Volume 4, Issue 4(1), April 2015 International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research
Published by Sucharitha Publications 8-21-4,Saraswathi Nivas,Chinna Waltair Visakhapatnam – 530 017 Andhra Pradesh – India Email: [email protected] Website: www.ijmer.in
Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Dr.K. Victor Babu Faculty, Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam - 530 003 Andhra Pradesh – India
EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS
Prof. S.Mahendra Dev Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco Vice Chancellor Founder and President Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Escuela Virtual de Asesoría Filosófica Research Lima Peru Mumbai Prof. Igor Kondrashin Prof.Y.C. Simhadri The Member of The Russian Philosophical Vice Chancellor, Patna University Society Former Director The Russian Humanist Society and Expert of Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary The UNESCO, Moscow, Russia Studies, New Delhi & Formerly Vice Chancellor of Dr. Zoran Vujisiæ Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University Rector Nagarjuna University, Patna University St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute
Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT, U.S.A Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater
Former Vice Chancellor Singhania University, Rajasthan Prof.U.Shameem Department of Zoology Andhra University Visakhapatnam Prof.K.Sreerama Murty Department of Economics Dr. N.V.S.Suryanarayana Andhra University - Visakhapatnam Dept. of Education, A.U. Campus Vizianagaram Prof. K.R.Rajani Department of Philosophy Dr. Momin Mohamed Naser Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Department of Geography Institute of Arab Research and Studies Prof. P.D.Satya Paul Cairo University, Egypt Department of Anthropology Andhra University – Visakhapatnam I Ketut Donder Depasar State Institute of Hindu Dharma Prof. Josef HÖCHTL Indonesia Department of Political Economy University of Vienna, Vienna & Prof. Roger Wiemers Ex. Member of the Austrian Parliament Professor of Education Austria Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA
Prof. Alexander Chumakov Dr.B.S.N.Murthy Chair of Philosophy Department of Mechanical Engineering Russian Philosophical Society GITAM University –Visakhapatnam Moscow, Russia
N.Suryanarayana (Dhanam) Department of Philosophy Dr.Ton Quang Cuong Andhra University Dean of Faculty of Teacher Education Visakhapatnam University of Education, VNU, Hanoi
Dr.S.V Lakshmana Rao Prof. Chanakya Kumar Coordinator Department of Computer Science A.P State Resource Center University of Pune,Pune Visakhapatnam Prof. Djordje Branko Vukelic Dr.S.Kannan Department for Production Engineering Department of History University of Novi Sad, Serbia Annamalai University Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram Prof.Shobha V Huilgol Department of Pharmacology Dr. Barada Prasad Bhol Off- Al- Ameen Medical College, Bijapur Registrar, Purushottam Institute of Engineering & Technology Prof.Joseph R.Jayakar Sundargarh, Odisha Department of English GITAM University Dr.E. Ashok Kumar Hyderabad Department of Education North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong Prof.Francesco Massoni Department of Public Health Sciences Dr.K.Chaitanya University of Sapienza, Rome Department of Chemistry Nanjing University of Science and Prof.Mehsin Jabel Atteya Technology Al-Mustansiriyah University People’s Republic of China College of Education Department of Mathematics, Iraq Dr.Merina Islam Department of Philosophy Prof. Ronato Sabalza Ballado Cachar College, Assam Department of Mathematics University of Eastern Philippines, Philippines Dr. Bipasha Sinha S. S. Jalan Girls’ College Dr.Senthur Velmurugan .V University of Calcutta, Calcutta Librarian Kalasalingam University Dr. K. John Babu Krishnankovil Tamilnadu Department of Journalism & Mass Comm Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir
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IJMER, Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research, concentrates on critical and creative research in multidisciplinary traditions. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and new thought.
C O N T E N T S Volume 4 Issue 4(1) April 2015 S. Page
No No 1. Efforts to Maintain and Improve Star Hotel 1 Performance in Badung Regency, Bali Gusti Kade Sutawa, I Komang Gde Bendesa and I Nyoman Madiun
2. Performance Analysis of SPA Services in the District of 15 Badung and Gianyar Dewa Ayu Laksmiadi Janapriati I Made Sukarsa and I Nyoman Adiputra
3. State of Hegemony Involved in Traditional Art 27 Performance of Langen Tayub in East Java Anik Juwariyah
4. Hospitality in Language: The Case of Tourism in Bali 41 Yohanes Kristianto and Made Budiarsa
5. Art Training Management Model for Elementary School 58 Teachers Warih Handayaningrum
6. A Cross Sectional Study on Selected Physical Fitness 72 and Anthropometric Profile of Middle Distance Athletes in Ethiopian Athletics Training Centers Bezuayehu Tarekegn, A. Pallavi and Amensisa Kebede
7. A Survey on Customer Service in Co-Operative Banks in 87 Delhi Hafiz Wasim Akram and N.U.K Sherwani
8. Social Cognition and Performance: Keys to Emotional 98 Intelligence J. Godwin Prem Singh and N. Antony Prakash
9. Cytokine Th1/Th2 Levels in Patients with Disc 114 Herniation - A Comparative Study K. Rajsekar , M. Kuhar, N. Narayanasamy, S. Vaishya, N. Devaraj , S.Rajasekaran 10. Justice Delayed is Justice Denied – An overview in the 134 Indian Context K.Chandrasekhara Rao
11. Education: An Interface towards Women Empowerment 148 M. Yaladri and R. Neema Naik
12. Regionalism and National Integration – Issues and 158 Challenges in India Dhananjaya Reddy
13. Manual Scavenging and Violation of Human Rights in 167 India- A Critique A. Jammanna and Pasala Sudhakar
14. Rainfall Analysis of Venkatagiri Micro Watershed, 185 Nellore District, A.P. India Kommuneni Choudri and S. Ramanaiah
15. Crime Against Women: Sexual Harassment at Work 200 Place P. Chitti Babu and S.M. Mahendra Simha Karna
16. Marginalization of Dalits in the Socio-Economic 216 Development of Andhra Pradesh : An Overview Ramakrushnudu Bolleddula
17. Impact of Watershed Development Programme on 237 Employment Opportunities in Agricultural Sector of Kurnool District P.Mahadeeswaraiah
18. An Amalgament of Learning Mathematics with ICT 249 Manisha S.Jadhav
19. An Economic Inquiry into Commercialization of Small 258 Holder Agriculture: The Case Umbullo Watershed P.Nandeeswara Rao,Debela Geleta and Neduri Suryanarayana
20. Impact of RRBS on Haryana Economy 279 Ritika Sharma
Dr. K. VICTOR BABU ISSN : 2277 – 7881 M.A.,M.A.,M.Phil.,Ph.D.,PDF, (D.Lit) Impact Factor :2.972(2015) Faculty of Philosophy and Religious Index Copernicus Value: 5.16 Studies & Editor-in-Chief International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER) & Sucharitha: A Journal of Philosophy and Religion Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Pin - 530 003 , Andhra Pradesh – India
Editorial……
You will be happy to know that we have entered the fourth year of publication of IJMER, since its inception in April 2012. Focusing on many interdisciplinary subjects, the published papers are spreading the knowledge with fervent hope of upholding the holistic approach. With all my heart, I reiterate to echo my sincere feelings and express my profound thanks to each and every valued contributor. This journal continues to nurture and enhance the capabilities of one and all associated with it.
We as a team with relentless efforts are committed to inspire the readers and achieve further progress. Aim is to sustain the tempo and improve. We acknowledge with pleasure that our readers are enjoying the publications of Sucharita Publishers. We solicit to receive ideas and comments for future improvements in its content and quality. Editor – in-Chief explicitly conveys his gratitude to all the Editorial Board members. Your support is our motivation. Best wishes to everyone.
Dr.K.Victor Babu Editor-in-Chief
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EFFORTS TO MAINTAIN AND IMPROVE STAR HOTEL PERFORMANCE IN BADUNG REGENCY, BALI
Gusti Kade Sutawa I Komang Gde Bendesa Post Graduate Doctoral Program Post Graduate Doctoral Program Udayana University, Bali Udayana University, Bali Denpasar, Indonesia Denpasar, Indonesia
I Nyoman Madiun Post Graduate Doctoral Program Udayana University, Denpasar Bali, Indonesia
INTRODUCTION
Tourism has become the largest industry today, in terms of the number of workers absorbed and of the amount of dollars generated. Tourism growth will continue to increase from year to year. In 2020, the number of international tourists is expected to reach 1.6 billion. The development of tourism brings huge economic impact for the government, the private sector, and communities in tourist destinations (Pitana, 2011: 1).
Bali tourism has developed since the 1920s has attracted local and foreign tourists. The number of foreign tourists who came to Bali since 1994 continues to increase. In 2013 foreign tourists who visited Bali totaled 3,278,598 (Bali Tourism Office, 2013). In general there are eight factors of attraction for tourists to visit Bali, namely: (1) reasonable price of travel products, (2) culture in various manifestations, (3) beach with all its appeal, (4) comfort traveled, (5) vast opportunities for relaxation, (6) image or a famous name of Bali, (7) natural beauty, (8) the friendliness of the locals (Suradnya, 2006).
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With the potential and attractiveness owned, Bali has developed into a famous tourist destination in the world. Bali has gained several awards, among others, is The Best Island in Asia Pacific by Leisure Magazine and Luxury Travel Magazine published in London (2007); The Best Island in Asia Pacific by Destin-Asia Magazine Hong Kong (2009); "Island Destination of the Year" in the event of China Travel and Meetings Industry Award, 2013; and awards Worlds Best Awards 2014 in the category of The Best Island in Asia by international tourism’s magazine, "Travel and Leisure" (Kompas, Tuesday, September 23rd, 2014; metrobali.com/2014/09/23). Some of these awards have influence positively to the number of tourist visits. In addition, good security situation in Bali Island is also make a positive contribution to increasing tourist traffic.
The development of Bali as a tourist area has prompted the emergence of a variety of businesses and services, including the growth of the tourism agency, event providers, tourist attractions, travel agents and provision of accommodation services, both star and non-star hotel (Stokes 2003). Facilities star hotel accommodation seems to be expanding by leaps and bounds to tourists visiting Bali.
The number of tourists who come in Bali in 2013 was as much as 10,255,134, consisting of 6,976,536 people and 3,278,598 tourists foreign tourists. To provide accommodation services for the tourists, in Bali in 2014 there were 3,039 units of hotel / accommodation places (61 015 rooms), consisting of 217 units star hotels (29 541 rooms), 1,178 budget hotels (24 356 rooms) and 1,644 units cottage (7128 rooms) (Bali Provincial Tourism Office, 2014). In the last 4 years (years 2010- 2014) the number of rooms the hotel / lodging in Bali increased by 34% (from 45 408 rooms in 2010 to 61 015 rooms in 2014).
The total number of tourists who come in Bali in 2013 was as much as 10,255,134, consisting of 6,976,536 domestic tourists and 3,278,598 foreign tourists. To provide accommodation services for www.ijmer.in 2
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tourists such, in Bali there are 223 star hotels (21 704 rooms) and 1,090 non-star hotels (17 077 rooms). Most of the star hotels in Bali (51%) were in Badung regency, namely 144 or 16 820 hotel rooms (Bali Tourism Authority, 2013). The rapid growth has resulted in an excess number of hotel rooms, in turn create a variety of problems. Amongst them is the emergence of unhealthy competition in the determination of hotel room rates, hotel suboptimal performance (40-60% occupancy), hotel organizations that are less effective and efficient, the lack of a sales-marketing skills in the application of e-commerce technology, as well as the issue of skills and labor motivation. These problems need to be anticipated by the hotel management in an effort to maintain and improve the performance of his company. Scientific studies have deliberately raised the topic: (1) What problems are faced by star hotels management in Badung regency in maintaining and improving its performance? (2) what action has been taken by the hotel management to maintain and improve the performance of the hotel ?.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Every company, including hospitality services industry continues to strive to improve its performance. Performance hospitality service sector companies include: efficient use of human resources, efficient use of time, the ability to adapt to change, and the company's ability to achieve its targets that have been set, the level of sales of hotel rooms (Brahmasari, 2004).
Performance hospitality services organizations related to many factors, including the empowerment of human resources, motivation, and organizational change (Robbins, 2003). Empowerment hospitality human resources include: labor force participation, the delegation of tasks to workers, for workers organizations achievement award, in recognition of the existence of labor, open communication, as well as the credibility of the organization (Noe, 2006). Rispati (2013) examines the link between employee capacity building
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efforts through training with a hotel employee performance of Grasia Hotel Semarang. It was concluded that the job training has the most effect on the performance of employees is, 10.1% compared to the motivation of only 5%. Taken together job training and motivation have an influence on employee performance by 13.3%. Furthermore, work motivation in accordance with the three needs theory (David McClelland), include the need for achievement, need for affiliation, and the need of power. Work motivation affect the performance of the company (Usman, 2010). In this regard, Arimbawa (2013) to evaluate the performance of employees of the hotel Jimbaran Puri Bali. Study showed that 92.4% of employee performance of Hotel Jimbaran Puri Bali is influenced by organizational culture, leadership style, and work motivation.
Performance of the company is also closely related to the organizational structure. In this regard, Suaed (2005) examined the link between organizational structure, innovation and corporate performance of three star hotels in East Java. It was concluded that the organizational structure of a significant positive direct effect on organizational innovation and organizational performance. The organizational structure of the three-stars hotel in East Java, more indicative of organic structure is the structure of the low specialization, low formalization, span of control is loose, decentralized, the existence of cross-functional teams and equitable distribution of information to encourage the dynamics growth in the workplace, motivations and labor productivity. Triatman to et al., (2010) which describes the existence of a positive relationship between the empowerment of human resources and organizational performance. From a study conducted in 34 five-star hotels in East Java is concluded that the performance of the hotel is influenced by the empowerment of human resources, namely the participation in achieving the goals, commitment, authority and responsibility in decision making.
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Performance hospitality business services company is determined by the quality of service and customer satisfaction as a hotel guest. The best services and products will be the choice of customers in finding the goods or services to meet their needs (Assauri, 2003). By delivering superior service, it calls to give satisfaction to the consumer (Atmawati and Wahyuddin, 2007). Strength is the basis of service quality customer satisfaction, because of the service will bring its own satisfaction perceived by consumers both service users in the form of services and products, so it would appear that resulted in a consumer force re-use service that is considered to bring satisfaction (Afrizawati, 2012). Services (tangible and intangible) quality hotel has a significant influence on the satisfaction of hotel guests (Agyapong, 2001; Arya, 2008).
METHODOLOGY This study is a form of tourism studies that used a qualitative approach. The process of data collection was done by using participant observation, focus group discussions, in-depth study of the literature and interviews with 12 informants and observers of Bali tourism. The data were analyzed descriptively qualitative in tourism studies perspective.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The hotel management in Badung regency continue to improve the performance of the company to anticipate the problems that arise. Based on observation, focus group discussions and in-depth interviews with respondents who obtained a representative picture of the problems faced by the hotel management in Badung regency, namely: effort to standardize of hotel rates, organizational restructuring, human resource management and improving the quality of service.
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Firstly, efforts to standardize hotel rates as a result of the rapid increase in the number of hotel rooms from 2010and2014.As shown in Table1, in 2010, the hotel/accommodation places in Badungtotaled633units(25 649 rooms), then in 2014increased to957units(36 344 rooms) with a65% occupancy rate (Bali Tourism Authority, 2014).
Tabel 1 Cumulative number of hotel in the Badung regency Year 2010 and 2014 Area Year 2010 Year 2014 Total of Unit Total of room Unit room Star Hotel 98 15.836 154 24.210 Non Star 367 9.032 362 10.333 Hotel Home Stay 168 781 441 1801 Total 633 25.649 957 36.344 Source: Bali Tourism Authority, 2014
Increasing the number of hotel rooms in Badung regency as much as42% in the period 2010-2014have caused price wars among hotel accommodation. Hotel room rates be falling. In some hotels, room rates were originally sold at prices ranging from Rp. 500,000 - Rp. 750,000 in 3 and 4 star hotels reduced to 250,000,- rupiah - 350,000. Rupiah. It is considered by some as the phenomenon of tourism businesses are less healthy because in the long run will hurt employers because of the return of investment / ROI is very difficult to achieve (Kompas, August 19th, 2012). With an increasing number of hotel rooms that lead to the hotel room occupancy rate decreases.
With the decline in hotel room’s occupancy, automatically the service charge to be received by the hotel staff are also decreased, causing decreased employee motivation and performance of the hotel which is reflected in the average hotel occupancy decreased
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approximately (30% - 60%). Decreased motivation of workers directly or indirectly, has distorted the quality of service. For that, anticipating the need to be done are; to publish regulatory restrictions on the number of rooms for accommodation, both hotel and villas.
Price war in the application rates have raised unhealthy competition amongst star hotels accommodation in Badung regency. To that end, many hoteliers expected: the price of hotel rooms standardization as well as restrictions on the construction of new hotels in Badung regency (Beritabali.com, Tuesday, March 19th, 2013). Standardizing the price of hotel rooms is necessary so that the principle of the break even point can be executed.
Secondly, the demands to restructure the hotel organization. Organizational restructuring carried out when deemed inadequate organizational structure anymore (not effective and efficient) to achieve the goals and objectives of the organization. Organizational restructuring undertaken by: unification or merger of several units of work or de-organization: elimination of organizational units, revitalization, which empower organizations or reengineering changes in work organization systems, such as production systems, input supply systems, marketing systems, communication systems, and others with the aim to build a relationship that is more effective and efficient in between these systems. Rearrangement of the organization's strategy is done when the strategic position of the organization is no longer compatible with the objectives.
Changes in organizational structure is necessary to retain the effectiveness and efficiency as well as the performance of the organization. Internally each hotel management need to anticipate in order to remain competitive in this very strict conditions. In this regard, the management of the hotel in Badung regency on the one hand while maintaining the existing divisions, namely Room Division consisting of front office (FO) and housekeeping (HK), food & beverage (FB) Division, www.ijmer.in 7
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which consists of the Food and Beverage service and Food and beverage product, sales-marketing (SM) Division, Accounting & Financial Division, and human resources division (HRD), on the other hand also make adjustments to the structure of hospitality organizations in accordance challenges of globalization that is characterized by advances in information technology (internet / web -sites). In accordance with the advancement of information technology in today's global era, there was an additional section in the organizational structure of hospitality in Bali is by adding the staff of e-commerce and or revenue manager.
Third, in order that the service sector business hospitality accommodation in Bali to exist it must follow market developments in this global era. Amongst them is by applying the latest information and communication technology, which is developing an online marketing system through the website (e-commerce).
However, the application of e-commerce technology to support marketing system-star hotels in Badung regency is not optimal due to the lack of man power of e-commerce who has the special skills required. To that end, the hotel management continues to improve the ability of a sales-marketing staff in implementing e-commerce.
Efforts application of online technology (e-commerce) in the all- star hotels in Badung regency apparently has yielded positive results since managed to capture consumers. At All Season Kuta Hotel for example, in 2014, has managed to do marketing by utilizing social networking media, namely on-line travel agents and websites that contributes to an occupancy rate of 56%. In year 2015, on-line marketing is targeted to contribute to the occupancy rate of 65%.
The number of tourists visiting Bali are increasing, but the number of rooms for accommodation in Badung regency also increased dramatically (3% in the years 2009-2013). This raises a very tight competition, demanding hotel management expertise in marketing
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their products. In this regard, some star hotels in Badung district has implemented a dynamic pricing system, which raise the price of hotel rooms during the high season, and down at low season.
Fourth, the problems associated with the management of human resources (HR). Increment of the number of hotel rooms in Badung regency is yet anticipated with the availability of the number of trained hotel’s workers. Hotel services will be categorized in good quality if the ratio between the number of hotel rooms and workers is 1: 1. Most of star hotels in Badung regency can not meet the need for trained personnel according to the number of his hotel rooms. Relatively, lack of trained personnel, so most star hotels in Badung hiring new employees who just graduated from the school of hospitality with the quality that is still relatively low.
In addition, the circulation and mobility (turnover) of hospitality workers is relatively high (20%).This high turnover is the result of other employment opportunities, such as employment on cruise ships, working in hotels abroad, especially in the Maldives and the Middle East. In anticipation of this hospitality scarcity of labor, then, Aston Hotel Kuta (member of Aston Group) recruited 20% of the daily workers. The daily labor contract renewed every 3 months.
In accordance with the demands of quality of service, then the management of stars hotels in Badung regency also provide trainings to improve skills of its workforce. As was done by the hotel management Aston Hotel Kuta in the first 1-2 years, providing training to employees to increase their professionalism. At Aston Hotel Kuta, management conducted trainings for 8 hours for each employee per month, both by internal staff (in-house training) as well as training involving experts from outside the hotel.
Empowerment of labor is also done by the hotel management of Padma Hotel, Legian Kuta who does cross-training for workers. Each
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month, there are 15 workers in rolling from one department to another, so that they have multiple skills. With a rolling system, each worker will have more than one skill so that they can handle a variety of hotel service issues.
In addition, the management of stars hotels in Badung regency also increased motivation for employees. Amongst them is to provide incentives in the form of an additional one-time salary (1 month) in a year, best employee of the month’s program, the best employee of the quarterly, best employee of the year as well as providing opportunities for employees to develop their career within Aston hotels group. Efforts of Aston hotels management group as the above, also conducted by All Season Hotel Legian, Bali (member of Accor hotel group) . All Season Legian Hotel improve employee motivation and opportunities for career advancement that clear to them. In addition, management continues to consider a number of things that affect job satisfaction, work environment, safety, comfort, career development and employee welfare.
Fifth, the problem of improving the quality of service. The service manager star hotels accommodation in Bali is faced with challenges in an effort to provide quality service to their customers. However, in general labour-star hotels in Badung regency don’t have adequate individual communication skill, so that the services provided to hotel guests be less than optimal. To that end, the management of star hotels in Badung regency continue to improve the capacity of workers to enable them to hone his skills communication and willing to listen to the expectations and attention to hotel guest feedback to improve services. In addition, it is expected that each hotel workers must act as a sales.
With the quality of service is expected satisfaction and loyalty rating can be improved. Service satisfaction and loyalty is reflected in the length of their stay as well as the re-election of tourists to the hotel
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accommodation that once served them (Solichin, 2011). The average length of stay of tourists in Bali in recent years is quite high, i.e. more than 9 days for foreign tourists and more than 3-4 days for domestic travelers. The average length of stay of foreign tourists and the domestic tourists in Bali from 2008 to 2013 are shown in Table 2.
Tabel 2 Length of Stay of foreign tourist in Bali year 2008-2013 Length of stay (day) Year Foreign Domestic 2008 9.65 3.50 2009 8.75 4.20 2010 9.49 4.20 2011 9.27 3.90 2012 9.10 3.60 2013 9.60 3.70 Source: Bali Tourism Authority, 2013
Efforts to improve services, such as; to carry out the task in a professional way, fast action, developing the best communication system with customers and hotel guests, as well as conducting appropriate job within a time frame, clear service so guests feel comfortable as if staying at home .
"Hotels may be a lot, but the winner is a hotel that has the excellence service (the interview with Kahar Salamun, 53 years on October 31, 2014)”.
Some star hotels in Badung regency working to improve its services in accordance with tourist’s character. As applied by the manager of the hotel Holiday Inn Resort Baruna Kuta , who has hotel’s guests originating from China. To optimize the service, then some department (Front Office, Restaurant and Sales) placed personnel who understand Chinese culture and able to speak mandarin well. Chinese tourists in Bali is likely to increase from 10.75% (310 904 people) in
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2012 to 11.82% (387 533 people) in 2013 (Bali Tourism Authority, 2013: 31).
With quality services, it is expected that guests can feel satisfied that occur revisit that are expected to maintain and improve the performance of the hotel (increment of occupancy). Performance-star hotels in Badung regency in the last three years (2010 - 2014) is quite high. This is reflected in the level of achievement of occupancy of about 60% to 80%. Achievement-star hotels occupancy is still potentially be improved.
CONCLUTION AND RECOMMENDATION
CONCLUTION Performance (achievement of occupancy) star hotels in Badung regency in the last three years (2010 to 2014) is quite high, which is about 60% up to 80% and still can be improved. In an effort to maintain and improve the performance of the hotel, the hotel management still faces some constraints, namely: the problem of increasing the number of hotel rooms and price war , low human capacity and quality of service that is not optimal. Some of these problems have been anticipated by implementing dynamic pricing strategy, restructuring the organization, empowerment and improvement of labor motivation.
RECOMMENDATION
To maintain and improve the performance of five-star hotel in Badungregency , it is recommended:
1) Badung regency government needs to limit the number of hotel rooms and to establish the standardization price / hotel room accommodation rates
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2) The management of the hotel needs to: (a) empower and increase the capacity of labour, including efforts to boost communication skills, (b) developing a consumer-based services by understanding the cultural character of the hotel guests, (c) develop a system of on-line-booking / reservation through the use of e-commerce.
References
1. Afrizawati. 2012. Analysis of Service Quality Effect Against Customer Satisfaction At Arista Palembang Hotel. Journal of Business Speech, Volume VII: ISSN: 2085-1375. 2. Agyapong, Gloria K.Q. 2001. The Effect of Service Quality on Customer Satisfaction in the Utility Industry - A Case of Vodafone (Ghana). International Journal of Business and Management, 6 (5): pp: 203-210. 3. Arya Paramarta, Wayan. 2008. The Effect of Service Quality Customer Satisfaction At Pizza Hut Gatot Subroto Denpasar. Management Forum, 6 (2): pp: 43-55. 4. Assauri, Sofyan. 2003. Good Customer Service Platform Achievement Customer Satisfaction. Journal businessman, No.01.Tahun XXXII, January, 25-30, Jakarta. 5. Atmawati, Rustika and Wahyuddin, M. 2004. Analysis of Service Quality Effect Towards Customer Satisfaction At Matahari Department Store in Solo Grand Mall. Journal of Human Resource Economic Management, 5 (1): pp: 54-61. 6. Arimbawa, Kadek Mei, Dewi, AA Sagung Kartika. 2013. Effect of Organizational Culture, Leadership Style, and Work Motivation on Employee Performance At Hotel Jimbaran Puri Bali. Journal of Management, University of Udayana.Vol 2, No.12/2013. 7. Brahmasari Ida Ayu. 2004. Effect of Culture Variable Against Employee Commitment and Company Performance. Press Publishing Group Jawa Pos. Thesis. New York: University Press. 8. Bali Tourism Authority. 2014. Directory Book. Bali Tourism Authority. Denpasar 9. Bali Tourism Authority. 2013. Bali Tourism Statistics. Bali Tourism Authority. Denpasar 10. Kotter, J. 1997. Leading Change: Being Pioneers of Change. Jakarta: Publisher: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama. 11. Pitana, I Gede and Putra, I NyomanDarma. 2011. Empowerment and Hyper-democracy in Tourism Development. Denpasar: Publisher: Pustaka Larasan. 12. Rispati, FirsaHadi, Rodhiyah. 2013. Effect of Job Training and Motivation Against Employee Performance (Case Study OnGrasia Semarang Hotels www.ijmer.in 13
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Employee).Journal Of Social And Politics, Majoring of Business Administration. Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, University of Diponegoro; http://ejournal-s1.undip.ac.id/index.php/.pp 1- 8. 13. Robbins, Stephen P. 2003. Organizational behavior. Jakarta: Publisher Salemba Empat 14. Suaed, Falih. 2005. Effect of Organizational Structure, Organizational Culture, Leadership, Strategic Alliance Against Organization Innovation and Organizational Performance Three Star Hotels in East Java. Journal of Society, Culture and Politics Vol. 18 / No. 1.Published: 2005.Department of Nation Administration Faculty of Airlangga University, Surabaya. 15. Suradnya, I Made. 2006. Analysis of Bali Tourist Attractions Factors And Its Implication to the Regional Tourism Planning of Bali. Denpasar: Bali Tourism Institute. 16. Stokes, Robyn. L. 2003. Inter-organizational relationships for events tourism strategy making in Australian states and territories. Ph.D Dissertation, Department-School of Tourism and Hotel Management. Griffith University. on-June. 2006. "Network-based strategy making for event tourism". European Journal of Marketing.Vol.40 No.5 / 6. 17. Solichin. 2011. Tourist Perception Travelers Against Service of Villas in Seminyak Village, Kuta District, Badung Regency (thesis). Denpasar: Post Graduate Magister Program, University of Udayana, Denpasar. 18. Travel.kompas.com. 2014 Again, Bali Received The Best Island Destination in Asia,; http://travel.kompas.com/read /2014/09/23/183 000627/bali.kembali.raih.penghargaan.pulau.terbaik.di.asia, Tuesday, September 23rd, 2014. 19. Triatmanto et al. 2010.Role of Human Empowerment in improving organizational performance through changes and Organizational Resilience (Studies in the Hospitality Industry in East Java.Journal of Management Application, Faculty of Economics of the Free University of Malang, vol. 8 no. 4 (2010) 20. Usman, Husaini. 2010. Management: Theory, Practice and Education Research. Third Edition. Jakarta: Published by: PT. Bhumi Aksara. 21. Metrobali.com. 2014 Bali Received Worlds Best Awards 2014 "The Best Island in Asia"; http://metrobali.com/2014/09/23/pariwisata-bali-sabet- penghargaan-worlds-best-awards-2014-kategori-the-best-island-in-asia. 22. Noe, Rymond A., John R. Hollenbeck, Gerhart Berry, Patrict M, Wright. 2006. Human Resource Management Gaining a Competitive Advantage, Fifth Edition. New York: McGraw Hill / Irwin Companies.
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PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF SPA SERVICES IN THE DISTRICT OF BADUNG AND GIANYAR
Dewa Ayu Laksmiadi I Made Sukarsa Janapriati Doctorate Program on Tourism Doctorate Program on Tourism University of Udayana, Denpasar University of Udayana, Denpasar Bali Bali
I Nyoman Adiputra Doctorate Program on Tourism University of Udayana, Denpasar, Bali
1. Introduction Activity in general tourism has undergone many developments. Initially people travel in the interest of culture (cultural tourism) evolved into spiritual tourism, sports tourism to health tourism. This development was mainly caused by the increasing of tourist trips and accompanied by the increasing number of tourism products offered, also due to the development of today's special interest tourism. Over time, it is actually more people from under developed countries traveling to the area of developing countries to seek high-quality health products and services that have healthcare at affordable prices, better known by the term of wellness tourism (Rogayah, 2009).
The sense of wellness tourism is making inseparable from modern society lifestyle. The definition of spa is one of derivative products of wellness in associated with water treatment or also known as balneotherapy, usually offer a variety of health care with water. The belief in the power of water that contains minerals such as back to prehistoric times, practices have been popular worldwide, especially in Europe and Japan. The term of spa is derived from the name of the town of Spa in Belgium, whose name is known back to Roman times,
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when the location was called Aquae Spadanae, sometimes also linked to spargere Latin word which means to spread, sprinkle or moisten.
Indonesia is rich with medicinal plants and traditional healing traditions, therefore to develop health and wellness of spa is to optimize its local resources further. Herbal ingredients on herbal medicine such as scrubs are massaged into the entire body with the aim to warming and cooling the body. Supported by cultural traditions in a conjuction with wealth of local resources and traditions of Indonesia in traditional medicine and herbs then it is a great opportunity to develop for wellness tourism through spa treatments.
Widjaja (2011) says over the last ten years, spa as one products of wellness tourism is growing very fast in Bali, necessitating the development strategy in accordance with the conditions of Bali. The rapid development momentum for the business of spa is opened, although in the external side of the business will compete with the international trade environment. This will be an opportunity for Bali as a destination spa in the future. To maintain and develop quality as the best spa destinations in the world, the right strategy needed to create and support the innovation product of spa. For most people of Indonesia, the use of herbs, such as rice, coconut, ginger and others are used as healing and relaxation (rejuvenate) which is holistic, customary hereditary and some have packaged as the spa industry is growing very rapidly in Indonesia, especially in Bali, and the industry is able to produce a high income (Widjaja, 2011).
To maintain and continuing in developing quality as the best spa destinations in the world, we need the right strategy to create and support the product innovation of spa in Bali. Researchers are required to examine and restructure the spa tourism development that has been done to further highlight the utilization of local resources, both
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natural, human and technical, in order to further improve the quality of the spa in Bali to become the world's best spa destination.
2. Research Purpose The purpose of the research is to analyse an integrated assessment of the influence of natural resources, human resources and local knowledge of the existence and essence of spa in Bali and methods for utilizing them on development of spa in Bali.
3. Framework In assessing the existence and essence of spa in Bali, it approaches by the tourists to indicate satisfaction on spa services and spa products. It is approximated by adopting the satisfaction theory of Manning (1996), which states that satisfaction can be viewed from a variety of things, such as motivation, interest, psychological outcomes, and expectations of the experience. This approach assumes that people are aware of the need for their spa needs and motivation to use the services of the spa or spa products and set forth in the questionnaire. To find satisfaction in using the services of the spa and spa products in Bali adopts several research studies (eg, Crandall, 1980; Tinsley et al., 1977) about to identify types and various of spa needs and motives which underlie people to choose and participate in spa. Referring empirical research paper from Iso-Ahola and Allen (1982) showed that if the motivation of the spa activities were measured before, then the results were compared with the same measurements but taken after the spa. The results then can be used to determine customer satisfaction on spa, and simultaneously it can be use to find tourist characteristics on the spa tourism.
Gonzales (Gonzales et al., 2008) in the Caribbean Export Development Agency is pursuing a strategy of spa development in the Caribbean. Caribbean conditions outline has many similarities with
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Bali, the strategy thus can be adopted. According Widjaja (2011) there are ten aspects of the development strategy adopted in a spa in Bali: Bali spa positioning in the global market arena, positioning of spa tourism in Bali in the regional market, the identification of the products and or services offered, the identification of the target market, efforts to overcome potential barriers, identify the competitors, making special characteristics that differentiate from competitors, identifying the purpose of the spa industry by pursuing a strategy, establish partners and implementing promotional strategies.
4. Study Design Research design and methods are using descriptive design, where planning and execution of research are conducted in the form of surveys, questionnaires and statistical data. Design studies were performed using a descriptive comparator pseudo form of predetermined parameters. Since this study relates to the quality of a given data, then the initial data taken from the tourists are include age, citizenship, education and how they know spa in Bali, as well as data from the environment to observe the condition of natural resources and human resources, data of economic community, the technique used and the potential competitiveness that can be used (Umar, 2003).
Location of the study is in two districts, district of Badung especially in Nusa Dua, Jimbaran, Kuta and Gianyar regency especially in Ubud. This refers to the number of spas in those area can able to represent the improvement of natural resources and local human resources, income communities per capita, to improve the existence and essence of spa in Bali, as well as indirectly maintain preservation, conservation of Balinese culture and local wisdom as the advantages. Population target is divided into three: the company or a place that offers the spa services, the spa services supporting by manufacturers (spa products), and foreign tourists who use the services of spa.
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5. Results and Analysis To determine the quality of spa services, it is necessary to look and addressing the needs and desires of tourists. Quality of service is very influenced by expectations and perceptual factors. It is mentioned that if the services receives in accordance with the expected tourists, then perceived quality service is categorized as good or satisfactory. If the service received is equal to or exceeds the expectations of tourists, the quality of service perceived as the ideal quality. Conversely, if the services are perceived lower than that expected by tourists, the quality of service perceived unsatisfactory or worse.
Table 1 shows the perceptions and expectations of tourists assessment on the performance of the spa services in Badung and Gianyar regency using servqual analysis. By the tourists assessment, the average value perception of spa services in Badung and Gianyar is of about 3.98, while the average value of the expectation is of about 3.96. It means that the value of perception higher of about 0.02 than the perception. According to the calculation by servqual method it can be seen that the expectations are met or already satisfactory. Although the average performance of these spa services are satisfied, but there are some very important performance must be improved.
Based on the variance analysis of the expected value (EV) and perceived value (PV), it can be concluded that there is no real difference between EV and PV on the Service Performance of Spa in Bali. So the service performance indicates as ideal, because EV and PV not significantly different. Although statistically is no significantly difference between expectations and perceptions of foreign tourists to the performance of the spa services, but there are several indicators show the difference between the PV and the EV, then the calculation is continued by using Likert Scale.
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Table 1. The expected value (EV), perceived value (PV) and satisfaction value (SV) of foreign tourists on the performance of spa services in Badung and Gianyar regency
Referring to the Likert scale, then the expected value and the perception of each indicator is given results that almost all indicators have a value of 4 to expectations and meaningful indicators of significant value. Some indicators such as realize promise, timeliness of service, performance of workers and therapists, ability of workers and therapists, response of workers on consumers, workers and the usage of branded products are having a very important value, so it must be kept in the development of the spa.
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To determine the satisfaction of foreign tourists to the spa services, we use Performance Analysis of Interest. For perception, assessment results indicate that almost all indicators have a value of 4, which means the indicators is positive. Some indicators, such as timeliness of service, performance of workers and therapists, ability of workers and therapists, response of workers on consumers, usage of branded products have a very important value, so it should be kept in the spa development . The realization of the promise, which has the expected value is very important, but only has an important value on perceptions showed a decrease in performance. This becomes a separate note, because this indicator can affect the image of spa services in Bali. The number of parameter in Figure 1 is the same as the number of parameter as shown in Tabel 1.
Figure 1. Diagram of Interest Performance Analysis
Based on the Cartesian diagram shown in Figure 1 it shows that the location of the relationship between the results of the performance evaluation in the level of interest or expectations of tourists towards spa services in Badung and Gianyar are in quadrant 2 and quadrant 3, some in quadrant 4, but only 1 indicator is in quadrant 1. To further clarify that some indicators should be corrected, some test of all parameters found that some parameters have values in the above of 4
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on Likert Scale, which means it must be maintained and even mandatory to be developed. Thus, Bali, as the best destination spa, will be retained. The relationship between indicators of each quadrant on the diagram analysis of importance-performance analysis are as follows:
Quadrant 1
This quadrant shows the indicators are considered to affect the satisfaction of tourists who were treated at the spa in Badung and Gianyar, including elements of the services that are considered very important, but the spa has not yet done, resulted that the tourists are not satisfied. The indicators are in this quadrant treatment should be prioritized (top priority) by the spa management, because the existence of these indicators are considered very important by tourists, while the level of implementation is still not satisfactory. From the analysis it shows that the average value of the perception lower than the average value of expectations or tourist interest. The indicators that must be addressed is the trust of workers and therapists.
Quadrant 2
This quadrant shows the basic service elements that have been successfully implemented well and are considered very important. The indicators in this quadrant are categorised as shall be maintained, because in general the level of implementation or performance in accordance with interests and expectations of tourists is satisfying. This category are included: realization of promise, accuracy of the first service, time of service, timeliness of service, speed of service, performance of workers and therapists, ability of workers and therapists, response of workers to consumers, feeling comfort on payment or transactions, courtesy of the workers, knowledge of the workers, the use of well-known branded products in the spa.
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Quadrant 3
Variables that services are in quadrant 3 shows some variables that are less importance for tourists (low priority), as well as the performance is also mediocre. The indicators in this quadrant are considered less important and less satisfactory performance. The indicators in this quadrant can be maintained but the performance needs to be improved to increase tourist satisfaction.
Quadrant 4
Variables in quadrant 4 show variable effects that are considered less important by tourists, but the implementation or performance is very satisfactory. In other words, its implementation more than tourist interests. Some performance indicators such as nuanced facilities, operation time, characteristic of Balinese therapists and accurate recording system. This aspect needs to be maintained in the development of spa services in Bali.
If the terms of the five categories of services which include: aspects of the direct form (tangible), reliability, responsiveness, assurance, and empathy, the value of perception is in a category that must be maintained. This happens because mostly (12 indicators) are in quadrant 2. Since the 12 indicators should be developed to seek a new breakthrough then it will cause Bali continue to earn praise as the best destination spa in the world.
From 11 indicators that exist in quadrant 3, some of the indicators must be developed such as products, techniques, methods and local technology of Bali, because both expectation and perception are still low. If Bali wants to be the host of spa, this indicator should continue to be explored and developed. For the category of direct form (tangible), that must be addressed are the physical services, Balinese menu in the treatment process, the use of herbs in spa products and the use of local
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technology of Bali. For the reliability category that must be addressed are Balinese method on massage techniques and the latest methods in massage techniques. In responsiveness category that must be addressed is the sympathy and attitude, cooperation between workers and consumers while providing personal service and attention to the consumer. Nothing should be repaired (attributes to maintain). for the category of collateral (assurance) and empathy.
To develop traditional Balinese spa are based on two actions such as:
Creating tour to the specific areas that support traditional Balinese spa resort
Promote local natural resources to support the spa tourism industry
Good promotion strategy can improve traditional Balinese spa tourism by offering the improvement of quality tours and strong competitiveness as a natural treatment factors and has transformed it into one of the most requested destination. The main development are considering the following actions:
Improving the environment of the spa area
Extensiving the use of natural resources
Diversificating the treatment procedures
Improving the competitiveness
Developing and improving the quality of service units and traditional methods
Diversificating the equipment in spa activities High revitalization on spa tourism needs financial and business management. They can be achieved gradually by the market and the actual research projects, starting with the spa which is not known to
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the external market. The weakness point characterized by traditional Balinese shows we have to intervene the potential of spa area (Turtureanu, 2007). There are some limitations that making Balinese spa is not grow rapidly, first is a strong competition from the European region shown by countries such as: Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Austria and even Slovakia, the Czech Republic, Poland (Tureac, 2007); second is the slow implementation of modern managerial principles in the development and the third is poor implications of local communities in tourism development due to lack of experience. This is what must be answered by scientists in Indonesia, especially in Bali.
Conclusions
The results of this study can be summarized as follows:
1. Based on the variance analysis of the expected value (EV) and perceived value (PV), it can be concluded that there is no real difference between EV and PV on the Service Performance of Spa in Bali. So the service performance indicates as ideal. Although statistically is no significantly difference between expectations and perceptions but there are several indicators located in quadrant 3 show the difference between the PV and the EV must develop the products, techniques, methods and local technology of Bali.
For the category of direct form (tangible) that must be addressed are the physical services, Balinese menu in the treatment process, the use of herbs in spa products and the use of local technology of Bali. For the reliability category that must be addressed are Balinese method on massage techniques and the latest methods in massage techniques. In responsiveness category that must be addressed is the sympathy and attitude, cooperation between workers and consumers while providing personal service and attention to the consumer. Nothing should be repaired
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(attributes to maintain). for the category of collateral (assurance) and empathy.
2. If Bali wants to be the host of spa, high revitalization on spa tourism can be achieved gradually by marketing and researching the actual projects, starting with the spa which is not known brings to the external market. This is what must be answered by scientists in Indonesia, especially in Bali.
References
1. Crandall, R. (1980) Motivations for Leisure. Journal of Leisure Research 12. 2. Gonzales, Anthony, et.al. (2008). Health Tourism and Related Services: Caribbean Development and International Trade, Caribbean Regional Negotiating Machinery (CRNM). 3. Iso-Ahola, S. E. and Allen, J. R. (1982). The Dynamics of Leisure Motivation: The Effects of Outcome on Leisure Needs. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 53 (1). 4. Iso-Ahola, S.E. (1983). Towards a social psychology of recreational travel. Leisure Studies, 2 (1). 5. Iso-Ahola, S. E., and Mannell, R.C. (1985). Social and Psycholgical Constraints on Leisure. In Constraints on Leisure, M. Wade, ed. Springfield IL: Charles C. Thomas. 6. Manning, R. E. (1996). Studies in Outdoor Recreation. Corvallis OR: Oregon State University Press. 7. Rogayah, IIM D. (2007). Health tourism in West Java, Retrieved on November 2, 2009 from http://ird anasputra.bl ogspot.co m/20 09/11/pariwisata-kesehatan.html 8. Tinsley, HE, Barrett, TC, and Kass, RA (1977) Leisure Activities and Need Satisfaction. Journal of Leisure Research 9. 9. Turtureanu Anca Gabriela (2007) Economy serviciilor, Ed.Fundatiei Academice Danubius Galati. 10. Umar, H. (2003). Services Consumer Behavior Research Methods. Jakarta: PT Ghalia Indonesia. 11. Widjaja, Lulu. (2011). Spa Industry in Bali. Guest Lecturer in Tourism Doctoral Program at Udayana University
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STATE OF HEGEMONY INVOLVED IN TRADITIONAL ART PERFORMANCE OF LANGEN TAYUB IN EAST JAVA
Anik Juwariyah Lecturer Drama, Dance and Music Department Faculty of Language and Art State University of Surabaya Surabaya, Indonesia
INTRODUCTION
Langen Tayub is a traditional art performance which is found in Java Island. In some of the areas, Langen Tayubhas a great influence especially in rural communities. One of the influences is in the ceremony of wedding party. People concede that Langen Tayub performance could bring the abundant blessings of good fortune. It is also believed that the couple will easily have the descendent. Langen Tayub performance consists of ‘waranggana’, ‘pengrawit’, ‘penayub’, and ‘pramugari’1. The research was conducted in the base areas of Langen Tayub performance such as Nganjuk, Tuban and Tulungagung.
The positive environment enhances the development of LangenTayub; various individuals join together and interact harmoniously to form a community. Without rigid rules or specific skills acquired by the community members, Langen Tayub become simply and easily recognized. The limited knowledge of Langen Tayub dance and the opportunity to improvise it, give a chance to every member to express the dance freely. However, the role of the
1Waranggana is dancer and singer Langen Tayub, pengrawit is man who beating gamelan of musical performance, penayub is a man who dance with waranggana, and pramugari is caller who make the rule to performance LangenTayub.
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government’s hegemony interrupts the development of this traditional art.
In some decade, Langen Tayub used as a commodity of local government. This traditional art was designed for tourism aims. The original of Langen Tayub performance which is spontaneous and simple changed to a form of entertainment within rules and jurisdictions. In the past, Langen Tayub was also used as a tool of propaganda and the legitimacy of the ruling authorities. In the New Order era, artists are forced to be the political icon and tools of government programs.
The research question deals with ‘how state of hegemony involved in traditional art performance Langen Tayub in East Java?’ The results are expected to contribute both a theoretical and a practical nature. Theoretical contribution is in the form of development of Gramsci's theory of hegemony. This research discusses how Government’s hegemony against traditional art Langen Tayub and what is the redefinition of the concept of the State. The practical benefits are related with the expectation that this research can be a reference reading material and a source for further similar research.
DISCUSSION
Performing Arts and Powers
Danarto (1999) says that the legacy of the performing arts-and political-ritual has been going on for hundreds of years. Even in the history of the nation, the political role of the performing arts plays important position. One of the examples could be seen in the construction of ‘stupa temple’ at the 8th century in Java Island. On the sidelines of busy work and suffering in the early development of ‘stupa temple’, ritual performances presented estuary on political interests. Various types of activities were also captured and portrayed in the temple reliefs.
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Art performance brings an essential influence to the people’s life. Using art performance as a tool for political tendency is a smart way to gain people’s interest. Through this traditional art, government and the leader of many political parties get the sympathy of the citizen.
Kayam (1999: 1-2) says that system of absolute power are always keen to see the arts, especially the performing arts as a vehicle to strengthen and preserve the power system. Arts tradition, for example, created either directly or indirectly by a system of absolute power. In addition, Sutiyono (2010) states that the puppet masters appointed by the government as a mouthpiece of the state of communication to the public, in order to gain mass support as much as possible. In other words, the mastermind is deliberately used as an instrument of the State to develop political power, to obtain political support through a puppet show.
