Optics Concepts 60 3.1.1 Basic Matrices 61 3.1.2 Cascading Matrices 63 3.1.2.1 The Simple Lens 63 3.1.2.2 General Problems 65 3.1.2.3 Example 66 3.1.3 Summary of Matrix Optics Concepts 66 3.2 Interpreting the Results 67 3.2.1 Principal Planes 67 3.2.2 Imaging 69 3.2.3 Summary of Principal Planes and Interpretation 71 3.3 The Thick Lens Again 71 3.3.1 Summary of the Thick Lens 74 3.4 Examples 74 3.4.1 A Compound Lens 74 3.4.2 2× Magnifier with Compound Lens 75 3.4.3 Global Coordinates 78 3.4.4 Telescopes 79 Problems 81 4 Stops, Pupils, and Windows 83 4.1 Aperture Stop 83 4.1.1 Solid Angle and Numerical Aperture 84 4.1.2 f -Number 85 4.1.3 Example: Camera 87 4.1.4 Summary of the Aperture Stop 88 4.2 Field Stop 88 4.2.1 Exit Window 89 4.2.2 Example: Camera 89 4.2.3 Summary of the Field Stop 91 4.3 Image-Space Example 91 4.4 Locating and Identifying Pupils and Windows 93 4.4.1 Object-Space Description 94 4.4.2 Image-Space Description 95 4.4.3 Finding the Pupil and Aperture Stop 96 4.4.4 Finding the Windows 97 4.4.5 Summary of Pupils and Windows 97 C ONTENTS IX 4.5 Examples 98 4.5.1 Telescope 98 4.5.1.1 Summary of Scanning 101 4.5.2 Scanning 101 4.5.3 Magnifiers and Microscopes 103 4.5.3.1 Simple Magnifier 103 4.5.3.2 Compound Microscope 104 4.5.3.3 Infinity-Corrected Compound Microscope 106 Problems 109 5 Aberrations 111 5.1 Exact Ray Tracing 112 5.1.1 Ray Tracing Computation 112 5.1.2 Aberrations in Refraction 114 5.1.3 Summary of Ray Tracing 114 5.2 Ellipsoidal Mirror 115 5.2.1 Aberrations and Field of View 117 5.2.2 Design Aberrations 117 5.2.3 Aberrations and Aperture 117 5.2.4 Summary of Mirror Aberrations 119 5.3 Seidel Aberrations and OPL 119 5.3.1 Spherical Aberration 120 5.3.2 Distortion 120 5.3.3 Coma 121 5.3.4 Field Curvature and Astigmatism 121 5.3.5 Summary of Seidel Aberrations 123 5.4 Spherical Aberration for a Thin Lens 124 5.4.1 Coddington Factors 124 5.4.2 Analysis 125 5.4.3 Examples 126 5.5 Chromatic Aberration 129 5.5.1 Example 129 5.6 Design Issues 130 5.7 Lens Design 131 Problems 132 6 Polarized Light 133 6.1 Fundamentals of Polarized Light 133 6.1.1 Light as a Transverse Wave 133 6.1.2 Linear Polarization 134 6.1.3 Circular Polarization 135 6.1.4 Note about Random Polarization 136 6.2 Behavior of Polarizing Devices 137 6.2.1 Linear Polarizer 137 6.2.2 Wave Plate 138 6.2.3 Rotator 139 6.2.3.1 Summary of Polarizing Devices 139 6.3 Interaction with Materials 139 6.4 Fresnel Reflection and Transmission 141 6.4.1 Snell’s Law 143 6.4.2 Reflection and Transmission 143 6.4.3 Power 146 6.4.4 Total Internal Reflection 148 6.4.5 Transmission through a Beam Splitter or Window 150 X C ONTENTS 6.4.6 Complex Index of Refraction 151 6.4.7 Summary of Fresnel Reflection and Transmission 152 6.5 Physics of Polarizing Devices 153 6.5.1 Polarizers 153 6.5.1.1 Brewster Plate, Tents, and Stacks 153

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