Langen Tayub has become a part of the society. It influences the activity of the community. Everyone can perform Langen Tayub because the dance is simple and has no specific pattern. Furthermore, it is a public performance; the hallmark of folk art. As stated by Sudikan (1997: 13-14) that "The art of folk performances characterized by simple, spontaneous, community-owned and from the community, and together with the lives of the people."2 Further, it said that:
Various folk art performances will be known as a traditional art if the art form was derived and rooted and has been perceived as one's own by the surrounding community. The processing based on the taste of its supporting community. Here, taste has a broader sense, including: "the value of tradition life", way of life, a philosophical approach, a sense of ethical and aesthetic, and environmental cultural expression. The
2This understanding in Central Java and East Java generally opposed to palace performing arts that supposed lybornin the palace setting so it appears the impression of "valuable" (manifest the virtues), "maintained", graceful and delicate.
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results of traditional art usually accepted as tradition, inheritance transferred from generation to the next.
Syaiful Hadi (2012) reports that Banyuwangi government is determined to make the city of Banyuwangi infatuated as a mascot of a political tool (hegemony). Banyuwangi government made statue of gandrung dancer as cultural identity. This statue icon satire the existence of Osing3 society for these ethnic groups should not appear in Banyuwangi. Osing communities are not suited with the cultural identity of Banyuwangi’s people who appreciate the plurality and multiculturalism.
The different of this research with the previous research are in the object and subject matter. The previous research analyzes state of hegemony to Gandrung Banyuwangi dance and muppet show. While this research talk about state of hegemony to Langen Tayub.
According to Gramsci's view of hegemony in Ritzer (2007: 176) it is stated that hegemony is a cultural leadership held by the ruling class. He distinguishes hegemony of coercion used by the legislative or executive powers through policy interventions. Revolutionary idea raised by intellectuals, later developed to the masses and the masses that will carry it out. Masses were not able to evoke such an idea, but they were able to live it and as soon the idea appeared to be the only surfaces of their beliefs. They cannot realize it by their own efforts; they need the help of the social elite. Gramsci's put collective concerned more than on social structures, such as the economy.
Gramsci describes hegemony as domination of one class over others. It is achieved by a combination of political and ideological means. Although political force – coercion- is always important, the role of ideology in winning the consent of dominated classes may be even more significant (Ambercrombie, Nicholas, et all, 2000: 161). For
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Gramsci, the state was the chief instrument of coercive force, the winning of consent by ideological domination being achieved by the institutions of civil society, the family, the church and trade union for instance. In this context, state of hegemony is state domination of cultural, local government against traditional art performance of LangenTayub. In Nganjuk, domination of local government is in the form of cultural tourism known as “Pattern of Padang Bulan Langen Tayub”. In pattern of Padang Bulan Langen Tayub, there are many rules for performing Langen Tayub that handcuff to freedom of LangenTayub actors. The rules are: a. Limited of request ending (Javanese song); only threegendings, b. Special pattern motion dance for penayub when dance with wayanggana. c. The last performing Langen Tayub at 12 pm. The impact of the rules makes Langen Tayub performance monotone, bored, unexpressive and similar. Langen Tayub art performance lost its freedom and its artistic soul.
In addition to that rules, Langen Tayub actors must involve in a political practice (GOLKAR). During the New Order era, Langen Tayub performance was regarded as an asset of political legitimate. The rule of government and political party in the area also give a vital impact in the development of Langen Tayub. HIPRAWARPALA4that was born in 1985, reinforces the government's intervention to the development of Langen Tayub Nganjuk. Each of Langen Tayub actors must become the member of Golkar party. This hegemony is crucial for the power of government in society, cultural, and tourism aspects.
Held (1985:113) says that the actors may ascribe legitimacy, to a social order by virtue of:
a. Tradition: valid is that which has always been;
4Organization /association of pramugari, waranggana and pengrawit Langen Beksa in Nganjuk Regency.
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b. Affectual, especially emotional, faith: valid is that which is newly revealed or exemplary;
c. Value-rational faith: valid is that which has been deduced as an absolute;
d. Positive enactment which is believed to be legal Such legality may be treated as legitimate because it derives from a voluntary agreement of the interested parties, and it is imposed by an authority which is held to be legitimate and therefore meets compliance.
There are similar rules for Advise in Langen Tayub. Some areas such as Nganjuk and Tuban permit waranggana become advise. Without this advice, a warangganais forbidden to perform at least once a year and must update this advice. The cost probably not too big, around Rp 50,000 for the langentayub performance; each waranggana also need to pay for about Rp 2000 (in Nganjuk)and Rp 10.000 – 15.000 (in Tuban). However, these interferences are quite enough to show the State’s power in Langen Tayub art.
The highest activities of LangenTayub performance occur in Nganjuk and Tuban regency. Nganjuk has waranggana graduation agenda, centered on Padepokan Langen Tayub, Ngrajek Village, Tanjunganom, Nganjuk. The event is held every year in JumatPahing day, the big month of the Java calendar. After forging for 6 months from singing to dancing, waranggana candidates will graduate in locations around punden Mbah Ageng. In Tuban, waranggana graduation held in Lake of BektihardjoSemanding Village. The event is held every year in the big month in the Java calendar. The performance of Waranggana graduation is used for tourism interest which make government has a power and influence against the traditional values of Langen Tayubart. In a further research, it is found that the
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government’s policy to the development of folk arts had changed the original materials and made folk arts lost its sense of art.
Performing Langen Tayub.
Picture 1 and 2 :Langen Tayub Performance in Nganjuk and Tulungagung (doc.Anik: 2012 dan 2013)
Picture 3 :Langen Tayub Performance in Tuban (doc.Yanti: 2013)
Based on the observation, it is also found that unlike Langen Tayub in Tulung Agung that has freedom and expression, Langen Tayub in Nganjuk and Tuban have a lot of interferences from the government which can be seen in the specific patterns of the performance.
Research Mindset
This research was conducted at several places in East Java, where Langen Tayub performed. The aim is to determine the extent of
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the State’s hegemony to this traditional art performance. The frame of this study can be seen in the following chart:
LangenTayub in east Java
Cultural Construction of
Reality
LangenTayubNganjuk LangenTayub LangenTayubTuban Tulungagung
State hegemony against LangenTayub
Forms of state forms of resistance Hegemony’s Impact Hegemony
Structure and performing art LangenTayub in society
Picture : research mindsed
A lot of Langen Tayub actors have to obey the Government’s policy for the sake of management. They agree to the condition in order to guarantee that the performance play in a save and enjoyable condition. Although state of hegemony involved to Langen Tayub performance, people do not protest with these rules. This situation is appropriate with the concepts hegemony’s Gramsci.
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At the beginning of the implementation, Padang BulanLangen Tayub was acknowledged as a substitution of Langen Tayub Anjuk Ladang hermitage. Routine performance was held for almost two years. At that moment, the community of sub-districts in Nganjuk, had already realized the presence and the potential performance of Padang Bulan Langen Tayub. After two years of the showing, Langen Tayub Padang Bulan was presented in various places of sub-districts in Nganjuk regency. This method made Langen Tayub Padang Bulan became more popular than the alternate staging areas funded from PAK. Each performance prized for Rp.4.000.000, 00; a large number for the size of the routine staging of Langen Tayub. There are several rules in Padang Bulan Langen Tayub performance as hegemony of local government:
1. The Gamelan on stage must be approximately 40 cm from the floor.
In order to maximize the number of the audience, this position is needed so that the performance could be seen from a further distance.
2. Dance stage to be approximately 20 cm from the floor. The existence of the stage for the dance and penayub waranggana, aimed at elevating actors of Langen Tayub. This number is also useful for dancer to show their beautiful dances. In Langen Tayub Terop; the previous performance before Tayub Padang Bulan, the concept of the performance has no stage and has unlimited number of the dancers. Therefore, the performance was crowded and Langen Tayub beauty can't be enjoyed. Furthermore, it's possible for penayub to do the indecent. The recent stage, penayub dances are accompanied by numbers of waranggana. With this new position, penayubwho wants to disturb the waranggana would be seen by people.
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3. Pengrawit, pramugari and waranggana must wear Javanese dress.
Pengrawit, pramugari and waranggana must wear Javanese dress as a form of obedience to the offender Langen Tayub heritage and a respect for the elements of Javanese culture. Using traditional Javanese also preserve the art ancestral heritage.
4. Before Langen Tayub started, The ethics or rules of Langen Tayub must be read first. Its contain :
a. Penayub must wear shirt and trousers (not t-shirts and or training).
penayub plainclothes neat appearance is expected to Matching waranggana, pramugari and pengrawit. With a neat dress then people will appreciate, rather than the staging penayub wearing training or other casual clothing. With the well-dressed aesthetic elements will also appear.
b. Penayub must have sampur that appropiate with the amount of Waranggana.
This rule is to keep the beauty of Langen Tayub. Restrictions on the number of penayub, with maximum two times of the amount waranggana then are possible to penayub that want to do the bad things.
c. Tipping the waranggana given through with shaking hands or put on the tray
It is common knowledge that Langen Tayub near the irreverent actions, such as providing Sawer to the dancer's chest, orpenayub drunkenness. But two things are becoming serious concern of the department of tourism and other
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related parties. So nowadays a tip or Saweris given by hand shake.
d. Penayub has chance to dance 3 times sequentially until the end of the last song lyrics (there is no change in the middle of (Gendhing) song.
The rules are clearly intended to minimize the chaos that often caused. By providing Sawer in the middle of gendhing, each of penayub tries to show his selfishness that eventually it becomes a source of contention between penayub and staging can be chaotic. With this rule Langen Tayub will be strict and save.
e. The cost of gendhing given by pramugari while penayub rises above the stage.
The costs of gendhing given by pramugari who want to minimize the effort penayub do less polite to waranggana. The cost of gendhing is usually placed on a plate or tray.
f. Distance between Penayub and Waranggana approximately in a meter.
Model ‘Tayub Terop’ does not limit the number of penayubwho dance with waranggana, therefore, the stage often chaos. The distance is to close which give an opportunity for penayub to do irreverent things. Furthermore, the performance lost its artistic value that makes the show less attractive.
g. At the current stage smoking on stage. Smoking on stage is very dangerous for penayub and waranggana. For it was during penayub dancing with waranggana, therefore, penayub banned to smoke. Smoking
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is permitted only when they are sitting and enjoy the performance.
h. Prohibited from drinking in the arena (on the stage) Prohibition of drinking alcohol on stage also aims to create a beautiful staging. Penayub who drinks too much could cause chaos on the stage and harmful for others.
i. Prohibited from carrying weapons / firearms in the arena stage, except the officers.
Carrying weapons / fire is strictly prohibited in the arena, as if carrying the object in and get drunk it can harm others. Security officers are allowed to carry weapons because it is in charge of keeping security during the show.
j. The final stage time at 24.00 pm Having all of these rules, Langen Tayub performances are far from the conflict and resistance. However, the show looks so boring; the dancing and the movement have the same pattern. For the development and existence of this folk art, this is not a good condition. Development of the arts finally just geared to appropriate the local policies. The artists do not dance freely and express their creativity. As Lindsay (1995: 6), says that the cultural policy in Southeast Asia today effectively alter and damage the traditional performing arts, either through intervention, excessive handling, policies with no direction, and no attention given to the government's cultural policy or cultural context.
Local government should enhance this traditional art performance by giving a sufficient funding and appropriate regulations. By having the financial support and the appropriate rules in the performance, Langen Tayub art could keep the originality at the same time reduce the chaos that may occur during the show. Therefore,
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State’s Hegemony is still needed in Langen Tayub performance with several noted below:
1. Rules need to be applied in Langen Tayub performance, but the freedom of expression is needed in Langen Tayubdance.
2. Introducing a lot of special creation pattern in Langen Tayub performance
3. Restoration for Langen Tayubdance as traditional art performance that simple, nature, and spontaneous.
CONCLUSION
State of hegemony caused traditional art performance Langen Tayub less artistic. Many of the performances are bored and endanger the original performance which is simple, natural, and spontaneous. Various traditional art performances that contains culturalassetof national wealth should be preserved and notonly used as a toolorslogan wisdom of local government. During the promotion and development of traditional arts performance government agencies are still limited to formality elements, without touching the essence of the art of its performance. As a result, the traditional art performance became bare and lost its sense of art.
References
1. Ambercrombie, Nicholas, et all. 2000. Dictionary of Sociology. London: Penguin Books.
2. Gramsci, Antonio. 2001. Political Note of Antonio Gramsci. Translate: Gafna Raisa Wahyudi, et.all. Surabaya: Pustaka Prometha.
3. Hauser, Arnold. 1982. The Socialogy of Art. Translate: Northcott, Kenneth J. USA: The University of Chicago.
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4. Kayam, Umar. 1999. “Art Performance and Power System”, SeminarPaper, Indonesia Art Performance, series 3, Mei, 9-10.
5. Neuman, W.Laurence. 2000. Social Research Method: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches Fourth Edition. USA: Allyn and Bacon. Ritzer, George. 2007. Sociology Knowledge Double Paradigm. Jakarta: Raja Grafindo Persada Foundation..
6. Sudikan, Setya Yuwana. 1997.“ Opportunity of Tradisional Art Performance side in Communication Technology Era” (Actors as agen of Social and cultural change in rural area). In Prasasti, No.26 year VII April. p.13-23.
7. Sutiyono (2010). “Hegemoni Budaya, Represi Politik Kekuasaaan Pada Dunia Seni. “ http://Staff.UNY.ac.id/Penelit ian/Sutiyono/FW UN Y-2012, diakses, Oktober 3,2012.
8. Syaiful, Hadi (2012) “Banyuwangi Gandrung : Critical Review On Tafseer (An) Existing (Hegemony Theory - Theory of Deconstruction - Transcendental Dramaturgy)”.
9. Widodo, Amrih. 1995. “The Stage of the State: Art of the People and Rites of Hegemonization”, in Review of Indonesian and Malayan Affairs, volume 29, 122 Winter/Summer.
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HOSPITALITY IN LANGUAGE: THE CASE OF TOURISM IN BALI
Yohanes Kristianto Prof. Dr. Made Budiarsa Ph.D. Student of Linguistics Udayana University Udayana University Bali, Indonesia Bali, Indonesia
Introduction
Hospitality in Bali ? Is there any, tourists may ask. Are the two words, hospitality and Bali identical ? Yes, many tourists will reply. It is a widespread stereotype of Bali that the people are friendly.Then, if there is a such thing as hospitality in Bali, what is it like ? Hospitality is closely linked to both friendliness and politeness. Concretely, I will first present my own view of hospitality in Bali. Second, I will argue that hospitality deals with discursive ‘facework’ in tourism interaction and marked by specific-sociocultural-economic and linguistic contexts. Third, I will discuss some aspects of hospitality in language in the case of tourism in Bali.
What is Hospitality ?
Hospitality is one of the basic socio-economical guidelines for interaction in tourism. Actually, it is a part of the human commercial interaction conducted by Gricean cooperative principle. Behaving hospitably is verbally marked by speaking politely. Thus, hospitality can be regarded as the behavioral norm for the tourism employees. On the contrary, politeness is reflected in interactant’s demonstrated consideration of one another (House, 2005:14). Then, politeness can be regarded as reflecting a specific behavioural norm of hospitality. Given this view of hospitality as a socio-economical behavioural tendency in tourism, hospitality is then intimately connected with all linguistic forms refers to cluster of activities toward satisfying the tourists. For tourism employees, it means to look after the tourists well. The
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language used in this activity might be termed ‘hospitality in language’ referring to all linguistic expressions which relate to and represent hospitality concerns (Blue & Harun, 2003:74).
‘Welcome’ as the Origin of Hospitality in Language
“Welcome to Bali, Sir/Madam,”said to the tourists by the tourism employees who are in charge at the international airport Ngurah Rai Denpasar Bali. At the hotel lobby, the tourists might also be greeted by the hotel staff by saying “ Welcome to the hotel.” It might be said familiarly “Welcome home” to the repeater guests. The utterance “welcome” means not only a greeting to the foreigners who come to Bali, but moreover as speech acts representing readiness to accept and serve foreigners to be like at their own home. The utterance “welcome” represents an act not just a verbal or lingual act by the tourism employees but also implies doing something to the hearer, namely to the tourists.
Based on the speech act theory of Austin (1956) and Searle (1969), “welcome” refers to locutionary act, that is said by the tourism employees, illocutionary act, that is what the speaker should do, and the perlocutionary acts, that is the effects of what the speaker says to the hearer. So, it can be concluded that when the tourism employees utter words, phrases, or sentences, it also forces them to do something to the hearer, namely the tourists. In this case, it seems that lingual expressions form the acts of the speaker.
Using lingual expressions properly, the tourism employees can perform the quality of service. Service is the main feature of interaction in tourism. Services in tourism can not be separated from the language used. It is also smoothly determined by the use of the language of tourism services. It means also that the level of tourist’s satisfaction is not only judged by the services received physically, but also services by verbal communication when those services are
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delivered. The interaction between tourism employees and tourists is generally called hospitality interaction. It means that the tourism employees are as hosts and the tourist are as guests. So, it can be said that the interactants in tourism communication both verbal or nonverbal are host-guest interaction.
Tourism is related with services. The service itself represents the image of tourism. In this case, language as a verbal communication tool help to build the image of the service in tourism. Therefore, the tourism employees should play their roles as image maker during giving any kinds of services. This situation compases them not to “lose face” when they contact to the tourists. This case relates with Goffman’s theory of face that face is defined as a positive social value of a person that is realized as an image of self (1967:306). The term face is as a metaphor how the tourism employees act verbally or non-verbally during giving services. In other word, the face works at any time the tourism employees have a contact with tourists.
Based on the phenomena above, face plays role in shaping the image of tourism services. Face also represents the hospitality of the tourism employees. Face in host-guest interaction can be defined in two terms following Brown and Levinson’s definition (1978), namely (1) positive face refers that the interactants feel in group to each other, and (2) negative face refers that the interactants feel out of group to each other. This pre-condition is caused by power, distance, and rank among the interactants. In this case, positive face belongs to the tourism employees who handle the repeater tourists, and negative face appears to the tourism employees who contact or serve the new comer tourists. So, I can conclude that hospitality has also two dimensions of facework. Firstly, positive hospitality that is formed by positive face. In this way, the tourism employees have no boundries of communication to the tourists. And secondly, it is called negative hospitality that refers to negative face during the interaction between tourism employees and
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the tourist. There might be power, distance, and rank between them. The tourism employees act as hosts and appreciate the tourists as guests.
So, It is clear that hospitality is different form politeness. It means that hospitality as verbal interaction should be studied from many points of view. Traditionaly, politeness study belongs to the area of pragmatics. But, this paper states that hospitality in language can be investigated by interdisciplinary study of pragmatics. Pragmatically, face concept is adopted to investigate the host-guest interaction in tourism. On the other hand, this paper focuses on facework of the verbal interaction between host and guest in tourism services. Then, the facework is used to investigate hospitality in language furthermore. How hospitable the language in tourism services will be connected with face strategy done by the tourism employees. It will be investigated how they save and maintain their face themselves and the tourists’ face during giving and taking services.
Based on the speech act theory from Austin (1956) and Searle (1969), hospitality in language can be connected with the realization of speech acts. Following Brown and Levinson’s (1978) propositions of face threatening acts which used speech acts to develop the face strategy in politeness, this paper also noted that the speech acts in tourism services be able to represent facework. It means that facework can be seen by knowing the speech acts used by the tourism employees in giving services. In this way, facework can be analized by finding the speech acts in language used in tourism services. Shortly, speech acts are phenomena of facework in host-guest interaction.
Focusing on host-guest interaction in tourism services means rather commercially to define. For that purposes, this paper withdraw the phenomena of face in host-guest interaction by using dynamic concept of face. Host-guest interaction in tourism services pretend to commercial goals, that is customer’s or tourist’s satisfaction. To
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investigate the phenomena of commercial interactions, this paper uses modern theory of face. Firstly, to know facework the host-guest interaction related with hospitality is used relational work theory of Locher and Watts (2003). Secondly, to analize the facework focused on the rapport of host-guest interaction is based on the theory of management rapport from Spencer-Oatey (2001). Thirdly, to analyse how the tourism employees negotiate their services is used the face negotiation theory of Ting-Toomey (2003). And the fourth, this paper also investigate how the tourism employees constitute their self-image in interaction to the tourists uses the face constituting theory of Arundale (2006).
Language as Verbal Hospitality
Traditionally, we can observe that hospitality is a social interaction when we visit or receive friends, relatives, acquaintances or to entertain visitors in one’s home. There is no commercial or profitable goals to each other. But, in the context of tourism service, it runs commercially toward satisfying the guests. On the contrary, the tourism employees should act hospitably to the tourists in all kinds of services. In this way, hospitality means cluster of activities to look after the guests well. The hospitality itself can not be separated from verbal interaction in giving services. So, hospitality in language refers to all linguistic expressions which relate to and represent hospitality concerns (Blue & Harun, 2003:73-74).
Based on the definition of hospitality in language, this paper argues that there are phenomena of facework entailing language used in tourism services. Blue and Harun stated whether in English or another language, there is an identifiable cluster of language skills which tourism employees could deal with guests. At the very minimum, these skills include: (1) how to address a person; (2) how to solicit and give the necessary information; (3) how to respond to questions/requests; how to use prompts; (4) how to use gestures; (5) www.ijmer.in 45 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(1), APRIL 2015
how to deal with difficult customers; and (6) how to appease complainants (2003: 77). These cluster of language skills belong to verbal hospitality.
Face work
The term of face derived from Goffman’s theory (1967) of interaction. Brown and Levinson (1987:61) adapted and defined face as “the public self-image that every member of a society wants to claim for himself/herself” and explicate two types of face needs: positive face and negative face. Individuals want the appreciation and approval of others (i.e., positive face) and also want to be unimpeded and free from imposition (i.e., negative face). Brown and Levinson’s (1987) notion of positive and negative politeness refers to linguistic devices used to satisfy positive and negative face needs. They work was also based on the Austin’s and Searle’s speech acts theory to describe the realization of politeness in interaction.
Speech acts are the realization of verbal hospitality, describing social interaction between tourism employees and guests. Speech acts contain desire to look positive and be free from imposition. But, in tourism service interactions also involve more than one individual and everyone is assumed to have face, all involved parties’ positive and negative face needs. In this way, speech acts as linguistic expressions play the role of facework in tourism service interaction. Based on the theory of speech act, the tourism employees express verbally and baldly do what they say. It means the tourism employees use language in three dimensional forces, namely (1) locutionary act refers to what they say, (2) illocutionary act in which they do what they say, and (3) perlocutionary act entailing the effect from what they say.
Tourism deals with services. The service itself represents the image of tourism. In this case, language as a verbal communication instrument helps to build the image of the service in tourism.
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Therefore, the tourism employees should play their roles as image maker during giving any kinds of services. This situation compases them not to “lose face” when they contact to the tourists. This case relates with Goffman’s theory of face that face is defined as a positive social value of a person that is realized as an image of self (1967:306). The term face is as a metaphor how the tourism employees act verbally or non-verbally during giving services. In other word, the face works at any time the tourism employees have a contact with tourists.
Based on the phenomena above, face plays role in shaping the image of tourism services. Face also represents the hospitality of the tourism employees. Face in host-guest interaction can be defined in two terms following Brown and Levinson’s definition (1978), namely (1) positive face refers that the interactants feel in group to each other, and (2) negative face refers that the interactants feel out of group to each other. This pre-condition is caused by power, distance, and rank among the interactants. In this case, positive face belongs to the tourism employees who handle the repeater tourists, and negative face appears to the tourism employees who contact or serve the new comer tourists. So, I can conclude that hospitality has also two dimensions of facework. Firstly, positive hospitality that is formed by positive face. In this way, the tourism employees have no boundries of communication to the tourists. And secondly, it is called negative hospitality that refers to negative face during the interaction between tourism employees and the tourists. There might be power, distance, and rank between them. The tourism employees act as hosts and appreciate the tourists as guests.
So, It is clear that hospitality is different form politeness. It means that hospitality as verbal interaction should be studied from many points of view. Traditionaly, politeness study belongs to the area of pragmatics. But, this paper states that hospitality in language can be investigated by interdisciplinary study of pragmatics. Pragmatically,
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face concept is adopted to investigate the host-guest interaction in tourism. On the other hand, this paper focuses on facework of the verbal interaction between host and guest in tourism services. Then, the facework is used to investigate hospitality in language furthermore. How hospitable the language in tourism services will be connected with face strategy done by the tourism employees. It will be investigated how they save and maintain their face themselves and the tourists’ face during giving services.
Hospitality Issue in Language: Facework Perspectives
Hospitality in tourism service is commercially defined. In this way, hospitality represents a friendliness toward the tourists who have paid their service. So, it forces the tourism employees to take care of their guests properly. The end goal is how the guests to be satisfied with the service which the buy. Using language as verbal hospitality, the tourism employees should apply strategies how to give ‘face’, to maintain ‘face’, to save ‘face’ during giving services so that the would not lose their ‘face’. This paper shows that the facework might be very discursive in tourism service interaction.
The discursive phenomena of facework can be observed as follows: (1) how the tourism employees relate with their guests, (2) how they negotiate with the guest toward excellent service, (3) how they manage their rapport during giving services, and (4) how they constitute themselves to their guests. So, this paper purposes to answer the phenomena of facework in tourism services interaction. The first point will be analyzed by Locher and Watts’ relational work in interaction. The second is observed by Ting-Toomey’s face negotiation theory. The third is investigated by Spencer-Oatey’s rapport management theory. And the last point is searched by Arundale’s face constituting theory.
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Data Analysis: Hospitality in Language
This paper argues that hospitality in language of tourism services is followed implicitely or explicitely by facework. Verbal data are collected in tourism area of Bali by recording the small talks in tourism services. The settings are included places of interest where the verbal data might be able to be collected. Based on hospitality circle of Blue & Harun (2003:75), data collected are obtained in the stages of arrival (i.e. at the airport and hotel reception), familiarization (i.e. in hotel), engagement (i.e. at the restaurant and bar, and departure (i.e. at the reception and airport).
Data Examples Example 1: Hospitality at Arrival Stage At The Airport Facework 1 1 E: Welcome to Bali, Sir/Madam. 2 T: Thanks. Facework 2 1 E: Hi, buddy.[Australian tourist] 2 T: Hi.[Balinese] At The Reception Facework 1 1 R: Welcome to the Hotel, Sir/Madam. 2 T: Thank you. Facework 2 1 R: Welcome home [name of the tourist] 2 T: Thanks [name of the receptionist] Example 2: Hospitality at The Familiarization Stage At The Hotel Facework 1 1 R: May I have your name [please] ? 2 T: Sure. This is my passport and this is my hotel voucher. 3 R: Wait a minute, please. I’ll check your name in our system. 4 T: No problem 5 R: Your family name is Stewart, right? 6 T: Yes. 7 R: Okay. Mrs. Miranda Stewart. Your room number is 4673 www.ijmer.in 49 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(1), APRIL 2015
Facework 2 1 R: How was your flight ? 2 T: It was nice but long 3 R: Do you come alone ? 4 T: Yes, my wife is at work. Example 3: Hospitality at The Engagement Stage Facework 1 At The Restaurant 1W : Good morning, Sir. 2T : Good morning. 3 W : What would you like to have for breakfast ? We have american and continental breakfasts. 4 T : I’d like to have continental breakfast 5 W : Would you like to have coffee or tea ? 6 T : Coffee with milk, please. 7 W : Wait for a moment please. I’ll be back with your order. 8 T : Okay. Thanks. Facework 2 At The Bar 1 T : Hi [ name of the waiter/waitress] 2 W : Hello [name of the tourist]. How are you today ? 3 T : Fine. And you ? 4 W : Very well. Thanks. What do you drink ? 5 T : As always. 6 W : Okay. I know. Moment, please. Example 4: Hospitality at The Departure Stage Facework 1 At The Restaurant 1 W : Thank you very much for joining with us. Have a nice day. 2 T : Goodbye. 3 W : Goodbye, Sir. At The Hotel Lobby 1 R : Thank you for staying with us. Have a nice flight. See you next time. 2 T : Thanks and goodbye. Facework 2 At The Bar
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1T : See you [name of waiter/waitress] 2 W : See you [name of tourist] At The Airport 1 E : Bye [ name of tourist] 2 T : Bye [name of tourism employee] From the data example above, hospitality in language is concentrated in the opening at the arrival (i.e. greeting), familiarization to make closer to the tourists (i.e. small talk), engagement or handling the tourists (i.e. asking, offering), and closing section at the departure (i.e. farewell).
The Arrival Section
Arrival section occurs generally via greeting act, which is always uttered by the every tourism employee in Bali. The initial greeting can take one of two main forms. The choice of greeting acts deals with realization of hospitality in language and how ‘face’ works during the first contact.
Welcome followed by the option of locations (i.e. Bali, hotel, restaurant, etc.) or term of address (i.e. Sir or Madam). ‘Welcome’ is a greeting act representing hospitality in language. It shows that the ‘face’ of tourism employees represents the hospitality in opening section of the interaction in tourism. I noted as facework 1 or negative hospitality based on the Brown & Levinson’s negative face (1978) because the tourism employees realize that there is a power- distance-rank relationship with the tourists. Moreover, in this case, it seems that tourism employees act as like hosts. As hosts, they treat the tourists as guests. For that purpose, negative face means that the tourism employees give freedom to the tourists by making a distance in greeting act. Indeed, negative face exists to show the generosity of having a guest.
Hi /Hello/Morning etc.! uttered with eclamation mark, in this case, signals that the tourism employees know the tourists well or have
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met before or the tourists have ever been in Bali and were handled by the same tourism employees. Nowadays, it is also possible that they have known each other via social media intensively. I noted as facework 2 or positive hospitality by adopting the Brown and Levinson’s positive face (1978). Hi or Hello shows the warm friendliness as well as close friendship between the tourism employees and the tourists. They feel in-group showing no power- distance-rank relationship.
The Familiarization Section
In this section, the tourism employees act hospitably to make closer with the guest. In the reception, the hotel staffs begin by asking name or personal identity, and hotel voucher. In this case, the facework 1 deals not only with negative face or in this case is termed negative hospitality, but the tourism employees should make a relational work to act or speak politely or hospitably to the tourists as Locher and Watts’ work (1998). They should choose the scale of speaking politely or hospitably during handling the tourists. In other words, the tourism employees constitute their imposition with the tourists like Arundale’s work on face constituting theory (2008). It seems that the tourism employees should serve to their guests properly.
In the section of familiarization, the tourism employees do not have any choices to speak, because in a hotel they used a sequence of service that is standardized by the hotel management as a standard or quality of service. In this case, facework 1 is dominantly done by the tourism employees to keep their excellent service according to their standard. It might be different from hotel to hotel depending on the management. Facework 1 reprensents the negative hospitality dealing with the standard of sequence of service. The expressions, i.e. may I have…, could you…, would you… are mainly used by the tourism employees during handling the tourists at familiarization stage.
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The Engagement Section
Engagement section is the portrait of tourism service. In this section, positive and negative hospitality might occur together at the same time. The tourists might evaluate the service and the personal at the hotel or restaurant. So, the tourism employees might act in two ways. First, they use negative hospitality in service if the tourists still act as a foreigner or make a distance with them. So, they should keep their imposition with the tourists. In this case, they should make a good rapport from the tourists. They may be accused not friendly or not hospitably by the tourists. So, they should manage their ‘face’ during giving services that they get a good rapport from the tourists. This facework deals with Spencer-Oatey’s face management (2003) that one should manage their face to each other to get a good rapport from other. It means that hospitality depends on how the tourism employees manage their face to get a good rapport from the tourists.
In other case, the tourism employees should handle a difficult tourist with the big complaints about the service. They give sometimes compliments to the tourists so that the tourists get what they claim. According to Ting-Toomey’s face negotiation theory (1998), the tourism employees should also negotiate their face to solve the conflict with the tourists. It means hospitality deals with how the tourism employees negotiate with the tourists (i.e. compromise) to solve the complaints.
The Departure Section
The departure stage is generally done by the tourism employees to farewell with the tourists. In a hotel lobby, the closing routines are generally expressed i.e. thank you for staying with us, or at the restaurant i.e. have a nice day. Even by the departure, the tourism employees, i.e. driver or tour guide will say ‘have a nice flight’. In this case, the tourism employees keep the hospitality in language like at the time the tourists come. The negative hospitality (i.e. negative face) is
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chosen to make a memorable impression and goo echos to the tourists. In some cases, this can be totally different, i.e. when the tourism employees are closed enough to the tourists, they will be a positive hospitality. They behave like close friends to each other.
Conclusions
Hospitality in Bali certainly exists – as I explained utterance ‘welcome’ as the origin of hospitality in language. Hospitality in language changes from traditionally or non-profit-oriented to commercial host-guest relationship. The reason is that the tourists will claim to what they have paid for the service. Hospitality in language is not only culturally focused, but standardized by the hospitality and tourism industry. In this case, hospitality is like image of the tourism service in Bali. The image is shaped by the tourism employees during giving services. In microlevel, language deals with the verbal acts of the tourism employees in looking after the tourists well (i.e. good echo, memorable, and satisfaction).
From the data examples, I argue that hospitality can be viewed as politeness phenomena in social interaction. Those issues are realized verbally in speech acts of the interactants. In the case of tourism, I conclude that the concept of face does appropriate to investigate the host-guest interaction in the case of tourism in Bali. It means hospitality issues deals with facework pragmatically that during last decades is mainly in debates by many pragmaticians. Based on the discursive study of facework, I summarize that hospitality in language can be viewed as follows:
Hospitality is commercially defined as host-guest relationship. The word ‘welcome’ is probably as the origin of hospitality in language. It reflects of verbal and non-verbal acts of tourism services, included the stages of hospitality services: (1) arrival stage, (2)
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familiarization stage, (3) engagement stage, and (4) departure stage that can be observed by the language used;
Hospitality in language as the case in tourism of Bali deals with image of tourism services given by the tourism employees. Thus, the Goffmanian’s view of facework can be applied to investigate this issue. Moreover, the facework was clearly concepted by Brown and Levinson’s face threatening acts with bi-dimensional face (i.e. negative and positive face). So far, I declare that the phenomena of hospitality in language appropriates with the face concept. In this case, hospitality is termed positive or negative like the politeness phenomena. Negative hospitality means that the tourism employees keep the imposition with the tourists so that the interaction seems like host-guest relationship. The tourism employees keep the distance (out-group) from the tourists. The reason is the quality of service in international standard (i.e. SOP ). On the contrary, hospitality could be driven into positive hospitality. It changes unconsciously by the tourism employees how close they are to the tourists. Naturally, they will be closer and closer to the tourists. So, the negative hospitality changes to positive hospitality (i.e. in-group feeling, closed friend);
Hospitality issue in facework perspective can be discursively studied. First, I observe the hospitality entailing image from the tourism employees. Based on Locher and Watts’ work, it is as a relational facework between tourism employees and the tourists. The tourism employees should pay attention to the scale of hospitality. Second, I argue that hospitality deals with rapport of tourism employees. So, if I refer to Spencer-Oatey’s work, the tourism employees should manage their rapport (i.e. facework during giving services) that automatically will be evaluated by the tourists as ‘hospitable or friendly or others’. Last but not least, in some cases, the tourism employees should negotiate with the
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tourists who have serious complaints. Based on Ting-Toomey’s face negotiation theory, they must negotiate (i.e. compromising) the conflict with the tourists. In this case, the tourism employees maintain their ‘face’ by negotiating the conflicts.
References
1. Austin, J. 1975. How to Do Things with Words (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 2. Arundale, R. 1999. An Alternative Model and Ideology of Communication for An alternative to Politeness Theory. Pragmatics 9:1.119-153 (1999) International Pragmatics Association 3. Arundale, R. 2006. Face as relational and interactional: A communication framework for research on face, facework, and politeness. Journal of Politeness Research, 2, 193-216. 4. Arundale, R. 2009. Face as emergent in interpersonal communication: An alternative to Goffman. In F. Bargiella- Chiappini & M. Haugh (Eds.), Face,communication, and social interaction (pp. 33-54). quinox: London. 5. Arundale, R. 2010. Constituting face in conversation: Face, facework, and interactional achievement. Journal of Pragmatics, 42, 2078-2105. 6. Arundale, R. 2013. Individually and Socially-based Understandings in Researching Professional Discourse. Journal of Modern Languages Vol. 23, (2013) 7. Blue, G.M & Harun, M. 2003. Hospitality Language As A Professional Skill. English for Special Purposes 22. (pp. 73-91). www.elsevier.com/locate/esp. 8. Hickey, L & Stewart, M. (eds). 2005. Politeness in Europe. Great Britain: Cromwell Press Ltd. 9. Scollon, R dan Scollon, S.W. 2001. Intercultural Communication:A Discourse Approach, 2nd ed. USA: Blackwell Publishers 10. Spencer-Oatey, H. 2007. Theories of identity and the analysis of face. Journal of Pragmatics 39: 639–656. 11. Spencer-Oatey, H. 2008. Face, identity and interactional goals. In: F. Bargiela-Chiappini and M. Haugh (eds) Face, Communication and Social Interaction, pp.137–154. London: Equinox Publishing.
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12. Searle, J. 1965. What is a speech act?, in Philosophy in America, M. Black (ed),221-239.118 13. Searle, J. 1969. Speech acts. An essay in the philosophy of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 14. Searle, J. 1975. Indirect Speech Acts, in P. Cole & J. Morgan (eds.). Syntax and Semantics, Vol. 3: Speech Acts. New York: Academic Press. 15. Ting-Toomey, S. 1988. Intercultural conflict styles: A face- negotiation theory. In Y. Kim & W. Gudykunst (Eds.), Theories in intercultural communication (pp. 213–235). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. 16. Ting-Toomey, S. 2005. The matrix of face: An updated face- negotiation theory. In W. B. Gudykunst (Ed), Theorizing about intercultural communication (pp. 71–92). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. 17. Ting-Toomey, S.,dkk. 1991. Culture, face maintenance, and styles of handling interpersonal conflict: A study in five cultures. International Journal of Conflict Management, 2, 275–296. 18. Ting-Toomey, S., & Oetzel, J. G. 2001. Managing intercultural conflict effectively. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. nd 19. Watts, R. dkk. 2005. Politeness in Languages. 2 Edition. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
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ART TRAINING MANAGEMENT MODEL FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS
Warih Handayaningrum Lecturer of Dance Drama Arts & Music FBS State University of Surabaya Surabaya, Indonesia
A. Introduction
Curriculum 2013, is the curriculum that must be implemented by all schools in Indonesia. Curriculum 2013 is the development of a curriculum that has been done since 2004 (Competency-Based Curriculum), continued in 2006 (Curriculum Education Unit). Many components change in the curriculum in 2013, namely the competence that must be achieved for the future: the ability to communicate, to think clearly and critically, to consider the moral aspects of a problem, become responsible citizens , has a readiness to work, the ability to understand and tolerance, the ability to live in the community globalized, has a broad interest in life, have the intelligence in accordance with their interests and talents, and have a love of the environment. Besides changing competencies also the approach used in the learning process using scientific, in Elementary School teaching learning using a thematic integrated , the assessment use authentic for competence of knowledge, attitudes and skills.
Elementary teachers are classroom teachers who have to teach all subjects, namely: religion and moral, civics , Indonesian, Mathematics, Science, Social Studies, Arts and crafts, and sports. Class teachers are not teachers who have special competence in art, so the cultural arts education is not often taught. Whereas art education is very important as the foundation of students’character Based on early research Education and Teacher Training (PLPG) elementary teachers which was held at the State University of www.ijmer.in 58 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(1), APRIL 2015
Surabaya in 2013, obtained the data that in implementing the Cultural Arts learning , most teachers said they did as they knew only. Whereas they know that Cultural Arts education is very important. Lack of guidebooks and complex materials include art, dance, music and crafts are constraint. Elementary teachers feel that they don’t have enough knowledge, so the cultural arts education can not be done as it should be, therefore they need training. This is accordance with Permenegpan 16 Th 2009 on Sustainable Profession Development program (PKB).
According to Noe (2010: 351) Training is a series of activities designed to improve the skills, knowledge, experience especially trainees improve their performance. The benefits of training are: a) improve the knowledge of the employee, b) help the employees to have the basic skills to work, c) help employees to understand how to work effectively in a team in order to contribute to the quality of service, d) ensure organizational culture on innovation, creativity and learning, e) provide new ways for employees to deal with change.
Technical Implementation Unit Arts Education and Development School of East Java Province, as the Unit which is responsible for teacher performance art, since 2009 has been carrying out training of cultural art or art from elementary to high school teachers. This training has helped teachers in the following week's art and art festivals to lift the name of the school, but it has not yet help elementary school teachers in the teaching of art and culture, because the training has not touched the essence of the real cultural arts education. From interviews with the participants, the training done by UPT is less effective because it can not fulfill their needs. After the training, the material provided is not used. This is unfortunate because the cost spent is quite a lot, it has not been managed with good training. From this background, inspired to conduct research by taking title of Cultural Arts Training Management Model for Elementary School Teachers.
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The problem in this research is, how to develop an effective model of the management training so that the result can improve the performance of teachers to teach art and culture in elementary school.
B. Discussion
To make effective training so it is developed Art Education Training Management Model. This model is described as a system that outlines the training steps and their components, consist of planning, organizing process, the process of implementation, and the evaluation process. There are two plans that must be made by the organizers namely : planning training and planning training events. Before the training, the first thing that must be done is making the plan of training include: analysis the needs of the elementary school teachers who will participate in the training, determine the performance, set goals, set goals, prepare training materials, determine the assessment tools to develop strategies (Davies, 2005). It is to know what material needed by primary school teachers. Training materials excavated from the participants, what they need especially in elementary art materials, how to teach art in elementary school, how to inspire creativity and imagination elementary school children, how to introduce the richness of Indonesian culture through learning the art from an early age, with a simple strategy they do, so training would be beneficial to increase the skills of primary school teachers.
To prepare training materials, we adopt the model of instructional development cycle Dick Carey (2001). Training materials are developed by reference to the purpose of art education at schools is to develop learners to understand the culture through the arts, the idea, feeling, and intention. More detail objectives are: to understand the concept of art in the context of science, technology, and social so that it can play a role in the development of civilization and cultural importance, both at
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the local, regional and global, (Curriculum Content Standards 2013). So that training materials are relevant not deviate in the direction of art in school educational purposes, it is in accordance with the developmental age of the child.
After that we make planning for implementation include: Who is responsible organizers, coaches, facilities, participants, methods, costs needed, schedule. After everything is done, the next step is hold the organization are: organized formation of the committee, the determination of tasks for each section, held a coordination meeting with all the elements involved. The next stage is training implementation. This activity is crucial, each section ranging from public relations has been working well before training with invited participants. They are elementary school teachers who teach low grade (grade 1 to 3), and to determine the competent coaches, administration record all participants, providing services, providing curriculum or training materials, prepare a good infrastructure facilities required, the necessary financing. The final stage of the training is to conduct an evaluation, through the instrument to determine the acceptability of training materials, as well as the satisfaction of the participants of training.
This is in accordance with the steps Terry theory (1997), namely planning, organizing training, organizing, implement and evaluate training. The step training administration work is written in the book "Art Education Training Management Model for Elementary School Teachers. As an illustration of organizing work steps described in the chart below:
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C. Research Design
To produce products books Arts Training Management Model for elementary school teachers, use research and development collaborations Borg and Gall (1989) and Puslitjaknov (2008) the steps as follow: (1) analyze the products that will be developed by conducting research and data collection initial, (2) develop initial product, (3) expert validation and revision (4) small-scale field testing and revision of the product (5) large-scale testing and final product. Data collection instrument use observation and interviews. Test product management model of training and training materials (test experts, small group testing and extensive trials) use assessment questionnaire. Data analysis techniques used in this research is the development of techniques of qualitative and quantitative analysis.
Test Management Expert Training
The products tested are Books Training Management Model. Of test validation experts, researcher conduct a product revision. Images suggested that the planning program and its aspects and implementation planning with its aspects, becomes an activity in the picture box. In the evaluation aspects are advised not exist in the implementation of the image, but the image becomes one aspect of evaluation at the beginning and at the end of the training activities.
Test Expert Art
Validation Product is Cultural Arts Training Material for Elementary School Teachers.
Covering aspects of the content framework, the level of accuracy / clarity, benefit levels, the level of completeness, currency, the attractiveness to give, the language aspects, suggestions and input from experts in open questionnaire is not found, So the researcher does not need to revise the product.
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Test Expert Learning
Products submitted to the expert study is the book Cultural Arts Training Materials for elementary school teachers. It is necessary to revise in systematics, Grammar, and the addition of the concept of creativity and design cover, completeness LKS, numbering SK and KD on the syllabus and lesson plans, as well as the lattice valuation.
After the revision of input from experts, the development of products books can be continued on a small scale trials.
Small Scale Test
Trial use of the products of small-scale training management books carried on the head UPTD 5 (Regional Technical Implementation Unit) which is used to conduct training in the arts district level, the test results indicate the level of expediency, systematic, level of clarity, readability level, the level of adherence to the model, the high category and very high.
Trial use products of small-scale training materials performed at 5 elementary school teachers, the test results indicate the level of usefulness, clarity, high ease , readability, the attractiveness of the high category. User trials are also conducted on 4 coaches who usually teach in art galleries, the test results indicate the level of usefulness, clarity, simplicity, high readability, the attractiveness of the high and very high category.
Scale Test Area
After testing a small scale then continued by holding training followed by 9 UPTD head. Head UPTD are given book Training Management Model which contains a description of the steps as in the above chart. Experimental results show a high degree of usefulness, high-level clarity, ease of high, high readability level, the level of
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attractiveness of the enough models. Tests of training material is carried out on 29 elementary school teachers, the results of the pretest to the mastery level of training materials average score of 3.23 after training is held an average score increased to 3.79 posttest results. Based on the average score level mastery training materials before and after training is high category and increase 0.56. Based on the results of t-test analysis the numbers on the post test of significance obtained 0.00 which is smaller than 0.05. Thus, it means the research hypothesis (H0) is rejected and (Ha) is accepted. So there is a significant difference mastery of art and culture after the training. The results of the pretest posttest describe Bloxpot for cultural arts training materials can be absorbed very well by the trainees, but each individual has a different ability to absorb it. Medium individual assessment of the facilitators on the management aspects of the interaction, the implementation of training activities, attitude towards the participants, the use of language, mastery of the average score of 4.23 on a very high category. Likewise, individual assessment of the process of training on aspects of the conditions of training, interaction among participants, consumption, infrastructure, services committee, the average score given 4.32, the training processes at very high category.
D. Significance / Urgency of the study
The results of research and development in the form of books Arts Training Management Model for Elementary Teachers contains: guidelines for implementation of training arts materials for primary school teachers, the utilities among others are:
1. For UPT Department of Education and Culture in East Java as the implementation guidelines for arts education training for primary school teachers.
2. Elementary School Teacher initial class can use this training material as one of the guidelines to teach art in elementary school.
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3. Studio-art galleries can use books and book management model training materials to guide training art education for elementary school teachers.
4. For dance coaches can use this art education training materials as one of the references to train primary school teachers.
5. For the next researcher, can be the basis for developing training models and other art materials.
6. For the Teachers Council (MGMP) can use as a reference to broaden in performing arts learning culture.
E. Protection of Intellectual Property Rights in the Area of Patent
The book that is resulted from the study of this development: 1. Model Book Arts Education Training Management comprises 59 pages containing: (a) Introduction, (b) Training Program(c) Procedures Training includes: Training Planning Guidelines, Guidelines for Organizing Training, Implementation Guideline Training, Training Evaluation guidelines.
Books strength of Management Model
a. The model departs from the analysis of the needs in one of the Technical Implementation Unit Development of Arts Education School in the Department of Education and Culture of East Java province, so the model is accordance with desire by the user.
b. Based on the theory developed models that is tested the effectiveness of the training so that this model is proven to help managers organize training.
c. Models prepared clearly and completely easy to understand by users, using a language that is easily understood by the reader. Comes Standard Operating Procedure.
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Books Weakness of Management Model a. This model outlines the components of each aspect so that theoretical impressed. b. This training new models tested extensively in UPT Surabaya City Department of Education, so that it needs to be disseminated further. c. To be able to apply this model needs understanding and takes time, and requires a commitment in order to get maximum results.
2. Book Arts Education Training Materials and Devices Arts Education comprises 108 pages containing: (a) Preliminary important factors include the aim of art education in elementary art education, characteristics and learning styles of elementary school children, the concept of creativity, development creativity for children, (b) designing integrated learning include the following: 1) syllabus, 2) RPP (Lesson Plan), 3) LKS, Arts and Culture learning, and learning the art of reading material culture. a. Strength Training Material Books
It Can help elementary school teachers in some cases. First, the teachers know the purpose and direction of the Cultural Arts education and cultural characteristics of art for children. Second teachers have a basis to develop creativity through arts and culture because of the training package outlined indicators of creativity and how to develop a culture in art education. Third teachers can design and develop integrated learning Cultural Arts for the training package give way and measures as well as examples of the art of learning to design a unified culture. By this way it can give solution to solve the lack of class hours for complex cultural arts. Fourth training package provides guidance to teachers to teach art and culture easily achieve the desired cultural arts education, so that encouraging teachers to teach art and culture that
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had been considered difficult. Fifth training package also provides reading material, so that inspire and encourage teachers to be creative.
This training package help teacher lays curriculum into teaching and learning activities that encourage students creative, personality and fun. This is in accordance with the opinion of Gray (1989: 86-88) revealed that arts education is important in children's learning in school, therefore he stated in Booklet Performing Together: The Arts in Educations, which includes aspects: (1) art is a basic to communicate, (2) the arts help students build creativity and creative talents, (3) study the art also helps students understand other subjects, (4) learn the art is the best way to understand human civilization, (5) learn the art help students build discipline, (6) study art in school help students prepare for adult life, (7) study the art help students grow artistically assessment (artistic judgment). b. Weakness Books Training Materials
1. Product book culture art education training materials are still focused on the material culture and art to class early, so for further class teacher can use this book.
2. Time which is designed to sample the training material is only 1 hour (35 minutes) so that teachers feel in a hurry to reach the desired goal.
3. The detail training material book is not yet complementary measures to develop an integrated cultural arts deeply, so that the teachers who are accustomed to using the example will have trouble.
Suggestions for teachers
1. In using this material book, please apply an integrated learning model.
2. This model is not raw, teachers are expected to come up with ideas and experiences to supplement this material so that the learning is more fun and achieve its objectives.
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3. Teachers must plan integrated learning art culture well, start from core competencies, basic competencies, subjects will be combined, is advisable to use varied themes, so that children do not get bored.
Suggestions for Operator Training Arts
Need commitment to implement effective training. By analyzing needs earlier. Follow-up evaluation for improvement, users do not need to be too rigid in using the book management model training, so creative ideas providers can complete book management model training. Training providers can use these guidelines to adjust the available resources.
Closing
Training is one of the solutions to develop teachers in a variety of skills in order to succeed to work now and in the future. Training needs to be managed effectively in order to institutions (government or company) feel benefit from the training. The cost for the implementation is a lot as well as the energy and time that is spent will be proportional with the desired achievement.
Schools need to provide opportunities for teachers to learn and grow in order to create a positive work environment. Many organizations believe the investment in training can help employees achieve a competitive advantage. This is reinforced by the Indonesian government with the rules of the Minister of Administrative Regulation No. 16 of 2009 about Sustainable Profession Development program (PKB). To improve teacher competence as the spearhead of the National Education Goals. With continuous training and management of effective training will give many benefits to all devisions.
References
1. Borg, R.W. 1983. Educational Research an Introduction, London: Longman.
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2. Dick & Carey. 2001. The Systematic Design of Instruction. United States: Addison-Wesley Educational Publisher Inc. 3. Davies, E. 2005. The Training manager’s A Handbook. Buku wajib bagi Para Manajer Bagaimana Menyelenggarakan Training, alih bahasa oleh Ramelan, Jakarta: PT Gramedia 4. Hamalik, O.2007. Manajemen Pelatihan Ketenagakerjaan. Pendekatan Terpadu. Jakarta: PT Bumi Aksara. 5. Wardani, C. K. 2006. Pendidikan Seni Berbasis Budaya, Dalam Meningkatkan Multi Kecerdasan. Jurnal Pendidikan Seni. Kagunaan.1.(01):15-23. 6. Kem, J dan Clare Walters.2004. Brain Games, (Permainan yang Merangsang Otak).Ed. Lyndon Saputra, alih bahasa Alexander Sindoro.Batam: Kharisma Publishing Group. 7. Kennick. W.E. 1979. Art and Philosophy Readings in Aesthetics. New York: idak St.Martin’s Press, Inc. 8. Laird, D.200. Approaches to Training and Development. third Edition. United States of Amirica: Perseus Publishing. 9. Marzuki, M.S.1993. Strategi dan Model Pelatihan. Suatu Pengetahuan Dasar Bagi Instruktur dan Pengelola Lembaga Latihan Kursus dan Penataran.Malang: Depdikbud IKIP Malang Proyek Operasi dan Perawatan Fasilitas. 10. Masunah, J dan Tati Narawati. 2003. Seni dan Pendidikan Seni, Bandung: P4ST UPI 11. Mearens. 1958. Practical Guide Teorarly Childhood Curriculum New York: Macmillan Publishing. Co. 12. Miarso, Y. H. 1987. Penelitian Instruksional, Survey Pengembangan Instruksional. Jakarta: Depdikbud, Dikti. 13. Miller. 2002. Trainning Management, New York, John Wiley & Sons. 14. Mujiman, H.2007. Manajemen Pelatihan. Berbasis Belajar Mandiri, Yogyakarta:Pustaka Pelajar 15. Mulyadi, K.1997. “Mengembangkan Kreativitas Anak” Makalah disampaikan dalam Seminar dan Dialog Sehari yang dilaksanakan tanggal 16 Desem-ber 1997 dalam rangka hari Ibu dan Dies Natalis XXXIII IKIP Surabaya. 16. Munandar, U. 1995. Dasar-dasar Pengembangan Kreativitas Anak Berbakat. Jakarta: Dep Pend dan Kebudayaan DIKTI. Proyek Pendidikan Tenaga Guru.
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17. Nadler, L. 1982. Designing Training Program: The Critical Events Model. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison Wesley Pubishing Company 18. Noe, R. A, John R Hollenbeck, Barry Gerhart, Patrick M.Wright.2008. Manajemen Sumber daya Manusia. Mencapai Keunggulan Bersaing Human Resource management: Gaining a Competitive Advantage. Penterjemah David Jaya. Jakarta: Salemba Empat. 19. Pamadhi, H dkk.2007. Pendidikan Seni di SD. Jakarta: Universitas Terbuka. 20. Pannen dan Purwanto. 2001. Penulisan Bahan Ajar. Jakarta: Pusat Antar Universitas, Pusat Pengembangan Aktivitas akademik UT 21. Simamora, H.2006. Manajemen Sumber Daya Manusia Edisi ke 2.Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Ekonomi. 22. Sugiyono. 2010. Metode Penelitian Pendidikan. Pendekatan Kuantitatif, Kualitatif, dan R&D. Bandung: Alfabeta 23. Suhardjo. 2005. Pendidikan Seni. Dari Konsep sampai Program. Malang: Balai Kajian Seni dan Desain Fakultas Satra Universitas Negeri Malang 24. Sukmadinata, N.S 2010. Metode Penelitian Pendidikan. Bandung: PT Remaja Rosdakarya.
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A CROSS SECTIONAL STUDY ON SELECTED PHYSICAL FITNESS AND ANTHROPOMETRIC PROFILE OF MIDDLE DISTANCE ATHLETES IN ETHIOPIAN ATHLETICS TRAINING CENTERS
Bezuayehu Tarekegn Dr A. Pallavi Research Scholar Research Director Department of Physical Department of Physical Education Education and Sport Science and Sport Science Andhra Andhra University, India University, India
Amensisa Kebede Department of Sport Science Jimma University, Ethiopia
Introduction
Talent detection refers to the discovery of potential performers who are currently not involved in the sport in question. Talent identification refers to the process of recognizing current participants with the potential to become elite players. It entails predicting performance over various periods of time by measuring physical, physiological, psychological and sociological attributes as well as technical abilities either alone or in combination (Régnier, G., Salmela, J.H. and Russell, S.J., 1993).
Talent selection involves the ongoing process of identifying athletes at various stages that demonstrates prerequisite levels of performance for inclusion in a given squad or team. Selection involves choosing the most appropriate individual or group of individuals to carry out the task within a specific context (Borms, 1996). In literature suggestions are made about the determinant factors in sports which can predict success and should be used for talent identification (Gemser, 2005). Selecting children for appropriate sport is the most demanding and the most responsible task for sport experts and kinesiology in general. Different sports are determined by authentic
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kinesiological structures and specific anthropological characteristics of an individual (Abernethy, 2005; Chapman, 2008). The success of an individual in a particular sport activity is predominantly determined by the compatibility of his/her anthropological characteristics (Morrow & James, 2005).
Identifying potential athletes at an early age ensures that athletes receive specialized coaching and training to accelerate the talent development process. The reliable identification of future elite athletes permits clubs to focus their expenditure on more effective management of their resources. Thus, the researchers spotlighted in athletic training centres of Ethiopia focusing on selected anthropometric and physical fitness variables.
Objectives of the Study
The general objective of the study was to explore some factors of talent identification, detection and development profiles of Ethiopian athletic training centres.
Methodology
Research design
The research design of this study was cross sectional study design. This design has a number of advantages, such as, collecting data at once, time saving and minimizing energy cost (Creswell, 2012)
Name of the Training Center Number Sport Academy 15 Bekoji 11 Debrebirhan 6 Hagereselam 7 Maychew 13 Total 52
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Instructions
On the time of the test, we instructed the students about their dress wearing and asked them to do standardized warm-up exercises, for 5 minutes prior to the 15 min before the test, and advised them, not to involve and vigorous activity or exercises for past 48 hrs and take normal diet and fluid.
Speed measure (50 Meter Dash)
Sprint or speed tests can be performed over varying distances, depending on the factors being tested and the relevance to the sport. The 50 Meter Sprint is part of the International Physical Fitness Test, and their protocol is listed here.
o Purpose: The aim of this test is to determine acceleration and speed.
o Equipment required: measuring tape or marked track, stopwatch, cone markers, flat and clear surface of at least 70 meters.
o Procedure: The test involves running a single maximum sprint over 50 meters, with the time recorded. A thorough warm up should be given, including some practice starts and accelerations. Start from a stationary standing position (hands cannot touch the ground), with one foot in front of the other. The front foot must be behind the starting line. Once the subject is ready and motionless, the starter gives the instructions "set" then "go.". The tester should provide hints for maximizing speed (such as keeping low, driving hard with the arms and legs) and the participant should be encouraged to not slow down before crossing the finish line.
Muscular endurance measure (Wall Sit Test)
This is a simple test of lower body muscular strength and endurance.
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o Purpose: to measure the strength endurance of the lower body, particularly the quadriceps muscle group. o Equipment required: smooth wall and a stopwatch o Procedure: Stand comfortably with feet approximately shoulder width apart, with your back against a smooth vertical wall. Slowly slide your back down the wall to assume a position with both your knees and hips at a 90° angle. o Scoring: the total time in seconds that the position was held for both legs is recorded.
Flexibility measure (Sit & reach flexibility at home)
This simple test is designed to measure the flexibility of your hamstrings and lower back. The sit and reach test has long been used as a test to represent a person's flexibility, though actual flexibility may differ around the body.
Equipment o Ruler, step (optional, you could make your own sit and reach box if keen too)
Procedure
If you have completed the home tests in order, you will be well warmed up by the time you are up to the sit and reach test. Otherwise, go for a jog and do some stretching. Remove your shoes and sit on a flat surface, legs extended in front of the body, toes pointing up and feet slightly apart, with the soles of the feet against the base of the step (if there is no step, just any flat surface will do). Place the ruler on the ground between your legs or on the top of the step. Place one hand on top of the other, then reach slowly forward. At the point of your greatest reach, hold for a couple of seconds, and measure how far you
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have reached. If you have trouble straightening your legs, get a friend to help by holding the knees down flush with the ground.
Mark or take note of your best score, take a measure in cm or inches beyond the base of your foot, or you did not reach your toes, measure how far before the feet you were (a negative measurement score).
Power measure (Standing long jump test)
The objective of this test is to monitor the development of the athlete's elastic leg strength.
Required resources
To undertake this test you will require:
•Long jump pit •30metretapemeasure •Assistant. How to conduct the test The athlete places their feet over the edge of the sand-pit or aground. The athlete crouches, leans forward, swings their arms backwards, the jumps horizontally as far as possible, jumping with both feet into the sand-pit or aground. The coach should measure from the edge of the sand-pit to the nearest point of contact. The start of the jump must be from a static position.
Figure 1. Hagereselam sprinters performed standing long jump test
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Analysis
Analysis of the result is by comparing it with the result so previous tests. It is expected that, with appropriate training between each test, the analysis would indicate an improvement.
Target group
This test is suitable for active individuals but not for those where the test would be contraindicated.
Reliability
Reliability would depend upon how strict the test is conducted and the individual's level of motivation to perform the test.
Validity
There are published tables to relate results to potential level of fitness and the correlation is high.
Agility measure (4 x 10M Shuttle run)
Faster of two, attempts to complete a 4 x 10 m shuttle run, as a measure of general speed, agility and coordination.
Equipment/facilities
· Firm, level, non-slip surface at least 20 m long and 2m wide
· Two blocks of wood, preferably 10 x 5 x 5 cm or similar sized objects (e.g. bean bags)
· Stopwatch
· Line-marking tape or chalk
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Figure 2. Maychew sprinters performed 4x10m shuttle run
Description
1. Stand with toes just behind the starting line, facing the wooden blocks/bags
2. On command, run across to pick up one block/ bag and return to place it behind the starting line; run back to pick up the second block/bag and run towards and across the starting line.
3. Pupils need not place the second block/bag behind the starting line.
4. The time, to the nearest one-tenth second, is the performance score.
5. The better of two attempts shall count.
Specific rules and procedures
· One teacher tester to test and time only one pupil at a time
· Pupils are not allowed to throw/drop the first object behind the start/finish line
· Tester is to position himself/herself at the start/finish line
· Tester stops the timing when the torso of the pupil crosses the line
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Data analysis
The Statistical analysis was performed with the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS 20.0). Mean, standard deviations and bar chart were calculated for each variable.
Results and Discussion
Middle distance athletes’ BMI, height, power, leg length, agility, age, speed, wall sit, sit and reach test, endurance test, entry time, current time and performance change were computed using descriptive statistics: histograms. Pearson product moment correlation coefficient was applied to show the relationship of the predictive variables with athletic performance.
The results of this study showed that the average age of Middle distance Runners was approximately 17yrs old. The mean age value of male athletes was 17.2 and females 16.7 with a deviation of less than 1 year. Mostly the athletes were expected to join the training centres for under 17 yrs old. In the above table both female and male middle distance runners mean leg length was 93cm with less than 8cm variation for males and 86cm with 8cm variation for females. The BMI score for males was also 18.9 and 18.7 for females.
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MIDDLE DISTANCE RUNNERS' ANTHROPOMETRIC VARIABLES RESULT
20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 mean std mean std mean std BMI 18.9 1.4 18.7 1.2 18.8 1.31 LEG LENGTH 0.93 0.07 0.86 0.08 0.9 0.08 Height and leg length measured in meter in measured leg lengthand Height HEIGHT 1.71 0.62 1.61 0.53 1.66 0.79 AGE 17.2 0.8 16.7 0.9 16.9 0.9
The graph showes a considerable difference between gender sit and reach test mean result of male 14.7 and 16.2 with deviation of 5.7 and 4.2 consequatively. Quite surprisingly Females were also better with hamestring and quadriceps (leg) muscular strength test of wall sit test [ males (3.4 minutes) and females ( 4.1 minutes)]. The score was at Excellent for female and males scale compared according to the norm standards set for the test. However less mean results were observed for female speed, agility,endurance and power tests compared to males. Huston & Wojtys (1996) concluded that neuromuscular performance was different in females, causing females to fire hamstring muscles later than the males. The body may be compensating in different areas to achieve analogous ground reaction forces to remain competitive in sport-based actions, while stressing other components of the lower body kinematic system. On the other hand, the long broad jump or power score of middle distance athletes was excellent when it is compared to the 16 year old athletes norm standard put for the test.But much below the average while compared with adults norm standard.
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MIDDLE DISTANCE RUNNERS' SELECTED PHYSICAL FITNESS VARIABLES RESULT
18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 ENDURA SIT & TRAININ WALL SIT NCE POWER AGILITY SPEED REACH G AGE TEST TEST TEST 1500m
Power in meter,sit & reach in centimeter,in reach& meter,sit in Power male mean 2.12 10.23 6.5 2.7 3.4 14.7 4.5 agility,speed,endurance and wall sit in time. in sit wall and agility,speed,endurance male std 0.2 0.4 0.52 0.85 2.4 5.7 0.5 female mean 1.6 11.2 7.7 2.3 4.1 16.2 4.9 female std 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 2.5 4.2 0.6 total mean 1.9 10.69 7.1 2.4 3.7 15.4 4.7 total std 0.3 0.6 0.9 0.8 2.4 5 0.6 Strength training generally increases muscle size and therefore mass, and thus, running economy may be affected due to the increased mass, cancelling out the speed advantage. Higher levels of muscular strength and power would be of advantage to a middle-distance athlete in terms of improving maximal speed and acceleration ( Enoka, 1998; Sale, 1991, 1992) . Besides, height may play an important role in athletic success (Niels, 2005).
Jump test for males is also above two meters for males and more than one and half meters for females which is quite good. Kale et al. (2009) stated that jump power is the best indicator of sprinting ability. Muscular strength and power are important components of performance in many sports and athletic events (Abernethy & Wilson, 2000).
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The Relationship between Anthropometric and Physical Fitness Variables with best Time
Table 1 .The relationship between sprinters performance and their predictor’s variable.
Variables Male Female Total N R Sig N R Sig N R Sig HEIGHT 26 .07 .38 26 -.3 .o7 52 .01 .46 BMI 26 .03 .45 26 -.04 .07 52 .03 .4 LEG.LENGTH 26 .45** .01 26 .4 .42 52 .32** .01 SPEED 26 .38 .03 26 .19* .02 52 .29* .02 TRA.AGE 26 .24 .12 26 .18 .17 52 .17 .12 AGE 26 .6 .39 26 .37 .19 52 .25* .04 AGILITY 26 -.24 .12 26 .17* .03 52 .22 .06 WALLSIT 26 .41* .o2 26 .42 .21 52 .43** .001 SITREACH 26 .12 .25 26 .36** .01 52 .24* .05 POWER 26 .42 .2 26 -.2 .03 52 .15 .14 ENDURANCE 1500 26 .11 .3 26 .21 .08 52 .11 .28
*P<0.05 & **P<0.01
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As the table 3 reveals male middle distance athletes best time is significantly correlated with male leg length (0.45) p= 0.05) and female athletes middle best time with leg length (.43) p=.05. Niels (2005) pointed out that taller athletes have relatively longer lower limbs and enable to have longer step length. Total age middle distance athletes is also correlated with the middle distance athletes (0.25) p=.05.
Age is one of the factors affecting various sports performance. Sprint performance during children and adolescents period depends on growth and maturation (Villanueva et al, 2011). On the other hand middle distance runners performance are correlated with male speed 0.38 p=.001; female speed (0.19) p=.05, and total speed (0.29) p=.05. In this regard, Research studies evaluating the relationship between running speed and economy have found that middle-distance runners (800 and 1500m) were the most economical at running speeds above marathon pace, when compared to athletes competing in other running events (Daniels & Daniels, 1992).
Female agility (.17) p=.05, wall sit male (-.41) p=.001, female sit and reach (-.036) p=.001 and total sit and reach .24) p=.05 are also correlated with best performance of the athletes. The highest correlation was found with male leg length and the least correlation with 1500 meter continous running test. The highest correlation was found with sit and reach for females and the least correlation with female BMI. Previous studies also indicated a relationship between performance and flexibility scores . Accordingly,there may be some relationship between the flexibility of lower limb structures with stride length, power production and economy (Gleim et al, 1990; Hortobagyi et al, 1985; Shorten, 1987). Unlike earlier studies done for long distances , flexibility and performance has showen relationship in the current study.In previous study the need for good flexibility, and therefore the importance of flexibility measurements in distance running is considered to have low relevance (Hubley-Kozey, 1991). BMI
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has shown any relationship with the performance of middle distance athletes. However studies from Marshall and Bouffard (1994), Okely et al. (2004), and Southall, Okely, and Steele (2004) found body composition to be negatively related to loco motor skill proficiency (e.g., running, jumping) but did not reveal differences in motor skill level for relatively stationary object control tasks (e.g., striking, throwing, catching, kicking).
Conclusions and Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the following conclusions have been drawn.
A Pearson correlation reveal that:
Male middle distance athletes’ best time is significantly correlated with male leg length and middle female athletes’ best time with leg length.
Total age of middle distance athletes is also negatively correlated with the middle distance athletes.
Female agility and best performance time had showen negative relationship
Females sit and reach and total sit and reach scores had showen also a positive relationship.
Male athletes wall sit test had a positive relationship with their best performance On the other hand middle distance runners performance are correlated with male speed female speed and total speed
Generally Anthropometric and Physical Fitness variables have relations with the performance of athletes.
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Recommendations
To provide an even more comprehensive model for defining the prerequisites for professional and international athletics future analyses could therefore embrace areas such as:
Athletes’ mental and technical skills or Practice and social history profiles. The sample size should also be extended in order to enlarge the representativeness of the research.
It is useful that coaches take these findings into consideration when evaluating children in athletics performance.
Further, the results of the study are of great value in designing the training programme of athletes while talent selection is based on many aspects of performance.
It also suggest that certain fitness assessment data are important in determining whether already highly selected running athletes are successful or not in acceding to higher standards of athletics. References
1. Adams, K., O’Shea, J.P., O’Shea, K.L. &Climstien, M., (1992). The effect of six weeks of squat, plyometric and squat-plyometric training on power production. Journal of Applied Sports Science Research, 6: 36-41. 2. Bauer, T., Thayer, R.E., &Baras, G. (1990). Comparison of training modalities for power Brandon J.L. Physiological factors associated with middle distance running performance. Sports Med., 19(4): 268- 277, 1995. 3. Brian., M .(2005). 101 performance evaluation tests.London.Electric Word plc. Brockett,C., Morgan,D., & Porske, U.(2004). Predicting hamstring strain injury in elite athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2004;36(3):379-87. 4. Chumanov,E., Heiderscheit, B., & Thelen, D. (2011).Hamstring musculotendon dynamics during stance and swing phases of high- speed running. Med Sci Sports Exerc2011;43:525-32. 5. Clutch, D. M., Wilton, M., McGown, C. & Bryce, G.R., (1983). The effect of depth jumps and weight training on leg strength and vertical jump.Research Quaterly, 54:5-10.
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6. Cooper.,K.(2011). A means of assessing maximal oxygen uptake. JAMA1968;203:201–4. 7. Haci., M.(2014).Relationships between acceleration, agility, and jumping ability in female volleyball players. European Journal of Experimental Biology, 2014, 4(1):303- 308 8. Hennkens,C. (1992).A prospective study of exercise and incidence of diabetes among US male physicians. JAMA 1992;268:63–7. 9. John et al .(2008). La84 foundation track and field coaching manual. USA. LA84 Foundation. 10. Kujala, U., Orava, S., & Järvinen M. (1997).Hamstring injuries. Current trends in treatment and prevention. Sports Med. 1997 Jun;23(6):397-404. 11. Kraemer, W. J., & Newton, R. U. (1994).Training for improved vertical jump.Sports Scienc Exchange, 7(6), 1-12. 12. Manson, J., Nathan, D., Krolewki, A., Stampfer,M., Willet, W., & Mero et al. (1998). A Kinematics Analysis of Three Best 100 M Performances Ever. J Hum Kinet .Mar 2013;36: 149-160 13. Paffenbarger, R., Hyde., R, Wing, A., Lee, I., Jung, D., & Kampert. J.(1993). The association of changes in physical-activity level and other lifestyle characteristics with mortality among men. N Engl J Med 1993;328:538–45. 14. Lehmann.,F, Boswell.,S, & Price., R.(1990). Quantitative evaluation of sway as an indicator of functional balance in post-traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1990;71:9- 22. 15. Wilson. G. J., Newton, R. U., Murphy, A. J. & Humphries, B. J., (1993). The optimal training load for the development of dynamic athletic performance.Medicine Exercise, 25: 1279-1286. 16. Young,W & Farrow, D.(2006). The effect of 40 m repeated sprint training on physical performance in young elite male soccer players Strength and Conditioning Journal, 2006, 28(5): 24-29. 17. Larson L, Grimby G, Karlsson J, J Appl Physiol, 1979, 46: 452– 456.training development in the lower extremity.Journal of Applied Sports Science Research 4:115-121 18. ____ (2014). Topend Sports: the Ultimate Sport & Science Resource. Retrieved from http://www.vjf.cnrs.fr/clt/php/va/
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A SURVEY ON CUSTOMER SERVICE IN CO-OPERATIVE BANKS IN DELHI
Hafiz Wasim Akram Prof. N.U.K Sherwani Senior Research Fellow Professor & Head Department of Commerce & Department of Commerce & Business Studies Business Studies Jamia Millia Islamia Jamia Millia Islamia (A Central University), New Delhi New Delhi
Introduction
The Service Sector plays an important role in the economic development of a nation. It is well known that most of' the developed countries in the world are service economies and with the development of an economy, the contribution of service sector in national income grows progressively. It generates national income and in raises the standard of living of the people. It shapes and makes a nation vibrant, dynamic and modern. The key service business sectors in India are insurance, banking, transportation, health care and education, telecommunication, software, electricity, post and telegraph, and tourism etc.
Banking is one of the fastest growing service industries plays the role as lifeline in India thereby catering to the financial needs of the society and business communities with utmost care and effectiveness. As India is growing fast, banking sector has an important role to play in India’s march towards progress. Banks, in India, can be categorised as Scheduled Commercial Banks and Scheduled Co-operative Banks. Scheduled Commercial Banks are further categorised into five different groups on the basis of ownership and/or nature of operation. They are (1) State Bank of India and its Associates, (2) Nationalised Banks, (3) Private Sector Banks, (4) Foreign Banks, and (5) Regional Rural Banks.Commercial banks, in addition to performing the traditional
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banking services, play an important role in many ways such as capital formation and providing finance to various sectors like agriculture, transport, industry, trade, and self employment.
Whereas Scheduled Co-operative Banks comprise Scheduled State Co- operative Banks and Scheduled Urban Cooperative Banks.Co-operative banks have been developed mainly to supplement the village money lender. Thus, they promote saving habits of the farmers and other weaker sections of the society and meet their credit needs.Till 1996, these banks were allowed to lend money for non-agricultural purposes only but this distinction does not hold today. Though they were traditionally centred around communities, localities work place groups and lent to small borrowers and businesses, now a days their scope of operations has widened considerably. Over the years, cooperative banks have registered a considerable growth in number, size and volume of business. Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu account for about 80 per cent of theses banks.
Customer service is the key to market penetration and growth. Though these banks are providing services to society at par with other commercial banks, services quality is not enough for the needs of the customers of these organisations to be fully satisfied. This assumes further importance when the environment is highly competitive and turbulent in nature. In today’s cut throat competition, customers of these banks do not face any difficulty in finding an alternative service provider to fulfil their requirements. They make a half-hearted attempt to service their customers. They are bogged down by the weight and usually avoid the customer.
Customer service is the major issues determining the competitive edge of organisations. Service leaders do invest in technology, efficient human resources, competent policies and systems, and marketing to excel in every service encounter that the customer has with its employees or delivery points. They focus on customers and have a
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strategic service vision. To deliver quality service, a firm needs to have a proper service vision, a plan for customer friendly service and create an organisational culture and development that fosters excellence. It should also encourage inter role linkages and educate its employees to deliver quality service
Thus, it becomes incumbent on the co-operative banks to ensure the quality of services offered by them. Otherwise they will have difficulty in preventing the customers from switching over to other banks and their existence will be in danger. Only the provision of various services will not attract and create a positive impact on the minds of the customers but how effectively, efficiently and customer friendly the services are offered matter most in today’s environment. So provision of service as desired by the customers play a crucial role in delighting customers.
Objectives of the study
The main objective of this study is to study the customer service quality in the co-operative banks (CBs). The study will help in identifying the weaknesses in the areas of customer service. If these gaps are bridged properly, it will create satisfaction among the customers of the co- operative banks.
Research Methodology
The study is based on both primary as well as secondary data. The secondary data were collected from many sources such journal, bank reports and internet to get background information for the study. Primary data were collected from the 200 customers (20 customers from each bank) of 10 co-operative banks. All the co-operative banks are functioning in Delhi and they were selected randomly. Customers also were selected randomly for collecting information. Structured questionnaire were used and the collected data were analysed with the help of statistical techniques. www.ijmer.in 89 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(1), APRIL 2015
Selection of variables for analysis
The success of banking industry also depends not only on the large and strong customer base but also on the quality of customer service. Quality of customer service is indispensable. Without it no bank and even no organisation can attract and retain prospective customers. As per Zeithmal, there are five parameters or service quality which every organisation has to follow for its success.
1. Tangibility: It comprises the appearance of physical facilities, equipment, employees and installations
2. Reliability: It comprises the ability to perform the desired service dependably and with accuracy.
3. Responsiveness: It deals with the willingness to help customers and provide prompt service.
4. Assurance: It means the safety and security felt by the customers while and after the transaction.
5. Empathy: It means caretaking of the customers or individualised attention that the firm provides to its customers.
They are general criteria for the success of an organization. As has been found out that there is not much variation and almost all banks are providing almost similar services barring a few ones. Then what makes a difference between one bank and the other. It is the service quality rendered by them makes the difference between them. Quality consistency is a also a matter behind the success and failure. Thus, in this backdrop and to evaluate the quality of customer services of various offering of co-operative banks, the following questions have been asked.
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Questions asked as Variables for Analysing the customer Service in Co-operative Banks
1. What time does your bank take for depositing cash? 2. What time does your bank take for withdrawing cash? 3. Why did you choose co-operative bank? 4. How is the behaviour of the employees with you? 5. How accurately do you get your bank work done? 6. How effectively your instructions to the banks are executed? Analysis
1. What time does your bank take for depositing cash? It can be found out from the table 1 that only eight per cent of the customers of the cooperative banks could deposit cash with lesser time whereas as forty per cent of the customers had to spare six to 10 minutes to deposit their cash.
Table 1 No. of t value Significance Time Taken Percentage Respondents Up to 5 minutes 16 8.00 6 to 10 minutes 80 40.00 11 to 15 minutes 32 16.00 4.154 0.000
16 to 20 minutes 32 16.00 Above 20 minutes 40 20.00 Total 200 100.00 Source: Survey
Whereas fifty two per cent had to spend more than ten minutes for deposit which is very much. It has to be kept in mind that time taken for depositing cash depends on a number of pieces of notes for deposits, veracity check, variations in denomination of notes etc.
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2. What time does your bank take for withdrawing cash? It is clear from the table 2 that 40 per cent of customers had to spare more than ten minuets to get their money back from their account and only a meagre 10 per cent of customers get the money from their account in short time span. Ten per cent of them opined that they have to spend more than half an hour to get money back.
Table 2 No. of Percenta t value Significanc Respondents ge e Up to 10 20 10.00 minutes 11 to 20 80 40.00 minutes 21 to 30 80 40.00 3.129 0.000 minutes Above 30 20 10.00 minutesTotal 200 100.00 Source: Survey
It has to be kept in mind that withdrawal of cash from account is the most critical as sometimes customers withdraw from their account when it is most urgent and at that time customers will not tolerate standing in the queue to get their own money back and may think over switching to other efficient banks.
3. Why did you choose co-operative bank? From the Table 3 is evident that 50 per cent of the customers have chosen nearness as the major reason for selecting the bank which shows that proximity is a major factor. Only 15 per cent of customers selected the cooperative bank due to better service. 10 per cent of customers opined that influence of bank officials have any impact on the selection.
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Reasons No. of Percent t Significa Nearness Respondents100 50.00age value nce Better Service 30 15.00 3.254 0.000 Influence of Bank 20 10.00 InfluenceOfficials of family 50 25.00 membersTotal 200 100.00 Source: Survey
As is known that there are many factors behind the selection of a bank. In the case of co-operative banks nearness rules the roost whereas only a small section of the customers have chosen it for better service which shows the co-operative banks lack the lustre of quality service.
4. How is the behaviour of the employees with you? Good behaviour of the employees plays an important role in creating and retaining satisfied customers. It is clear from the table 4 that 65 per cent of the customers answered that the bank employees are well behaved whereas 35 percent are not happy with the behaviour of the customers.
Table 4
No. of Percent Significanc Behaviour tValue Responden age e ts Behaved Courteously 130 65.00 Not Behaved 70 35.00 2.331 0.000 courteouslyTotal 200 100.00 Source: Survey
5. How accurately do you get your bank work done? How accurately and fairly is the work done such as legible and accurate entry in the passbook, error free online transitions, no extra deductions
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of amount etc., also plays significant role in creating and retaining satisfied customers.
Table 5
Customer No. of Percentage T Value Significance Opinion Respondents
Very Good 40 20.00 Good 80 40.00 Fair 50 25.00 2.257 0.000 Bad 30 15.00 Total 200 100.00 Source: Survey
According to the table 5, 60 per cent of customers are happy in this regard whereas 25 per cent of them are the process is satisfactory. 15 per cent is not happy and may indulge in bad words of mouth.
6. How effectively your instructions to the banks are executed?
As we know that banks perform a number of secondary functions such as executing the export payment and continuous payment to some party as per the instructions of the customers. Let us see what are the opinion of the customers as regard the execution of the instructions to the co-operative banks.
Table 6 Customer No. of Percentage Opinion Respondents tVatue Significanc Very Good 10 05.00 e Good 60 30.00 Fair 80 40.00 2.450 0.000 Bad 50 25.00 Total 200 100.00 Source: survey
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As is evident from the table that 40 per cent of the customers find that their orders and instructions to the bank are executed satisfactorily whereas 25 per cent are not satisfied with the bank.
Regression Results
The regression results of quality of service at co-operative banks is presented in the following table.
Regression results between service quality and customer
Table 8
Variables Beta Std. Error t Value Significance
Variable 1 0.165 0.0369 4.154 0.000
Variable 2 0.136 0.0375 3.129 0.000
Variable 3 0.114 0.0343 3.254 0.000
Variable 4 0.134 0.0348 2.241 0.000
Variable 5 0.093 0.0362 2.235 0.000
Variable 6 0.093 0.0239 2.237 0.000
Findings
Majority of the customers of the co-operative banks have to spare more than required time for both in depositing cash and withdrawal of cash. So this is a big lacuna on the part of the bank and this should be removed.
Half of the customers of Co-operative Bank chose the banks only because of proximity. Only a small chunk (10 per cent only) chooses this bank due to better service.
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The behaviour of the employees of the co-operative banks is almost fair. But the rest of the employees (35 per cent) have to improve or it will have its toll on others performance.
As regards the accuracy of the work done, the cooperative banks are capable of creating customer satisfaction.
Instructions of the majority of the customers are executed in time and only 25 per cent of the customers feel that the service of the banks in this regard is bad.
Recommendations
The Co-operative Banks have to improve its efficiency and minimise time taken for depositing and withdrawal of cash.
It should also enhance the rate of accuracy with respect to entries in the passbook and other online transactions.
It will also have to work on the behaviour of the employees as they face competition from private sector banks also or the customers will feel free to switch to other banks which are providing all facilities as per their expectations.
As has been found out that nearness and not the better service is the factor the behind the selection of co-operative banks so they have to leave no stone unturned to provide better services.
It has to continuously monitor the customer satisfaction and for this it needs to have customer feedback and intelligence system in place.
It should conduct market research to understand changing customer expectations and perceptions.
The cooperative banks need to educate and train their employees in delivering quality service. They have to educate and trained to use state of the art technology to service customers. www.ijmer.in 96 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(1), APRIL 2015
The banks should also be provided with corporate awards and rewards for good service as it will create competitive atmosphere among the banks and among the employees.
The banks should usher role clarity in the banks so that no staff pass the buck and they remain accountable for the job.
References
1. Aronson, D.A. & Cowley, P.F. (1984). Trade in Services: A case for Open Markets, American Institute for Public Police Research, Washington, DC.
2. Agarwal, O.P. (2006). Innovations in Banking and Insurance, Bombay: Hirnalaya Publishing House.
3. Sabolo , Y. (1975) . Indian Service Industries, ILO, Geneva.
4. Anitha. B. & SubbaRao. P. (1998).Quality of work life in Commercial Banks. New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House.
5. AnanthaBhaskar. P.v. (2004). Customer Service in Banks.IBA Bulletin.Vol.XXVI. No. 8. August.
6. Babu, Hassan. Dr. (2004 ).Customer Service in Rural Banks.I13A Bulletin. Vol. XXVI. NO. 8, August.
7. Bedi. R.D. (1977). Theory, History and Practice of Co- operation. Mecrut : Loyal Book Depot.
8. Culvert. H. (1959). Law and Principles of Co-operation. Calcutta, Thoskcr Spink & Co. Private Ltd.
9. Dwivedi. R.C.(2005). Hundred Years of Co-operative Movement in India. New Delhi: Centre for Promotion of Co- operativism.
10. Fuchs, V.R.(1968). The Service Economy, NBER, New York.
11. Sampson, G.P. and Snape, R.H. (1985). Identifying the issues in Trade in Services, The World Economy, 8, 171-81.
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SOCIAL COGNITION AND PERFORMANCE: KEYS TO EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Dr. J. Godwin Prem Singh N. Antony Prakash Dean, International Relations & Assistant Professor Associate Professor in Social Work Social Work Bishop Heber College Jamal Mohamed College (Autonomous),Tiruchirappalli (Autonomous),Tiruchirappalli
INTRODUCTION
In this era of globalization where there is high cultural, scientific, economic and social exchange, the success of a person depends on many personal factors. This includes attitude, parental support, good education, social network, financial support and so on. Even with all of these, there can be failure in success. When the root causes for this was searched, it points towards Emotional Intelligence (Mayer, et al., 2000). It is the ability to manage emotions intelligently. Emotional intelligence is a set of acquired skills and competencies that predict positive outcomes at home with one’s family, in school and at work. People who possess these are healthier, less depressed, more productive at work, and have better relationships (Mayer, et al., 1999). The present world demands higher level of inter-relationships, mutual understanding and greater productivity at work place. A good knowledge about others emotions and an ability to manage them can help a person to gain success and satisfaction in his work (Mayer, 2000). Though, Intelligence Quotient is an important factor which can determine the success of a person, studies show that beyond a level it is emotional quotient that matters more than Intelligence Quotient; when it comes into a work environment. Emotional intelligence reflects the ability to read and understand others in social contexts, to detect the nuances of emotional reactions, and to utilize such knowledge to influence others through emotional regulation and control. As such, it
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represents a critically important competency for effective leadership and team performance in organizations today (Mayer and Ciarrochi, 2006).
Emotional Intelligence as the single most important variable influences personal achievement, career success, and physical health. Some of the immediate benefits of emotional intelligence are: increasing productivity; speeding up adoption to change; developing leadership skill; stimulating creativity; cooperation; responding effectively to competition; innovative thinking about work environment; reducing stress level and frustration and developing sense of competence (Mayer, 2001). Emotional intelligence is increasingly relevant to organizational development and developing executives, because the Emotional Intelligence principles provide a new way to understand and assess the potential (Mayer and Ciarrochi, 2006). Emotional intelligence impacts many different aspects of your daily life, such as the way you behave and the way you interact with others. If you have high emotional intelligence you are able to recognize your own emotional state and the emotional states of others and engage with people in a way that draws them to you. You can use this understanding of emotions to relate better to other people, form healthier relationships, achieve greater success at work and lead a more fulfilling life (Salovey, et al., 1995).
The present study absorbs level of emotional intelligence among the executives of a chemical works private limited in Tuticorin district, as they are considered as the important aspects of Human resource management and work performance. The study tries to find out the Level of perception on various dimensions of Emotional Intelligence such as Life events, Emotional Self Awareness, Emotional Awareness of Others, Emotional Expression, Self-Management, Social Awareness, Relationship Management, Emotional Expression, Work Pressure, Personal Pressure, Intentionality, Creativity, Resilience, Interpersonal
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Connections, Integrity, Constructive Discontent, Outlook, Intuition, Trust Radius, Personal Power, General health, Compassion, Quality of Life, Relationship Quotient and Optimal Performance. The study helps to understand various factors that influence the Emotional Intelligence of the Executives in this Industry and to provide better suggestions for the further development of Emotional Intelligence among the executives. Thus, the present study has a vast scope of utilization in framing policy in industrial areas for the improvement of executives and action towards the Emotional Intelligence issues of executives.
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
1) To find out levels of Emotional Intelligence among the executives.
2) To assess the association between organizational commitment and Work Performance on various dimensions of emotional intelligence.
3) To suggest suitable measures for enhancing emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness among the executives. METHODS AND METARIALS
For the purpose of the study, the researcher has selected one of the leading Chemical Industries located in Tuticorin District. The total workforce of the industry is 1275, which include 500 workers come under workmen’s category, 175 workers come under Manager’s category and remaining 600 workers come under Executives category. Hence, the universe of the present study includes 600 executives of Chemical Works Private Limited in Tuticorin District. These 600 executives are in 6 departments of this industry such as Civil and Mechanical, Production, Human Resource, Stores and Sales, Electrical and Marketing. From this sampling frame, the researcher selected 50 percent of the executives from each department through Stratified Proportionate Random Sampling Technique. Finally sample taken for the analysis consists of 300 executives of the Industry. Hence, for this www.ijmer.in 100 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(1), APRIL 2015
research descriptive design has been adopted. For collecting primary data the researcher used structured questionnaire method and standardized scales of emotional Intelligence among the executives of Chemical Works Private Limited in Tuticorin District. The structured questionnaire was used to collect data from the executives of this industry.
Based on the purpose of the research the data were processed and analyzed. The processing and analysis of the data were done manually and by computer computation. The researcher has used SPSS to test the data and draw the statistical inference. Chi square test, ANOVA, ‘Z’- test, Correlation, Cross table and Regression were considered for statistical analysis. Data were carefully scrutinized to attain accuracy, consistency to facilitate coding and tabulating. With the help of the codebook the data were transformed to the master sheet and univariate, bivariate and multivariate tables were drawn. This helped in interpretation and interpreted data were summarized in percentage. Tables and Diagrams were also used to highlight the interpretation. The interpretations of data were followed by the significant findings.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS
In viewing their socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents, 36 percent of the respondents belong to the age group of below 35 years. In viewing native place 51.7 percent of the respondents are hailing from semi-urban area. With regard to educational qualification of the respondents, half (51 percent) of the respondents completed under graduation. A majority (72.7 percent) of the respondents were married. 53.3 percent of the respondents followed nuclear family system. In viewing monthly income of the respondents, more than half (64.7 percent) of the respondents earned Rs. 20,000-
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35,000. With regard to working experience, 32 percent of the respondents have had 5 - 15 years of working experience.
Table No: 1
Distribution of the respondents according to their opinion on Organizational Commitment and its relationship with Emotional Intelligence
No. of S. Organizational Respondents Percentage No. Commitment (n :300) 1 Positive 241 80.3 2 Negative 59 19.7 It is clear from the Table No 1 that the vast majority (81.3 percent) of the respondents were positive about the organizational commitment prevalent among them and its relationship with emotional intelligence and below one-fifths (19.7 percent) of the respondents were negative about the organizational commitment prevalent among them and its relationship with emotional intelligence. The researcher suggests that organizations should focus on hiring executives with high emotional and social competence and also provide emotional intelligence training and development opportunities to executives to enable them establish a positive organizational commitment. The present study findings were in with the study of Jain and Sinha, (2007) he revealed that the dimensions of emotional intelligence were related with job satisfaction, personal effectiveness, organizational commitment, reputation effectiveness, general health, turnover intention, organizational effectiveness and organizational productivity Yehuda, et al., (2008). The study revealed a strong relationship between positive work-related emotions and organizational commitment levels in the organization, which leads to higher intention to stay of the executives in the organization (Yehuda, et al., 2008).
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Table No: 2
Distribution of the respondents according to their opinion on Work Performance and its relationship with Emotional Intelligence
No. of S. Work Performance Respondents Percentage No. (n :300) 1 Positive 234 78.0 2 Negative 66 22.0 It is evident from the table No 2 that the majority (78.0 Percent) of the respondents have answered positively that the work performance have highly correlated with the level of emotional intelligence and one-fifths (22 Percent) of the respondents have responded negatively that the work performance has highly correlated with the level of emotional intelligence. The researcher observed from the survey that higher levels of emotional intelligence are associated with better performance in following areas: participative management, putting people at ease, self awareness, balance between personal life and work, straight forwardness and composure, building and mending relations, decisiveness, confronting problem of employees and change management. The findings have been corroborated with the study of Kafetsios and Zampetakis, (2008) they demonstrated that emotional intelligence is an important predictor of work performance and job satisfaction.
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Table No: 3 Distribution of the respondents according to their Level of Perception towards various dimensions of Emotional Intelligence No. of S. Emotional intelligence Respondents Percentage No. (n :300) I. Managing Emotions 1 Life Events Low 145 48.4 Moderate 112 37.3 High 43 14.3 2 Work Pressures Low 141 47.0 Moderate 100 33.3 High 59 19.7 3 Personal Pressures Low 171 57.0 Moderate 76 25.3 High 53 17.7 II. Understanding
Emotions 4 Emotional Self- Awareness Low 136 45.4 Moderate 115 38.3 High 49 16.3 5 Emotional Expression Low 103 34.3 Moderate 119 39.7 High 78 26.0 6 Emotional Awareness of Others Low 131 43.7 Moderate 110 36.7 High 59 19.6
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No. of S. No. Emotional intelligence Respondents Percentage (n :300) 7 Intentionality Low 119 39.7 Moderate 121 40.3 High 60 20.0 8 Creativity Low 141 47.0 Moderate 99 33.0 High 60 20.0 9 Resilience Low 125 41.7 Moderate 98 32.7 High 77 25.6 10 Interpersonal Connections Low 159 53.0 Moderate 90 30.0 High 51 17.0 11 Constructive Discontent Low 122 40.7 Moderate 116 38.7 High 62 20.6 IV. Perceiving Emotions 12 Compassion Low 122 40.7 Moderate 109 36.3 High 69 23.0 13 Outlook Low 120 40.0 Moderate 117 39.0 High 63 21.0 14 Intuition Low 138 46.0 Moderate 89 29.7 High 73 24.3 15 Trust Radius Low 151 50.3 Moderate 69 23.0 High 80 26.7
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No. of Respondents S. No. Emotional intelligence Percentage (n :300) 16 Personal Power Low 155 51.7 Moderate 72 24.0 High 73 24.3 17 Integrity Low 142 47.4 Moderate 112 37.3 High 46 15.3 V. Effects Of Emotions 18 General health (Physical
Symptoms) Low 113 37.7 Moderate 73 24.3 High 114 38.0 19 General health (Behavioural
Symptoms) Low 121 40.3 Moderate 54 18.0 High 125 41.7 20 General Health (Emotional
Symptoms) Low 122 40.7 Moderate 49 16.3 High 129 43.0 21 Quality of Life Low 111 37.0 Moderate 108 36.0 High 81 27.0 22 Relationship Quotient Low 102 34.0 Moderate 99 33.0 High 99 33.0 23 Optimal Performance Low 145 48.3 Moderate 101 33.7 High 54 18.0 24 Overall Level of Emotional
Intelligence Low 136 45.3 Moderate 80 26.7 High 84 28.0
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The Table No 3 indicates the level of executive’s perception towards various dimensions of emotional intelligence. A majority of the respondents have had low level of perception toward various dimensions of emotional intelligence such as Life Events, Work Pressures, Personal Pressures, Emotional Self-Awareness, Emotional Expression, Emotional Awareness of Others, Intentionality, Creativity, Resilience, Interpersonal Connections, Constructive Discontent, Compassion, Outlook, Intuition, Trust Radius, Personal Power, Integrity, General Health (Physical Symptoms), General Health (Behavioural Symptoms), General Health (Emotional Symptoms), Quality of Life, Relationship Quotient and Optimal Performance
In viewing Overall level of executive’s Emotional Intelligence, more than one-fifths (28.0 Percent) of the respondents have had high level of executives Emotional Intelligence, two-fifths (26.7 Percent) of the respondents have had moderate level of executive’s Emotional Intelligence and nearly half (45.3 Percent) of the respondents have had low level of executives Emotional Intelligence. The researcher suggests the fact that well managed emotions can assist one to extend trust, loyalty and commitment, with their selves, their groups and their firms. These findings were in line with the some of the research studies which have indicated that individuals with higher level of EI are more likely to experience performance related success than individuals with lower levels of EI. Successful leaders may use information to develop influential, high trust worthy relationships with followers and leaders with higher emotional capability may be able to excite and motivate followers to engage in behaviors that are beneficial to the organization (Eskandarpour and Amiri 2012; Jayasuriya, 2012; and Indoo and Ajeya, 2012). Managers’ emotional intelligence had a more positive correlation with job satisfaction and work performance for employees with low emotional intelligence than for those with high emotional intelligence (Loretto, 2010). Emotional intelligence has gained much popularity as
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an absolute necessity for effective leadership and predicted that executives with greater emotional intelligence will be more effective executives. The role emotions and emotional intelligence play in the organization through change efforts, leadership effectiveness, training and organizational performance. They found that individuals with higher EI are more likely to resolve conflict effectively and using more collaborative styles of conflict resolution (Ashforth and Lee, 2008 and Douglas, et al., 2010).
SOCIAL WORK INTERVENTIONS
From the research study it is seen that a majority (72 percent) of the respondents’ emotional intelligence was low and moderate. If this is allowed unattended, it can lead to many complicated issues in the functions of industry. It may affect their emotional intelligence in terms of managing emotions, understanding emotions, applying emotions, perceiving emotions and effects of emotions. It may also lead to lack in their leadership effectiveness in professional life in the industry.
Added to this, this will lead to physical and mental health problems which may ultimately lead to reduction in organizational commitment, effective communication skills, coping with stress skills, conflict resolution skills and work performance. So as to meet out with this challenging situation, the organization may think of appointing and making available social work counselors in the workplace. This is likely to improve their level of emotional intelligence of the executives. Further, the management may examine the root causes of the low level of emotional intelligence and suitably modify the work conditions to reduce the same. The human resource manager may prepare the training manual based on the level of executive’s emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness. This will help the management to organize the training sessions to enhance their level of emotional
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intelligence and leadership effectiveness. The industrial social worker plays a vital role in assessment of workers emotional level and preparation of effective training modalities. Further, the executives may be given job rotation in a systematic way to prevent boredom and also to develop their emotional skill as they will be interacting with new customers and people when they move from one department to another.
NEED BASED INTERVENTIONS
To Improve Emotional Intelligence
The present study highlights that a majority (72 percent) of the respondents have had both moderate and lower level of perception towards understanding of emotions, managing of emotions, perceiving of emotions, applying of emotions and effects of emotions. The executives may improve their level of emotional intelligence in the following ways such as the ability to deal with one's own negative emotions, the ability to stay cool under pressure, the ability to stay proactive, not reactive in the face of a difficult person, the ability to be assertive and express difficult emotions when necessary and the ability to express intimate emotions in close and personal relationships. The researcher also suggests to improve the emotional intelligence through the following techniques such as self-awareness (understand their strengths, weaknesses, emotions, and impact on others), self-regulation (they can demonstrate maturity and restraint when revealing them), self-awareness (understand their strengths, weaknesses, emotions, and impact on others), motivation (resilient and optimistic in the disappointment), empathy (possess the compassion and understanding of human nature that enables them to connect emotionally with others) and people skills (ability to quickly build rapport and trust).
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To improve Organizational Commitment
The vast majority (81.3 percent) of the respondents were positive about the organizational commitment prevalent among them and its relationship with emotional intelligence and below one-fifths (19.7 percent) of the respondents were negative about the organizational commitment prevalent among them and its relationship with emotional intelligence. The researcher suggests that committed executives are much less likely to leave their jobs and they are less likely to be absent from work. More committed executives perform better and they usually put more effort to find creative ways to be productive.
Considering the data analysis and the obtained results, for improving the organizational commitment, the researcher suggests the following techniques such as demonstrating that they honestly care about their executive’s welfare, creating opportunities for executives to achieve their personal goals, modifying jobs so that employees can experience more intrinsic rewards, finding ways to reward and interact with executives regularly and setting goals with executives and be sure that some of them are personal development goals valued by the executives so as to improve the organizational commitment among the executives for enhancing their level of emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness.
To improve Work Performance
A majority (78.0 Percent) of the respondents have answered positively that the work performance has highly correlated with the level of emotional intelligence and one-fifths (22 Percent) of the respondents have responded negatively that the work performance has highly correlated with the level of emotional intelligence. The researcher suggests that raising and maintaining high performance among executives is an essential element to the organization reaching
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its goals and objectives. The following suggestions are given to the management and executives so as to enhance the level of work performance among the executives in order to improve the emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness.
SUGGESTIONS TO THE MANAGEMENT
The Management shall organize Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Effectiveness programmes to build organizational capacity for bringing out the best in people and forming powerful workplace relationships. This may help to increase engagement, trust and integrity to build more effective teams, retain great executives and provide exceptional customer care and effective change in the management.
Management shall focus on the development of skills like communication skills, logical skills, comprehension skills, creative skills and management skills.
Emotional intelligence test may be used in workplace for giving promotions, staff reviews and Recruitment.
Management shall motivate the executives to participate in the management process very effectively.
Management shall encourage the executives in decision making in order to reduce industrial disputes.
Management shall provide more information about the welfare measures available to the executives.
Management shall give more chance for the executives to express their views
Management shall concentrate in solving executive’s grievances.
Management shall motivate the executives to communicate their expectation to the management.
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The management shall consider emotional Intelligence is an important consideration in human resources planning, job profiling, recruitment interviewing, selection, management development, customer relations and customer service.
CONCLUSION
According to Daniel Goleman, The quest of today’s companies is to have more and more emotionally intelligent workforce. Emotional Intelligence as the single most important variable influences personal achievement, career success and physical health. The leaders will have to develop a culture that supports Emotional Intelligence and as a first step towards that the leaders of an organization should be emotionally intelligent so as to enable better performance by creating emotionally intelligent climate, exercising emotionally intelligent competencies and leadership style. In the end the researchers conclude that the higher level of emotional intelligence among the executives would lead to enhance the better work performance, able Leadership, conflict management skills and organizational commitment for achieving industrial and personal growth.
References
1. Ashforth, B.E. and Lee, R.H. (2008). Emotion in the Workplace: A Reappraisal. Human Relations, 48(2), pp. 97-125. 2. Douglas, G.R., Ferris, A.P., Ammeter, P.S. and Buckle, M.R. (2010). Emotional Intelligence, Leadership Effectiveness, and Team Outcomes. International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 11 (1) pp. 21-40. 3. Eskandarpour, L.A. and Amiri, B.R. (2012). Sources of Motivation, Interpersonal Conflict Management Styles and Leadership Effectiveness: A structural model. Psychological Reports, 98(1), pp. 3-20. 4. Indoo S. and Ajeya, J. (2012). Emotional Intelligence and Occupational Stress among the Faculty Members of Private Medical and Engineering Colleges of Uttar Pradesh: A Comparative Study. Advance in Management. 5 (7), pp. 56-69.
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5. Jain, A.K and Sinha, A.K (2007). General Health in Organizations: Relative Relevance of Emotional Intelligence, Trust, and Organizational Support. International Journal of Stress Management, 12 (3), pp. 257-273. 6. Jayasuriya, N. (2012). A Heart that feels and a mind that thinks, Columns, 28. 7. Kafetsios, K. and Zampetakis, L.A. (2008). Emotional Intelligence and Job satisfaction: Testing the Mediatory Role of Positive and Negative Affect at Work. Personality and Individual Differences, 44 (3), pp. 710-720. 8. Loretto, Sujan, M. (2010). The influence of mood on categorization: A cognitive flexibility interpretation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, pp. 411–25. 9. Mayer, J.D. and Ciarrochi, J. (2006). Clarifying concepts related to Emotional Intelligence: A proposed glossary. In J. Ciarrochi, J. Forgas, and J.D. Mayer (Eds.). Emotional intelligence in everyday life (2nd ed.), New York: Psychological Press. 10. Mayer, J.D. (2000). Emotion, intelligence, Emotional Intelli- gence. In J.P. Forgas (Ed.). The Handbook of Affect and Social Cognition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. 11. Mayer, J.D. (2001). Primary divisions of Personality and their scientific contributions: From the Trilogy-of-mind to the systems set. Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior, 31, pp. 449-477. 12. Mayer, J.D., Caruso, D. R. and Salovey, P. (1999). Emotional Intelligence meets traditional standards for Intelligence. Intelli- gence, 27, pp. 267-298. 13. Mayer, J.D., Caruso, D.R. and Salovey, P. (2000). Models of Emotional Intelligence, in T.H. Herbst, & K.G. Maree, (2008). Thinking Style Preference, Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Effectiveness. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 34(1), pp. 32-41. 14. Salovey, P. and Mayer, J.D. (1990). Emotional Intelligence. Imagination, Cognition, and Personality, 9, pp.185-211. 15. Yehuda, A., Forgas, J.P. and Geroge, D. (2008). Thinking Style Preference, Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Effectiveness. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 34(1), pp. 32-41
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CYTOKINE TH1/TH2 LEVELS IN PATIENTS WITH DISC HERNIATION - A COMPARATIVE STUDY
K. Rajsekar M. Kuhar Dept of Biochemistry Dept of Biochemistry Sri Venkateswara College Sri Venkateswara College University of Delhi, Delhi University of Delhi, Delhi
N. Narayanasamy S. Vaishya Dept of Biochemistry Neurosurgery Sri Venkateswara College Fortis Hospital University of Delhi, Delhi New Delhi
N. Devaraj S.Rajasekaran Dept of Biochemistry Director University of Madras, Chennai Dept of Orthopaedics and Spine Ganga Hospital, Coimbatore,India
INTRODUCTION
Lumbar disc degeneration leading to herniation is the most commom cause of severe Low back pain .This can lead to mechanical compression of peripheral nerve roots which triggers tissue damage, thereby causing inflammation with a direct effect on neurological function. These injuries are responsible to modulate neuroimmune cascades, particularly the upregulation of cytokines in the damaged area, which may induce the expression of numerous algesic mediators that ultimately lead to pain.
Inflammation, the response of tissue to injury, is characterized in the acute phase by increased blood flow and vascular permeability along with the accumulation of fluid, leukocytes, and inflammatory mediators such as cytokines. In the sub acute / chronic phase , it is characterized by the development of specific humoral and cellular immune responses to the pathogens present at the site of tissue injury1 ( Gallin et al 1992).Immune function depends on the biologic activities of numerous
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small glycoprotein messengers, termed cytokines . Cytokines play a role not only in host defense, but also in a variety of physiological and metabolic processes. Cytokines operate at every stage in the crucial early events that promote acute inflammation. Cells that make up the innate immune response, including neutrophils, natural killer cells, macrophages, mast cells, and eosinophils, all produce and respond to cytokines generated within seconds of tissue insult. Cytokines prime leukocytes for response to microbial and chemical stimuli; upregulate adhesion molecule expression on migrating leukocytes and endothelial cells; and amplify the release of reactive oxygen intermediates, nitric oxide, vasoactive amines, and neuropeptides, and the activation of kinins and arachidonic acid derivatives, prostaglandins, and leukotrienes, which regulate cytokine release. Cytokines, particularly IL-1, TNF- α and IL-6, are crucial in driving the acute-phase response. Cytokines critically modulate the cellular interactions that characterize chronic infl ammation. Cytokines may also promote cell death (apoptosis) either by withdrawal (e.g., IL-2, IL-7, IL-15) or by binding cytokine receptors containing death domains (e.g., TNF-R1).
Numerous cytokines have both proinflammatory and anti- inflammatory potential; which activity is observed depends on the immune cells present and their state of responsiveness to the cytokine2 (Dinarello 2000). Cytokines are also produced in response to stress. A recent study by Bierhaus et al. showed that psychological stress activates the expression of the transcription factor, nuclear factor-κB 3 (NF-κB) in PBMC of healthy subjects (Bierhaus et al 2003). Notably, NF-κB upregulates the expression of a number of inflammatory proteins including cytokines4(Barnes and Karin 1997).
Role Of Cytokines in Intervertebral Disc Diseases
IVD degeneration is characterized by increases in levels of the proinflammatory cytokines TNF, IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-17 mainly
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secreted by the IVD cells; these cytokines promote extracellular matrix degradation, chemokine production and changes in IVD cell phenotype. The resulting imbalance in catabolic and anabolic responses leads to the degeneration of IVD tissues, as well as disc herniation and radicular pain. The release of chemokines from degenerating discs promotes the infiltration and activation of immune cells, further amplifying the inflammatory cascade. Leukocyte migration into the IVD is accompanied by the appearance of microvasculature tissue and nerve fibres. The herniated disc also induces an inflammatory response.In a dog model with autologous implantation of both nucleus and anulus, Hasegawa and colleagues showed that nucleus fragments induce an inflammatory reaction. Studies on older Dogs showed the number of lymphocytes, macrophages, and fibroblasts was markedly increased in herniated samples 5(Hasegawa et al 2000).Others have examined human samples, finding that macrophages are the most commonly found cell type in both acute and chronic herniation6-8(Gronblad et al 1994, Habtemariam et al 1998, Ikeda et al 1996).Herniated disc tissues express a variety of inflammatory factors such as interleukin-1α (IL-1α) 9-12 , IL-1β, IL-6 , IL-8 , IL-10 (Ahn et al 2002, Burke et al 2002, Burke et al 2003, Li et al 2005), leukotriene B4 , monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (MCP-1), nitric oxide , prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), RANTES , transforming growth factor β , thromboxane β2 , and tumor necrosis 13-18 factor α(TNFα) (Kang et al 1995, Kang et al 1996, Nygaard et al 1997, Takahashi et al 1996, O’Donnell et al 1996, Kang 1997). Among these, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-8, and PGE2 have unique pathologic characteristics in herniated disc disease. TNF-α is always present in the nucleus pulposus and is thought to induce pain related behavior in animal models 19-20(Igarashi et al 2000,Olmarker et al 2003). However, the mechanisms by which TNF-α, IL-6, IL-8, and PGE2 contribute to herniated disc disease symptoms, especially sciatica, are unclear. Approximately 36–66% of surgically obtained herniated disc specimens show abundant macrophage infiltration21-23 (Doita et al 1996, Gronblad
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et al 2000, Woertgen et al 2000) Macrophages could be an important source of inflammation in herniated disc disease. In a study by Guerne et al 2013, it was shown that human articular chondrocytes isolated from normal and osteoarthritic joints released low levels of IL-6 when cultured in the presence of healthy serum. The inflammatory cytokines IL-1, and, to a lesser extent, TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma increased IL-6 production from chondrocytes in arthritis. Metabolic labeling and immunoprecipitation studies have showed that IL-1 induced de novo synthesis of IL-6 and that the IL-6 proteins secreted by chondrocytes were similar to those from fibroblasts. These results demonstrate that chondrocytes are able to produce IL-6 in response to physiologic and inflammatory stimuli 24(Guerne et al 2013).
The aim of this study was to evaluate the levels of both proinflammatory Th1 and anti inflammatory Th2 cytokines in the plasma samples of patients undergoing microdiscectomy for Disc herniation, compared with healthy subjects. This can be correlated to the degree of low back pain and therapeutic interventions can be identified
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Fig 1: Schematic of major interdependent and overlapping phases of inflammation leading to IVD degeneration25 (Risbud and Shapiro 2013)This Fig shows the overlapping phases of inflammation that could ultimately lead to annulus tears and herniation. The first phase which could be initiated by a variety of exogenous(infection) and endogenous ( genetic) factors is predominated by cytokine release from chondrocytes which if unchecked could initiate the second phase which leads to an amplified immune response.A variety of immune cells when activated further lead to a feed back activation of the phase I response . The cytokines released in the phase II further activate the phase III inflammatory response which would lead to disc degeneration and herniation accompanied by the physiological and physical symptoms such as radicular pain.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
5 ml of blood in EDTA coated vials was collected pre operatively from 46 patients with Disc degeneration of ages ranging from 20-70 years .Healthy samples from 24 donors with no symptoms of low back pain were used as Control. Post operative IVD Samples from the same patients were collected. IVD samples from 14patients undergoing surgery for reasons other than disc degeneration were used as control. Major cytokines IL-1β,IL-2, IL-4,IL-6,IL-10,TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma were studied in the plasma samples of both groups by using the Human Th1/Th2 cytokine flow Cytometric bead array kit.Levels of IL-1β were assayed by Sandwich ELISA. In this procedure an immobilized capture antibody binds IL-1β present in samples or standards, then a biotinylated detection antibody specific for human total IL-1β was used to detect the protein, utilizing a standard Streptavidin-HRP format (e- Biosciences Kit)
The BD CBA Human Th1/Th2 Cytokine Kit II was used to detect levels of cytokines in serum and disc lysates .The kit uses a bead array
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technology to simultaneously detect multiple cytokine proteins in test samples. Six bead populations with distinct fluorescence intensities that have been coated with capture antibodies specific for IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α, and IFN-γ proteins. The six bead populations are mixed together to form the bead array, which is resolved in a red channel of a flow cytometer. During the assay procedure, the cytokine capture beads are mixed with recombinant standards or unknown samples and allowed to incubate with the PE-conjugated detection antibodies to form sandwich complexes. The intensity of PE fluorescence of each sandwich complex reveals the concentration of that cytokine.Vortex the mixed Capture Beads and add 50 μl to all assay tubes. Then Add 50 μl of the Human Th1/Th2 Cytokine Standard dilutions to the control assay tubes in serial dilution from 5000 pg/ml to 20 pg/ml. Add 50 μl of each unknown sample (Plasma samples) to the appropriately labeled sample tubes. Add 50 μl of the Human Th1/Th2 - II PE Detection Reagent to all assay tubes. Incubate the assay tubes for 3 hours at room temperature, protected from light. Add 1 ml of wash buffer to each assay tube and centrifuge at 200g for 5 minutes. Carefully aspirate and discard the supernatant from each assay tube. Add 300 μl of wash buffer to each assay tube to resuspend the bead pellet. The data is acquired in a dual-laser flow cytometer equipped with a 488-nm or 532-nm and a 633-nm or 635-nm laser capable of distinguishing 576-nm, 660-nm, and >680-nm fluorescence.
RESULTS
The sample had about 58% male and 42% female with a mean age group of 42.7± 5 years (median)The location of the herniated intervertebral disc was at the L4-L5 levels in 61% of the patients and at the L5-S1 levels in 39%.The scatter plots and standard curve for all the cytokines IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10,TNF-α and IFN-γ ranging from 10pg/ml to 5000pg/ml shows linearity of the flow cytometry assay (Fig-2 and 3).Similarly scatter plots for healthy and herniated plasma www.ijmer.in 119 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(1), APRIL 2015
samples have also been shown in fig 4 and 5. Levels of IL-6, IL-1β in plasma and in the disc lysates were elevated significantly in the herniated samples compared to the healthy samples (p<0.0118)(Fig- 6,7,8). Similarly IL-10 and IL-2 levels were also increased in the herniated samples (p<0.0271) but were not as high as IL-6, IL- 1β.There was no statistical correlation between the levels of IL-4 and TNF-alpha between the 2 groups.
DISCUSSION
A number of cytokines have been implicated in the pathogenesis of IVD degeneration and herniation, with particular attention being paid to IL-
26-27 1 and TNFα (Le Maitre et al 2003 and Cooper et al 2003).The present study has shown that the levels of Th1 proinflammatory cytokines as well as Th2 anti inflammatory cytokines were elevated in plasma of herniated patients as compared to healthy samples. However the proinflammatory cytokines like IL-6 and IL-1 beta were 4 fold higher in herniated disc lysates as compared to the healthy samples, indicating a pronounced proinflammatory environment within the discs. IL-6 is a pleiotropic cytokine that is produced by endothelial cells, chondrocytes, macrophages and fibroblast cellsthat increases in concentration in response to stressful conditions and may be affected by even emotional changes. Any acute physiological and /or psychological
28 stressor is known to increase mononuclear cell IL-1β gene expression (Brydon et al 2004). The elevated levels of IL-6 and IL-1β in disc lysates correlates well with the hypothesis of stress induced inflammation. Thus it would appear that as shown in Fig- 1, any endogenous (genetic) or exogenous (infection) or stress condition activates the phase-1 response that leads to elevated proinflammatory cytokines which inturn could initiate biochemical events that trigger matrix degeneration and disc cell death. Thus IL-1β may play an important role in initiating inflammation leading to disc degeneration which finally leads to a herniated disc. It should be noted that increase in IL-
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10 levels could play an inhibitory role on TNF-α . It suppresses the cell- mediated immune response by an antagonist effect to IFN-γ macrophage activator effect. Although IL-10 has protective effects, increased levels are related to poor prognosis. The levels of IL-10 was not statistically correlated. Elevated plasma levels of these cytokine could be used as one of the tests for diagnosis of the stages of the disease. Understanding the cytokine network in IVD–cells, their interaction and the effect of its inflammatory properties on nociceptive pain can also open new channels for drug discovery.and therapy .These results are preliminary reports and further investigations are required to confirm the hypothesis.
CONCLUSION
The study of the pattern of cytokines in the herniated disc and plasma samples showed very high levels of IL-6 and IL-1β. Any acute psychological stressor increases proinflammatory cytokines including mononuclear cell IL-1β gene expression and plasma interleukin-6 (IL-6) but it is not clear whether they are produced by the chondrocytes or the invading macrophages. Stress can also be a factor for the macrophages and chondrocytes of the IVD to initiate a cascade of cytokine synthesis. The reactive oxygen stress could trigger intrinsic apoptosis which causes degeneration of the disc cells and further trigger the increase of TNF- alpha,IL-1 β and IL-6 levels which further could initiate a cascade of inflammatory response.
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IL-2 IL-4 IL-6 IL-10 IFN-γ TNF-α
Conc -Blank Conc-10pg/ml Conc-20pg/ml
Conc-40pg/ml Conc-80pg/ml Conc-156pg/ml
Conc-312.5pg/ml Conc-625pg/ml Conc-1250pg/ml
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Conc-2500pg/ml Conc-5000pg/ml
Fig-2 FL4-H (side scatter) vs FL2-H (forward scatter) Red –PE plot showing the 6 bead population with mean concentration of standard IL-2,IL-4,IL-6,IL-10,1L-10,TNF-α,IFN-γ cytokine
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Fig-3 Standard curves of the Th1/Th2 Cytokine
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IL-2 IL-4 IL-6 IL-10 IFN-γ TNF-α
Fig-4 FL4-H (side scatter) vs FL2-H (forward scatter) Red –PE plot showing the 6 bead population with mean concentration of IL-2,IL-4,IL-6,IL-10,1L-10,TNF-α,IFN-γ cytokines in selected healthy plasma samples
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IL-2 IL-4 IL-2 IL-6 IL-4 IL- IL-6 10 IL-10 IFN IFN-γ -γ TNF-α TN F-α
IL-2 IL-4 IL-2 IL-6 IL-4 IL-10 IL-6 IFN-γ IL-10 TNF-α IFN-γ TNF-α
IL-2 IL-2 IL-4 IL-4 IL-6 IL-6 IL-10 IL-10 IFN-γ IFN-γ TNF-α TNF-α
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IL-2 IL-2 IL-4 IL-4 IL-6 IL-6 IL-10 IL-10 IFN-γ IFN-γ TNF-α TNF-α
Fig-5 FL4-H (side scatter) vs FL2-H (forward scatter) Red –PE plot showing the 6 bead population with mean concentration of IL-2,IL- 4,IL-6,IL-10,1L-10,TNF-α,IFN-γ cytokines in selected Herniated plasma samples. The Bead array showing distinct IL-6 cytokine concentration increased patterns.
60 Cytokine levels in Plasma
40 Concpg/ml 20
0 IL-1beta IL-2 IL-4 IL-6 IL-10 IFN-gamma TNF- alpha Fig 6 Comparison of Th1-Th2 cytokines in Herniated patient’s plasma samples. (Graph plotted with two way ANOVA Mean ±SEM) p< 0.0005.The IL-1β and IL-6 were statistically significant.
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Table 1 Cytokine results of two way ANOVA
IL-1beta pg/ml IL-2 IL-4
Mean SEM N Mean SEM N Mean SEM N
Control 22.00 12.00 14 0.8214 1.2059 14 1.8914 1.2097 14
Herniated 45.93 24.88 42 2.7124 2.2047 46 2.7272 3.1463 47
IL-6 IL-10 IFN-gamma TNF- alpha
Mean SEM N Mean SEM N Mean SEM N Mean SEM N
Control 5.5679 3.1739 14 3.0707 1.0351 14 3.4036 0.6710 14 2.785 2.0503 14
Herniated 22.5902 29.3088 47 4.2549 5.4532 47 2.4628 2.5315 47 2.724 2.7526 47
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IL-1β in Disc Lysates 60 50
40 30 pg/ml 20 10 0 Control Herniated
Fig7- IL-1β levels reveals a significant increase in Herniated IVD samples compared to control IVD . * p < 0.0481.(graph plotted with unpaired t test with mean±SEM)
IL-6 in Disc Lysate 50
40
30
pg/ml 20
10
0 Control Herniated
Fig 8-IL-6 levels reveals a significant increase in herniated IVD samples compared to control IVD cells. p < 0.009.(graph plotted with unpaired t test with mean±SEM)
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9. Ahn SH, Cho YW, Ahn MW, Jang SH, Sohn YK, Kim HS. mRNA expression of cytokines and chemokines in herniated lumbar intervertebral discs. Spine 2002;27:911–7.
10. Burke JG, Watson RW, McCormack D, Dowling FE, Walsh MG, Fitzpatrick JM. Intervertebral discs which cause low back pain secrete high levels of proinflammatory mediators. J Bone Joint Surg Br 2002;84:196–201.
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14. Kang JD, Georgescu HI, McIntyre-Larkin L, Stefanovic-Racic M, Donaldson WF III, Evans CH. Herniated lumbar intervertebral discs spontaneously produce matrix metalloproteinases, nitric oxide,interleukin-6, and prostaglandin E2. Spine 1996;21:271–7.
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17. O’Donnell JL, O’Donnell AL. Prostaglandin E2 content in herniated lumbar disc disease. Spine 1996;21:1653–5.
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23. Woertgen C, Rothoerl RD, Brawanski A. Influence of macrophage infiltration of herniated lumbar disc tissue on outcome after lumbar disc surgery. Spine 2000;25:871–5.
a,* a a 24. Tim Gruene, Hinrich W. Hahn, Anna V. Luebben, Flora Meilleur,b,c and George M. Sheldricka Refinement of macromolecular structures against neutron data with SHELXL2013 Appl Crystallogr. 2014 Feb 1; 47(Pt 1): 462–466.
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25. Risbud MV, Shapiro IM. Role of cytokines in intervertebral disc degeneration: pain and disc content. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2014 Jan;10(1):44-56
26. Le Maitre CL, Richardson SMA, Williamson B, Ross R, Freemont AJ, Hoyland JA: IL-1: role in degeneration of the intervertebral disc and its inhibition using IL-1Ra gene transfer. Mol Therapy 2003, 5:S405.
27. Cooper RG, Freemont AJ: TNF-alpha blockade for herniated intervertebral disc-induced sciatica: a way forward at last? Rheumatology (Oxford) 2003, 43(2):119-21.
28. Brydon L, Edwards S, Mohamed-Ali V, Steptoe A. Socioeconomic status and stress-induced increases in interleukin-6. Brain Behav Immun. 2004;18(3):281-90.
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JUSTICE DELAYED IS JUSTICE DENIED – AN OVERVIEW IN THE INDIAN CONTEXT
K.Chandrasekhara Rao Research Scholar Department of Law Acharya Nagarjuna University Nagarjuna Nagar, Guntur
“To no one will we sell, to no one will we refuse or delay, right or justice” - Clause 40 of the Magna Carta, 1215 “Justice too long delayed is justice denied”. – Martin Luther King Junior’s phrase in his ‘Letter from Birmingham Jail’ (1963) “Injustice any where is a threat to justice everywhere” – Universal Truth
INTRODUCTION:
Before going to switch on this topic, it is an apt to quote the golden words of Dr.Cyrus that “Justice is a consumer product and must therefore meet the test of confidence, reliability and dependability like any other product if it is to survive market scrutiny. Judicial responsibility, accountability and independence are in every sense inseperable”. Credibility of the judiciary is at stake now a days due to humungous pendency of cases and abnormal delays in disposal besides high cost of obtaining justice. The denial of justice through delay is the biggest mockery of law. It does, not only amount to mere mockery but also kills the entire fabric of justice delivery system of the country to a greater extent. Though struggle for the independence ended on 15-08- 1947, which is a red letter day in the annals of India, but to be frank, it was only beginning of a struggle to live as an independent nation so as to establish a democracy based on the idea of justice, liberty, equality and fraternity. Though the preamble of the Constitution Of India
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(COI), Inter-alia declares that, “we, the people of India having solemnly resolved to constitute India in a soverign, socialist, secular, economic and political”, but 68 years after independence, we have endless laws but not enough justice. The founding fathers of our COI placed justice at the highest pedestal and our preamble to the COI placed justice higher than all other features such as liberty, equality and fraternity. It became a pathetic episode and sorry state of affair that at present the society becomes a victim due to the marathon and abnormal dilatoriness of the process of justice. For example, in Safdar Hashmi’s case, the criminals were punished after 15 years. Likewise, in Tanduri case, the accused was convicted with death penalty after 8½ years. The dilly-dally procedure in judiciary makes them deprived of justice. The more they do not get relief in time, the more they lost faith in justice. Consequently, people will gradually take the law in their own hands, which will lead to a social anarchism, resulting in deep darkness of frustration and futility-nihilism and cynisim all round. Thus the whole society would be fell in jeopardy. Presently pendency of crores of cases for disposal before 10,000 courts in India displays the alarming situation besides mockering the law of the land. It is not an out of place to mention here the austerity of Pirkei Avot that “the sword comes into the world merely because of justice delayed and justice denied”.
Legal system of India – the severity of backlogged cases – in the words of:
1. Dr.Manmohan Singh, the then P.M of India: Informed to the Loksabha that India had the largest backlog of cases in the world by estimating 30 million cases are pending before various courts.
2. The Hindusthan Times: There are 4 million cases pending before the High Courts and 65000 cases pending before the Supreme Court (SC)
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3. Markandey Katzu, the then Chairman of PCI: He opined and suggested that there should have no more than 300 cases pending at any time, but backlogs for individual judges stretch into the tens of thousands.
4. Damning Report released by the then CJ of HC, New Delhi: In it he claimed that it would take 466 years for the court to clear its backlog cases. Despite spending on an average less than 5 minutes per case, in 2009, the court had 600 cases that had been lodged over 20 years ago.
5. C.J.I, RM Lodha: On the eve of Independence Day on 15-08-2014, he said that “the criminal justice delivery system had failed so much that the process it self had become a punishment. It offers nothing more than pain, suffering, human rights exploitation and deprivation of liberty, especially to the most vulnerable sections of the society. A curious and tragic paradox is that our prisons house more under trial prisoners than convicts. In almost all central prisons, more than 50% are under trial prisoners ; in district prisons more than 72% are under trial prisoners. The process itself has become a punishment. As head of the judiciary, I cannot feel more pain than that. Preferably, we should set a goal that no trial exceeds three years, and no appeal from trial should take over a year. I was shocked to learn that 2 lakhs criminal trials are pending all over the country which are more than 5 years old and 40,000 trials are pending which are over 10 years old. In the SC by the end of the year, over 65000 cases are pending. These are peanuts compared to what we are seeing all over the country. He pointed to how conviction rates slumped from 62.5% in 1972 to 32% in 2012 due to corruption and inaptitude of law enforcement agencies. A robbery is implicated as theft, a rape is implicated as molestation, a kidnap is registered as elopement. Conversely, molestation is registered as rape, a theft is registered as robbery and elopement
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becomes kidnapping. The result is there is no legal evidence to sustain the conviction”.
th 6. Law commission’s 245 Report: Traffic cases clog lower courts: Additional Judges required in lower courts to clear backlogs in one year and keep pace in future
Higher Judical ServiceState 1200 978 1000
800
600
400 224 170 200 124 93 120
0 Andhra Delhi Bihar Gujrat Karnataka Kerala Pradesh
Subordinate Judicial Service
6000 5035 5000
4000
3000
2000 1677 779 1000 688 78 196 0 Andhra Delhi Bihar Gujrat Karnataka Kerala Pradesh Pendency of cases in 2012
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Subordinate Judicial HCService Jurisdiction 3000000 2556314 2500000 1927889 2000000 1453583 1500000 997260 1000000 763455
500000
0 Bombay Andhra Bihar Gujrat Kerala Pradesh
Traffic/Polic Challans as a % of Judicial Institutions
70 57.9 60 46.6 50 46.1 40 28.3 30 24.8 20 10 0 Bombay Andhra Bihar Gujrat Kerala Pradesh
Source: Law Commission, 245th report; The Hindu News col. p.10 dtd.16-08-2014
The Law Commission headed by Justice A.P.Shah has found that simple traffic violations and cases like littering involving police fines account for over a third of all cases in India’s lower courts. The lower court data was split into 2 levels – The Subordinate Judicial Service (SJS) and the Higher Judicial Service (HJS), which looks at more serious cases. At the end of 2012, at least one crore cases were pending in SJS courts and 20 laksh cases in HJS courts across the www.ijmer.in 138
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country. In the last 3 years, 38.7% of cases admitted and 37.4% of all pending cases before subordinate courts were on traffic and police challans.
7. The present CJI, HL Dattu: While inaugurating the Biennial State Level Conference of Judicial Officers with the theme, - Dispensation of justice: qualitative, responsive and timely, organized by the Karnataka State Judicial Officers Association, he said that “one of the biggest hurdles in the delivery of justice is the huge pendency of cases before courts”.
8. National Crimes Records Bureau (NCRB): There are 44,62,705 cases are pending in all High Courts and 2,68,38,861 cases are pending in District and Subordinate courts upto 2013. Likewise, in 3000 jails, there are 4.12 lakhs of prisoners and among which 2.78 lakhs prisoners are undertrial.
9. The then CJI, Althamus Kabir: He said that if the pendency of cases will goes on leaps and bounds, it will be no wonder that it leads to an humungous size of 15 crores of pending cases by 2040 mainly due to taking three decades of prodigious time in disposing of one case which routed through lower court to SC.
10. Justice Sir Walsh: The then Justice of HC, Allahabad commented that “the English detective unearths the fact finding venture beginning with the available witness. Whereas, the Indian Police Officer in order to do so starts from culprits and ends with the witnesses”.
Justice Delayed is Justice Denied – some important case laws and instances:
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1. Uphaar Cinema case: It took 6 years to establish that the 59 people died because of criminal negligence on the part of the Cinema management and the Govt. of Delhi.
2. Jessica Lal case: She was shot dead in a Delhi bar in full view of several people. On the basis of their statements, the police built their case against Manu Sharma and he, himself, fled a crime scene and remained on the run for days, something he would have been unlikely to do had he been innocent. But, as days went by, witnesses to the murder suddenly became unable to identify him as the killer so he is already out on bail and probably remain free and go on a long and successful career as a politician.
3. Lalith Narayan Mishra, the then Central Railway Minister’s assassination case: On 1975, this instance was occurred when attending for a program at Samathipur railway station, Bihar. After 3 months of this incidence, there occurred one more incident tried to assassinate the then CJI, A.N.Ray. Investigation divulged that the culprits are one and the same in both the incidents such as one, Ranjan Dwivedhi, an young advocate and the rest four relates to Ananda Marg organization. Mesne, it took 37 years to punish the culprits.
4. Kappatralla Venkatappaiah Naidu and others case (AP): It took 6 years to punish the culprits.
th 5. An indelible slur on the judiciary system of 20 Century – Stinny Junior’s case: At the age of 14 years he was sentenced to death by alleging that he had committed murder of 2 girls. He belonged to black race. The judges of the bench are white race. Due to the strenuous exertions leaving no stone unturned made by one John Pristene, it was unearthed after 70 years, that Stinny Junior is an innocent. It is such a pathetic episode and sorry state of affair that he was only 14 years age not that much of height even to sit in
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the electric chair and hence a bible was inserted beneath him while implementing electrocution. Justice Kerman Muline, who had perused the records expressed that it is the gravest offence committed by the judiciary which is irrevocable and irreparable in the annals of judiciary system of the world. It connotes that justice is a lifelong delay.
Causes for delayed justice:
1. Abnormal delay in disposition of the cases: Humungous pendency of cases leads to years together for disposal which would normally take few months only. Due to this, both the culprit and the victim are suffering from a lot of mental agony. Quite a good number of unwanted litigations are also causing hurdles in this regard. Utter failure of Govt. officials in taking a quick, bold and suitable action is adding fuel to the fire in the matter.
2. Disproportionate of judges to the population of the country: The ration of judges to the population is only 10.5 to 1 million, which is the lowest in the world. Even this low level is not reached because of the accumulation of vacancies in the Benches – 140 against the approved strength of 668 judges in High Courts and 2000 against 15000 in sub-ordinate courts. Analytical studies divulged that there are only 10-15 judges for every 10 lakhs population in India, whereas the ratio in USA is 150 and in Canada, it is 75. The SC has already suggested in 2002 itself that it should be atleast 50. The above cited figure divulges the worst situation in this regard. By the end of 2013, still there are 4403 vacancies of judges in district and sub-ordinate courts, which are yet to be filled.
3. In sufficient infrastructure in the lower courts: There are no convenient buildings and physical facilities to the lower courts such as – good library, requisite furniture, sufficient staff and reasonable space, which are sine qua non for rendering qualitative justice.
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Junior lawyers are suffering from financial and puberty problems in their profession.
4. Competency from other staff in the court: The clerical staff is being indulging corrupt practices by way of revealing the secrecy of the cases and tampering the records. They are still following the age old systems even in this LPG scenario. Adding salt to the injury, there is a dearth of highly technical and competitive clerical staff.
5. Abnormal delay in submission of reports by the Investigation Agencies: Failure in submission of the charge sheet within a statutory period leads to get bail by the accused. Multifarious functions such as – crime investigation, riot control, intelligence gathering and bestowing security to VIPs devastating effect on criminal justice system. Besides lethargic police investigation, political intervention also leads to slow progress of law.
6. Out dated Acts not suited to the present situation: In 1998, P.C.Jain Commission recognized that 1382 Acts are outdated and 300 Acts have been still implementing from the British regime. Only 415 acts are annulled. But the Govt. of India has paid a deaf ear and turned a Nelson’s eye on it.
7. Unscrupulous professional behavior by certain advocates: It is causing distress to the litigants and affecting their cases. They do not show up at scheduled hearings. When they do appear, they are often not prepared. Litigants complained that their lawyers do not keep them informed about their case and they are charges for hearings where nothing of substance happens.
8. Collecting double fee from the clients by certain lawyers: Double fee have reportedly become accepted practice among many of the biggest names in litigation – one fee to argue a case, another fee to guarantee they will actually show up. The poor are the worst position to navigate this mess.
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9. Lurking fears of judges from the Advocates: Judges are admitting that it became very difficult for them to control and maintain discipline the members of the Bar. They feared that if at all try to do so, they will be spoken ill of by the Bar and a powerful constituency which could impact their chances of promotion Post- Retirement appointments. Besides that, they will boycott the court room.
10. No proper disciplinary action is being initiated by the Bar Council of India (BCI): Studies divulged that the BCI has done far too little to rein in errant advocates. It has suspended only 14 members as per the 2010-11 available information. But, whereas in USA, 800 were debarred and 3000 were suspended during the said period.
Suggestions for accelerated disposal of cases:
1. Recommendations of the Law commission headed by Justice A.P.Shah submitted its 245th report to the Union Law Misitry:
(i) An attempt has to be taken to arrive at a scientific estimate of real pendency in lower courts access the country and an estimate of the additional number of judges that would be needed to clear the backlog and dispose of future cases within 1 year.
(ii) It also recommend for automation of the system through the ability to pay fines online or at a designated counter in the court complex and creation of separate special Traffic Courts to be staffed.
(iii) The strength of the lower judiciary needed to be significantly improved.
(iv) The number of additional judges needed to be clear backlog in 3 years ranged from nearly 2148 in Bihar to zero in Delhi.
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(v) It warned that Sans and adequate infrastructure or support staff, an increase in judges strength will not be effective as a delay reduction strategy.
(vi) The age of the retirement of subordinate judges will be raised to 62 and another 1000 judges be recruited in High Courts to deal with the increased work load.
(vii) The date keeping system shall be modernized and computerized.
(viii) It also advocates that shifting from a focus on ‘pendency’ of cases as the parameter to evaluate the performance of the judicial system to focusing on those pending cases which are delayed.
2. Reformation of statutory courts: The NDA Government ordered to identify 10 redundant or burdensome laws for repeal from each ministry. The first step is to create a central repository of all existing central laws and the rules and regulations of the various regulatory bodies and executive agencies. The next step is to create a subject based compilation of all existing laws and regulations, akin to the United States Code (USCo) and the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR). The last step is to convert the various subject- wise compilations into ‘law’ by re-enactment.
3. An ‘inspiring and welcome’ verdict delivered by the SC: On 04-09- 2014, the SC Bench comprising CJI, R.M.Lodha, Justice Kurean Jospeh and R.F.Nariman relied on section 436A of the CrPC, 1973, directed all the States to release under trials in prison for more than half the sentence they would serve if convicted within a period of 2 months. It also directed the Central Government to provide a road map for “Fast Tracking” to the entire criminal justice system – not just certain clauses of cases. Because in 2013, there were around 2,49,800 under trails in India and they formed roughly 70% of the
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prison population. The proportion of under trails is a reflection of the pathological failure of the criminal justice system to successfully convict and thereby secure peace and security. This failure must be resolved by focusing on systematic institutional reform of the investigation and prosecution of offences.
4. Should be established a Body at the National Level comprised of Judges, Lawyers and Legal Academicians which should be charged with a duty to conduct examinations for recruitment to the Indian Judicial Service.
5. Establishment of an Independent Investigation Agency: It is sine qua non for the criminal justice system for an accelerated disposal of cases. It should be accountable only to the judiciary but not to the ruling governments.
CONCLUSION
It is the known fact that we have inherited the British Legal system. The Britishers implemented the same in their regime sans reckoning the need of the Indian Society and political usage besides ground realities. Therefore the age old Acts, which are not suited and still been implemented should be annulled instantly. The Civil and Criminal procedure codes and the Laws of evidence should be substantially revised to meet the requirements of the modern judicial administration. In order to get ridden of the humungous pendency of cases, it should be established an adequate number of fast track courts, encourage adjudication, arbitration, conciliation and mediation procedures. It is an awes trucked truth that during the second national Lok Adalat held on 06-12-2014, 1.25 crores of cases have been disposed of in a single day. Like-wise, during 2013, in a single day 71 lakhs of cases have been disposed of by the Lok Adalat across the country. Towards this end, the concept of ‘plea-bargaining’ shall be encouraged. The concept like PIL is always welcoming, which is an affordable to the
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Aam Aadmi. In this process, we should not resort in extra-ordinary hurry up of cases by whatever means. We shall reckon the legal aphorisms not only the ‘Justice delayed is Justice denied’ but also ‘let hundred culprits may scot free but one innocent should not be punished’. Similarly, ‘Justice hurried is Justice burried’ is equally true. Therefore sufficient, reasonable and due hearing of every case with consideration of its circumstances is sine qua non for natural justice and balance of convenience. Thus, there is a necessity to constantly remained ourselves of the principle of constitutional morality which requires constant expiation of perversions that we introduce into the COI. The judicial system is the system of lost resort, and it is therefore, judge’s primary duty to ensure that they are able to effectively vindicate the litigant’s rights. ‘Not only must justice be done, it must also be seen to be done’. Thus we can conclude this topic with the following buzz words:
“A sense of confidence in the courts is essential to maintain the fabric of ordered liberty for a free people and three things could destroy that confidence and do incalculable damage to society; that people come to believe that inefficiency and delay will drain even a just judgement of its value; that people who have long been exploited in the smaller transactions of daily life come to believe that courts cannot vindicate their legal rights from fraud and overreaching; that people come to believe the law – in the large sense – cannot fulfill its primary function to protect them and their families in their homes, at their work, and on the public streets”.
– Chief Justice Burger
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References:
Name of the Daily News Page S.No Date Paper No 1 The Hindu 28-06-2013 9 2 The Hindu – Op-Ed 06-07-2013 9 3 The Hindu – Article 01-05-2014 8 4 The Hindu 09-07-2014 9 5 The Hindu – News col 16-08-2014 10 6 Eenadu – Editorial 15-09-2014 4 7 The Hindu – Article 18-09-2014 8 8 The Hindu – Article 22-09-2014 8 9 Saakshi 12-10-2014 4 10 Eenadu – Article 26-11-2014 4 11 Eenadu – Article 06-12-2014 4 12 Eenadu 07-12-2014 1,2 13 Eenadu – Editorial 13-12-2014 4 14 Eenadu – Article 14-12-2014 4 15 The Hindu – Southern Region 14-12-2014 6 col. 16 Andhra Jyothi 21-12-2014 9 17 Search on laws in India - e-mail share on FB & Print 18 The Diplomat – Ge Credit : Wikimedia commons
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EDUCATION: AN INTERFACE TOWARDS WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
Dr. M. Yaladri R. Neema Naik Academic Associate Lecturer Dept. of Social Work Dept. of Social Work Telangana University Shashank Degree & PG College South Campus Bhanswada, Nizamabad Bhiknur, Nizamabad Telangana State Telangana State
Introduction
Women constitute almost half of the population in the world. But the hegemonic masculine ideology made them suffer a lot as they were denied equal opportunities in different parts of the world. The rise of feminist ideas has, however, led to the tremendous improvement of women's condition throughout the world in recent times. Access to education has been one of the most pressing demands of theses women's rights movements. Women education in India has also been a major preoccupation of both the government and civil society as educated women can play a very important role in the development of the country.
India is poised to emerge as one of the most developed nations by 2020, more literate, knowledgeable and economically at the forefront. No doubt, women will play a vital role in contributing to the country's development. Women power is crucial to the economic growth of any country. In India this is yet to meet the requirements despite reforms. Little has been achieved in the area of women empowerment, but for this to happen, this sector must experience a chain of reforms. Though India could well become one of the largest economies in the world, it is being hindered due to a lack of women's participation.
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Objectives to Be Achieved Through Women's Education
Instead of giving women a secondary position in society, they should be given equal status.
To change the approach towards women based on sex discrimination.
To induce the feeling of self-dependence amongst women.
To make women realize their own potential and to provide guidance to them for developing their potential.
To create opportunities for them so that they can prove themselves in society and social institutions.
To create certain roles for women in economic, political and social arena.
History of Women Education in India
Although in the Vedic period women had access to education in India, they had gradually lost this right. However, in the British period there was revival of interest in women's education in India. During this period, various socio religious movements led by eminent persons like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar emphasized on women's education in India. Mahatma Jyotiba Phule, Periyar and Baba Saheb Ambedkar were leaders of the lower castes in India who took various initiatives to make education available to the women of India. However women's education got a fillip after the country got independence in 1947 and the government has taken various measures to provide education to all Indian women. As a result women's literacy rate has grown over the six decades and the growth of female literacy has in fact been higher than that of male literacy rate. While in 2001 only 54.16% of Indian women were literate, by the end of 2011 65.46% female were literate. The growth of female literacy rate is 11.30% as compared to 6.29 % of that of male literacy rate.
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Women Education: Present Status in India
In spite of the forceful intervention by a bastion of female privilege, feminist critics, constitutional guarantees, protecting laws and sincere efforts by the state governments and central government through various schemes and programmes over the last 62 years and above all, the United Nation’s enormous pressure with regard to the uplift of the plight of women in terms education is still in the state of an enigma in India for several reasons. The 2011 Census report indicates that literacy among women as only 65.46 percent it is virtually disheartening to observe that the literacy rate of women India is even much lower to national average i.e. 74.04.The growth of women’s education in rural areas is very slow. This obviously means that still large womenfolk of our country are illiterate, the weak, backward and exploited. Moreover education is also not available to all equally. Gender inequality is reinforced in education which is proved by the fact that the literacy rate for the women is only 65.46% against 82.14% of men as per 2011 Census.
Table: 1 Literacy Rate in India 1901-2011
S. Females Census Year Total (%) Males (%) NO (%) 1 1901 5.35 9.83 0.60 2 1911 5.92 10.56 1.05 3 1921 7.16 12.21 1.81 4 1931 9.50 15.59 2.93 5 1941 16.10 24.90 7.30 6 1951 16.67 24.95 9.45 7 1961 24.02 34.44 12.95 8 1971 29.45 39.45 18.69 9 1981 36.23 46.89 24.82 10 1991 42.84 52.74 32.17 11 2001 65.83 75.26 53.67 12 2011 74.04 82.14 65.46 *Source: Census of India 2011
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Source: Census 2011: Provisional Population Total – INDIA
The Information of table 1 the improvement in crude literacy rate has been phenomenal (48.22 percentage points) in post independent India. The corresponding increase in case of males has been of 46.32 percentage points and among females it is of 49.69 percentage points. The crude literacy rate has increased by almost 10 percentage points during the last decade. It surged forward by 12 percentage points in case of females while there was an increase of 8 percentage points in male crude literacy rate during the last decade. The gap in crude literacy rates of males and females has decreased from 18.09 percentage points in 2001 to 14.23 percentage points in 2011.
Table 2: Male-Female Literacy Rates in Indian States and Union Territories as Percentages of Population
Ranking of States in India by Literacy Rate S. State Literacy Male Female No Rate Literacy Literacy Rate Rate (2011 (2011 (2011 Census) Census) Census) 1 Andaman & 86.30% 90.10% 81.80% Nicobar Islands 2 Andhra Pradesh 67.70% 75.60% 59.70% 3 Arunachal 67.00% 73.70% 59.60% www.ijmer.in 151 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(1), APRIL 2015
Pradesh 4 Assam 73.20% 78.80% 67.30% 5 Bihar 63.80% 73.50% 53.30% 6 Chandigarh 86.40% 90.50% 81.40% 7 Chattisgarh 71.00% 81.50% 60.60% 8 Dadra & Nagar 77.70% 86.50% 65.90% Haveli 9 Daman & Diu 87.10% 91.50% 79.60% 10 Delhi 86.30% 91.00% 80.90% 11 Goa 87.40% 92.80% 81.80% 12 Gujarat 79.30% 87.20% 70.70% 13 Haryana 76.60% 85.40% 66.80% 14 Himachal 83.80% 90.80% 76.60% Pradesh 15 Jammu and 68.70% 78.30% 58.00% Kashmir 16 Jharkhand 67.60% 78.50% 56.20% 17 Karnataka 75.60% 82.80% 68.10% 18 Kerala 93.90% 96.00% 92.00% 19 Lakshadweep 92.30% 96.10% 88.20% 20 Madhya Pradesh 70.60% 80.50% 60.00% 21 Maharashtra 82.90% 89.80% 75.50% 22 Manipur 79.80% 86.50% 73.20% 23 Meghalaya 75.50% 77.20% 73.80% 24 Mizoram 91.60% 93.70% 89.40% 25 Nagaland 80.10% 83.30% 76.70% 26 Orissa 73.50% 82.40% 64.40% 27 Puducherry 86.50% 92.10% 81.20% 28 Punjab 76.70% 81.50% 71.30% 29 Rajasthan 67.10% 80.50% 52.70% 30 Sikkim 82.20% 87.30% 76.40% 31 Tamil Nadu 80.30% 86.80% 73.90% 32 Tripura 87.80% 92.20% 83.10% 33 Uttar Pradesh 69.70% 79.20% 59.30% 34 Uttarakhand 79.60% 88.30% 70.70% 35 West Bengal 77.10% 82.70% 71.20% - INDIA 74.04% 82.14% 65.46% **Source: Census of India 2011
According to the Table -2 the state wise female literacy rate had an average of 65.46% in all India basis in 2011 census the high literacy
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rate is 92.0% in Kerala and least literacy rate is 52.7% in Rajasthan in 2011 census while comparing literacy rate of female 11% increased in 2011 census is increased from 54.16% to 65.46%. Women’s are growing well in the last 10 years. Government of India has been taken various steps and plans especially for women in every movement.
Importance of women education in India
Women education in India plays a key role in the social and economic development of the country. It not only helps in the development of half of the human resources, but in improving the quality of life at home and outside. Educating a woman uplifts her life as well as the quality of her life and her entire family. It is a fact that any educated woman will definitely support the education of her children especially a girl child and provide a better guidance to her children. An educated woman will easily imbibe an independent and progressive outlook in her children. More importantly, an educated woman in a society like India will assist in reducing the infant mortality rate and control the blossoming of the population.
An educated Indian woman will yield a positive impact in the Indian society by contributing positively to the economy of both the country and the society. An educated woman reduces the chances of her child dying before the age of five. The chances of controlling the population are high as an educated woman is likely to marry at a later age as opposed to uneducated woman.
Women Empowerment through Education
Women Empowerment is a global issue and discussion on women political right are at the fore front of many formal and informal campaigns worldwide. The concept of women empowerment was introduced at the international women conference at NAROIBI in 1985. Education is milestone of women empowerment because it enables them to responds to the challenges, to confront their traditional role
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and change their life. So that we can’t neglect the importance of education in reference to women empowerment India is poised to becoming superpower, a developed country by 2020. The year 2020 is fast approaching; it is just 7 year away. This can became reality only when the women of this nation became empowerment. India presently account for the largest number no of illiterates in the world. Literacy rate in India have risen sharply from 18.3% in 1951 to 74.04% in 2011 in which enrolment of women in education have also risen sharply 7% to 65.46%. Within the framework of a democratic polity, our laws, development policies, plan and programmes have aimed at women’s advancement in difference spheres. From the fifth five year plan (1974– 78) onwards has been a marked shift in the approach to women’s issues from welfare to development. In recent years, the empowerment of women has been recognized as the central issue in determining the status of women. The National Commission of Women was set up by an Act of Parliament in 1990 to safeguard the right and legal entitlements of women. The 73rd and 74th Amendments (1993) to the constitution of India have provided for reservation of seats in the local bodies of panchayats and Municipalities for women, laying a strong foundation for their participation in decision making at the local level.
Role of Universities: Empowering Agents of Higher Education for Women
To be effective agents of empowerment through Higher Education, universities need to give attention to:
Mass motivation and mobilization: dissemination of information through newsletters and other social agencies;
Literacy Promotion: preparation of training packages and development of learning materials; Techno–pedagogic inputs: Preparation of data based information and transference of matter into technological display;
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Network Culture: monitor activities related to women’s studies and women’s movements and recommend better implementation.
Women and Research: The University Grants Committee has agreed to provide part-time research associate ships to 100 girls every year
Special access for women: Women students from scheduled caste and tribes in India will be eligible for Government schemes of scholarship, coaching assistance and remedial classes.
The Role of Government of Women Education in India
The National Committee on Women’s Education, it may be recalled, has recommended that the Government of India should assume a transitional special responsibility for this subject until the existing wide gap between the education of boys and girls is materially bridged. In the opinion of the Committee, women come under the expression “weaker section of the people” used in Article 46 of the Constitution. The Backward Classes Commission set up by the Government of India also recommended that women should be regarded as ‘backward classes’ and this strengthens the claim of treating their education as a responsibility of the Government of India under Article 46. The Committee has also put forward another strong argument in favour of its proposal. The Government of India admittedly has a special responsibility for providing free and compulsory education up to the age of 14. This responsibility is not being implemented at present mainly because the education of girls has lagged behind that of boys; and the Committee, therefore, claims that the responsibility of the Government of India under Article 45 cannot be fulfilled unless it also assumes some special responsibilities for the education of girls. The only logical conclusion under these circumstances seems to be that the responsibility of the Government of
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India for the education of girls should cover, not the entire programme for the education of girls, but only the small quantum of a special programme which is needed to give it a fillip.
Globalization and Challenges of the Century
Globalization has effected changes in educational systems owing to the introduction and exercise of technological and communication developments. Twenty-first century India is facing a number of challenges in the field of education. Adjustment to social demands for new options in Higher Education and for removal of gender barriers is creating pressures on educational leaders. Higher Education is finding it difficult to meet the challenges of a knowledge explosion, uneven growth and inequities in policies. As a consequence, there is a fall in standards, posing a serious threat to India’s national development. Strategies to provide management training and research work for women are the areas which Higher Education needs to address to promote women’s advancement and empowerment.
Conclusion
Women Education has become one of the most important concerns of 21st century not only at national level but also at the international level. According to the Country Report of the Government of India, “Empowerment means moving from a weak position to execute a power.” Education of women in the education of women is the most powerful tool of change of position in society. Education also brings a reduction in inequalities and functions as a means of improving their status within the family. To encourage the education of women at all levels and for dilution of gender bias in providing knowledge and education, established schools, colleges and universities even exclusively for women in the state. Women empowerment generally comprises of women’s sense of self worth; their right to have the power of control their own lives, both within and outside home, and their
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ability to influence the direction of social change to create a just social and economic order naturally, internationally and universally.
References
1. Arya, Anita. (2000). Indian Women – Education and Empowerment. Delhi: Gunjan Publishing House. 2. Banerjee, Amita and Sen Rajkumar. (2006). Women and Economic Development. Delhi: Deep and Deep Publishers. 3. Banerjee, Shruti. (2009). Role of Women in Development Sector. Calcutta: Adhayanam Publishers 4. Government of India, Census of India 2001. 5. Government of India, Census of India 2011. 6. Gupta, N.L. (2003). Women’s Education Through Ages, Concept Publications Co, New Delhi. 7. Dr. Jitendra Kumar* & Ms. Sangeeta (2013): Status of Women Education in India, / Educationia Confab ISSN: 2320-009X, Vol. 2, No. 4, April 2013, pp-162-175. 8. Poonacha, Veena and Meena Gopa. (2004). Women and Science: An Examination of Women’s Access to and Retention in Scientific Careers. Mumbai: SNDT Women’s University 10. Schultz, Theodore. (1961). Investment in Human Capital (American Economic Review) 9. Dr Ranjana Banerjee (2004) Restructuring Indian Higher Education: Strategies for Women’s Empowerment. 10. SUGUNA.M (2011): Education and Women Empowerment in India, International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research Vol.1 Issue 8, December 2011, ISSN 2231 5780. 11. Desai, Vaman (2012). Introduction of literacy in India economic growth 12. Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India-2011. 13. Wikipedia.com. 14. Premi Mahendra K. 1991, India's Population: Heading towards a Billion, B.R. Publishing Corporation. 15. Jayant Pandurang Nayaka, Syed Nurullah (1974). A student’s history of Educational (1800- 1973).
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REGIONALISM AND NATIONAL INTEGRATION –ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN INDIA
Dr. Dhananjaya Reddy Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Govt. Degree College Kodur , Andhra Pradesh
1. INTRODUCTION:
Regionalism refers to three distinct elements: a) Movements demanding territorial autonomy within unitary states; b) The organization of the central state on a regional basis for the delivery of its policies including regional development policies; c) Political decentralization and regional autonomy.
National integration means combing all the people of the nation into a single whole. It is a particular sentiment that binds together all people in one common bond no matter what their religion, language or history is. It is strong cementing force whereby all kinds of people live together peacefully and can identify themselves as a part of a single whole. There are several obstacles in the way of national integration of our country. The most formidable obstacles are linguism, communalism and regionalism.
1.1. REGION: The team region is difficult to define. It is understood in different contexts. However, it has been generally defined as “a homogeneous area with physical and cultural characteristics distinct those of neighboring areas”. A region is generally conceived as a permanent and definite area. But it is a contextual and dynamic concept. The concept of region varies according to criteria chosen for its demarcation. www.ijmer.in 158 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(1), APRIL 2015
Regions are defined on the basis of different criteria such as economic development, geography etc. Before Christallar, the regional analyst, regions were defined as natural systems created by topographical features. But Christellar defined them in terms of social relationships and organizational principles. Skinner extended the regional analysis to social and cultural phenomena.
On the basis of physical characteristics of the land such as land forms, climate, soil, vegetation etc. we get a physical geographic regions. When economic levels are considered as criteria, we arrive at economic regions. A region can subsume a number of nations such as Arctic region, the region of South East Asia, the Far Eastern region and so on. A region can be used for a nation such as the subcontinent region of India. It can be used for the Eastern region, Western region, Northern region or Southern region in India. The States in India also form distinct regions. Further, there can be sub-regions within a State like the Telangana region in Andhra Pradesh, Vidarbha region in Maharashtra, etc.
A village area can also be referred to as a region. Thus, region is a relative term, the meaning of which changes with its usage. When we talk of a region, what we generally imply is that it is socio-culturally distinct and that it is sufficiently unified to have a consciousness of its customs, traditions, values and ideals. Because of this consciousness the people of the region possess a sense of identity distinct from the rest of the regions be it a nation or a continent or the earth itself.
1.2. REGIONALISM:
Regionalism is the extreme loyalty and love shown to a particular region. It expresses itself in such a distorted notions like development of one’s own region even at the cost of interests of other regions and people, and unwillingness to allow people from other regions to work and settle in region. Regionalism militates against nationalism and
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impedes the process national integration. This may be characterized by the commonness of cultural, linguistic or historical and social background.
According to Marachell E. Dimock, regionalism is a clustering of environment, economic social and governmental factors to such an extent that a identity within the whole, a need for autonomous planning, a manifestation of cultural peculiarities and a desire for administrative freedom, are theoretically recognized and actually put into effect.
Regionalism in India may be viewed from two dimensions – positive and negative. In positive terms regionalism embodies a quest for self- identity and self-fulfillment on the part of to domiciles of a region. In negative terms, regionalism reflects a psyche of relative deprivation on the part of People of an area not always viable in terms of national economic analysis.
1.3. CAUSES OF REGIONALISM:
There are several causes of regionalism in India. These causes are discussed below. i).Geographical Cause:
Linguistic distribution along geographical boundaries and isolated settlement pattern induce in people the concept of regionalism. Sometimes people live, in such area which appears as a separate region cut off from the rest of the country and thereby may give rise to feelings of separatism among the inhabitants of the region ii). Historical Causes:
Due to historical reasons people believe that they are separate from the rest. A feeling of regionalism may develop among the people of a particular region if they believe that they have been politically dominated by the people of other regions. www.ijmer.in 160 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(1), APRIL 2015
iii). Economic factors:
Uneven development in different parts of the country may be considered as the prime reason for regionalism and separatism. There are certain regions which are economically more developed. But there are certain regions which are economically more developed. But there are certain regions which are economically backward even after independence. No effort has been made for regional balance in matters of industrial, agricultural and above all, economic development. This disparity has caused the feeling of relative deprivation and thereby the demand for separate states, for example, Bodoland.
iv). Political and Administrative Factors:
Political consolidation was considered as a positive step towards economic development and national integration. Political parties, particularly regional parties and local leaders exploit the regional sentiments to capture power. They give emphasis on regional problems in their election manifesto and promise for regional development. This has resulted in the feeling of regionalism. The regional parties like ADMK, AIDMK in Tamil Nadu and Telugu Desam in Andhra Pradesh have captured power. Regionalism may be a product of cultural and social differences.
2. NATIONAL INTEGRATION –ISSUES AND CHALLENGES:
National integration is a composite concept. It has several dimensions, namely, social, cultural, economic, political and religious. It also depends upon the contextual standing of a particular group in the national, regional or local setting. Various regional political groups and parties, like the Akali Dal, the Telugu Desam, the DMK, and the advocacy of Shiv Sena have demanded regional autonomy. The demand for autonomy has been reflected in the supremacy of regional cultures over the national culture. In principle, regionalism need not be regarded as an unhealthy or anti-national phenomenon—unless it takes
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a militant, aggressive turn and encourages the growth of secessionist tendencies,. National unity is not impaired if the people of a region have a genuine pride in their language and culture. But regionalism develops into a serious threat to national unity if politicians do not go beyond their regional loyalty and claim to stand only for their regional interests if regionalism is to be regarded as an unhealthy phenomenon, decentralization too would be objectionable, which of course it is not. So there is nothing basically contradictory between nationalism and regionalism. Nor does the growth of regional values and consolidation of regional forces as such pose a challenge to the central administration of the country. Any attempt to counter regionalism in the erroneous belief that is not conducive to national interests, would be ill-conceived. Enforced uniformity in a huge country like India would be sheer-folly. Regional parties do not hinder national unity and integrity as long as they do not exceed their area of activity. Several regional political parties have merged in recent years and have gained strength for obvious reasons. The handful of national parties cannot, by the very nature of things, adequately represent and pursue regional causes. Most of the national patties have even failed to live up to the people's expectations. That explains why more State-based parties have been formed in various regions and is quite successful in their aims. Regional parties are not a new phenomenon. Several parties have been existing in the country for the last many decades.
People repose confidence in regional parties because they believe that they alone can safeguard the interests of the State concerned and can fight for the legitimate rights and powers of the States without being hamstring by their association with a national party. Regional parties naturally concentrate on safeguarding and promoting regional interests. But they do not sacrifice the larger interests of the country.
A virus called 'regionalism' periodically strikes parts of India. Among the causes of the growth of regionalism is prolonged maladministration
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and neglect of an area or State by the Central, Government. There has been a creeping disillusionment against Central rule. Regional symbols, regional culture, history and in many cases a common language, all promote regionalism. The Centre's indifference to the development of certain regions has created imbalances. Some areas particularly in the North are well developed, with adequate infrastructure while others are way behind. This explains why there is Telugu Desam and TRS in Andhra Pradesh, DMK in Tamil Nadu and the Jharkhand Movement in Bihar.
There is much concern among leaders of the Congress (I) about the growth of regionalism in the country. It is looked upon with suspicion and is even regarded as challenges to democracy and national integration. But this concern is largely unwarranted; Regionalism will come into conflict with nationalism only when it becomes aggressive and when members of the various regional parties tend to forget that they are Indians first and last, citizens of the same country.
Non-regional conflicts are however a cause for concern. There are constitutional means to deal with regional conflicts, while the communal and caste conflicts have often to be settled in the streets. Inter-regional or centre-region disputes have never created a serious explosion whereas communal clashes frequently cause havoc.
Unfortunately, there are important differences among the regional parties themselves in the country. The differences of approach and policy have hindered the formation of an effective, durable and viable combination of regional parties so as to facilitate the emergence of a national alternative to the ruling party at the centre. The growth of regional parties in itself is nor incompatible with the process of nation- building.
In a democracy, ideological options are open in the sense that any individual or group can adopt any ideology, provided, of course, it is
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within the legal framework. Political parties have the freedom to compete for power and pursue their respective ideologies. Since ideologies are no respecters of geographical boundaries, they also check the exclusiveness of regional identities. In fact, it has been the decline of the party system in recent years that has inflated the role of regionalism in the country.
As for the cures, three suggestions may be made. First, there should be a greater spirit of accommodation on the part of the Central authorities. This implies a reversal of the process of concentration of power which has admittedly been much in evidence in the country, causing resentment among the opposition-governed State. Power and authority must be shared on an equitable basis between the Centre and the constituent units, of the Indian Federation. Harmonious, balanced growth should be the administrations aim, not suppression of local desires and demands. Of course, firmness is necessary when regionalism, assumes militant forms, as it has done in Punjab m the form of operation Blue Star and Operation Thunder, where in recent years certain groups of misguided youth started running a parallel government and creating chaos. Regionalism must not be allowed to become a shield for militancy, extremism, establishing a reign of terror and carrying on other anti-national activities.
The regional parties patriotism should not be suspected, regionalism does not weaken India. The majority groups should not become arrogant or obsessed with power. They should be generous towards the minorities, religious, cultural and linguistic Suppression of regional aspirations is not the right remedy.
3. CONCLUSSION / SUGGESTIVE MEASURES:
Following suggestions may be given for the elimination of regionalism.
a). Development of Transport and Communication: Transport and communication network should be improved so that people of a
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region may find it easier to visit other regions and develop friendly relations with people therein.
b). Removal of Regional Imbalance: Uneven economic development and regional imbalance has been the main cause of disgruntlement among the people of a particular region for regionalism. Hence, effort should be made to distribute the national resources in a planned manner to mitigate the problem of regionalism.
c). Economic Development of Deprived Regions: Top priority is to be given on economic development of those regions where people have developed the feeling of relative deprivation. So that they can be drawn into the national mainstream.
d). Acculturation: The cultural distinctiveness of regional groups delimits the interaction between- different groups. Frequent cultural contacts should be promoted to break the regional barriers and to develop the nationalist spirit. e). Abolition of Regional Parties: The regional parties which play a dirty role in exploiting the regional feelings of the people should be banned. f). Proper Education: Education can play an important role for the promotion of national integration. It may be construed as a powerful agent for doing away with the separatist tendencies among the countrymen. g). Appeal through Mass-Media: Mass media, particularly electronic media are powerful agents of social change. Hence, extensive effort should be made to encourage feelings of nationalism among the people through mass media communication.
References:
1. Michael Keating. “Regionalism and Regionalization | Encyclopedia Princetoniensis”
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2. Donald Barry and Ronald C. Keith. Introduction: Changing Perspectives on Regionalism and Multilateralism
3. Dr. Satyendra Singh and Dr. Yogeshwar Prasad Baghel. “Regionalism in India : An Overview”. International Indexed & Refereed Research Journal, ISSN 0974-2832, (Print) E- ISSN- 2320- 5474, November,2013, VOL-V * ISSUE-58.
4. Azam Kousar J. “Political Aspects of National Integration” (1981), Meenakshi Prakashan, New Delhi, pp.82.
5. Selected speeches Gandhi Indera, Jan. 1966-Aug. 1969, (New Delhi, 1971), pp. 85
6. Singh Prof. Bhawani, “Regionalism & Politics of Separatism in India” (1993), pp.2.
7. Narain Iqbl, “Regionalism: A Conceptual Analysis in the Indian Context” in Akther Majeed (ed) Regional Development Tensions in India consmos, 1984, pp.22.
8. Narain Iqbal, State Politics in India, 1976, Meerut, pp. 45.
9. Frontline, May 25, 2003, vol. 18, no. 12. pp.9
10. The Regional Demension, Seminar, 164, April, 1973, pp. 401.
11. Sanatham K., Constituent Assembly Debates, Vol. v, pp. 55.
12. Quoted in Kousar Azam, op., pp. 127-28.
13. The S.R.C. Report, 1956.
14. Srinivasan, T. N. 1993. Discussion. In New Dimensions in Regional Integration, edited by Jaime de Melo and Arvind Panagariya, 84–89. New York: Cambridge University Press.
15. Edward D. Mans. eld and Helen V. Milner. The NewWave of Regionalism. International Organization 53, 3, Summer 1999, pp. 589– 627
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MANUAL SCAVENGING AND VIOLATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS IN INDIA- A CRITIQUE
Dr. A. Jammanna Prof. Pasala Sudhakar Department of History Registrar Sri Krishnadevaraya University Damodaram Sanjeevaiah Anantapuramu National Law University Visakhapatnam
Manual scavenging in modern India includes the lifting and removal of human excreta manually; both from private homes and from communal latrines maintained either privately or officially. This is from dry latrines where human excreta is deposited on stone, plate receptacles and/or on bare soil or in buckets, which are lifted manually, usually by women, but also by men of the Valmiki group. The waste is then disposed in designated spots, through human and/or mechanical transport. Despite laws abolishing the inhuman practice of manual scavenging, over a million of Dalits in 'superpower India' are caught in a vortex of severe social and economic exploitation. Cleaning and carrying head loads of human excreta, these 'night soil' workers are condemned to live a daily life of filth and indignity which is a curse not only on those involved in this practice but on the country. They are exposed to the most virulent forms of viral and bacterial infections that affect their skin, eyes, limbs, respiratory and gastro-intestinal system. Manual Scavenging is not only a violation of human rights but also a disgrace to human dignity and humanity at large. It's a crime against humanity.
Indian society is riddled with many evil practices, some of which tantamount to atrocity on one or other section of the Dalit/deprived sections of society. One such atrocity is the manual scavenging; the removal of human excreta by humans, with the minimum aid of brooms, metal scarpers and buckets. This practice was officially supposed to have been banned in 1993 by the Government of India. Official lapses and apathy apart, the surveys by the activists working against this practice show that even now over 14 lakhs of scavengers are still suffering ignominy and nearly 95% of these workers are women.
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During the independence movement, M.K. Gandhi and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar took up the issue of manual scavengers from different perspectives. The writings and correspondence of Gandhi suggest that though he was sympathetic to the plight and suffering of Bhangis, and even called himself a “Bhangi” and appeared to glorify what was considered to be the Bhangis' deplorable work, he protested against their legitimate right to strike to have their demands met and grievances addressed1.
On other hand, Babasaheb Ambedkar was very critical of the Gandhian approach and methods to address the problems of the Untouchables in general and of the Bhangis in particular. He was aware of the limitations of Gandhian tactics with regard to the Bhangis2, and, unlike Gandhi, he supported the sweepers' strike.
Gandhi and Ambedkar followed different approaches to the abolition of untouchability and the eradication of the practice of manual scavenging. The former advocated change of heart and morality on the part of the oppressor castes, while the later called for political praxis, agitation and legal intervention especially victims of the caste system.
Of all human occupations, manual scavenging is the one that hurts a man the most. Manual scavenging is a caste-based and hereditary occupation for Dalits (untouchables), which is predominantly linked with forced labour or slavery. The caste system, created over 3000 years ago divided the society into four classes and beneath these four classes were the “untouchables” called so because their presence was considered to be so polluting that contact with them was to be avoided at all costs; they are also known as “Dalits” i.e., the oppressed class or in Indian legal context the “Scheduled Castes”. They are external to the caste scheme; i.e., they are considered to be outcasts or “Panchamas” and are seen as a lower grouping to be distinguished from one of the four Hindu classes. Dalits have faced considerable discrimination in the past and still do so in several spheres of social life. The country still struggles in the clutches of the caste system which has denied generations of Dalits their rights and human dignity. One such discrimination is the continuance of the inhuman practice of manual scavenging. The practice of manual scavenging is the worst form of violation of Human Rights.3
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The term 'manual scavenging' describes the daily work of manually cleaning and removing human faeces from dry (non-flush) latrines. “The manual removal of human and animal excreta using brooms, small tin plates, and baskets carried on the head. The allocation of labour on the basis of caste is one of the fundamental tenets of the caste system. Within this system Dalits have been assigned tasks and occupations which are deemed ritually polluting by other caste communities - such as sweeping, disposal of dead animals and leatherwork. By reason of their birth, Dalits are considered to be "polluted", and the removal of human and animal waste by members of the "sweeper" community is allocated to them and strictly enforce”(United Nations Commission on Human Rights, 2002). These communities are invariably placed at the bottom of caste hierarchy, as well as Dalit sub-caste hierarchy
HISTORY OF THE INHUMAN PRACTICE OF MANUAL SCAVENGING:
B R Ambedkar, the author of India's constitution and himself a Dalit, traces the practice of scavenging and its implications of social abuse to 600 AD (Shyamlal, 1984). The Narada Samhita, a post- Vedic text defines cleaning tasks as unclean and also allocates the disposal of human faeces as one of the 15 duties for slaves. In the Vajasaneyi Samhitas, Chandalas or Shudras were referred to as slaves responsible for disposal of night soil, or human faeces. Although the early Harappan civilization had an extensive network of underground drainage and sewerage, subsequent urbanization made the use of dry latrines more common. The ready availability of a specific group of people, traditionally allocated to the task of filth removal allowed this practice to flourish. There was neither the technical motivation nor the need to innovate for an appropriate sanitation technology.4
A Government of India report (1992) identifies that the practice of manual scavenging was introduced by the Mughals. The need for female seclusion and privacy was emphasised in Muslim culture and this gave rise to the need to ensure somewhere private for women to defecate, and hence the need to dispose of this away from the home; but this view seems to neglect the history and culture of the Hindu caste system.
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Gadgil (1952) and several others assert that the practice of manual scavenging was aggravated in India as a result of the large- scale urbanisation, primarily during the period of Mughals and British colonisation. Legitimising and systematising the practice of manual scavenging by Dalit groups, the British created official posts of manual scavengers in all the key institutions: the Municipalities, the army, the railways, the civil courts and the industries and specifically hired Valmikis or Methars for this task. Whatever the reality of their origin, the very specific tasks of cleaning and removing animal and human faeces, sweeping roads and cleaning surface drains, removal of human and cattle corpses, and rearing of scavenger pigs continue to be performed by the Scavenging community of Indian lower castes . In India it is difficult to determine when the manual scavenging was actually started, because it relates to the social order that prevails in India. But an organized manual scavenging should have been started in British India when municipalities and local bodies were formed.
MANUAL SCAVENGING IN INDIA:
India that prides on being one of the high growth economies and emerging super power has many persistent shames. Certainly, the manual scavenging, a euphemism for some people carrying shit of others for living is the topmost. The manual scavengers have little choice in what they do for a living. In other words, they dispose of human waste not because they want to, but because they are born into their particular caste.
According to the Census of India 2011, there are still 7, 94, 390 dry latrines in the country, where the human excreta is cleaned up by humans. 73% of the dry latrines are in rural areas where as 27% in urban areas. Apart from these there are 13, 14, 652 toilets where the human excreta is flushed in open drains. According to the definitions by Rashtriya Garima Abhiyan and the Drafting Committee for the amendment in 1993 act, the human excreta flushed in open drains through toilets like these are also cleaned up by human beings. The census also adds that there are 497,236 toilets in the country where the human excreta are cleaned up by animals through eating it. This is however a very confusing statement as we believe that in toilets like these it is not possible that the human excreta is cleaned up completely through animals eating it.
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Ultimately it has to be cleaned up by humans only. Thus there are more than 26 lakhs [2.6 million] dry latrines in the country where the practice of manual scavenging still continues. As a result, manual scavengers are needed to sweep up and carry away the piles of excreta that are left in the open.5
DISCRIMINATION:
Manual scavenging seems to be a thing of past, but the hard reality is that even in 21st century India, the inhuman practice of cleaning and carrying human excreta on head, hip or shoulder exists. More painful is the audacity with which this brutal reality is negated. The people from these communities are made to live in locations that are isolated from the rest of the village community.
Manual scavengers, for example, are paid a pittance. An average manual scavenger earns around Rs.5 to Rs.15 per household per month which is an extreme form of exploitation and a mockery of modern India's labour laws and international conventions on the rights of the workers. Health is another issue of prime concern. Manual contact with excreta exposes manual scavengers to various diseases; infection of skin, rotting of fingers & limbs, tuberculosis and nausea are common. Most women from the manual scavenging communities tend to be addicted to tobacco (Gutka) and men are given to liquor in an attempt to diminish the repulsive nature of their work and beat back their state of hopelessness.
The children of the manual scavenging communities are usually treated with contempt by their teachers and fellow classmates. Denial of dignity generates fear among children, leading to very high drop-out rates. Manual scavenging is one of the most inhuman and degrading forms of work performed by Dalit women. Refusal to perform such tasks leads to physical abuse and social boycott. Public latrines are cleaned on a daily basis by female workers using broom and a tin plate. The harassment of these women is also rampant in the form of sexual exploitation when they go to clean up the toilets since they are often teased by the men folk. The scavengers carry the excrement piled into baskets, on the head or on the waist to a location that is far away from the latrine. At all times, and especially during the rainy season, the contents of the basket drip onto a scavenger's hair, face, clothes and other body parts. Manual Scavengers belong to the lower most rung in www.ijmer.in 171
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the society and are looked down upon even by the larger society of the Dalits who themselves are subjected to untouchability by the upper castes.6
MANUAL SCAVENGING AND VIOLATION OF LAWS:
The practice of manual scavenging is illegal and unconstitutional and a blot on the face of humanity. Manual scavenging is virtually a form of modern-day slavery that violates the following:
1. It violates human rights as there is a loss of human dignity and liberty, freedom of occupation is not allowed to them, there are health hazards in both physical and psychological way.
2. Various provisions of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and CEDAW which hold all human beings to be equal and to which India is a signatory.
3. Further it also violates fundamental rights enshrined under Article 14 (right to equality), 17 (right against untouchability), 21(right to life and personal liberty) 23 (right against exploitation).
4. The Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act, 1993.The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989.
5. Bonded Labor System (abolition) Act, 1976.
6. Section 7(a) of the Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1995, which deems anyone forcing another person to engage in bonded labor, manual scavenging or disposing animal carcasses to be committing a criminal offense punishable with 3 to 6 months of imprisonment and fine up to Rs 500.7
PROHIBITION OF EMPLOYMENT AS MANUAL SCAVENGERSACT, 2013
The Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act, 1993 prohibits the engagement or employment of persons for manually carrying human excreta and further prohibits the construction or maintenance of dry latrines. However, it has not seen a single conviction in the 19 years that it has
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been in force. A new bill was drafted in 2012 with a view to make the law regulating manual scavengers more effective. It was passed by both Houses of Parliament on September 7, 2013 as The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013. The new act differs from the previous one from various aspects, viz.,
Perspective of the act: The 1993 act had only sanitation perspective, while the 2013 act has a right to dignity perspective. The Act recognises the link between manual scavengers and weaker sections of the society.8 It therefore, views manual scavenging as being violative of their right to dignity. Coverage of the act: The 1993 act covers only the dry latrines under its ambit, whereas the 2013 act encompasses the sewage system, railway tracks, septic tanks etc. Enactment: The 1993 act is enacted under state list and the 2013 act is enacted under the concurrent list. Focal points: The 1993 act aims at prohibition of dry latrines and the 2013act aims at prohibition of employment as manual scavengers and addresses labour welfare and rehabilitation.9
SALIENT FEATURES OF THE NEW ACT:
1. The Act prohibits the employment of manual scavengers, the manual cleaning of sewers and septic tanks without protective equipment, and the construction of insanitary latrines.
2. The definition of 'manual scavenger' has been widened to include a person engaged or employed, inter alia, for manual cleaning of human excreta in an insanitary latrine or in an open drain or pit, railway tracks etc.
3. Express provisions for identification of manual scavengers and insanitary latrines.
4. Prohibition of hazardous manual cleaning of septic tanks and sewers, so as to ensure that health and safety of such workers is not compromised.
5. More stringent penal provisions for contravention of the new Act.
6. Vigilance and monitoring Committees to be set up at the Sub- division, District, State and Central levels
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REHABILITATION PROVISIONS:
1. Manual scavengers who are identified in urban areas receive a photo identity card giving information about dependent family members
2. An initial, one-time cash assistance shall be provided
3. Manual scavengers are to be allotted a residential plot and financial assistance for construction, or a ready-built house and scholarship for children as per the relevant scheme of the central or state government or the local authorities as the case may be
4. They shall be trained in a livelihood skill, subject to eligibility, and provided a monthly stipend of Rs 3,000 during the training
5. They shall be provided with subsidy and concessional loan if they want to take up an alternative profession, subject to eligibility
6. Legal and programmatic assistance will also be provided as notified by the central or state government
7. Manual scavengers in rural areas will be rehabilitated by as per the previous provision relating to urban manual scavengers.
PENAL PROVISIONS:
1. For employing manual scavengers or failing to demolish insanitary latrines: imprisonment of one year or a fine of Rs 50,000, or both, for the first violation. For subsequent violations by the same person, the punishment shall stand at imprisonment for two years, or a fine of Rs 1 lakh, or both
2. For hazardous cleaning of septic tanks and sewers: imprisonment of two years and/or a fine of Rs 2 lakh for the first violation. For subsequent violations by the same person, the punishment shall stand enhanced to imprisonment for five years, or fine of Rs 5 lakh, or both.11
MANUAL SCAVENGING IN THE STATE OF ANDHRA PRADESH:
The Dalit groups engaged in the task of manual scavenging in the state of Andhra Pradesh include Methars or Mehtars11, who were brought from Haryana by the Nizam’s Government, as well as local www.ijmer.in 174
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groups which include the Madigas, Malas, Rellis (a sub caste of the Madigas) and Yanadis. In rare cases, Halalkhors (a Muslim sect) also work.
Hyderabad, the capital of Andhra Pradesh is a bustling 400- year-old metropolis, with a population of 4.2 million. The city’s history began with the establishment of the Qutub Shahi dynasty in 1591 CE. The famous landmark Charminar marks the centre of the old city from where growth spread along the Musi river. The map below shows Ward Number 23, Sultan Shahi, one of the older settlements of the city, where Metharwadi is located. A coastal town municipality, Chirala, with a population of about 82,000 has been a centre for handloom weaving for centuries. Its paki workers (paki is the coastal Andhra term for scavengers; in Telangana, they are called Methars) are largely Yanadis, a Scheduled Tribe, and a few Madigas.12
Nandikotkur in Kurnool district is a block or mandal headquarter town, located some 250 kms from Hyderabad with a population of nearly 40,000. It is an obscure town; though various state government programmes run here, no government functionary stays here-they all commute from the district headquarter town, Kurnool. This is also an area of factions, where rival groups of landlords control the entire economy and local politics – contracts, government programmes, transfers of officials, etc. Until about four years ago, Nandikotkur had nearly 1,000 dry toilets (both public and individual), all serviced by the permanent employees of the Gram Panchayat.13 The latter collected service charges of Rs15 once in 3 months, and the house-owners paid a little extra to the manual scavengers to encourage them to come every day to clean. There are presently 18 permanent (11 women, 7 men) and 26 temporary (12 women, 14 men) scavengers. The entire class of permanent sweepers in the Gram Panchayats are Madigas with a few Malas from Nellore district amongst the temporary workers. Of the 22 community dry latrines five were converted to pour- flush latrines about three years ago by the Executive Officer of the Gram Panchayat. This initiative was influenced by the Scheduled Castes Corporation and the SKA. Demolition of the other community dry latrines was stopped by users, who protested to the local politicians and the District Collector. 17 community dry latrines were functioning and serviced by the permanent employees of the Gram Panchayat until the day of the demolition in Nandikotur, August 8, 2004.
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A sewerage system was in place over 150 years ago in Hyderabad under the Shahi Dynasty. It is also claimed by some that purdah or female seclusion was practiced amongst the social elite of both the Muslims and Hindus and this led to the demand for dry latrines in the backyards of households inhabited by the ruling classes. The Hindu population consisted of Kayasthas, Khatris, Rajputs and Deccans whilst the Muslim population were of Persian, Arab and Mughal descent.
The Nizam of Hyderabad is said to have sent one of his officials, Mohabbat Hyder Ali to Delhi to negotiate with officials in Delhi to facilitate the hiring of manual scavengers. Metharwadi residents claim that the first three migrants were Tukaram, Bakshiram and Chotelal, all from Haryana. Chotelal became the Chowdhary or headman and was also given the task of facilitating mass migration of other Valmikis.
The migrants were settled in the area now known as Metharwadi (place of stay of the Methars) which was located in the proximity of Sultan Shahi, the area of the social elite. It is from here that migrants moved to other areas in Andhra Pradesh and also to nearby states. Presently, there are at least 40 Methar population localities in Hyderabad. The migrant Methar community in Metharwadi claim that dry latrines in the old city were initially cleaned by a Muslim community, known as Mosalli Mehtars and/or by local Valmiki castes (Telugu-origin scavenging castes) known as Dheds and/or Madigas. Many Dalits embraced Islam in Hyderabad and were known as Deccani or Mosalli Methars. Conversion to Islam did not, however, overcome the caste-based restriction of their occupation.
DEMOLITION OF A COMMUNITY DRY TOILET:
The SKA filed a writ petition in the Supreme Court in 2003 in the belief that the apex court would give clear and time-bound directions to abolish the practice of dry-latrine scavenging. When this failed, the SKA planned a dry-latrine demolition drive between July and August 2004, in solidarity with Dalit groups. Prior to the demolition campaign, the SKA wrote to the respective District Collectors and other relevant officials requesting the demolition of all community dry-latrines in use, by specified dates, failing which the SKA would organise activists to do so.
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The campaign began at Kakinada, a coastal town and headquarters of the East Godavari district on July 17 2004. Kakinada is one of the richest towns in Andhra Pradesh, with fertile hinterland, a thriving fishing industry and recently discovered oil fields. The town also has, to its discredit, 1,200 dry toilets, serviced manually by the Dalit community. This first demolition of a community dry toilet attracted little resistance except for certain Municipality staff who were unaware of the GoI Abolition Act legislated in 1993 and of SKA’s political knowledge and commitment to the cause. This was followed by demolitions in different towns across the state of Andhra Pradesh.
The SKA noted in their first four days of travelling that even dry-latrine scavengers, earning their livelihood solely through this work, were keen to give up immediately, contrary to the reluctance expressed during the ongoing research in Hyderabad. All the scavenger employees of the Nandikotur Panchayat supported the August 8 demolition by refusing to service individual dry latrines, causing much resentment among users. All the local leaders demanded that the Gram Panchayat either continue the old practice of manual scavenging or create new facilities immediately. Finally, the GP informally hired four temporary workers, all males, belonging to the Madiga and Halalkhor castes. The Gram Panchayat denies complicity in manual scavenging but will not pay the new recruits, asking instead that the user households pay until alternative arrangements are made. Yet it is to the GP that the four new recruits report; it is the GP tractor with its driver, a permanent employee that goes on it’s officially sanctioned round of collecting faces; the baskets, brooms and shovels belong to the GP. Finally, the recruits are working on the assurance of the Gram Panchayat that they will be absorbed into the GP rolls before the end of their month. The 16 communal dry-latrines will be serviced by the new recruits on alternate days.
The demolition drive in Chirala was less eventful. Self-denial and fear was evident here. Very few local paki workers participated in the SKA procession, as they didn’t want to be ostracized by the town’s local population. Most of the protesters were scavengers from nearby Ongole, where the SKA had successfully demolished three community dry-latrines a few days earlier.
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The two-month long agitation ended with a rally in Hyderabad on September 16, joined for the first time in history by hundreds of manual scavengers from all over the state. Narayanamma, a dry-latrine scavenger from Chirala, had come, despite the fact that her father was seriously ill. In Hyderabad, she heard of his death but she refused to return for the funeral. “I cannot miss this first ever meeting of my people”. Methar women from all parts of the city joined, some of whom also made speeches: “we belong to the same community, you and me. We must leave this work (scavenging). I have dreams for us all.”14
Ausulapally, Gram Panchayath of Medak District in Andhra Pradesh is a unique example of standing united for developmental activities. A small village of 2484 population, with agriculture and labour as its main occupation of earning livelihood has set a unique example in Andhra Pradesh, and has the honours of receiving Nirmal Gram Pursaskar for the year 2005-06. It was the challenge to the District authorities to change the mindset of individuals. The entire village surroundings and pathways were dirty with human excreta, till 2003 no of cases registered for spread of Malaria, Typhoid, GE, and Diarrhea were rampant; all the pathways were with cesspools, mosquito breeding. The District authorities not only visited but reviewed coverage and usage of existing toilets and components of Sanitation but motivated the community leaders for using toilets and to adopt best practices.
Karimnagar District consists of 57 Mandals, 1194 Gram Panchayats, 2262 habitations with population of 27.98 lakhs. Three Gram Panchayats of Karminagar District viz. Rangaraopally of Gangadhara Mandal, Rangapur of Maidpally Mandal and Ramachandrapur of Koheda Mandal have attained the status of 100% open defecation free Gram Panchayats and are selected for Nirmal Gram Puraskar award. Initially, some difficulties were faced from the community which actually slow down the process of construction of ISLs. But the dedicated and motivated team efforts of this Gram Panchayats made such coverage possible. This was only possible because of the workshop held in December 2005. Nearly 1000 people participated in the workshop.
The people of Karimnagar have not only ensured full coverage in ISL and school sanitation coverage but also special focus on rural
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schools has been created with the help of school education committees, which not only made schools the place of “Cleanliness” but also ensured the full community contribution for the installation of water and sanitation system. In schools, physical hardware has been supported with strong IEC to allow children to adopt hygiene practices. This way TSC project has been really struck a balance, which in future is expected to yield far better results in health and hygiene. For the construction of ISLs, all the RCC-Rings and cement bricks were locally made.
Interestingly, this entire sanitation drive has been carried out without any involvement of NGOs. The credit must go to the District Projects Officials, ZP, Village community, Mandal Parishad Committees and Panchyats etc, for this unique and exemplary achievement. The wordings of Narsamma, a women form Ramachandrapur (NGP selected village) conveys the success which they all have achieved, according to her “Earlier it was really difficult for us to go for nature’s call but now we feel comfortable”.
A CRITIQUE OF THE NEW ACT:
1. There is a fear of increase the incidents of entering the drainage/manhole to clean and consequently deaths of manhole workers as the Act allows manhole workers to enter manhole provided providing protective gears. It is also a matter of serious concern that what type of protective gear and other cleaning devices will be listed when rules are framed.
2. Indian railway is one of the major promoters of manual scavenging, and by this Act it is exempted from the definition of insanitary latrines. So, Indian railway will continue to practice manual scavenging. Water flush latrine in a railway passenger coach at railway stations will make someone to clean manually human excreta and practice will continue as prevalent at present.
3. The Act has addressed only an insanitary latrine or open drain or pit. Whereas, urbanization is rapidly increasing in India. Due to urbanization and lack of sufficient public toilets and individual toilets, open defecation is wide spread and consequently leading manual scavenging.
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4. Local authority has no willingness, time as well as expertise to conduct survey to identify insanitary latrines. There is also possibility that local authority will not identify actual numbers of insanitary latrines when insanitary latrines are constructed and maintained by the local authority. The survey may be on paper by local authority. Instead, the task to conduct survey may be given to some professional designated agency. Also, period of two months is insufficient for carry out survey of insanitary latrines.
5. The act provides for construction of adequate number of sanitary community latrines, within such period not exceeding three years from the date of commencement of this Act, as the appropriate Government may, by notification, specify, so as to eliminate the practice of open defecation in their jurisdiction. So, the practice of manual scavenging from open defecation in most of the urban areas will continue for three years from the date of commencement of this Act.
RECOMMENDATIONS ON MANUAL SCAVENGING AND SANITATION:
National Human Rights Commission has made recommendations for the public authorities while dealing with issues on Manual Scavenging and Sanitation. These are as follows:-
1. Periodic comprehensive survey, at least once in three years, should be conducted in collaboration with credible NGOs. It should cover dry latrines, manual scavengers and alternative livelihood options for rehabilitation.
2. As per the information available with the Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation, Government of India, there are dry latrines in UP, Bihar, J&K and Assam. Therefore, these four States should take all necessary measures for the complete conversion and demolition of dry latrines and rehabilitation of manual scavengers in their respective states. Based on comprehensive Survey, all other States should also take necessary steps.
3. Jammu & Kashmir and Delhi must quicken the pace of adoption of the Act which should be done at the earliest.
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4. The Definition of manual scavengers is different from sanitary workers and all authorities may restrict to the definition of manual scavenging as given in the Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act, 1993.
5. The presence of too many agencies is often delaying the elimination of the practice of manual scavenging and the rehabilitation work. Therefore, District Magistrates should be made the nodal agency and joint instructions from the three Central Ministries concerned with manual scavenging should be issued to the States/ Union Territories and the District Magistrates to take necessary steps for coordination and convergence of efforts. At State level also, there should be a coordinating body to monitor framing of appropriate rules and regulations, survey as envisaged in recommendation 1, conversion or demolition of dry latrines, rehabilitation of manual scavengers, prosecution of defaulters etc.
6. The issue of lack of space and scarcity of water in some pockets in some States has to be addressed by adopting appropriate technology and methodologies.
7. The municipal and panchayat bye laws of the States should have provisions not to allow the construction of any new house with dry latrine or without a water shield latrine or sanitary latrines with appropriate technology and measures should be taken so that dry latrines made in the past can be demolished and new water shield latrines or sanitary latrines with appropriate technology be constructed.
8. The Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment may evolve modalities for payment of immediate relief of Rs.10,000 to manual scavengers as in the case of bonded labour, pending their rehabilitation.
9. The scholarship to the children of manual scavengers should not be stopped even after their parents have been liberated from manual scavenging and rehabilitated.
10. It should be ensured that the identified manual scavenger families who are entitled to get the BPL cards are issued the BPL cards
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11. State Governments must issue advertisements in leading newspapers about cases of manual scavengers and dry latrines and also publish the same on the notice boards of the Panchayat/ Municipal bodies.
12. The list of identified manual scavengers should be displayed on website and at important public places for inspection by public at large and must be given wide publicity. Any person who is left out can approach the notified authority.
13. After identification, the District Magistrate should issue a certificate to the manual scavenger based on which all concerned agencies should extend benefits to which he or she may be eligible.
14. The State Human Rights Commissions should start monitoring elimination of manual scavenging and consequent rehabilitation of manual scavengers in the States.15
Lastly, Manual scavengers predominantly belong to ex- Untouchable castes and, therefore, are subjected to additional discrimination and social exclusion based on untouchability. Abolition of untouchability is a Constitutional mandate. Therefore, the onus of eradicating manual scavenging should rest on the state, on the Central and state governments equally. Despite the special laws, instructional mechanisms and inclusive policies meant for manual scavengers, they continue to be compelled by circumstances to perform de-humanizing and degrading work.
To improve the living and working condition of manual scavengers all over India, there is a need to set an agenda for their overall transformation. It can be through provision of alternative livelihoods, abolishment of dry toilets and imparting free education to children. There are several possible fields in which former manual scavengers can work and earn an alternative livelihood. It is possible to provide jobs in agricultural sector. With a little training in maths they can also work as vegetable and fruit sellers. They can produce and sell dairy products, if they are provided with cattle. Also if they would be provided with loans and equipment like spice grinding machines and sewing machines, it would be possible for them to set up a new business in producing and selling spices, clothes and handicrafts. Another possible job opportunity would be in the houses of open-minded families
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as domestic help or housekeeper. Most urgent is the abolishment of dry latrines. By doing this, the basis for the inhumane and existing system of manual scavenging will be removed. For this, the approach and behavior of all concerned stake-holders, especially agencies of the state and the dominant castes/classes, have to change in order to serve Constitutional and human rights values.
References:
1. Gandhi, M.K.,Sweepers' Strike, Why Bhangis Quarter? (available at http://www.gandhiserve.org/cwmg/Vol . 090.Pdf Vol. 90: 25 February, 1946 - 19 May, 1946) (Visited on November 15, 2010)
2. Babasaheb Ambedkar: Writing and Speeches, Vol.7, (Government of Maharashtra, Mumbai 1990).
3. Rajeev Kumar Singh, Ziyauddin , Manual Scavenging As Social Exclusion: A Case Study, Economic & Political Weekly, June 27, 2009
4. Wikipedia- manual scavenging
5. Census of India, Government of India, 2011
6. Manual Scavenging Act and Municipal Waste Water Workers in India – Policy and Practice PGDEL, National Law School of India University
7. The Manual Scavenging problem: A case for the Supreme Court OF India-Samuel Permit- pdf
8. Pathak, Bindeshwar: Present Dalit (Scavengers) Situation in India, http://www.sulabhinternational.org.
9. Social Inclusion of Manual Scavengers Report of the National Round Table Discussion Organized by United Nations Development Programme And UN Solution Exchange (Gender Community of Practice) New Delhi, 21 December 2012.
10. NHRC recommendations on manual scavenging and sanitation, http://nhrc.nic.in
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11. Mehtar literally means a prince or leader. Even today leaders of several caste panchayats in AP are called mehtars.
12. Discussions at Chirala, Nandikotkur, and with manual scavengers who attended the dry latrine demolition rally on September 16 at Hyderabad, from different parts of the state.
13. We are told that the community dry latrines in Kurnool town are cleaned by Halalkhors who are in turn paid by the permanent employees of the Corporation.
14. Navsarjan Trust, (1997), ‘Lesser Humans’, directed by K. Stalin, India: Drishti Collective.
15. Recommendation of NHRC on manual scavenging and sanitation. (Journal of the Institute of Human Rights, Vol. 7, 2008, p 127) (NHRC).
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RAINFALL ANALYSIS OF VENKATAGIRI MICRO WATERSHED, NELLORE DISTRICT, A.P. INDIA
Kommuneni Choudri Prof. S. Ramanaiah Research Scholar Professor and Head Department of Geology Department of Geology S V University, Tirupati, A.P. S V University Tirupati.
1. INTRODUCTION Rainfall is regarded as the crucial agro-climatological factor in the seasonally arid and semi-arid parts of the world and its analysis is an important pre-requisite for agricultural planning in India , Alak Gadgil (1986). Analysis of rainfall data is an important factor in the planning and management of artificial recharge structures. Monthly rainfall data of three rainguage stations for a period of 1990 to 2014 (25 years) were collected from National Informatics Centre to examine the annual rainfall variability, seasonal rainfall, annual precipitation ratio. Jagannadhasarma (2005) has analysed the annual, monsoon and non monsoon rainfall and frequency distribution of rainfall intensity. The present study made to understand the rainfall of the region. The annual normal rainfall of the district is 1084mm and the peculiarity of the district is that contribution of SW monsoon is far less than the contribution of NE monsoon rainfall, CGWB (2013). The total number of rainy days in the district is 45, out of 45 most of the days are in from October to December, IWDP (2010).
2. STUDY AREA: The study area is located in the south-west corner of the Nellore district of SOI toposheets 57 N/8, 57N/12, 57O/5 & 57 O/9 lies between east longitude 790271 to 790431 and north latitudes 130511 to 14041 with an area of 451.6 Km2. The mean daily maximum temperature is about 380C in the May and the mean daily minimum temperature is
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about 200C in December January. The study area is bounded by Velikonda hill ranges in the western part. The Venkatagirieru which is a tributary to the Uppateru River. Archeans, Lower Cuddapahs and Recent formations are occupied in the study area (GSI, 1995).
3. METHODOLOGY: To achieve the objective, monthly rainfall data for the period of twenty five years (1990 – 2014) has been collected from the National Informatics Centre, Nellore. The collected rainfall data has been categorized into four season’s i.e winter, summer, South West and Nort East monsoons.
3.1 Rainfall Analysis for Venkatagiri Raingauage Data
3.1.1 Seasonal Rainfall:
Seasonal and annual distribution of rainfall of Venkatgiri rainguage statiotn is given in table 1. It is seen from the table that maximum rainfall of 734.6mm is observed in North East monsoon in the year 2001 and maximum of 351mm is observed in South West monsoon in the year 1996. The North East monsoons contribute 60 % of the annual rainfall and South West monsoons contribute 32% of the annual rainfall. Study of monthly rainfall intensity goes on increasing from March to October with the enhancement of North East monsoon activity over the region.
Table 1
Annual and seasonal Rainfall (in mm) of Tirupathi Urban rain guage station
Sl. No year Winter Summer South-West North- Annual Monsoon East Monsoon 1 1990 0.0 255.6 262.6 1069.2 1587.4
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2 1991 52.4 12.6 598.6 980.7 1644.3 3 1992 0.0 109.0 340.0 503.7 952.7 4 1993 0.0 36.6 216.3 1014.3 1267.2 5 1994 28.4 49.8 267.9 571.7 917.8 6 1995 112.0 264.6 591.8 439.2 1407.6 7 1996 0.0 59.6 833.6 1234.8 2128 8 1997 25.4 120.0 469.8 1057.8 1673 9 1998 0.0 45.8 553.6 602.6 1202 10 1999 0.0 18.5 151.4 554.5 724.4 11 2000 125.0 51.2 343.4 360.3 879.9 12 2001 7.2 126.6 248.3 946.7 1328.8 13 2002 48.0 31.3 256.5 512.8 848.6 14 2003 0.0 58.4 495.0 282.6 836 15 2004 2.2 204.7 357.2 455.6 1019.7 16 2005 20.5 35.8 272.9 1263.3 1592.5 17 2006 7.2 59.4 205.3 685.3 957.2 18 2007 8.0 42.0 377.7 1002.7 1430.4 19 2008 41.6 30 292.5 741.7 1105.8 20 2009 0.0 32.8 199.2 630.8 862.8 21 2010 7.6 101.5 596.0 744.2 1449.3 22 2011 83.6 7.2 382.2 981.1 1454.1 23 2012 31.0 2.0 343.8 665.8 1042.6 24 2013 94.8 56.4 290.7 288.6 730.5 25 2014 2.0 4.8 361.0 391 758.8
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3.1.2.Seasonal variability:
Annual and seasonal rainfall statistics shows that there is a variation in rainfall. The variability is maximum in the non-monsoon periods and minimum in north east monsoon and South west monsoon.
1400.0 WINTER 1200.0 SUMMER
1000.0 S-W MONSOON N-E MONSOON 800.0
600.0
RAINFALL (MM) RAINFALL 400.0
200.0
0.0
YEAR Fig.1 Seasonal rainfall intensity at Venkatagiri rainguage station
3.1.3. Rainfall percentage:
The rainfall percentage is calculated for all four seasons. It is seen that north east monsoon periods are contributing 60% of the annual rainfall and 32% of the rainfall is contributing by South West monsoon and 8 % of the annual rainfall is contributed by non-monsoon periods. South West monsoon contributed more rainfall than North East monsoon in the years 1995, 2003 and 2013.
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100.0
80.0
60.0 N-E MONSOON 40.0 S-W MONSOON
20.0 SUMMER WINTER 0.0 RAINFALL PERCENTAGE IN RAINFALL 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 YEAR
Fig.2. % contribution of Rainfall at Venkatagiri rainguage station
3.1.4. Monthly variation: The variation of monthly rainfall showed that the intensity of rainfall gradually goes on increasing from March to October with the enhancement of South West monsoon activity over the region. Intensity of rainfall gradually decreases from the November to March. October is the highest rainfall recording month.
700 600 500 400 300 200
RAINFALL (MM) RAINFALL 100 0
MONTH
Fig 3: Monthly Variation of Rainfall in Venkatagiri rainguage station
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3.2 Rainfall Analysis for Balayapalli Raingauage Data
3.2.1 Seasonal rainfall :
Seasonal and annual distribution of rainfall of Balayapalli rainguage statiotn is given in table 2. From the seasonal data that maximum rainfall of 816.8mm is observed in North East monsoon in the year 2001 and maximum of 286.8mm is observed in South west monsoon in the year 1996. The North East monsoons contributes 60 % of the annual rainfall and South West monsoons contributes 32% of the annual rainfall. Study of monthly rainfall intensity goes on increasing from March to November with the enhancement of North East monsoon activity over the region.
Table 2: Annual and seasonal Rainfall of Balayapalli rainguage station
South North Sl. No year Winter Summer West East ANNUAL monsoon monsoon 1 1990 0.0 259.3 176.0 689.4 1124.7 2 1991 62.3 137.2 629.0 865.0 1693.5 3 1992 0.0 31.2 288.4 524.6 844.2 4 1993 0.0 27.2 291.1 802.5 1120.8 5 1994 0.0 37.8 246.5 612.3 896.6 6 1995 122.6 207.2 385.9 383.8 1099.5 7 1996 0.0 21.2 690.2 960.2 1671.6 8 1997 36.7 53.2 218.9 1199.1 1507.9 9 1998 0.0 3.6 514.3 522.8 1040.7 10 1999 0.0 18.5 186.5 499.7 704.7 11 2000 82.4 123.6 286.2 382.6 874.8 12 2001 0.0 107.4 266.8 1155.8 1530.0 13 2002 91.4 9.2 320.3 542.4 963.3
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14 2003 0.0 43.6 395.6 220.6 659.8 15 2004 6.4 274.4 332.0 541.0 1153.8 16 2005 0.0 134.3 329.0 1291.6 1754.9 17 2006 7.4 104.8 160.1 554.2 826.5 18 2007 0.0 81.2 319.9 994.2 1395.3 19 2008 37.8 31 310.4 1002.7 1381.9 20 2009 0.0 22.6 294.2 633.2 950.0 21 2010 4.4 87.0 545.6 639.6 1276.6 22 2011 45.6 38.0 248.6 717.2 1049.4 23 2012 0.0 4.4 386.6 690.4 1081.4 24 2013 54.0 41.2 390.6 243.0 728.8 25 2014 5.0 23.4 279.6 361.4 669.4
3.2.2. Rainfall variability:
The above table shows annual and seasonal rainfall statistics shows that there is a variation in rainfall. The variability is maximum in the non-monsoon periods and minimum in north east monsoon and South west monsoon.
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SEASONAL RAINFALL
1500
1000 WINTER 500 SUMMER S-W MONSOON RAIN FALL (MM) FALL RAIN 0 N-E MONSOON 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 YEARS
Fig.4 Seasonal rainfall of Balayapalli rainguage station
3.2.3. Rainfall percentage:
From the rainfall percentage it is seen that north east monsoon periods are contributing 60% of the annual rainfall and 32% of the rainfall is contributing by South west monsoon and 8 % of the annual rainfall is contributed by non-monsoon periods. South West monsoon contributed more rainfall than North east monsoon in the years 1995, 2003 and 2013
100.0
80.0
60.0 N-E MONSOON 40.0 S-W MONSOON SUMMER 20.0 Rainfall in Percentagein Rainfall WINTER 0.0 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 Year
Fig.5. % Rainfall data of Balayapalli rainguage station www.ijmer.in 192
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3.2.4. Monthly variation:
The variation of monthly rainfall showed that the intensity of rainfall gradually goes on increasing from March to November with the enhancement of North East monsoon activity over the region. Intensity of rainfall gradually decreases from the November to March. November is the highest rainfall recording month.
VARIATION OF MONTHLY RAIN-FALL 350
300 250 200
FALL (MM) FALL 150 - 100
RAIN 50 0
MONTH
Fig6: Monthly Variation of Rainfall in Balayapalli rainguage station
3.3 Rainfall Analysis for Dakkili Raingauage Data
3.3.1 Seasonal rainfall:
Seasonal and annual distribution of rainfall of Dakkili rainguage statiotn is given in table 3. From the seasonal data that maximum rainfall of 793.4mm is observed in North East monsoon in the year 2001 and maximum of 276.2mm is observed in South west monsoon in the year 1996. The North East monsoons contribute 61 % of the annual rainfall and South West monsoons contribute 29% of the annual rainfall. Study of monthly rainfall intensity goes on increasing from www.ijmer.in 193
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March to November with the enhancement of North East monsoon activity over the region.
Table 3: Annual and seasonal Rainfall of Dakkili rain guage station
South North Sl. No year Winter Summer East East ANNUAL Monsoon Monsoon 1 1990 0.0 281.7 158.9 849.7 1290.3 2 1991 0.0 9.1 518.3 836.0 1363.4 3 1992 0.0 68.1 280.6 662.4 1011.1 4 1993 0.0 70.6 240.2 919.4 1230.2 5 1994 24.8 7.0 186.5 714.1 932.4 6 1995 102.4 235.4 313.2 305.0 956.0 7 1996 0.0 16.8 533.0 860.5 1410.3 8 1997 9.8 92.6 186.4 827.7 1116.5 9 1998 0.0 0.0 346.7 407.1 753.8 10 1999 0.0 16.6 180.8 466.2 663.6 11 2000 128.0 73.0 259.7 338.8 799.5 12 2001 7.2 126.2 189.4 1160.0 1482.8 13 2002 65.8 13.4 178.5 512.4 770.1 14 2003 0.0 18.4 321.0 217.4 556.8 15 2004 0.0 244.6 282.4 471.2 998.2 16 2005 6.0 105.0 259.5 1269.8 1640.3 17 2006 0.0 93.0 162.6 522.8 778.4 18 2007 0.0 106.4 421.8 888 1416.2 19 2008 10.6 82.7 201.0 762.1 1056.4 20 2009 0.0 26.6 299.3 523.2 849.1 21 2010 3.4 74.2 550.7 612.7 1241.0 22 2011 56.6 10.2 226.0 615.2 908.0 23 2012 0.0 6.2 247.3 583.8 837.3 24 2013 39.2 69.6 194.4 226.8 530.0 25 2014 0.0 18.6 291.0 221.4 531.0 3.3.2. Rainfall variability:
The above table shows annual and seasonal rainfall statistics shows that there is a variation in rainfall. The variability is maximum in the
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non-monsoon periods and minimum in north east monsoon and South west monsoon.
1400.0 WINTER 1200.0 SUMMER
1000.0 S-W MONSOON N-E MONSOON 800.0 600.0 400.0 RAINFALL (MM) RAINFALL 200.0 0.0 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 YEAR Fig.7. Seasonal rainfall of Dakkili rainguage station
3.3.3. Rainfall percentage:
From the rainfall percentage it is seen that north east monsoon periods are contributing 61% of the annual rainfall and 29% of the rainfall is contributing by South west monsoon and 10 % of the annual rainfall is contributed by non-monsoon periods. South West monsoon contributed more rainfall than North east monsoon in the years 2003 and 2014.
100.0
80.0 60.0 N-E MONSOON 40.0 S-W MONSOON 20.0 RAIN FALL (%) FALL RAIN SUMMER 0.0 WINTER 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 YEAR
Fig.8. % Rainfall data of Dakkili rainguage station
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3.3.4. Monthly variation:
The variation of monthly rainfall showed that the intensity of rainfall gradually goes on increasing from March to November with the enhancement of North East monsoon activity over the region. Intensity of rainfall gradually decreases from the November to March. November is the highest rainfall recording month.
VARIATION OF MONTHLY RAINFALL 300
250 200 150 100
RAINFALL (MM) RAINFALL 50 0
MONTH
Fig.9. Monthly Variation of Rainfall in Dakkili rainguage station
3.4. Maximum and minimum occurrence of rainfall:
Table 4 gives the maximum and minimum occurrence of rainfall in all four seasons during 1990 to 2014. Maximum occurrence of rainfall is noticed in the South West monsoon (356 mm) in the year 1996 and in NE monsoon (816.8 mm) in the year 2001. Minimum occurrence of rainfall (0 mm) is noticed in North East monsoon in the years 1992,1995,2001 and 2004 and in the South West monsoon Minimum occurrence of rainfall (0 mm) is noticed in the years 1992,1993,1999 and 2002 .
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Table 4. Maximum and minimum occurrence of rainfall during various seasons
Maximum Occurrence Minimum Occurrence Average Contributio in in Station Monsoon n in % Year mm in % Year in mm %
200 734. NE-monsoon 60 1 6 55 2004 0 0
Venkatagi 199 1993, ri SE-monsoon 32 6 351 16.5 1999 0 0
Balayapal 200 816. 1992,95,2 li NE-monsoon 60 1 8 53.4 004 0 0
199 286. SE-monsoon 32 6 8 17.1 1992,93 0 0
Dakkili 200 793. NE-monsoon 61 1 4 53.5 1995,2001 0 0
199 276. SE-monsoon 29 6 2 19.6 2002 0 0
3.5. Rainfall frequency analysis:
Table5. Shows that maximum frequency (11.3) is noticed with the frequency ranges 500-1000mm for annual rainfall over a period of 25 years. Frequency (13.6) during monsoon period with the frequency range 500-1000mm and frequency (25) for non-monsoon period with the frequency range less than 500mm.
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Table 5: Frequency Distribution of Rainfall at three rainguage stations
Sl.No Rainfall Frequency out of 25 (Average of all station put Frequency together) ( in mm) Annual Monsoon(NE&SW Non- monsoon monsoon(Post & together) Pre monsoon together) 1 <500 0 0 25 2 500 -1000 11.3 13.6 0 3 1000-1500 9.6 9 0 4 1500-2000 3.3 2 0 5 >2000 0.3 0.3 0 CONCLUSION
The occurrence of the rainfall during 1990-2014 (1105mm) is more than the normal rainfall of the basin (1084). Monthly rainfall analysis shows that the maximum rainfall occurs during north east monsoon. Analysis of seasonal rainfall concludes that the percentage contributions of the rainfall during various monsoon periods are in the following order: North East monsoon (60%) > South West Monsoon (31%) > non monsoon (9%). Frequency analysis indicates that the average annual rainfall has higher frequency values in the frequency ranges 500-1000mm (11.3 out of 25). Monsoon rainfall has higher frequency values in the frequency range of 500-1000mm (average frequency value is 13.6 out of 25). However the non-monsoon rainfall comes in the category of less than 500mm of rainfall.
References:
1. Alak Gadgil, 1986. Annual and Weekly Analysis of Rainfall and Temperature for Pune: a Multiple Time Series approach. Inst. Indian Geographers, 8(1).
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2. CGWB, 2013, Ground Water Brochure Nellore District, Andhra Pradesh, Central Ground Water Board,Govt. of India.
3. GSI, 1995, Geological and mineral map of Nellore District, Andhra Pradesh, Published by The Director General, Geological Survey of India.
4. G. Vennila, T. Subramani and L. Elango.2007, Rainfall variation analysis of VattamalaikaraiSub basin,Tamilnadu, India, Vol. XX, No.3 July, 2007 pp. 50-59
5. IWDP, 2010. Impact Assessment Report on Integrated Waste Land Development Project, Nellore Distirct, Global Theme Agro Ecosystems and International Crops Research Institute for the Semi Arid Tropics.
6. Jagannadhasarma, V.V., 2005. Rainfall analysis pattern in the coastal zone of Krishna Godavari Basin, Andhra Pradesh, India, Journal of Applied Hydrology, Vol .XVIII, No.l&2,ppl-ll.
7. SOI, 1981, Toposheets (57 N/8, 57N/12, 57O/5 & 57 O/9) published by the Survey of India on 1:50000 scale.
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CRIME AGAINST WOMEN: SEXUAL HARASSMENT AT WORK PLACE
Dr. P. Chitti Babu Dr. S.M. Mahendra Simha Karna Assistant Professor Assistant Professor Dept. of Adult Education Dept. of Criminology & Forensic Dr. Harisingh Gour Central Science University Dr. Harisingh Gour Central Sagar – (M.P) University Sagar – (M.P) Introduction
Crime against women culture has slowly but surely seeped into the fabric of India. Sexual exploitation is the fourth most common crime in the country with over 27,923 reported last year. Add to this over 1, 00,000 minor girls go missing each year, with majority of them being sexually abused, trafficked into prostitution with the police complicit in these crimes. Sickeningly, over 7,200 minor are raped each year, only a tip of the iceberg, as most victims don’t report assaults and continue to suffer mistreatment for fear of retaliation or are humiliated by the institutions. Outrageously, out of 1, 01,041 cases before courts, only 3563 convictions took place and comparison to 11,154 acquittals. It is estimated that 89 percent of the people in India work in what are called the unorganized informal sector and more than 60 percent of these must be women. Women work as agricultural labourers and also render their services by working as head loaders, cart pullers, domestic workers, and construction workers and in numerous other kinds of jobs where they do not get fair wages and fair deal and are often subjected to various kinds of exploitation, injustice and ill treatment. India is a signatory to the Convention for the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) and the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and was represented a the 2013 session of the Commission on the Status of Women (CSW), where governments committed to ending all forms of violence against women. Yet, despite pro-women laws that support gender equality and aim at ending discrimination, violence against women is not only increasing but also becoming more and more brutal and targeting even girls as young as five years (or even younger in age). As is the poor sex ratio of 940 females per 1000 males (as per 2011 census) was not enough, the National Crime Records Bureau reports that on an average 92 women
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are raped in India every day. There is also a large disparity in male literacy rate (82%) and female literacy rate (65%). The World Economic Forum’s 2014 Gender Gap Index has ranked India a poor 114 (13 spots below its ranking of 101 in 2013) out of 142 countries in removing gender-based disparities in the field of education, health and equal pay for equal work. Its rank is lowest among the BRICS nations and it is also one of the 20 worst performing countries on female labour force participation, estimated earned income, literacy rate and sex ratio at birth indicators. The High Level Committee on Status of Women that presented its first copy of the preliminary Report in February 2015, indentified Violence Against Women, Declining Sex Ratio and Economic Disempowerment of Women as three key burning issues which require immediate attention and action by the Indian government (Shukla, 2015). Volumes can be written about the status of out women and their heroic deeds from the vedic period to the modern times. But later on, because of social, political and economic changes, women lost their status and were relegated to the background. Many evil customs and traditions stepped in which enslaved the women and tied them to the boundaries of the house (Goel, 2004). The official statistics showed a declining sex-ratio, health status, literacy rate, work participation rate and political participation among women, while on the other hand the spread or social evils like dowry deaths, child marriage, domestic violence, rape, sexual harassment, exploitation of women workers are rampant in different parts of India. Humiliation, rape, kidnapping, molestation, dowry death, torture, wife-beating, acid attack etc., have grown up over the years (Singh & Choudhury, 2012).
The Historical background When we talk of crime against women, crimes which are committed taking advantage of the handicaps imposed by the sex, social exploitation of women and the discrimination practiced against them for the prevention of which social sanctions in the form of punitive action have been provided for are discussed here. Normally, men and women who live together in the society get equally affected by crimes against property and person, e.g. pickpockets, snatchers, swindlers, burglars or dacoits victims both men and women irrespective or sex considerations. Similarly, murders, kidnappers, prisoners, terrorists, and similar criminals make no distinctions between a man and a
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woman while committing crime. So most of the ordinary forms of crime which affect men equally are left out of our consideration as those are not crimes committed specifically against women as such special forms of crimes committed against women because of their sex, their limited capacity to resist due to weakness and their economic dependence an men and due to practices of the society for the exploitation as crime against women, cases of rape, molestation, eve teasing, female feticide and infanticide, dowry atrocities, wife battering, immoral traffic in women and girls, etc., fall clearly in the category of crime against women. The test to find out it a crime should be treated as a crime against women or not is to find an answer to the question: ‘has the crime been committed because the victim happens to be a woman?’ if the answer is in the affirmative, there is no doubt that the crime in question is a crime against women. Case of kidnapping and abduction, e.g. both males and females can be kidnapped for collection of ransom or for revengeful murder. But, if the kidnapping is done of a female child or she is abducted with a view to use her for immoral purposes; it comes under the category of crime against women. Always women constitute 50 percent of India’s total population and should have equal rights and privileges as the men, they have been denied such equality for ages and a stage has been reached in which the women are not prepared to tolerate the denial of their rights any longer. Continuance of discriminatory treatment to women is impeding the progress of society as not progress is possible by the denial of legitimate rights to 50 percent of the population. There is an upsurge and awakening amongst women to oppose their exploitation by men and to secure equal treatment. Women are not prepared to submit to age old evil practices and customs of male dominated society and less prepared to tolerate crime against them such as bride burning, molestation, rape, etc. and often come out in the streets to stage demonstrations for redressal of their grievances and immediate deterrent action against perpetrators of crime (Ghosh & Rsutamji, 1997).
Concepts
The UN defined “Violence against Women” in Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women. It defines the term “Violence Against Women” means any act of gender-based violence that
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results in or it likely to result in physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or private life’. “Violence against Women” shall be understood to encompass, but not be limited to, the following; (a) Physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring in the family including battering, sexual abuse of female children in the household, dowry-related violence, marital rape, female genital mutilation and other traditional practices harmful to women, non-spousal violence and violence related to exploitation. (b) Physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring within the general community, including rape, sexual abuse, sexual harassment and intimidation at work, in educational institution and elsewhere, trafficking in women and forced prostitution. (c). Physical, sexual and psychological violence perpetrated or condoned by the state, wherever it occurs. United Nations, Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, 1979 has defined violence against women as “violence directed at a woman because she is a women or acts of violence which are suffered disproportionately by women”. In this section below we explore in more detail how the violence against women. The sense of security at the work place improves women’s participation in work, resulting in their economic empowerment and inclusive growth the Sexual Harassment of Women at Work place (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013 requires an employer to set up an ‘Internal Complaints Committee’ (ICC) and government to set up a ‘Local Complaints Committee’ (LCC) at the district level to investigate complaints regarding sexual harassment at workplace and inquiring into the complaints in a time bound manner.
Sexual Harassment
Subjecting a women to an unwelcome sexuality determined behavior (whether directly or by implication) by physical contact and advances, a demand or request for sexual favors, sexually coloured remarks, showing pornography, any other unwelcome physical, verbal or non-verbal conduct of sexual nature.
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Presence or occurrence of circumstances of implied or explicit promise of preferential treatment in employment; threat of detrimental treatment in employment; threat about present or future employment; interference with work or creating an intimidating or offensive or hostile work environment; or humiliating treatment likely to affect the lady employee’s health or safety.
Workplace
Government bodies, private and public sector organizations, non-governmental organizations, organizations carrying on commercial, vocational, educational, entertainmental, industrial, financial activities, hospitals and nursing homes, educational institutes, sports institutions and stadiums used for training individuals. Places visited by employees during the course of employment or for reasons arising out of employment-including transportation provided by the employer for the purpose of commuting to and from the place of employment.
Defining Workplace Sexual Harassment International View
Sexual harassment in the workplace is a form of sex discrimination that is prohibited by Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Applying to employers who have 15 or more employees, the federal government, employment agencies, and labor organizations, it protects employees from sexual harassment. According to federal law (CFR 1604.11), the definition of sexual harassment is ‘Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature constitute sexual harassment when (1) submission to such conduct is made either explicitly or implicitly a term or condition of an individual’s employment, (2) submission to or rejection of such conduct by an individual is used as the basis for employment decisions affecting such individual, or (3) such conduct has the purpose or effect of unreasonably interfering with an individual’s work performance or creating an intimidating, hostile, or offensive working environment. Within this definition of sexual harassment are two specific types – quid pro quo and hostile environment. Part 1 and 2 of the definition represent quid pro quo harassment. This type of sexual
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harassment occurs when employment decisions are based on an individual’s response to sexually harassing behaviors. Hostile environment sexual harassment, which is described in part 3 of the definition, is conduct that negatively impacts work performance or creates a hostile working environment. Although two types, both quid pro quo and hostile environment harassment, can occur together – for example, a person does not wish to engage in sexual conduct with her boss and after rejecting such conduct, her work environment becomes increasingly hostile with veiled threats of firing for noncompliance.
Measures of Workplace Sexual Harassment
One avenue of redress that victims of workplace sexual harassment have is to report their experience to the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). Importantly, much like other types of sexual victimization such as rape and sexual assault, victims seldom formally report their sexual harassment. Because formal reporting sources are likely underestimating the amount of sexual harassment that occurs, other attempts at uncovering the true extent of sexual harassment have been taken. As early as 1980, sexual harassment was defined and classified into several different types of behaviors that included gender harassment, seductive behavior, sexual bribery, sexual coercion, and sexual imposition or assault. To measure sexual harassment, the Sexual Experiences Questionnaire (SEQ) was developed in 1988 by Louise Fitzgerald and her colleagues. Designed to measure the five classes of sexual harassment identified by Frank Till via multiple items for each class, the SEQ uses behaviorally specific questions that ask whether a person has experienced certain behaviors at work without including the term sexual harassment in the question. One question included in the SEQ is “Have you ever been in a situation where you actually experience negative consequences for refusing to engage in sexual activity with a co-worker?” The SEQ has been widely used in a variety of settings, but it should be noted that the original questionnaire has been revised numerous times. Although the original version had five factors, more recent versions used by the original authors are based on a three-factor model – sexual coercion, gender harassment, and unwanted sexual attention.
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Other measures have been designed to tap into behaviors indentified by the EEOC that have been developed. In fact, the Inventory of Sexual Harassment was designed by James Gruber to reflect the guidelines of the EEOC. The Inventory of Sexual Harassment covers three general categories of sexual harassment: verbal requests, sexual remarks/comments, and nonverbal displays. The U.S. federal government has also taken on itself to measure the extent of sexual harassment among federal workers. To do so, the U.S. Merit Systems Protection Board has conducted multiple surveys, beginning in 1980 and then again in 1987 and 1994, that included more than 13,000 respondents. To determine incidence, respondents were asked whether they had experienced any of seven types of uninvited sexual attention during the previous 24 months. Types of Sexual Offenses and Offenders There are few objective standards of what is acceptable sexual behavior, and “normal” sexual behavior is a socially constructed reality that is constantly adapting (Jenkins, 1998). Definitions of deviant sexual behavior are largely culture-bound and vary across religions, nations, and even states. These definitions adapt to the prevailing social norms of the time, and punishments for sexual offenders depend largely upon the political and social ideologies of the day. Several highly publicized cases of sexual abuse and murder in the 1980s and 1990s have brought forth increased public, political and academic attention to sex offenders, resulting in substantially enhanced punishment, management, and supervision of sex offenders today. Though these policies primarily intend to target sexual abusers of children, they have been applied to all sex offenders. Various sexual behaviors are criminalized today. These acts may include sexual contact (touching the intimate parts of the body either without the consent of the victim or when one person is incapable of consenting under the law); no contact (behaviors committed for the purpose of sexual gratification such as exposure of the offender’s genitals or “peeping”); and acts related to the possession or distribution of child pornography (any filming or photographing of a child that is for the purpose of sexually gratifying an adult) (Terry, 2006). The names of these offenses, definitions of the crimes, the class of the crimes (as felonies or misdemeanors), and the punishments for these offenses vary by state. Some sexual behaviors, even when consensual, are considered offenses, such as incest and statutory rape (sexual behavior between an
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adult and a minor under the age of consent). For most sexual behaviors to be considered criminal, however, there must be a lack of consent on the part of the victim and some level of intent on the part of the offender. The laws in most states stipulate that consent is lacking from a sexual act when any of the following holds true (Terry, 2006). The act is the result of force, threat, or duress. A reasonable person would understand that the victim did not consent due to a clear or implied statement that he or she would not want to engage in the sexual act. The victim is incapable of consenting because he or she is below the age of consent (this ranges from 16 to 18 in various states); is mentally disabled; is mentally incapacitated; is physically helpless; is under the custody of correctional services; or is placed within the care of Children and Family Services (or any other organization in charge of monitoring and caring for those in the charge of the state). According to a study conducted by the national commission for women in 1998, it is found that 50 per cent of working women surveyed, faced sexual harassment of work, 68 per cent faced mental harassment due to whishing, ogling, winking, passing lewd remarks and sexual gestures, 25 per cent suffered physical harassment such as bottom pinching, touching private parts etc., 32% of them faced discrimination in matters of leave, salary, promotions, working hours and work distributions, and 85 per cent are unaware of the Supreme Court Judgment (Rashrya Nagata, 1998). Several studies indicate that the magnitude of unreported cases is several times over the estimate. The report of a study conducted by the gender study group of the University of Delhi showed that in 1996, 92 per cent of women’s hostiles and 88% of all women day scholars had faced sexual harassment on the roads within the campus (Gender study group of university of Delhi, 1996). A life-cycle approach to gender-based victimization provides important insights into the immediate as well as the cumulative effects of violence on the lives of women and girls. Violence can occur during any phase of a woman's life; many women experience multiple episodes of violence throughout their lives. A life-cycle perspective also reveals that violence experienced in one phase can have long-term effects that predispose the victim to severe secondary health risks, such as suicide, depression, and substance abuse. Evidence suggests that the earlier in a
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woman's life violence occurs especially sexual violence the deeper and more enduring are its effects (Burnam et. al., 1988). Masculinity, Intimate Partner Violence and Son Preference in India – a study done by the International Centre for Research on Women, establishes a link between masculinity, gender violence and a preference for sons, which represents the most powerful manifestation of gender inequality. The study found that the average Indian man is “convinced that masculinity is about acting tough, freely exercising his privilege to lay down the rules in personal relationships and controlling women, 52 per cent of the women surveyed had experienced violence during their lifetime and 60 per cent of the male respondents had acted violently against their wife or partner (Shukla, 2015). Magnitude of the problem in India The Crime against Women in India is more severe and traumatizing. The National Crime Records Bureau, in 2013 has analyzed the victimization of women as follows: “The National Crime Records Bureau, (2013) shows that a crime is committed against a woman is raped every 29th minute, a dowry death occurs every 77th minute and one case of cruelty, committed by either the husband or relative of the victim, every ninth minute”. The crime head-wise details of reported crimes during the year 2009 to year 2013 along with percentage variation are presented in the below (table.1). The crime against women during the year 2013 has increased by 26.7% over the year 2012 and by 51.9% over the year 2009. The IPC component of crimes against women has accounted for 95.6% of total crimes and the rest 4.4% were Special and Local Law (SLL) crimes against women. The proportion of Indian Penal Crimes (IPC) crimes committed against women towards total IPC crimes has increased during last 5 years from 9.2% in the year 2009 to 11.2% during the year 2013
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Table: 1. Crime head-wise incidents of crime against women during 2009 - 2013 and percentage variation in 2013 over 2012 Sl. Crime head Year Percentage No. variation in 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2013 over 2012 1. Rape (Sec. 376 IPC) 21,397 22,172 24,206 24,923 33,707 35.2 2. Kidnapping & abduction(Sec. 363 25,741 29,795 35,565 38,262 51,881 8,083 35.6 3. to 373IPC) 8,383 8,391 8,618 8,233 1,18,866 -1.8 4. Dowry death (Sec. 302 / 304 IPC) 89,546 94,041 99,135 1,06,527 70,739 11.6 5. Cruelty by husband or his 38,711 40,613 42,968 45,351 12,589 31 56.0 6. relatives (Sec. 498-A IPC) 11,009 48 9,961 36 8,570 80 9,173 59 37.2 7. Assault on women with intent to -47.4 outrage her modesty (Sec. 354 IPC) Insult to the modesty of women(Sec. 509 IPC) Importation of girl from foreign country (Sec. 366-B IPC) Total IPC crime against A. 1,94,832 2,05,009 2,19,142 2,32,528 2,95,896 27.3 Women Commission of Sati Prevention 8. 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 Act, 1987 9. Immoral Traffic (Prevention) 2,474 845 2,499 895 2,435 453 2,563 141 2,579 362 0.6 10. Act, 1956 Indecent 156.7 Representation of Women (P) Act,1986 11. The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 5,650 5,182 8,576 6,619 9,507 9,038 10,709 17.9 B. Total SLL crime against 8,969 11,742 13,650 16.2 Women Total(A+B) 2,03,804 2,13,585 2,28,649 2,44,270 3,09,546 26.7 Sources: Crime in India, 2013
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Figure: 1. Crime against Women Percent Distribution during 2013
Constitutional Safeguards for women The constitution of India, which came into force on 26th January, 1950 not only grants equality to women but also empowers the state to adopt measures of positive discrimination in favor of women for neutralizing the cumulative socio-economic, education and political disadvantages faced by them. Articles of the constitution of India that are of specific importance in this regard are: Article 14: The state shall not deny to any person quality before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India. Article 15(1): The state shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, sex, and place of birth or any of them. Article 15(3): Nothing in this Article shall present the state from making any special provision for women and children. Article 16(1): There shall be equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to employment or appointment to any office under the state. Article 16(2): No citizen shall, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth , residence or any of them, be ineligible for, or discriminated against in respect of, any employment or office under the state. Article 39(a): The state shall in particular directed its policy towards security that the citizens, men and women equality, have the right to an adequate means of livelihood.
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Article 42: The state shall make provision for securing just and humane conditions of work and for maternity relief. Article 51 (A) (e): It shall be the duty of every of citizen of India to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities, to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women (Basu, 2003). The very preamble to the constitution of India declares to secure justice-social, economic and political and to secure equality of status and opportunity. The twin golden cardinal principles of ‘justice to all’ is enshrined in Article 14 and 21 of the Indian Constitution, and the ‘Fundamental Freedoms’ and ‘Directive Principle’ policy reflect the goal of harmony, development and progress entertained for women (Basu, 2000). Legal provisions for Crimes against Women under Indian Penal Code, 1860 Section Offences Punishment IPC 228 -A Disclosure of identity of the Impressments for two years victim of certain offenses and fine 294 Obscene acts and songs Impressments for three months or fine or both 304-B Dowry death due to causes other Impressments not less than than natural within seven years seven year, may extend to life of marriage imprisonment 306 Abetment of suicide Imprisonment for ten years and fine 326-A Voluntarly causing grievous hurt Imprisonment for ten years, by use of acid, etc. may extend to life imprisonment and fine 326-B Voluntarily throwing or Imprisonment for five years attempting to through acid but may extend to seven years, and shall also be liable to fine 354 Assault or use of criminal force Imprisonment for one year or to women with intent to outrage may extend to five years, with her modesty fine 354-A Sexual harassment of the nature Imprisonment up to three of unwelcome physical contact years or fine or both and advances or a demand or request for sexual favors,
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showing pornography. Imprisonment up to one year Sexual harassment of the nature or with fine or with both of making sexual coloured remarked. 354-B Assault or uses of criminal force Imprisonment of not less than to women with intent disrobe. three years, which may extend to seven years, and with fine. 354-C Voyeurism Imprison for one year, which may extend three years, and with fine for first conviction Second or subsequent conviction, with imprisonment of either description for a term for three year, which may extend to seven years, and shall also, be liable to fine. 354-D Stalking Imprisonment up to three years and fine for the first conviction. Imprisonment up to five years and with fine for second or subsequent conviction. 366 Kidnapping, abducting or Imprisonment for ten years inducing women to compel or and fine marriage etc. 376(1) Rape Rigorous imprisonment for seven years, may extend to imprisonment for life and with fin 376(2) Rape by a police officer or public Rigorous imprisonment for a servant or member of armed term which shall not be less forces or a person being on the than ten years, but may management or on the staff of extend to imprisonment for the jail , remand home or other life, which shall mean place of custody or woman’s and imprisonment for that children’s institution or by a person’s natural life, or with person on the management or on death. the staff of a hospital, and rape committed by a person in a position of trust or authority towards the person raped of by a near relatives of the person raped www.ijmer.in 212
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376-A Person committing an offence of Rigorous imprisonment for rape and inflicting injury which not than five years, but which causes death or causes the may extend to ten years, and women in a president vegetative with fine Rigorous state imprisonment for twenty years, but may extend to imprisonment for life, which shall mean imprisonment for the remainder of that person’s natural life, or with death 376-B Sexual intercourse by husband Imprisonment for two years, upon his wife during separation but which may extend to seven years and with fine 376-C Sexual intercourse by a person in Rigorous imprisonment for authority Gang Rape not then five years, but which may extend to ten years, and with fine Rigorous imprisonment for twenty years, but may extend to imprisonment for life, which shall mean imprisonment for the reminder of that person’s natural life, or with death 376-E Repeated offenders Imprisonment for life, which shall mean imprisonment for the remainder of that person’s natural life, or with death 406 Criminal breach of trust Imprisonment for three years and fine 498-A Husband or relative of husband Imprisonment for three years of a women subjecting her to and fine cruelty 509 Word, gesture or act intended to Simple imprisonment of three insult the modesty of a women year or fine or both Steps to be taken by the Employers To provide a safe working environment Display conspicuously at the work place, what constitutes sexual harassment, the penal consequences of indulging in acts that may constitute sexual harassment and the composition of the Internal Complaints Committee. Organize workshops and awareness programmes at regular intervals for sensitizing employees on the issues and legal
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implications of sexual harassment at workplace and organizing orientation programmes for members of the Internal Complaints Committee. Treat sexual harassment as misconduct under the service rules and initiate action for misconduct. Timelines A written complaint has to be filed by the aggrieved female employee within 3 months of the date of the incident. The inquiry has to be completed within 90 days The inquiry report has to be issued within 10 days from the date of completion of inquiry. The employer is requiring acting on the recommendations of the committee within 60 days of receipt of inquiry report. Appeal against the decision of the committee is allowed within 90 days of the date of recommendations. Suggestions The employer shall take all necessary steps to assist the victims of sexual harassment women to redress the act of sexual harassment It shall be the duty of the employer or institution to ensure that all necessary and reasonable steps to prevent and ensure that no women is subject to sexual harassment. Victim of sexual harassment shall have the right to claim compensation from the dependent for any sexual harassment to which she may have been subject to, in an appropriate court of law. Ensure safe environment free from sexual harassment including prevention and deterrence of sexual harassment. To conduct or undertake workshops and training programmes at regular intervals for sensitizing the members. The systematic community based programme of educating the potential victim, widely and dispersed in the community, towards crime prevention in all the aspects, is necessary. This should include instructions about not only the precaution to be taken to prevent crime but also the necessity of promote reporting of cases and preservation of sense of crime till police arrive and cooperating with the police during the investigation The police, for their part, should realize that the victim is the most injured party in the transaction which constitutes the
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crime and as the person, who sex the criminal law in motion, is the most important person in the process who deserves all the attention and help. In short, the police should not treat her as just another witness and worse, as if she where t defendant. Administrative wings of judicial system must take effective steps to remedy this deplorable state of affairs and ensure the availability of adequate for witnesses other who participates in court proceedings. Victim’s assistance programmes should be organized as joint project of the government and voluntary organizations to take care of the interests of the victims of sexual harassment cases through the pendency. References 1. Basu, D. Das. (2003). ‘Constitutional Law of India’, Wadhwa and Company, Nagpur. 2. Basu, D. Das (2000). ‘Commentaries on the Constitution of India, APH Publishing Corporation. New Delhi. 3. Burnam, M. Audrey, Judith A. Stein, J.M. Golding, J.M. Siegel, S.B. Sorenson, A.B. Forsythe, and C.A. Telles. 1988. "Sexual Assault and Mental Disorders in a Community Population. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 56(6):843-50. 4. Ghosh, S.K and Rsutamji, K.F, (1997). Encyclopedia of Police in India, Vol.III, Ashish Publishing, New Delhi. Pg.1649. 5. Singh K. Awadhesh & Choudhury, J (2012). Violence against women and children-issues and concerns. Serials Publication, New Delhi. Pg.1 6. Shukla, S (2015). ‘When will the good time come for women in India’, Editorial Page on Central Chronicle on 12th March, 2015, Bhopal. Pg.6. 7. Tangri, S. Burk, M. R, Johnson L, B. (1982). “Sexual Harassment at Work: Three Explanatory Models”, Journal of Social Issues, Vol.38, No.4. 8. http://www.academia.edu/5840110/Crime_Against_Women_In_I ndia Retrieve on 12-03-2015 9. http://www.citizen-news.org/2015/03/when-will-good-times- achhe-din-come-for.html
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MARGINALIZATION OF DALITS IN THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF ANDHRA PRADESH: AN OVERVIEW
Ramakrushnudu Bolleddula Research Scholar Department of History Sri Krishnadevaraya University Anantapuramu, Andhra Pradesh
Lack of access to land makes Dalits economically vulnerable; their dependency is exploited by upper- and middle-caste landlords and allows for many abuses to go unpunished. Most Dalit victims of abuse are landless agricultural labourers who form the backbone of India’s agrarian economy. The exploitation of agricultural labourers and the rigid assignment of demeaning occupations on the basis of caste keep Dalits in a position of economic and physical vulnerability. The triple burden of caste, class, and gender effectively ensures that Dalit women are the furthest removed from legal protections. Only with the honest implementation of laws designed to protect agricultural labourers and abolish manual scavenging and bonded labour, and the systematic prosecution of those responsible for attacks on Dalit men and women, can the process of attaining economic and physical security begin. Indian society is characterized by social subordination, discrimination, social and economic inequalities, the key factors, which distinguish the marginalized communities such as SCs and STs from the dominant group. Gurung and Kollmair preferred to explain ‘marginalization’, in terms of socio-economic and political spheres, where the disadvantaged people struggle to gain access to resources and full participation in social life. It needs mention that marginalized communities are culturally distinctive and self-conscious social aggregates, with hereditary membership and a high degree of endogamy, which are subject to political, economic, or social discrimination by a dominant segment of an environing political society. All of the elements of this definition apply to the scheduled groups in India. While all members of the scheduled groups face disadvantages because of their status based on descent, women in these groups are particularly disadvantaged. For women that belong to scheduled group, caste or tribal disadvantage interacts with women's subordinate status to create 'double minority' status.
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Sustainable economic empowerment of rural masses; investments to enhance their capability and effective measures for accelerated development of the disadvantaged sections like Dalits. The pre-requisite to reforms therefore could be the radical land reforms, massive investments in rural areas into agriculture-related infrastructural projects, universalization of primary education, primary health care system and reinforcement of positive discrimination in favour of Dalits.1 Empowerment of the marginalized: Empowerment is a political process. The core idea of empowerment lies in the dynamics of sharing, distribution and redistribution of power. According to Max Weber, power is one’s capacity to have control over others and when this capacity to control is legitimized, it becomes authority. The logic of empowerment essentially involves the dynamics of authority. Powerlessness has been legitimized within the given social order. Hence empowerment will mean a process of distribution of power through legitimized means. In human society everybody has no equal authority as people have unequal access to the resources that determine power. The process of gaining control over self, ideology, material and knowledge resources which determine power may be termed empowerment. Thus the process of gaining control over resources is to be seen within the given context of deprivation, structure of hierarchy and the process of legitimization and reproduction. The civil societies try to ensure the equal access to the resources to the marginalized community that determines power equation within the society. Assertion and Marginalization of Dalits Though there are so many Dalits who are occupying the officess of power in the country, yet there has been no significant change in the wretched condition of the Dalits. Except for a miniscule minority, most of the Dalits are still socially degraded, economically exploited and politically voiceless. Two simultaneous processes have occurred with the above- mentioned socio-political reality of the Dalits in Indian Society. One there has occurred a sub-stratum among them, which is visible, vocal and assertive. Moreover, it has aroused the consciousness among the Dalits independently and believes that Dalits can achieve their rights through independent self-assertion only. The second process is the co- option and marginalization of the Dalits by the dominant
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Castes/Classes/ Parties in the country. The modus operandi is simple. First co-opt the assertive or potentially assertive Dalits and then marginalize them once they want to do something for their community. Let us analyse the process of co-option first to prove our point. This process has a history and it still continues. The Congress did so very meticulously. It co-opted Jagjivan Ram to counter the assertion of Ambedkar. Later it co-opted many leaders of the Republican Party of India (RPI), the Dalit Panthers and independents to suppress the Dalit movement and thereby their independent assertion. A glaring example in the contemporary times can be of the President, Mr.K.R. Narayanan. Mr. Narayanan, a student of Harold Laski from London School Of Economics was successfully co-opted by the Congress. It is difficult for Dalits to remember that he did something significant for the upliftment of Dalits till he was in the Congress Party. Many Dalits think he would have contributed to Dalit movement much more with his knowledge, had he struggled like Ambedkar. Apart from the political parties, the State itself has co-opted many assertive and conscious Dalits in its fold by offering lucrative jobs like the Indian Administrative service (IAS) or Indian Police Service (IPS) etc. How many educated youths come to serve the community is anybody’s guess. Once selected in these services the Dalits, who are usually without any Godfather, put their all efforts for surviving in the service or for promotion and transfer. And then even if they get some time they spend it in looking after their families. Under these circumstances, the community’s interest is neglected. On the other hand, marginalization of co-opted Dalits is an inevitable process in the Indian society, which retards the rate of their assertion. This process is also very simple. Either the dominant sections do not listen to the co-opted Dalit, or exclude him from the process of decision making or criticize him vehemently and so on and so forth to marginalize him. Economic Development and Dalit Agricultural Workers: The socio-economic conditions of Dalit agricultural workers and their participation and contribution for economic development. After 1980s many changes have taken place in the Indian economy. As a result economic growth rate increased. Despite high economic growth and agricultural performance, the population of the Scheduled Castes and Tribes could not get the fruits of the high economic growth and benefits of the globalization.
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The poverty ratios have been significantly higher than for the rest of the population and the proportion of the poor in the country belonging to the SCs and STs increased. Intervention by the Government through the land reform measures has helped only Non- Scheduled Caste peasantry in Indian agriculture. It is further observed that several changes have taken place on the socio-economic frontiers of rural India since independence, but they did not substantially improve the position of Scheduled Castes, particularly in respect of land ownership, education level expenditure and income level employment. Why the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes could not utilize the opportunity vis-à-vis the Non-Scheduled Castes and are remaining as agricultural labourers and other traditional occupants living below poverty line. Hence migration, unemployment, dropout rate in schools, poverty and social exclusion are taken momentum among Dalits. This paper analyze the pattern of occupational distribution of Dalits, access to land, agricultural workers, poverty and Rural Development Programs and Dalits participation. This book concludes that Dalits should be included in the process of economic planning and policy implementation. Moreover, the Dalits should take active participation in the developmental activities. Inclusive economic growth may give good hope for Dalits.2 Land: In 1991, 70% of the total SC households were landless or near landless (owning less than one acre). This increased to 75% in 2001. In 1991, 13% of the rural SC households were landless. However, in 2000 this saw a decline and was 10%. As per the Agricultural Census of 1995- 96, the bottom 61.6% of operational holdings accounted for only 17.2% of the total operated land area. As against this, the top 7.3% of operational holdings accounted for 40.1% of the total operated area. This gives an indication of land concentration in the hands of a few. Agricultural labour: In 2000, 49.06% of the working SC populations were agricultural labourers, as compared to 32.69% for the STs and only 19.66% for the others. This shows the preponderance of dalits in agricultural labour. Between 1991 and 2001, the number of agricultural labourers in India increased from 7.46 crore to 10.74 crore, and a large proportion of them were dalits. On the other hand, the average number of workdays available to an agricultural labourer slumped from 123 in 1981 to 70 in 2005. Women: While dalit women share common problems of gender discrimination with their high caste counterparts, they also suffer from
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problems specific to them. Dalit women are the worst affected and suffer the three forms oppression caste, class and gender. As some of the above figures show, these relate to extremely low literacy and education levels, heavy dependence on wage labour, discrimination in employment and wages, heavy concentration in unskilled, low-paid and hazardous manual jobs, violence and sexual exploitation, being the victims of various forms of superstitions etc.3 Now the Dalits form the single largest group of agricultural laborers in the country: the landless agricultural laborers. This happens to be the poorest and the most vulnerable section of Indian society. This is the group of society that has taken the worst beating in the last 10-11 years of economic change. Within this group, the largest share of agricultural labor is Dalit, of which the majority is Dalit women. India’s food is produced primarily by Dalit women. They are the lowest paid section of agrarian society. Therefore, it is a triple burden: a burden of class, caste and gender.4 Inadequate development and protection of Dalit women: The obligation to ensure the development and protection of certain groups or individuals belonging to them is especially relevant for those individuals within the Dalit community who face multiple forms of discrimination. Dalit women face multiple axes of discrimination, with the National Campaign on Dalit Human Rights asserting: Dalit women are often described as the oppressed of the oppressed, the violence and oppression on them being more complex and manifold even compared to Dalit men. There is [an] inseparable relationship between caste status, occupation and discrimination. The Dalit woman faces triple discrimination because she is an untouchable, of a poor class and is a woman.5 Forced Migration of Dalits: For Dalits, among the poorest and least powerful of India’s inhabitants, the choice of where to live is rarely a choice in any meaningful sense. Because Dalits are rarely able to own land they are unable to produce their crops for their own consumption or sale in the market. Given the limited amount of jobs and resources in India, and other economic hardships such as droughts, Dalits are often forced to migrate in search of work.6 The right to own property is systematically denied to Dalits. Landlessness encompassing a lack of access to land, inability to own land, and forced evictions constitutes a crucial element in the subordination of Dalits. When Dalits do acquire land, elements of the
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right to own property including the right to access and enjoy it are routinely infringed. Land reform legislation is neither implemented nor properly enforced. Dalits’ efforts to secure land have been met with State violence or retaliation by private actors in the form of violence or economic sanctions.7 A lack of access to land keeps Dalits in a state of economic dependency. Most rural Dalits are agricultural laborers who are economically dependent on their employers and therefore less likely to report abuse .Economic dependency on agricultural jobs also makes Dalits more susceptible to seasonal migratory work patterns.8 Dalit’s talents, merits, and hard work are of little consequence in a system where occupational status is determined by birth. Dalits are forced to work in “polluting” and degrading occupations such as manual scavenging and are subject to exploitative labor arrangements such as bonded labor, migratory labor, and forced prostitution. Dalit children are also vulnerable to child labor in these and other areas. Dalits are also discriminated against in hiring and in the payment of wages by private employers. Dalits’ attempts to enforce their rights are met with retaliatory violence and social and economic boycott.9 Manual Scavenging: The sub castes within the Dalits are two kinds varying in degree of impoverishment. The first comprises leather workers, street sweepers, agricultural and non- agricultural labour. The second are the “lowest of low” who take up most demeaning jobs like digging graves, disposing of dead animals and cleaning human excreta or manual ‘scavenging’. What would become of environment, hygiene, cleanliness and sanitation if the subalterns abandon their job all of a sudden? This categorization of caste on basis of occupation is also a part of the old supreme declaration of Hindu aristocrats. Public and private dry pit latrines and carry them to dumping grounds and disposal sites.10 Though long outlawed, the practice of manual scavenging continues in most states,11 and will continue as long as dry latrines are used.12 In 2002-03, the Union Ministry for Social Justice and Empowerment admitted the existence of 6.76 lakh (676,000) manual scavengers in India and the presence of 92 lakh (9,200,000) dry latrines, spread across 21 States and Union Territories.13 According to unofficial estimates, the number of manual scavengers in India may be as high as 1.3 million.14 Manual scavengers are employed by private and public employers, including the military
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engineering services, the army, the railways, and other organs of the state.15The occupation of manual scavenging is both caste-based and hereditary.16 It is also the only economic opportunity available to many Dalit women hailing from scavenger sub-castes,17 It is also the only economic opportunity available to many Dalit women hailing from scavenger sub-castes,18 Manual scavengers are at the very bottom of the caste hierarchy; they also face discrimination from other Dalits who treat them as “untouchables,” creating an unquestioned “‘untouchability’ within the ‘untouchables’19 The entrenched discrimination against manual scavengers makes it difficult to find alternative employment pursuant to government rehabilitation schemes, and even more difficult to convince scavengers that they are able to take on, or are “worthy of performing,” different occupations.20 Manual scavenging is characterized by hazardous working conditions and health hazards. A manual scavenger from Paliyad village, Ahmedabad district, Gujarat, described how in the rainy season, the “water mixes with the feces that we carry in baskets on our heads, it drips onto our clothes, our faces. When I return home, I find it difficult to eat food. But in the summer there is often no water to wash your hands before eating. It is difficult to say which [season] is worse.”21 Manual scavengers are routinely exposed to both human and animal waste without the protection of masks, uniforms, gloves, shoes, appropriate buckets, and mops.22 This has severe repercussions for their health; the majority of scavengers suffer from anemia, diarrhoea and vomiting, with 62 % suffering respiratory diseases, 32 percent suffering skin diseases, 42% suffering jaundice and 23% suffering trachoma, leading to blindness. Many scavengers have also died of carbon monoxide poisoning while cleaning septic tanks.23 In Mumbai, for instance, Dalits are lowered into manholes to clear sewage blockages often without any protection.24 More than 100 workers die every year due to inhalation of toxic gases or drowning in excrement.25 The fear of being fired by municipality officials keeps manual scavengers from demanding higher wages or sanitary instruments.26 Manual scavenging is neither justly nor favorably remunerated, and several family members often have to be engaged to do the work assigned to one individual. As a result many families have to borrow money from their upper-caste neighbors and consequently go into bondage. In addition, almost no compensation has been delivered to the families of manual scavengers who are killed cleaning sewers.27
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These problems have not been alleviated by the Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act, 1993, or its rehabilitation program. For example, an increase in the number of dry latrines since 1989, 28 ineffectiveness in the training program29 and a lack of co-ordination among responsible ministries30 mean that despite the fact that the Act was intended to be fully implemented by October 2, 2002,31 only 151,930 out of the total 676,009 manual scavengers identified as of 2004 by the NHRC have been retrained and 394,638 have been rehabilitated,32 These failures reflect a fundamental lack of political commitment in the effort to eliminate manual scavenging.33 They have necessitated the filing of a public interest litigation petition on behalf of manual scavengers before the Supreme Court in 2003 seeking the enforcement of the Act,34 which alleges that manual scavenging still exists, including in public sector undertakings, and urges the Court to issue time-bound directions to the Government of India and to state governments to take effective steps to eliminate the practice and to simultaneously formulate and implement comprehensive rehabilitation plans.35 The lack of political will of state governments to implement the Act was evidenced in 2004 when the Supreme Court requested the court presence of Secretaries of seven states for failure to file responses to the petition.36 In response to the Supreme Court order, many states reported to the Court that no dry latrines existed in their states.37 Dalit and Food Security: Although famine has been overcome, millions of Indians still suffer from chronic under nourishment and severe micronutrient malnutrition, especially women, children and people belonging to scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. Neither starvation deaths have been fully eradicated, nor discrimination against women and lower castes, corruption, impunity and a wide range of violations including forced labour, debt bondage and forced displacement remain serious obstacles to the realization of the right to food. In the current transition to a more liberalized, market-oriented economy, the poorest are disproportionately bearing the costs, with under nourishment rising as public spending on rural development and social programmes is being cut back. With falling agricultural wages, increasing landlessness and rising food prices, food insecurity is growing particularly in rural areas. Recent economic growth is generating employment mostly in high-tech sectors that will not be able to absorb the loss of livelihoods from the agriculture on which two
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thirds of Indians still depend. Public expenditure must therefore be directed towards smallholder agriculture to improve household food security, while also improving and maintaining effective safety net programmes, including the PDS, to prevent a further regression in the realization of the right to food during the economic transition. Scheduled castes and tribes suffer most from hunger and malnutrition, making up 25% of the rural population but 42% of the poor. As a result of discrimination, many low-caste Dalits are expected to work as agricultural labourers without being paid, many held in debt bondage by their higher-caste employers. Although debt bondage is illegal, NGOs estimate that there are between 20 to 60 million bonded labourers in India, 85% of them belonging to scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. Widespread discrimination prevents Dalits from owning land, as they are seen as the “worker class”, and even if they receive land (as a result of redistribution and agrarian reform programmes in some states), such land is frequently taken by force by higher-caste people in the area. Lower castes are also often restricted from using village wells, as observed by the Special Rapporteur in Shivpuri District. Tribal peoples, particularly those living in forest and hill areas, are extremely marginalized, many having lost access to traditional forest livelihoods and food resources through the creation of Forest Reserves, and many remain without food ration cards or access to government services. Tribal peoples also suffer disproportionately from displacement because of development projects such as dams, power plants, coal mines and mineral industries. There are no official statistics on the number of people displaced, but NGOs and academics estimate that dam projects alone have displaced up to 33 million people who have lost their lands and livelihoods. Around 40-50 per cent of the displaced are tribal people even though they make up only 8% of the population, reflecting the serious discrimination against tribal peoples.38 Women in the Unorganized Sector: Today in India 93% of workers is employed in the unorganized sector. In 2001, there were 461 million people in the work force in India. Of these, 123.9 million are women and do not have access to any benefits provided under current labor laws which cover different aspects of workers needs e.g. good working conditions, pensions or provident funds to provide old age security. While the Government has promised to meet the basic needs of workers in the unorganized sector, this is yet to materialize. A case in point is
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women working in the export garment and textile industry. It is estimated that 2.4 million workers are working in the clothing sector alone. While Mumbai and Delhi promote contract labor, Bangalore has been a growth centre with the development of factory-based production. In spite of this the women workers continue to remain unorganized, threatened by closures, dismissals without access to minimum wages or other benefits. Women workers in the sector suffer most from the dual burden of working long hours and caring for their families. Since they mostly live in slum like conditions, they are denied basic amenities such as clean drinking water and sanitation. These women earn the highest amount of foreign exchange for the country but live in dismal conditions. Sexual harassment at the work place is rampant and women's dignity attacked by abusive language and punishing the workers. Women collapsing at work due to exhaustion and overwork are common.39 Our demands include Immediately Legislate the Unorganized Sector Workers Social Security Bill Enforce minimum wages Workers must only work an 8 hour day Workers should be given wage slips Workers should be given ID cards Regionally, the Government should help negotiate an international minimum floor level wage to prevent unfair competition among poor countries for garment workers The National Commission for Women and State Commissions should play an active role to review the working conditions of women in the informal sector and act as watchdogs to improve the situation. Unions organizing in the sector must be recognized and supported Wage boards must be set up Resource Ownership: Land: Access to land is one of the important indicators of better livelihoods in rural areas. In rural Andhra Pradesh, in terms of land owned40 and possessed 41, there is little difference across social groups and the SC are, in fact, better placed in terms of land owned. Landlessness (in terms of land possessed) became negligible between 1993-94 and 2004-05. However, land available for cultivation is more important in an agrarian economy.
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All the land owned or possessed may not be cultivated42 owing to various reasons. As a matter of fact, the land owned by about 45% of population in the state was used only for housing. In terms of cultivated land the SC and ST appear to be the most and the least disadvantaged when compared with the state average or the ‘other’ social group. The percentage of population in households with cultivated land is 33 and 54.5% for SC and ST during 2004-5, and the state average is 46.2%. Between 1993- 94 and 2004-05 the percentage of population in households with cultivated land declined to a considerable extent across all social groups, but the decline was highest for ST followed by SC. In other words, landlessness, that is lack of cultivated land, is increasing more among these socially disadvantaged groups. The question is whether increasing landlessness is due to land sales because of economic distress or due to better opportunities available in non-farm activities or for any other cause. As observed with respect to employment, the percentage of population especially ST depending on agricultural labour increased, which indicates the worsening situation for ST in Andhra Pradesh. Since Independence, the Indian state has considered that problems of land are of pressing urgency. The objective of poverty eradication envisaged progress on two fronts simultaneously, high productivity and equitable distribution. Accordingly, land reforms were introduced to mitigate land-related problems like concentration, tenancy rights, and land for the landless. Because of the severe disadvantage suffered by the SC and ST, these communities were targeted while distributing surplus land in India and Andhra Pradesh so that they gained access to land. But land reform has to be more than the mere redistribution of land to the landless. It is equally important to ensure the availability…
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Table -1: Distribution (in %) of Workforce between Agriculture and Non-Agriculture Activities across Social Groups in A P. Sector Activity 2004-2005 1993-94 ST SC OBC Others Total ST SC Others Total 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Rural Agriculture 88.5 80.0 67.7 67.6(67.7) 71.8 89.1 89.7 75.0 79.3 Non-Agricul.. 11.5 20.0 32.3 32.4(32.3) 28.2 10.9 10.3 25.0 20.7
Urban Agriculture 36.4 11.1 10.7 6.3(8.8) 9.9 21.7 30.7 14.7 16.3 Non- Agricul.. 63.5 88.9 89.3 93.7(92.2) 90.1 78.3 69.3 85.3 83.7
Total Agriculture 84.0 70.7 56.1 50.8(54.3) 59.4 84.5 84.3 61.5 67.5 Non- Agricul.. 16.0 29.3 43.9 49.2(45.7) 40.6 15.5 15.7 38.5 32.5
Note : 1. Usual Principal and Subsidiary Status; 2. Figure in parenthesis includes both OBC and Other and that is comparable with those of the ‘other’ in 1993-94. Source: Estimations using NSS 61st and 50th Round Employment and Unemployment survey raw data. Table-2: Percentage of Population who owned or Possessed any land or Land Cultivated: Rural A P. Land Ownership 2004-05 1993-94 ST SC OBC Others Total ST SC Others Total 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Owned 89.5 93.0 91.6 90.48(91.2) 91.4 84.5 96.1 92.6 92.5 Possessed 97.3 97.8 98.9 99.08(99.0) 98.6 93.2 88.8 91.4 91.1 Cultivated 54.5 33.0 47.1 51.92(48.7) 46.2 70.4 45.4 58.1 56.7 Irrigated 21.7 13.5 23.1 30.6 22.9 ------
Note : 1.Figure in parenthesis includes both OBC and Other and that is comparable with those of the ‘other’ in 1993-94. Source : NSSO, 50th (1993-94) and 61st (2004-05) Round.
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of other inputs for cultivation to improve the productivity of land. But to what extent have these disadvantaged groups gained access to these agricultural inputs? For instance, the access to irrigation, which is considered a leading input for cultivation, is inadequate for SC and ST. The percentage of population in households with irrigated land is the lowest among SC (13.5%) followed by ST (21.7%) when compared to the ‘other’ community (30.6) and the state average (22.9%). Availability of other necessary inputs would also be inadequate for SC and ST. We now turn to a further analysis of the data relating to the number of holdings and operated areas across social groups based on the Agricultural Census. It indicates that there has been an increase in the number of holdings and area operated by the SC and ST during the last decade (between 1995-96 and 2005-06). But this increase in the number of holdings and area operated for the ST and SC may not be due to land distribution as a part of land reforms. In the changing dynamics of the rural economy in Andhra Pradesh, land transfers have been taking place, horizontally (within a socio-economic class) and vertically (across social and economic classes). It is observed that land owned by the dominant cultivating castes has declined because they are moving out of rural areas and agricultural activities to urban areas and nonagricultural activities. There is a corresponding increase in the control of land by backward communities. The ST and SC therefore might have acquired land through purchase. However, the share of these marginalized communities, especially SC, in the total number of holdings or operated area is well below their share in total population (around 16%). The share of SC in the total area operated is less than half their share in total population, and the average size of their land holding is much smaller than for any other social group. The situation seems relatively better for the ST as their share in operated area is the same as their share in total population (around 8%).
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Table-3: Number of Holding and Area Operated across Social Groups in A P Holdings Area Average size Social Group 1995 2005 1995-96 2005-06 1995-96 2005-06 -96 -06 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 SC 12.85(12.1) 14.22(11.8) 10.66(7.4) 11.36(7.8) 0.83 0.80 ST 7.54(7.1) 9.27(7.7) 10.87(7.6) 12.12(8.4) 1.44 1.31 Other 85.64(80.8) 96.95(80.5) 122.20(85 121.41(83.8) 1.43 1.25 s 106.03(100) 120.44(100) .0) 144.89(100) 1.36 1.20 All 143.73(10 S 0)
Note : 1. Holdings are in lakhs and Area in lakh hectares; 2. Figures in parenthesis are percentages of respective social group in the total.Source : Agricultural Census, DES, Hyderabad. The pattern of land distribution across social groups shows that the number of holdings and area operated has been increasing in the marginal and small size classes while declining in the medium and large holdings classes. For the SC, marginal and small holdings comprised 92% of the total number of holdings but the area under these holdings formed around 66% of the total area owned by them. The share of the ST in marginal and small holdings is nearly 80% of total holdings and 50% of the area operated. Though the marginalization (increasing share of small and marginal farmers) of the peasantry has been taking place across all social groups, it is more in the case of SC. On the whole, it may be mentioned that access to land is still denied too many SCs. As a result, a majority of them continue to be landless agricultural labourers. Further, since most families who own land, especially SCs, are small and marginal farmers, their capacity to invest in agriculture is very inadequate and their access to credit is negligible. Although STs are relatively better placed in terms of access to land, factors such as traditional cultivation techniques and lack of access to modern technology and inputs including credit, undermines their economic progress. Income poverty is only one of the multiple deprivations that the SC and ST have continuously suffered, even after nearly six decades of
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development planning. Across social groups, the percentage of population living below the poverty line is the highest among the ST and SC communities. The estimates of mean consumption expenditure using NSS Consumption Expenditure Survey data clearly indicate differences in the level of consumption expenditure across social groups, and how far behind the SC/STs are as compared to the ‘other’ group. Moreover the gap in terms of consumption expenditure between these SC/STs and the ‘other’ communities has been increasing over a period of time, which indicates increasing economic inequalities across social groups.43 Table-4 explains the operational holdings and area operated by different groups since 1976 -77 to 2000-01 in Andhra Pradesh .In 1976 - 77 Sc households constituted about 13.4% of total holdings but control only 6.9% of the area ,while others constitute about 80.3% of total holdings but control 87% of total operated area. By 2000-01 the percentage of SC holdings declined to about 11.85% and their controlling area share slightly increased to 7.86%.While the percentage of others holdings retains the same i.e.80.7% and their operated area share slightly declined to 84% of total operated area. In 1976-77, ST operational holdings constitute 6.3% of total holdings and control 6.2% of total operational area. By 2000-01 their holdings increased to more than 7% while their share in area also increased to 8.23%.SCs average land holdings.
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Table-4 percentage Distribution of operational holdings and operated area of different social groups in Andhra Pradesh Categor 1976-77 1980-81 1986-87 1990-91 1995-96 2000-01 y Nos Area Nos Area Nos Area Nos Area Nos Area Nos Area SC 13.4 6.9 12.6 6.9 12.2 6.8 12.73 7.48 12.12 7.42 11.85 7.86 ST 6.3 6.2 6.4 6.3 6.4 6.7 6.88 7.23 7.11 7.56 7.47 8.23 Others 80.3 86.9 81.0 86.8 81.4 86.5 80.39 85.29 80.77 85.02 80.66 83.91 Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Sources: Report on SC/ST Land Holdings 1980-81 to 2000-2001. Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Govt .of Andhra Pradesh.
From table-5 it is noted that ,most of the SCs are small or marginal farmers .In 1976-77 marginal and smallholdings of SCs constituted 83% (control nearly 46% of total operated area of SCs) of total holdings and their percentage tremendously increased to about 91.5% (control nearly 66% of total operated area of SCs) in 2000-01 ,on the other hand medium and large holdings declined from 4.7%(control nearly 29% of total operated area of SC) to 1.4% (control nearly 12%of total operated area SC) during the same period and their average size of holdings also significantly decreased from 1.19%hectares to 0.83 hectares during the same period(Tabla.6).Due to lack of irrigation facilities ,high cost of cultivation, high cost of mechanization ,these vulnerable sections were loosing control on their lands. Most of the SCs and STs have been forced to sell their lands to others, mostly those from upper caste communities due to debt burden and are reduced to the status of agricultural labourers in search of their livelihood.
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Table-5 percentage Distribution of operational holdings and area operated by scheduled caste in Andhra Pradesh Size group 1976-77 1980-81 1986-87 1990-91 1995-96 2000-01 Nos Area Nos Area Nos Area Nos Area Nos Area Nos Area Marginal 64.8 22.3 67.7 27.6 70.1 30.4 70.67 31.98 73.46 37.15 75.88 36.45 Small 19.0 23.1 18.9 26.2 18.0 26.4 18.43 28.28 17.75 29.74 17.63 29.56 Semi-medium 11.5 26.0 10.2 25.2 9.1 24.5 8.70 24.40 7.39 22.51 6.95 21.27 medium 4.1 21.5 2.9 15.2 2.5 14.6 2.03 12.38 1.32 8.82 1.39 9.36 Large 0.6 7.1 0.3 5.5 0.3 4.1 0.17 2.96 0.08 1.78 0.15 3.36 All 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Sources: Report on SC/ST Land Holdings, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Govt .of Andhra Pradesh.
Table-6: Average size of the holdings operated by scheduled caste (in hectares) Size group 1976-77 1980-81 1986-87 1990-91 1995-96 2000-01
Marginal 0.41 0.43 0.41 0.41 0.42 0.41
Small 1.45 1.46 1.40 1.40 1.39 1.39 Semi-medium 2.69 2.62 .256 2.56 2.53 2.54
medium 6.21 5.66 5.59 5.58 5.53 5.58
Large 14.65 16.48 14.41 16.00 19.00 19.00
All Groups 1.19 1.06 0.95 0.91 0.83 0.83
Sources: Report on SC/ST Land Holdings, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Govt .of Andhra Pradesh
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Development and marginalization: The development process has failed to end the deprivation faced by the marginalized communities in most of the developing nations. Infact it has contributed to the social reproduction of marginalization. According to Human Development Report the marginalized people are emerged as victims of these processes of development. In every society there are some sections of people who are deprived of socio-economic opportunities for their sustenance and are victims of social, cultural and political exclusion. In India the marginalized communities are rural poor, scheduled tribes and castes, manual workers in unorganized sectors etc. The marginalized people have very little or no participation in the development process. The initiatives are channelled through pre- existing power structure. Their conditions have remained unchanged over the centuries even after government initiatives implemented for their upward mobility. There has been serious thinking about the participation of marginalized communities in the process of development. Due to government failure of integrating them in the development process, an alternative has emerged in the form of civil society to evolve the strategy for empowerment of the marginalized people. Lastly, This paper is an attempt to focus on which is a morbid culture the old age system of scavenging in Indian society. Even in the light most advanced urban culture that prevailing in the state, urban areas. The persistence of caste-based prejudices and the denial of access to land, education, and political power have all contributed to an atmosphere of increasing intolerance and growing movements by Dalits to claim their rights. These claims are increasingly met with large-scale violence and attempts to further remove Dalits from economic self- sufficiency. Any attempt to reverse entrenched discrimination and dangerous new trends necessitates a closer look at the rights violations hidden under a landscape of poverty. Poverty is deceptive. It makes one conclude that all suffer from it equally. Poverty also masks a lack of political will to change the status quo by shifting the debate to a lack of resources. But a closer look at India’s poverty reveals the discrimination inherent in the allocation of jobs, land, basic resources and amenities, and even physical security. A closer look at victims of violence, bonded labour and other atrocities also reveals that they share in common the lowest ranking in the caste order. A perpetual state of economic dependency
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allows for atrocities to go unpunished, while corrupt and racist state machinery looks the other way, or worse, becomes complicit in the abuse. Nationally, the government must act to uphold its own constitutional principles and work toward the uplifting of all citizens, regardless of caste. Globally, the international community must acknowledge its own role in sustaining economic and racial discrimination and then play its part to dismantle India’s ‘hidden apartheid.’ The above that though democratic and independent India has produced sufficient conditions where Dalits can also occupy the offices of power, yet there has not been any significant change in their socio- political status in the country. On the other hand, the patronizing tendencies of co-option and marginalization of assertive or potentially assertive Dalits by dominant castes/classes/parties have subjugated the Dalit assertion for the perpetuation of their hegemony. Hence, the Dalit assertion has to demolish these tendencies so that they can taste the fruits of democracy on their own without any patronage of others and strengthen Indian Democracy. Otherwise their movement will remain divided. Reference: 1. Anand Teltumbde, “Impact of Economic Reforms on Dalits in India,” paper presented at the Seminar on‘Economic Reforms and Dalits in India’ organised by the University of Oxford, Oxford, UK, on November 8, 19, www.foil.org/inspiration/ambedkar/ecoreforms.html. 2. L.C. Mallaiah L. Ratna Kumari Aug 0-2007,Economic Development and Dalit Agricultural Workers Abhijeet Publications. 3. People`s Democracy (Weekly Organ of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) Vol. XXX No. 11March 12, 2006. 4. Dalits in India 2000: The Scheduled Castes more than a half century after Independence New York: September 27, 2000. 5. NCDHR Response to the Special Rapporteur’s Questionnaire, p. 14. 6. Ibid. 7. Ibid., p. 29. 8. Human Rights Watch, India, Small Change: Bonded Child Labor in India, Vol.15, No.2(C), January 2003, p. 42 [hereinafter Small Change. 9. Ibid., p. 43, citing Human Rights Watch interview with Joy Maliekal, Mysore, Karnataka, March 30, 2002. 10. Balakrishnan Rajagopal et al., “From Promise To Performance: Ecological Sanitation As A Step Toward The Elimination Of Manual Scavenging In India,” Massachusetts Institute of Technology. September 2006, p. 6, http://mit.edu/phrj/dalit_report_final.pdf (accessed December 8, 2006). 11. Human Rights Watch, Broken People, p. 141. 12. According to Bejawada Wilson, national convener of the Safai Karamchari Andolan: “as long as dry latrines remain in existence, the scavengers to clean
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the same will also remain.” Annie Zaidi, “India’s shame,” Frontline, vol. 23, issue 18, September 9-22, 2006. 13. Ibid. 14. Ibid. 15. NCDHR Response to the Special Rapporteur’s Questionnaire, p. 24. 16. Human Rights Watch, Broken People, p. 142. C. Narayanama, working in Anantapur municipality, Andhra Pradesh, explained how she inherited her job of manual scavenging. 17. From Promise To Performance: Ecological Sanitation As A Step Toward The Elimination Of Manual Scavenging In India, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. September 2006, p. 6, http://mit.edu/phrj/dalit_report_final.pdf (accessed December 8, 2006. 18. NCDHR Response to the Special Rapporteur’s Questionnaire, p. 15. 19. Human Rights Watch, Broken People, pp. 145-46 (citing Human Rights Watch interview with Bejawada Wilson, Bangalore, July 26, 1998, in which Wilson told Human Rights Watch, “Even other scheduled-caste people won’t touch the safai karamcharis [manual scavengers]. It is ‘untouchability’ within the ‘untouchables,’ yet nobody questions it.” 20. Ibid., p. 142 (citing a Human Rights Watch interview with Martin Macwan, New York, October 15, 1998. Martin Macwan is founder of Navsarjan, an NGO that has led the campaign to abolish manual scavenging in the western state of Gujarat describing what happens when Navsarjan had attempted to rehabilitate scavengers. 21. Ibid., pp. 142-43, (quoting Leelaben of Paliyad village from Mari Marcel Thekaekara, “A continuing social outrage,” Frontline, October 4–17, 1997). 22. Rajagopal, et al, “From Promise to Performance,” September 2006, p. 20, http://mit.edu/phrj/dalit_report_final.pdf (accessed December 8, 2006). 23. Annie Zaidi, “India’s Shame,” Frontline. 24. Human Rights Watch, Broken People, p. 141. 25. Kamdar Swasthya Suraksha Mandal files PIL in 2001, http://www.amrc.org.hk/5304.htm. 26. Human Rights Watch, Broken People, p. 146 (citing Human Rights Watch interview, Ahmedabad district,Gujarat, July 23, 1998, “When we ask for our rights from the government, the municipality officials threaten to fire us. So we don’t say anything. This is what happens to people who demand their rights”. 27. Kamdar Swasthya Suraksha Mandal files PIL in 2001, http://www.amrc.org.hk/5304.htm. 28. NCDHR Response to the Special Rapporteur’s Questionnaire, p. 24. 29. For example, the training program it establishes is ineffective because it offers a low stipend and an inadequate period of training. A shortage of training instructions and lack of viable training programs further compound the problem. NHRC Report, Section V, p. 55. 30. Ibid. 31. Ibid., p. 54. 32. Ibid., p. 54. 33. Ibid., p. 126. 34. Safai Karamchari Andolan files PIL in 2003,http://www.countercurrents.org/dalit- viswanathan150206.htm.
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35. Ibid. 36. J. Venkatesan, “Manual Scavenging: Court Summons Principal Secretaries”,The Hindu, September 14, 2004, A2004091410E-933F-GNW. 37. S. Viswanathan, “Exposing An Abhorrent Practice,” Frontline, February 15, 2006, http://www.countercurrents.org/dalit-viswanathan150206.htm (accessed December 8, 2006). Petitioner. 38. Source: The Right to Food Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food, Jean Ziegler, Addendum, MISSION TO INDIA, (20 August-2 September 2005. th 39. Women’s Tribunal against Poverty New Delhi, 17 October 2007. 40. Kurukshetra A journal on Rural development, vol-56,No-5,pp-10,March 2008.
41. Land possessed - includes Land owned and leased-in and excludes land leased-out.
42. Land cultivated is actual land under cultivation which is either owned or leased-in. 43. Marginalized Sections in Andhra Pradesh the Status of Scheduled Castes and Tribes.
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IMPACT OF WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME ON EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES IN AGRICULTURAL SECTOR OF KURNOOL DISTRICT
Dr.P.Mahadeeswaraiah Department of Economics Rayalaseema University Kurnool
INTRODUCTION:
Agriculture sector is the basic sector of our country which can be treated as a helping hand for the growth of Indian economy. It necessary to develop the Agriculture sector to ensure the overall development of our economy while maintaining the sustainability in economic development. To achieve the sustainability in economic development as well as the main livelihood source of people of India, it is imperative to make certain the natural resources of the country should be use in the manner which ensures the preservation of the functioning of ecosystem. The agriculture production depends mainly on the monsoon conditions. There have been considerable fluctuations in the crop production in India due to inadequate, uneven and important constraint of dry land area. The problem of water is the most crucial factor for the success of dry land farming in India. Undoubtedly, majority of rural population directly or indirectly depends on agriculture and allied activities for their livelihood and these activities are directly proportional to the availability of adequate quality of water. So, the level of employment is positively correlated with the availability of water for agriculture activities in rural India. So conservation of water ensures the high level of employment opportunities for the rural population and fortunately, in dry and rain-fed regions, productivity of land can be raised significantly through water harvesting and conservation works. Therefore, watershed development programme www.ijmer.in 237
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came into existence in India comprising the objectives to create sustainable sources of income for the village community as well as for drinking water supplies by harvesting every drop of rainwater for the purpose of irrigation. So that, the adverse effects of extreme climatic conditions such as drought and desertification crops, drought and livestock population can be mitigated. Government of India has started watershed development programme aiming at employment generation, poverty alleviation and development of human and other economic resources of the rural areas. Thus, it is necessary for the researchers and policymakers to look into affectivity of the programme at the state level as well as at the district level. A primary data based provides se a real picture of the agriculture sector after the inception of the programme at any level. So the present study entitled “Impact of Watershed Development Programme on Employment opportunities in agricultural sector of Kurnool” is carried out to analyze changing socio- economic conditions of farmers during before and after watershed development programme.
Study Area – Kurnool:
Kurnool District is a district in the state of Andhra Pradesh, India, located in the west-central part. The city of Kurnool is the headquarters of the district. It has a population of 4,053,463 of which 28.35% were urban as of 2011. It occupies 10th and 2nd place in terms of area in Largest Districts of India accounting for 17,658 square kilometres (6,818 sq mi) and 53rd place in terms of Population in India. Telugu is the official as well as the most widely spoken language in Kurnool. Languages such as Kannada and Urdu are spoken by a tiny minority of the population in Kurnool.
Geography:
Kurnool district occupies an area of approximately 17,658 square kilometers (6,818 sq mi), comparatively equivalent to New Caledonia.
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The village of Ternekal lies within this region.Kurnool is surrounded by districts of Mahbubnagar district of Telangana to the north, Anantapur detract, Kadapa district to south, Praksam district to east and Bellary of Karnataka to the west. The Nallamalas and Erramalas mountain ranges in the district run parallel from the North to South. The ranges divide the district into two tracts crossed by the Krishna and Pennar rivers. The North Pagidyala mandal is about 1000 above sea level. From this height the ground slopes to the South along the river Kundu until it traverses into the Pennar valley. Major part of its tract is black soil. Between the Erramalas and Nallamalas lies the Eastern part of the district comprising numerous villages and towns:
Demographics:
According to the 2011 census Kurnool district has a population of 4,046,601, roughly equal to the nation of Liberia or the US state of Oregon This gives it a ranking of 54th in India (out of a total of 640). The district has a population density of 229 inhabitants per square kilometre (590/sq mi). Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was 14.65% Kurnool has a sex ratio of 984females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 61.13%.
Religions in Kurnool
Religion Percent
Hindus 82.45%
Muslims 16.22%
Christian 1.15%
Others† 0.18% Distribution of religions
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From the years the people can be divided broadly divided into landlords and agricultural labors. The communities are affectionate to one another and loyal to their landlord. Even today the rural population are agricultural labors without any sizeable land holdings. That's why Kurnool District is known for the effective implementation of The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGS) among all districts of Andhra Pradesh and even India. In recent times there has been massive migration of rural population to cities like Guntur, Bellary and Bangalore.
Today one can find hundreds of villages in the western part of the district going empty. Long-term steps need to be implemented to provide rural employment by setting up rural industries. What is needed is good and sustained school education for the children.
Household indicators
In 2007–2008 the International Institute for Population Sciences interviewed 1247 households in 38 villages across the district. They found that 94% had access to electricity, 89.7% had drinking water, 34.6% toilet facilities, and 51.6% lived in a pucca (permanent)home. 30.6% of girls wed before the legal age of 18[16] and 85.1% of interviewees carried a BPL card.[15]
Divisions:
Kurnool District has 3 Revenue Divisions viz., Kurnool, Nandyal, Adoni divisions. The district has 54 mandals and 53 Panchayat Samitis (Blocks) under these revenue divisions and. It also has a Municipal Corporation of Kurnool and 3 municipalities namely, . There are 899 gram panchayats that include 7 notified and 862 non- notified, alongside 920 revenue villages and 615 hamlets.
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Climate and Soils:
The district is characterized by low and erratic rainfall of 500 to 700 mm due to which Successful crop production with good yields is un- assured and dry land agriculture is Predominant with a variety of rain fed crops. The whole Kurnool district with 54 mandals fall Within the scarce rainfall zone receiving an average annual rainfall of 670 mm.16 The climate of the district is semiarid. January, February and March months are usually pleasant with moderate winds from South east. April and May are hottest months of the year; during these months the wind shifts to Southwest with increased force and brings welcome showers up to 61.0 mm of rainfall by the end of May. During the succeeding four months the wind blows from Western side in Major parts of the district and brings 455 mm rainfall. By the end of September the wind is light and pleasant forecasting the onset of Northeast monsoon and the rainfall received is about 149 mm. In November and December the weather is fine, with occurrence of heavy dew. The gross cropped area of the district is 10.35 lakh Ha. of which only 2.13 lakh Ha (24.53%) are irrigated through canals, tanks, wells and other sources. The district is normally prone to either drought or floods during every year, because of vagaries of monsoon. Generally low rainfall is recorded in the western part of the district, whereas the eastern parts and south-eastern parts receive normal rainfall.
The important soil groups existing in the district are black soils which are heavy and deep to very deep, moderately deep black soils and red soils with clayey sub soils. Black soils are more predominant in the district accounting for 80% and red soils constitute about 20% of the area. The major crops grown in the kharif are groundnut, cotton, sunflower, paddy and red gram and in rabi, jowar, sunflower, groundnut, Bengal gram and coriander. The normal cropped area for Kharif is 654231 ha. and for Rabi are 335528 ha.
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Methodology:
The present study has been conducted in Kurnool district. Multistage purposive sampling technique has been used to select the primary sampling units viz., sample households. In order to achieve the specific objectives, two blocks have been selected for the in Kurnool district. For block-1, village lakshme palli village has been selected. In block-2 thandrapadu has been selected for being very small village in comparison to first village.50 respondents have been selected from each village of each block. The selected farmers have been divided into three categories viz. small, medium and large according their their land holdings.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: This section of the study provides the furnished results related to the change employment opportunities after the implementation of the Watershed Development Programme. The impact of the Watershed Programme has been analyzed by calculating per centage change in the number of persons employed in agriculture and animal sector of two blocks of district Kurnool as well as at the district level and the results for the same has been presented in the respective tables.
Employment (man days) in agriculture and animal in block- 1and block-2 in various land holding class before and after the implement of Watershed Programme: Table 1depicts The impact of the Watershed Development Programme on the employment of males and females of the two blocks of Kurnool districts. The small farmers have found able to increase the employment level in agriculture due to the commencement of this project. But the medium and large farmers have not found favorable conditions for themselves to make best use of these projects or strictly speaking, the project has not been proved efficient to provide the conditions to increase the
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employment for the farmers related to block1 for males and the same holds true for the females in case of large famers. But after the projects,
Situation has become favorable for large the farmers by keeping the small farmes and medium farmers in bad position as for as block-2 is considered. The females of small farmers of block-2 have gotten the maximum employment in this category .a comparative analyses of males and females in animal employment revealed that there has increase in male’s employment of small farmers while the case become reverses in case of Females in block-1. But there has been observed negative impact on the job opportunity for the males in case of medium farmers. However, animal has become a beg employment source for the males of block-1.But the very depressed results have been observed as far as employment opportunity is considered related to animal in block 2. The employment has been affected negatively in block-2 regardless of gender as the number of animal kept by the farmers which are put under this category has decreased, so, the main conclusion highlights the decreased opportunity of employment both in agriculture and animal due to the use of machinery and high technology in agriculture in spite of human labour.
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Table 1: Employment (man days) in agriculture and animal in Kurnool district in various land holding class before and after the implementation watershed programme. Block-1 Sector Agriculture Animal Sex male Female male Female Land Before After Change Before After Chang Before After Change Before After Cha size e nge Small 5580/31 6120 5.03 5040/28 4680/26 2.19 900/25 12240/34 7.14 10440/29 10800/30 - (34) (35.13) (35.13) (29.41) (36.55) (36.25) (31.91) 4.34 Medium 9720/54 8280 -4.46 6120/34 5580/31 1.89 17280/48 16200/45 -8.09 11520/32 14040/39 1.48 (50.46) (46) (40) (41.89) (56.47) (48.38) (40) (41.48) Large 3960/22 3600 -0.56 4140/23 3060/17 -4.08 4320/12 5040/14 0.94 6840/19 900/25 2.84 (20.56) (20) (27.05) (22.97) (14.11) (15.05) (23.75) (26.59) Total 19260/107 18000/(100) 15300/85 13320/74 30600/85 33480/93 28800/80 33840/94 100 100 (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) Block-2 Small 8640/48 4350/29 -2.45 8100/45 3000/20 8.13 16425/ 9125/25 -0.31 14965/41 8395/23 - (48.48) (46.03) (45.92) (54.05) 45 (48.08) (46.07) (46.0) 0.0 (48.39) 7 Medium 7200/40 3150/21 -7.07 7920/44 2100/14 -7.7 14235/ 7665/21 -1.56 13505//37 6935/19 - (40.40) (33.33) (44.90) (37.83) 39 (40.38) (41.57) (38.0) 35 (41.94) 7 Large 1980/11 1950/13 9.52 1620/9 450/8 -1.07 3285/9 2190/6 1.86 4015/11 2920/8 3.6 (11.11) (20.63) (9.18) (8.11) (9.68) (11.54) (12.36) (16.0) 4 Total 17820/99 9450/63 17640/98 5550/42 33945/93 18980/52 32485/89 18250/50 Figures in parenthesis represent the percentages; Change represent%
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Employment (man days) in agriculture and animal in Kurnool district in various land holding class before and after the implementation watershed programme:Table 2depicts the percentage change in employment during pre and post WDP Scenario of the basis of employment in agriculture. In case of small farmers, female employment in agriculture has risen by 0.81 percent whereas if has fallen down by 0.10 percent in case of male farmers. In case of medium farmers, total employment of male and females employment has decreased by 2.96 percent. Hence, it may be revealed that medium size farmer’s participation has been less in agriculture. In case of large farmers, there as been a positive change of 2.85 percent respectively in overall employment. Employment opportunities for large male and large female farmers have increased by4.2percent and1.11 percent respectively. Hence it is noteworthy that large farmers have been more inclined to agriculture occupation than small and medium farmers. The same table presents the distribution rural respondents of the basis of employment in animals. It is observed that employment opportunities for small male farmers have increased by 1.34percentwhereas female farmers have decreased by 4.52 percent which has led to an overall decrease by 1.61 percent. The above data indicates that males are encouraged to adopt it as an occupation while females are not perform well in it due to change in their living style. In case of medium farmers, they are reluctant of having employment in animals after implementation watershed project as there is decrement in male and female farmers by 3.34 percent and 0.56 percent in case of large farmers, employment in animals has increased by 0.11 percent in male farmers while 5.17 percent in case of large farmers.
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Kurnool district Sex male Female Total Land Before After Chang Before After Chang Before After Change size e e Small 14220/79 10470/63 -0.2 13140/73 7680/46 0.81 27360.152 18150/109 0.11 (38.34) (38.14) (39.89) (40.70) (39.07) (39.18) Mediu 16920/94 11430/67 -4 14040/78 7680/45 -1.92 30960/172 19110/112 -2.96 m (45.63) (41.63) (42.62) (40.70) (44.21) (41.25) Large 5940/33 5550/33 4.2 5760/32 3510/25 1.11 11700/65 9060/58 2.85 (16.02) (20.22) (17.49) (18.60) (16.70) (19.55) Total 37080/206 27450/16 - 32940/183 1887/116 - 70020/389 46360/279 - (100) 3 (100) (100) (100) (100) (100)
Small 25425/70 21365/59 2.12 2541/70 19195/53 -4.62 50839/140 40560/112 -1.24 (39.39) (41.51) (41.46) 36.84 (40.40) (39.16) Mediu 31515/87 23865/66 -2.47 25025/69 20975/58 0.56 56540/156 44840/124 -1.64 m (48.83) (46.36) (40.83) (40.27) (44.93) (43.29)
Large 7605/211 6240/20 0.34 10855/30 11920/33 5.17 18460/51 18160/53 2.86 (11.78) (12.12) (17.71) (22.88) (14.67) (17.53)
Total 64545/178 51470/13 - 61294/169 52090/144 - 125830 104550 0 (100) (100) Table 2: Employment (man days) in agriculture and animal in Kurnool district in various land holding class before and after the implementation watershed programme
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Figures in parenthesis represent the percentages; Change represent%
CONCLUSION:
It may be concluded on the basis of the above discussion that watershed development programme has affected the employment level negatively regardless gender. It is revealed for both of the blocks as well as the district level. The employment opportunities have decreased in case of males and females for most of the cases and it holds true for agriculture and animal activities. So, the following suggestions can be forwarded for the better results from the project:
Education level should be raised among the rural population of the farmers. So that they can be able to recognize their right immediately.
The helpline number of staff involved in the project should be increased for the proper implantation of the programme.
The participation of the beneficiaries should be increased at every level of implementation and planning.
The technique of the storage of rainwater should be improved so that the water related requirement should be fulfilled completely.
The punishment should be strict in case of any malpractices by any related person of the programme.
In order to increase the effectiveness of the program, it can be argued that the closer supervision of the use of the financial disbursement under the scheme may be main factor behind the higher efficiency of the development programme.
Thus, the integrated approach of raising and conserving resources in the form of water would benefit the farmers and
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they would gain in term of water availability, production and productivity and a good source of livelihood.
References:
1. Das, D.C.and B.S.Reddy (2012) Watershed Development Economics part-1 Expanded Base for Larger and Varied Economic Activities conference proceeding of 16th annual conference of IPE.Pp428-435.
2. Farrington, J.C.TuttonandA.Ljames (1999), Participatory Watershed Development; Challenges for the twenty-first century .Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
3. Reddy, C.P. (2010), “Watershed Management Programmes”, Kurushetra, Vol; 58, No: 3, p: 41.
4. Suryawanshi, S.L. and Pendke, M.S. (2009), “Impact of Watershed Development Programme on Groundwater Recharge Using Modeling.
5. Pascual, U. et al. (2009): Water Agriculture and Sustainable Wellbeing, Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
6. Palanisamia, K. et al. (2009): Evaluation of Watershed Development Programmes in India Using Economic Surplus Method, Agricultural Economics Research Review, Vol. 22 July- December pp 197-207.
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AN AMALGAMENT OF LEARNING MATHEMATICS WITH ICT
Mrs.Manisha S.Jadhav Assistant Professor Dept. of Computer Science Thakur College of Science and Commerce Mumbai
I. Introduction ICT is largely focused on computer education, Computer literacy, it means efficiency in computer. Formal education in most countries has been slow to adopt technological innovations. I concern with learners, they are low in performance motivation and negative attitude towards Mathematics. Through ICT I would like to engage students and promote development of problems solving skills. We should focus of collaborative learning. The proposed concept may be achieved with ICT in curriculum. Still there are number of challenges to have to be overcome before digital technologies can be effectively incorporate. These include curriculum coherence, inappropriate pedagogical practices, inadequate teacher’s preparation and professional development and lack of appropriate infrastructure. Pedagogical matters are crucial to a future where ICT use is integrated into the teaching and learning of mathematics here I have tried to illustrate some example with ICT in Mathematics.Poor performance in mathematics has been attributed to among many factors, the absence of competent teachers, and lack of teaching and learning resources as well as shortage of mathematics teachers in most schools. In acknowledging the fact that teacher are the sole source for educational change and improvement of students learning.
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II. Methodology Technology has been used in Mathematics, as internal being used to enhance collaborative and ICT enhances efficiency of Mathematical thoughts, enable learners to make conjectures and immediately test them in non threatening environment. ICT also offers multiple mathematical presentations that enhance generality of Mathematical concepts and provide opportunities for counter examples unlike in paper and pencil environment. Technology also enhances curiosity that may drive inventions.
The size of class must be small. Children learn differently. The need for a system separate from that of the school is because children cannot get the individual attention required. If the class size is 25 children, it helps individual attention as well as small group activity.
Tutor Certification. A methodology and content can only be as successful as the person delivering it. At School selection process weeds out more than 90% of applicants. Thereafter training is provided to ensure that delivery will be sound.
Continuous Monitoring. We should track ongoing performance of each student through central correction of assessment. Our tutors and us work together on problems in learning and work out ways to bring up the level of each student.
The challenges for Mathematical educators are how and when the computer applications and other ICT are incorporate in the schools and college curriculum.
III. Requirements Computer studies have found their way into the formal curriculum, but in most educational practices their existence is embryonic, mainly due to lack of computers, connections, and staff expertise. Exceptions are mainly clustered in resource centres, schools, and teacher training
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institutes. Most successful in the implementation of ICT in practical use are a few.
In India ICT should mentioned as a curricular issue, without however finding its way into syllabi, textbooks, and classroom practice other than in a separate subject like Computer Science.
Electricity and connectivity to the Internet cannot be taken for granted.
Access to an electricity grid cannot be counted on for the average school in villages. In remote areas, electricity is often supplied by generators, and usually in the evenings.
In some regions, however, schools have solar powered electricity.
Once a school has a power supply, connectivity to the Internet is in principle not a big technical problem.
Some schools simply use the telephone net.
Some use radio connections.
Some use satellite connections, provided by sponsored projects.
In India to implement ICT we can provide with 100 percent Internet access in schools.
There should be combine support in three layers— infrastructure (ICT hardware), general and educational software, and the training of teachers
IV. Various Techniques
As explained in computational mathematics curriculum. Program in C language are helpful rather than doing it using Pen and paper. So many iterations are there which we can do in program easily and also using MATLAB (matrix laboratory) is a multiparadigm numerical Computing environment
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and fourth-generation programming language. Developed by Math Works, MATLAB allows matrix manipulations, plotting of functions and data, implementation of algorithms, creation of user interfaces, and interfacing with programs written in other languages, including C, C++, Java, Fortran and Python.For example
Derivatives and integrals are computed by the "diff" and "int" functions like
a) diff(x^3) ans:-3*x^2
b) int(x^3) ans:-x^4/4
c) eye function to calculate Identity Matrix
d) Trapezoidal Rule- function T = mytrap (x , y)
e) Simpsons Rule -function w = mysimpweights (n )
Use of expressive media and visual effects to understand concepts in detail in Computer graphics .For example Traslation, Scaling, Rotation of an object.
This is done through collaborative exercises involving games, activities and discussions. Examples used are from real life and most often in areas that the students will otherwise be interested. The focus is as much on ‘why’ the concept is relevant to them as ‘how’ to apply it.
Once the concept is clear, Topic Mastery is achieved through a carefully constructed set of slides that ensure that the topic is dealt with comprehensively.
Quizzes and Games. There are quizzes using game formats so that students compete positively and work together to answer questions
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In addition to the regular chapter tests, there are term assessments and tests that may be required by students facing difficulty in some areas of Mathematics.
Technique to execute Maths
observing patterns: based on a computer's ability to produce many examples in a short time
Seeing connections: between formulae, tables and graphs using Excel.
working with dynamic images: allows students to manipulate geometrical diagrams
exploring data: students can interpret and analyze real data in a variety of representations
"Teaching" the computer by means of an algorithm:
Encourages the student to express their commands unambiguously and in the correct order.
Spreadsheets are a very useful tool in the Mathematics classroom and can be used for many types of investigations.
Students are likely to benefit greatly from learning how to enter formulae into spreadsheets. This can help them remember important formulae and the technique will obviously be useful to them in other areas. In addition to this they will have to learn the specific syntax of the package they are using; this will allow the importance of conventions for syntax to be emphasized. A good example is to have students set up a spreadsheet that solves the quadratic equation. For example
ax2 + bx + c = 0, when the values of a, b and c are entered in separate cells.
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Using another program, e.g. the internet/Excel/Autograph, alongside the whiteboard software means that ICT can inserted seamlessly into lessons when appropriate. In addition to this the act of dragging or moving graphs/diagrams can be powerful when explaining a mathematical concept, especially if multiple representations of the same object can be displayed on the screen (e.g. equation, table and graph).
V. Diagram
VI. Analysis Results
It improves poor handwriting and languages skills through word processing, Equalizes individual differences and has particularly dramatic effects for students with special needs.
Facilitates self-pacing with increased capacities to deal with individual learning styles as students can work at the pace and intensity suitable to their needs.
Enables collaborative learning with little indication of the isolated learner. Encourages use of peer coaching and peer reviews.
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Develops communication skills and awareness of different audiences. Has impact on resource–based learning and access to real world information through the Web.
Increases information reliability and accuracy adding to authenticity of learning tasks, with realistic and up-to-date information.
Increases student motivation through hands-on activity, visual representations and improved modes of presentation.
Gives students more control.
Allows students to produce high quality products.
Changes teacher practices, planning tools and assessment rubrics.
Increases opportunities for classes to evolve and for student experiences to shape outcomes.
Have motivated students to commit to learn and to participate in learning activities.
Has improved students’ quality of work and has given them the confidence to perform enhanced learning tasks.
Has allowed students to learn independently, which has enabled more work to be completed, and has enhanced achievement due to the reinforcement and practice.
VII. Small step towards ICT- Application of CAL A Computer-Aided Learning (CAL) Project, Delhi (In mid of 2004) draws on the power of animation and multimedia, and the involvement of teachers (about 100 teachers) in preparing remedial content that will save on the time spent on instruction, thus allowing children to learn by and through fun. The project staff were struck by the popular
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cartoon show. Education Officers are required to visit all the CAL Schools and submit their observations. The Department of Education’s IT Supervisors visit the CAL Schools at least twice a month and solve problems, provide additional training needed by the teachers and install upgraded versions of the software. Around 1100 teachers have been trained for 13 days in computer operations and in using the software. All training has been undertaken in-house. In every school, a teacher is designated the CAL Lab in charge; he or she takes care of the hardware and communicates with the project team. CAL has led to the children’s become more interested in education. The fun element and the new technology no doubt contribute to this interest, but regularity of attendance has become possible and children themselves often run the classes.
VIII. Conclusion Innovative and challenging uses of ICT can improve Learners data- handling skills and their ability to construct complex models. Clearly the subject of ICT is a special case because it is essential that both practical skills and theoretical knowledge are developed. The research shows that if teachers provide opportunities for learner to carry out in depth investigations with appropriate modelling environments then they can reach higher levels of abstraction and competency in the field of ICT. Effects this was a novice attempt to encourage future teachers of mathematics to integrate ICT in the teaching and learning mathematics. The findings reveal that the student teachers’ perception about problem solving in mathematics actually changed with the use of ICT. Although they were quite apprehensive at first but they enjoyed the course and most importantly, they experienced a new learning method. What is needed is a proper selection of problems, especially in the area of methods of teaching mathematics, planning long-term studies, trying out various methods of teaching and measuring multi- dimensional outcomes among students as a result of the teaching
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exercise. After all, each method of teaching has its limits in developing abilities and skills among students with respect to various branches of mathematics.
Reference:
1. Donald D. Hearn, M. Pauline Baker, Computer Graphics with OpenGL (3rd Edition), Prentice Hall, 3 edition, September 22, 2003
2. Education (http://www.unesco.org/en/educati on) 3. Education for All International Coordination (http://www.un esco.org/en/efa/) 4. Networks and Communities (http://www.unesco.org/en/educati on/networks-and-communities/).
5. Peter Shirley, Michael Ashikhmin, Steve Marschner, Fundamentals of Computer Graphics, 2009
6. Rajesh K. Maurya, Computer Graphics. Wiley India Pvt Ltd, 2011 7. Themes (http://www.unesco.org/en/educati on/themes-ed) 8. UNESCO Institutes and Centers for Education (http://www.unesco.org/en/education/institutes-and-centres/); 9. Worldwide (http://www.unesco.org/en/educati on/worldwide/) 10. http://www.mathsnet.net/intro.html 11. National Centre for Excellence in the Teaching of Mathematics ncetm.org.uk 12. Introduction to Numerical Methods ad MATLAB Programming for Engineers By todd Young and martin j.mohelenkamp.
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AN ECONOMIC INQUIRY INTO COMMERCIALIZATION OF SMALL HOLDER AGRICULTURE: THE CASE UMBULLO WATERSHED
Dr.P.Nandeeswara Rao Debela Geleta Assistant Professor Lecturer Department of Economics College of Business and Economics Hawassa University, Ethiopia
Prof. Neduri Suryanarayana Professor Department of Agriculture Economics Dilla University, Ethiopia
1. Introduction 1.1 Back ground and statement of the problem Agricultural commercialization refers to the process of increasing the proportion of agricultural production that is sold by farmers (Pradhan et al., 2010). Commercialization of agriculture as a characteristic of agricultural change is more than whether or not a cash crop is present to a certain extent in a production system. It can take many different forms by either occurring on the output side of production with increased marketed surplus or occur on the input side with increased use of purchased inputs. Commercialization is the outcome of a simultaneous decision-making behavior of farm house-holds in production and marketing (von Braun et al., 1994 Demeke and Ferede, 2005). Goletti and his colleagues argue that Commercialization means different things to different people. Some stakeholders have in mind an increase in production above subsistence level and resulting sales of marketable surplus. Other argues and stresses the management of markets, including the stable procurement of raw materials and the capacity to access regional and foreign markets. Others point out the greater role of modern technology in production, or the integration of farmers with agricultural processors, or the emergence of strong farmer and agribusiness organizations (Goletti et al, 2003; Rahut, 2010)
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These various concepts of agricultural commercialization have relevance in the design of projects, its expected impact and its likelihood of success. The various concepts could be perhaps understood as different degrees of development of a value chain. At one extreme, the process of commercialization is very rudimentary. Farm production is essentially for subsistence purposes and any surplus is sold to the market. At the other extreme, farmers produce only for the market and are integrated in value chains that give them access to dynamic urban and international markets. In the latter case, farming is a profession rather than a way of living, production is specialized and based on modern technology, and income stabilization rather than food security is a major concern of farmers. (Rahut, 2010) Commercialization is a complex process involving different dimensions. In the movement from subsistence to higher degrees of commercialization, these dimensions take on different values. Even though a precise measurement of commercialization is perhaps impossible, it is however possible to suggest a simple taxonomy of commercialization that is relevant for the design of the projects promoting commercial agriculture. The different degrees of commercialization are low, medium, high and advanced (see table one in the index) At the low level of commercialization, there are a large number of subsistence farmers. The marketable surplus is generally small, with the exception of a few high value commodities. Farming is more a way of living, rather than a profession or a business oriented activity. Formal training for farming and formal procedures for production, marketing and processing are virtually absent. Information about new technologies and market opportunities is disseminated slowly, mostly by word of mouth. There are few large markets, most market transactions are local and take place in cash. Research and extension systems are usually public, poorly functioning and reaching just a few of the producers, and almost none of the post-production actors. Farmer organizations are few and often ineffective. Trade associations are in a similar situation. Few financial instruments are available. A large part of credit is informal and most credit, including formal sources, is for the very short term (3-6 months). Consequently, there is little private investment in agriculture is taking place. Production is not intensive and farmers or postproduction actors use little modern technology.
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As the degree of commercialization increases, several dimensions acquire different significance and a movement towards higher use of technology, formalized processes, integration, information and finance sophistication takes place. In most developing countries some farmers are already commercialized, in the sense that significant volumes of marketed output pass through organized, mostly private sector, channels including traders and sometimes processors. Moreover, the marketed output is generally produced deliberately for commercial sale and is not merely surplus over farmers’ production for their own subsistence consumption of the crop in question, and sometimes travels considerable distances to the final markets, including occasionally export markets. However, there is little doubt that often agricultural commercialization is still at a low level. Commercial activities affect a considerable number of smallholder farmers engaged in the production of agricultural produces like fruits and vegetable, spices, potato, onion and garlic, tea, coffee, sugar cane, jute, cashew nuts, shrimp. In the case of medium and large holding farmers, cereal production is also largely commercialized.
A vast majority of rural smallholders in developing countries depend on traditional and subsistence farming, the characteristic features of which are, among others, low productivity and low marketed surplus. These smallholder subsistence farmers are most likely to be among the poorest and most vulnerable of all groups. They remain mostly outside the mainstream exchange economy. On the other hand, subsistence farming is often considered to be the only means of survival against adversaries caused by market failures of various kinds, uneven access to resources and the specific- socio-economic and agro-climatic context under which they operate. Hence, it is important to identify and address underlying factors leading to subsistence farming and perpetuation of poverty and vulnerability of rural poor, because the integration of small farmers into the market mechanism through increased participation and commercialization of agriculture would facilitate higher living standards and reduce vulnerability Furthermore it is very well noticeable and not far away from intuition that, small holder farmers differ in their level of agricultural commercialization. The causes of the diversity are attributable to various demographic, social, economic, or institutional factors. Furthermore most studies on commercialization are focused on
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vegetables( tomato, onion, potato) and fruits and Uncovering the reasons behind such diversity and understanding farmers’ current level of commercialization and market participation of haricot bean farmers is of paramount importance. This study is thus intended to analyze the determinants of farmers’ participation in agricultural commercialization in umbullo watershed 1.2 Objectives of the study The main objective of this paper is to assess farmers’ level of agricultural commercialization, and to identify the determinants commercialization in the study area The specific objectives of the study are: Estimate and analyze the level of farm household crop specific commercialization in the study area and Quantify the magnitude and direction of the effect of factors influencing the intensity of agricultural commercialization of haricotbean in the study area. 1.3 Research Questions The specific research questions addressed are: What is the level of crop specific commercialization in the study area? What factors influence intensity of commercialization of smallholder agriculture in the study area? 1.4 Significance of the study The government and all development partners like extension educators, technical assistants, NGOs and other development agents involved in enhancing the participation of smallholder farmers in commercialization of agricultural produce must be aware and understand the factors affecting the level of commercialization of smallholder farmers if at all prudent development truck is to be ensured. It is also important for policymakers to know the critical factors that could accelerate both the accessibility and utilization of markets by small holder farmers. This could also facilitate allocation of major resources for research, extension and development programs. Hence, the relevance of the study 1.5 Scope of the study This is a micro level study limited to Umbullo water shed. Moreover, the study will be based only on 120 randomly selected households from the specified area. On the other hand, Ethiopia has a wide variation in market structure for the different agricultural products. Therefore, it is
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quite difficult to make generalizations from studies made in such a small area. However the area selected for the study is representative for areas that share its characteristics in the country. Hence, it is hoped that the result could be applicable to some locations having similar circumstances. The study approach would draw on a priori knowledge of how the agricultural section functions and an empirical knowledge of the factors determining level of commercialization. 2. Data and Methodology 2.1 Measurement This paper employs the household commercialization index (HCI) to determine household specific level of commercialization (Govereh et al., 1999; Strasberg et al., 1999). The index measures the ratio of the gross value of maize sales by household i in year j to the gross value of all crops produced by the same household i in the same year j expressed as a percentage. (Samuel and Ludi ,2008) ℎ = ∗ 100 Where HHBCI is household haricot bean commercialization index The index measures the extent to which household crop production is oriented toward the market. A value of zero would signify a totally subsistence oriented household and the closer the index is to 100, the higher the degree of commercialization. The advantage of this approach is that commercialization is treated as a continuum thereby avoiding crude distinction between “commercialized” and “non-commercialized” households. The HHBCI effectively bring subsistence food production to the center of discussions about commercialization 2.2 Model specification The econometric model applied for analyzing factors influencing access and utilization of agricultural information is the Tobit model shown below. This model is chosen because it has an advantage over other discrete models (LPM, Logistic, and Probit) in that; it reveals both the probability and the intensity of level of commercialization. Thus the Tobit model for the continuous variable (in this study access and utilization) can be defined as (Maddala, 1992; Amemiya, 1985) The Tobit regression model is to be employed to quantify the magnitude and direction of the effects of the factors influencing commercialization of smallholder agriculture. Most studies have modeled agricultural commercialization as a two-step analytical approach involving the unobservable decision to commercialize and the
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observed degree or extent of commercialization (Vance and Geoghegan, 2004; Alene et al., 2008). The Tobit or censored normal regression model assumes that the observed dependent variables for observations j = 1… n satisfies: ∗ = max ( , 0) Where ∗’s are latent variables generated by the classical linear regression model ∗ ∗ > 0 = = + , ∗ 0 ≤ 0 Where denotes vector of repressors, possibly including 1 for the intercept, and the are the corresponding vector of parameters. The model errors are assumed to be independently normally distributed: . An observation of 0’s on the dependent variable could ~ (0, ) mean either a “true” 0 or censored data or would always equal ∗ and the true model would be linear regression and not Tobit.(Kuwornu ;2012) According to Greene (2003), the marginal effect on the intensity of market participation due to changes in the explanatory variable is given as follows:
= Ф Following from the aforementioned discussion, the empirical model for quantifying the factors which influence the intensity of market participation is specified as follows:
∗ = + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 2.3 Definition of independent variables and hypothesis The following independent variables were hypothesized to influence the level of commercialization of farm house holds Age of the household head (AGEHH) It is measured in terms of the respondent’s number of years of age at the time of data collection. The age of the household head could have a positive or negative effect on participating in market. It is a proxy measure of experience and availability of resources. It is possible that older and more experienced heads are able to take better production
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decisions and have greater contacts which allow trading opportunities to be discovered at lower cost than younger ones. Alternatively, it is possible that younger heads are more dynamic with regards to adoption of innovations both in terms of those that would enhance their productivity and enhance their marketing at a reduced cost (Enete and Igbokwe, 2009).Even though previous studies provide contending results, in this study it is believed that young farmers are keen to get involved in commercialization. Sex of the household head (SEXHH) It is nominal variable used as dummy (1 if male, 0 otherwise). Due to many socio-cultural values taboos and norms, males have freedom of mobility and participation in different meetings. Gender of household head is expected to capture the differences in market orientation between males and females with males expected to have a higher propensity to participate in markets than females. Evidence in the literature indicates that female-headed households have less probability to and maximize any opportunity like information and improved technologies, credit, land, and extension service and the like. Thus it is hypothesized that male household farmers would have more propensities to participate in commercialization than their female counter parts Education level (EDUCN) Education is expected to exert a positive effect on commercialization. Enete and Igbokwe (2009), Southworth and Johnston (1967), Schultz (1945) and Ofori (1973) argued that education will endow the household with better production and managerial skills. Education enables an individual to make independent choices and to act on the basis of the decision, as well as increase the tendency to co-operate with other people and participate in group activities. It is also possible that education could increase the chances of the household head earning non-farm income. This could reduce the household dependency on agriculture and thus commercialization. Therefore, the direction of the effect is ambiguous House hold size (HHSIZ) The household size represents the number of potential active family members participating in agricultural activities in general and agricultural commercialization in particular for the proper management of farm operation. Thus, households with higher
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endowment with labor are expected to participate in commercialization of their produce. Thus a positive relationship is expected. Number of Adults in the household (NADLT) The total number of adults in the household that assist on the farm serves as family labour supply for production activities and in such a situation impact positively on market participation. It is argued that there is continuous development with intensive agricultural systems, as household size increases the productivity of the land rises and exceeds subsistence requirements and this will lead to an increase in marketed surplus. Quantity of production (TOTPR) This is total output of crop produced for the year. Thiswill be measured based on the farmer’s total production in the study year. So this variable would obviously have positive influence on commercialization Total farm size (LSIZE) Total farm size owned by the household in hectare. The minimum Participation in commercialization for any farm household is the ability to have or access land. Thus farmers with larger landholdings are likely to participate in the commercialization. Membership of Association (ASSON) Affiliation and involvement in social activities or in any formal (such as market and/or cooperative association) will give higher exposure to new market practices and consequently encourage participation. Household membership of association/group increases access to information important to production and marketing decisions (Olwande, 2010). Most farmer groups engage in group marketing as well as credit provision for their members. It is therefore expected that household membership of association/group will positively impact on market participation. Extension access (EXTEN) It is assumed that extension efforts increase the probably of commercialization by increasing the competence and productivity of farmers. Information pertaining to modern production increment and market is duly significant for market participation. It is dummy variables 1 if there is access to an extension service and 0 other wise. Credit access (CRDIT) It is dummy variable and measured using 1 if the respondent receives credit from credit institution when they require 0, otherwise. In the literature it has been argued that the lack of credit is a constraint to
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increased and diversified performance of farm households. Credit could be used to purchase inputs (planting material, fertilizer and crop protection), pay wages, invest in machinery, or to smooth consumption. The availability of credit is expected to lead to increased agricultural productivity and greater commercialization. As receiving and utilizing credit for intended purpose, can increase the market participation, it is expected that receiving credit and commercialization has positive relationship Market distance (DSMKT) This is distance between the residence of household head and the nearest market as measured in waking hours. The further away are farmers from the nearby market the less is the likelihood for them to participate in commercialization. Frequency of Market visit (FMAKT) This variable measures how frequently farmers visit the nearby market. Market visit will enhances the acquisition of pertinent information and will help farmers to get involved in commercialization of their produce. Off farm income (OFINC) Participation in off-farm work and income obtained thereof. It is measured by the amount of Birr that a farm household gets in an off farm activity. The higher the source of income from off-farm works, the less likely a household to participate in commercial activities of agricultural product. On farm income (ONFIN) On the contrary, participation in on farm work and income obtained thereof will dually enhance market participation. This variable is measured, in this study, by the amount of Birr that a farm household gets from the sale of their crop production (proxied by total product sold from maize and haricot bean). The higher the source of income from on farm works, the more likely a household to participate in commercial activities of agricultural product. Adoption of high yielding variety (ADOPT) It is a dummy variable 1 if the farer is an adopter and 0 other wise. Adoption is assumed to enhance market participation. Price of the product being sold (PRIHB) The higher the price of the product, the more likely are farmers to sell their produce in the market.
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2.4 Data Type, Data source and Sampling Design Both primary and secondary data are to be used in conducting the study. The main source of the data for this study, however, is the questionnaire survey conducted on a sample of farmers from the study area. Secondary data on pertinent market and other information will be obtained from agricultural development offices in the study areas. This is in order to fill the gap and substantiate the findings from the primary data as deemed appropriate. Sample size determination has its own scientific approach. But in this study to determine sample size, different factors such as research cost, time, human resource, accessibility and availability of transport facilities and sample size of previous researches on related topics were taken into consideration. By taking these factors into account, 120 household heads will be selected from the different PAs of the study area. The study will employ a multistage sampling technique to select a sample of 120 farmers. In the first stage a certain number of peasant Associations (PAs), will be selected purposely. These will then be stratified in to groups based on their proximity to the major town of the district, and peasant associations from each stratum will be selected randomly .In the final stage, farm households are to be selected using systematic random sampling. The sample will be selected in such a way that the numbers of sampled households are proportional to the total number of households in each peasant association. 3. Result and Discussion 3.1 Descriptive statistics Agricultural commercialization refers to the process of increasing the proportion of agricultural production that is sold by farmers Commercialization of agriculture as a characteristic of agricultural change is more than whether or not a cash crop is present to a certain extent in a production system. It can take many different forms by either occurring on the output side of production with increased marketed surplus or occur on the input side with increased use of purchased inputs. Commercialization is the outcome of a simultaneous decision-making behavior of farm house-holds in production and marketing. In this study it is defined as the percentages of haricot bean sold from the total products of maize and haricot bean (Pradhan et al., 2010). The study is intended to identify the determinants of household decision to commercialize their produce in the study area, Umbullo,
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watershed, using both descriptive statistics and multivariate econometric analysis. In this section, descriptive statistics such as mean, standard deviation, percentage, frequency tabulation, and t test of paired means were employed. Evaluation of the impact of certain characteristics, in an attempt to commercialize agricultural product, on farmers’ behavior is dealt in the subsequent discussions with reference to certain characteristics of the sampled farmers that are deemed to reflect their economic and social conditions by using an econometric analysis. 3.1.1 Demographic characteristics In order to understand the sample households, it is worthwhile to describe their demographic characteristics. Household’s personal and demographic variables are among the most common household characteristics which are mostly associated with farmers' behavior in any modality to which commercialization is not an exception . From this category of variables, sex, age, education and family size and number of adults in a family were reviewed in this study. Table 1: Demographic characteristics of the sampled households Variable Mean Std. Minimum Maximum Deviation AGEHH 43.25 12.06 23 78 EDUCN 1.48 1.37 0 3 HHSIZE 6.18 1.71 3 10 NADLT 2.85 1.23 0 8 Source: Own survey and computation As can be understood from the appendix, out of the total of 120 respondents in the sample, 102 respondents were men and the rest 18 were women. Thus the gender structure reveals that the sampled households are dominantly headed by male. It amounts to 85 % of the total sample. When we come to age, as is indicated in table 1 above, the average age of respondents is about 43 years with the standard deviation of 12.06. The maximum age of the respondents 78 years while the minimum age was 23 years. One can also observe from the table above and the appendix, an average household is within the range of one up to six grades. The summery statistics disclose that 40 % of the sampled households are illiterate while 11.66 % had stayed in school at primary level of education. The remaining 8.33 % and 40 % of the respondents attended formal education up to the level of 7-8 and above 9 years of schooling,
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respectively with more than 50% of the sampled households had education equal to or below primary level. When we come to the household size, an average household in the study area has six individuals and three of which are adults 3.1.2 Socio economic variable Economic factors influence household’s commercialization decision of agricultural output. Economic factors such as household’s resource ownership, households’ income position, participation in an off farm income and economic objectives play a great role in determining the willingness and ability to invest in the adoption of agricultural technologies and get involved in market participation [Mulugeta ,2009] . In this study summary statistics of economic and social variables like Land size, off farm income on farm income and participation in an association are analyzed
Table II: Summary statistics of socio economic variables Variable Mean Std. Minimum Maximum Deviation Land Size 2.41 1.32 0.25 7 Offarm 34.87 47.47 0 150 income On farm 10,619 8890 400 34,845 income Membership 0.93 0.25 0 1 to association Source: Own survey and computation Table two revealed that an average household has 2.4 hectare of land. The maximum and minimum amount of land size in the study area respectively is 0.25 hectare and 7 hectare. Offarm is not that uncommon in the study area as can be evoked from the above table where by an average sampled household can get about 35 Birr per day this is attributable to the fact that the study area is close to the vicinity of Hawassa city and there are also several business opportunities (like Cart driving, Hairdressing, merchandizing and the like) even in Dore around which Umbullo watershed is found. Surprisingly enough on farm income, (income obtained just from the sale of maize and haricot bean alone) ranges from 400 Birr to 34, 845 Birr and the average is 10,619. One should not be deceived in to believing automatically
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making a hasty judgment that farmers are doing well. This figure will not lead us to such a conclusion for one thing it is not a profit and for the other thing the area is well known for its production of cash crops like, sugarcane, tomato, potato, and haricot bean. Thus it won’t represent an average farmer in the country. With this shed of light the figure is not that surprising. Table two further disclosed that more than 90% of the sampled households are member of any formal association be it Idir,Equb or farmers’ association Before passing to the multivariate econometric analysis, it is worthwhile to assess as to how the independent variables are significantly different across the two category of the sampled households (i.e. participants and non-participants in commercialization) .This is carried out by employing mean comparison of the selected dependent variables using t- test of paired means. The result is presented in the table below. Table 3: Mean comparison of demographic characteristics and farm assets Mean Coefficient of ttest of Varia Variation paired ble Partici Non- Partici Non- means pants participan pants participant ts s EDUC 2.12(0.1 1.19(0.17) 2.28 14.29 -3.96 N 6) HHSIZ 7.02(0.3 5.35(0.23) 1.31 4.29 4.17 E 3) OFFIN 25.17(5. 43.95(6.45) 14.90 14.68 2.20 C 47) TOPR 36.72(2. 25.06(1.86) 0.02 7.42 -4.04 D 22) ONFIN 14,822 6,687 8.27 12.04 -5.61 C (1225.9 (805.38) 8)
An average participant (those farmers involved in commercializing their products) falls in the category of junior secondary level of education when actually the non- participants fall in the primary level of education. The computed t-value of -3.96 reveals that the difference in level of education between participants and non-participants is significant at one percent level of significance. By so looking at the
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coefficient of variation of the mean level of education of the participants and non- participants of commercialization one can observe that there exists wide disparity in terms of educational attainment among on non- participants. When we come to household size, table three reveals that participants have more number of people in their household than their counter parts and this difference is significant. The average off farm income of non participants is far greater than that of participants. On average farmers that are not involved in commercializing their produce of haricot beanget 44 Birr per day, when actually the figure dramatically dwindles to 25 Birr per day for the participants. And the disparity is significant. This is really why (as can be evoked from the econometric analysis of the tobit model) that off farm income negatively and significantly determines household commercialization index of the sampled households. The more income they get from an offarm activity, the more time and other resources they should have spent on an off farm activity and hence the less time and other resources they will have to spare, if there is any, on farm production and commercialization. Dispersion, however, is fairly similar in the distribution of the two groups. There is a slight difference, though significant, in terms of total farm production(as measured by total produce of maize and haricot bean) of participants and non-participants. An average commercializing farmer produces 37 Quintal per year while it is slightly lower (25 Quintal per year) for the non-participants. Variability, however, is heavily noticeable among the non-participants as can be evidenced from the coefficient of variation. When we come to the question of on farm income, the pendulum has swung in favor of participants. An average farmer involved in commercializing output gets about 14,800 Birr per year compared with non-commercial farmers whose yearly on farm income is far below (6600 Birr per year) than their participating counter parts. Furthermore the disparity is significant even at one percent. This result is further justified in the econometric analysis of the tobit model as the dependent variable on farm income positively and significantly affects household commercialization index of haricot bean producers. 3.2 Econometric analysis The main purpose of the study as described earlier is to assess farmers’ level of agricultural commercialization, and to identify the
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determinants of commercialization in the study area. In order to know factors that explain households’ level of commercialization in the market, the study of factors affecting farmers’ behavior in their attempt to commercialize their output is detrimental since the variables are the main vehicles through which government programs influences decision in the agricultural sector. This part examines the various factors affecting famers’ decision of commercialization using the tobit model. It was hypothesized that a number of variables affect participation. These are:the age of the household head (AGEHH), educational level of the household head (EDUCN), the household size (HHSIZ), number of adults living in the household (NADLT), total farm size owned by the household (LSIZE), participation in an off-farm activity (OFINC). Total agricultural production (TOTPR), price of haricot bean sold (PRIHB), on farm income (ONFINC), participation in any formal association(ASSON), consumption of credit services, (CRDIT), participation in any extension services(EXTEN), frequency of market visit(FMAKT), distance of the households head from the nearest market (DSMKT), and adoption of improved seed (ADOPT) These variables hypothesized to affect farmers’ decision to participate in commercialization were selected to fit in to the tobit model the result of which is depicted in the table four below. The tobit regression results in Table 4 revealed that of the total of the sixteen variables expected to affect market participation, eight of them are of the expected sign of which seven of them are significant. The remaining explanatory variables namely SEXHH, AGEHH, TOTPR, ASSON, EXTEN, FMAKT, DSMKT and ADOPT are not of the expected sign form which only TOTPR is significant. It was an intuitive argument, substantiated by empirical evidence and economic theory, of the researcher that with the increase in total product of crops, there will be marketable surplus, and hence there is high likelihood of market participation with the surplus output. On the contrary however, the regression analysis of the tobit model revealed that farmers with higer produce are not observed in market participation this disillusionment could be dissolved by a meticulous scrutiny of the general status of the sampled households. A close examination of the summary statistics (see the appendix) of the data for the whole variables uncovers that the mean total product of the sampled households is 30.7 kg per year and the mean household size of
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the sampled household is 6 persons. Thus an average household will have little or no amount of marketable surplus. This unveils the fact that the increase in total crop production is not beyond and above the marketable surplus. From the set of variables that are expected to affect market participation and /or commercialization, seven variables, namely,HHSIZN, TOTPR, LSIZE, OFFIN, PRIHB, ONFINC and CRDIT significantly impact commercialization of haricot bean production. Model adequacy can be checked by thoughtful scrutiny of the maximum likelihood estimation of the Tobit model. The likelihood ratio chi- square of 88.84 with a p-value of 0.0000 tells us that our model as a whole is statistically significant and hence the model is adequate. Table 4: Maximum likelihood Estimation of Tobit Model Haricot bean Commercialization Index (HHBCI) Dependent variable: Household Haricot bean Commercialization Index (HHBCI) Explanatory Estimated Standard t-ratio P-value variable Coefficients Error SEXHH -0.07511 2.129 -0.04 0.972 AGEHH 0.02666 0.069 0.38 0.702 EDUCN 0.25700 0.789 0.33 0.745 HHSIZ 0.98203 0.387 2.54 0.013* NADLT 0.04577 0.624 0.07 0.942 LSIZE 1.34703 0.570 2.36 0.020** OFFIN -0.05052 0.020 -2.54 0.012* TOTPR -0.73584 0.144 -5.12 0.000* PRIHB 0.01511 0.005 2.99 0.003* ONFIN 0.00170 0.000 6.59 0.000* ASSON -3.56953 3.901 -0.91 0.362 CRDIT 3.94278 1.828 2.16 0.033** EXTEN -8.22938 3.682 -2.23 0.028** FMAKT -0.06595 0.853 -0.08 0.939 DSMKT 1.17706 0.778 1.51 0.134 ADOPT -0.24609 2.304 -0.11 0.915 CONST 7.92637 8.575 0.92 0.357 Number of observation =120 LR Chi2(16)=88.84 Prob> Chi2 =0.0000 Pseudo R2= 0.0974
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Source: Own survey and commutation; *,** significant at 1% and 5% level of significance In order to interpret the quantitative implications of the regressors for market participation, we need to compute the partial effects, using marginal effects for continuous explanatory variables and average effects for binary explanatory variable of only the significantly determining variables. The partial derivatives (marginal effects) of the variables on the probability of farmers’ participation decision in commercialization are computed at the means of the variables for all observation and this is displayed in the table five below. Table 5: Partial effect for Tobit model of Haricot bean Commercialization Index (HHBCI) of the determinant variables Dependent variable: Household Haricot bean Commercialization Index (HHBCI) Explanatory Standard Z P-value variable Error HHSIZ 1.11598 0.354 3.15 0.002 LSIZE 1.37053 0.569 2.14 0.016 OFFIN -0.03951 0.017 -2.29 0.022 TOTPR -0.78163 0.134 -5.80 0.000 PRIHB 0.01432 0.005 3.07 0.002 ONFIN 0.00171 0.001 6.75 0.000 CRDIT 5.03228 1.683 2.99 0.003 Number of observation =120 LR Chi2(16)=88.82 Prob> Chi2 =0.0000 Pseudo R2= 0.0886 House hold size (HHSIZ) The result of the tobit model uncovered that , the variable household size has a positive and significant influence on market participation of agricultural produce (i.e. Haricot bean) at 1% level of significance. Keeping all other factors constant, it explains more than 90% of the variation in commercialization of haricot bean. Thus it can be argued that those farmers who have more household size are more able to get involved in market participation. This is attributable to the fact that with more number of people in a given household thenumber of potential active family members participating in agricultural activities in general and agricultural commercialization will un-doubtfully increase. If the number of people in the household increase by one, then www.ijmer.in 274
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an average farmer will shift from non-market participant to market participant.Thus the detrimental need for having an optimal size of population. This result falls in line with other researchers and the well- known theorist in population theory, Boserups, who asserted that population, is not aliability but an asset [Boserups, 1970, Muluget, 2009.] Total farm size (LSIZE) This variable refers total farm size owned by the household in hectare. Land is the main asset of farmers in the study area. Farmers in the study area use both their own land and also rent farm land for crop production. The minimum requirement for Participation in commercialization for any farm household is the ability to have or access land. Thus, the result of the Tobit model reveled there is a positive relationship between farmers with larger landholdings and their likelihood of market participation. Keeping all other factors unchanging, the partial effect of the model unveils;an increase in land size by one hectare will increase the probability of commercialization by 100% or more. Other researchers also came up with similar findings [Edward et al, 2012, Dil et al, 2010] Off farm income (OFFIN) In most part of rural Ethiopia, off-farm employment is viewed as a transitory situation, and only considered necessary as income source for low earning farm community. In the study area, grain trading, vegetable trading, cart services, hairdressing and daily labor were found to be some of the commonest the off-farm activities in which sample households were participating. As farmers get involved in an offarm activity, their tendency to augment on on-farm activity and market participation of their produce will be adversely affected. This is revealed in the econometric result of the Tobit model. It significantly and negatively affects market participation and affects, ceteris paribus, 5% of the variation in the dependent variable. As can be evoked from the marginal effect of the Tobit model, an increase in an off-farm income by 10 Birr decreases the probability of market participation by about 40%. Price of the product being sold (PRIHB) Obviously economic theorem, from the law of supply, has made it clear that price and supply (market participation in this study) are positively related. The result of this study is also in perfect commensuration of economic intuition. Price at which Haricot bean production sold has
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positively motivated market participation and it is significant at 1%. Variability in price, citrus paribus, explains 2% of the variability in market participation. The marginal effect also displayed that if price increases by 10 Birr/Quintal, citrus paribus, market participation will increase by 14%. On farm income (ONFIN) Farm income is the main source of capital to purchase farm inputs, access and utilize technologies and other household consumable goods and also rent land if available.Farm income refers to the total annual earnings of the family from sale of agricultural produce after meeting family requirements. In this study the household farm income was estimated based on the sales of crop produce (maize and haricot bean).The result of the study made it evident that on farm income and market participation are positively and significantly related. The higher the source of income from on farm works, the more likely a household to participate in commercial activities of agricultural product. An increase in an on-farm income by 10 Birr increases the probability of commercialization by 2 %, keeping all other explanatory variables constant Credit access (CRDIT) Participation in the production and marketing of a cash crop like Haricot bean is motivated by the income gained from the sale of the produce. Farmers grow the Haricot bean not for consumption purpose only but to fetch cash income which is allocated for purchasing farm inputs and meet out other family needs. This however is not a bed of roses. Constraints to such a practice are numerous: the cost of a seed, high labor requirements and technical skill needed for crop management and cost of warehousing in order to wait of the optimum price, are some of the constraints that hinder the probability of market participation. Farmers without cash and no access to credit will find it very difficult to get involved in market participation. This is what the study has unveiled. It positively and significantly affects probability of market participation at 1% level of significance and, citrus paribus; it explains total variation of the dependent variable. Previous studies also came up with similar result (Tadesse, 2008). 4. Implications The finding of this study revealed that the main factor that gives significant explanation for the variation of market participation is house hold size which is the source of an active potential for productive
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labor force, especially in the study area where cheap labor is of great shortage. The researcher does not blatantly and audaciously, however, recommend numerous hands (to just use the language in the days of mercantilists) without any limit. An optimum average that is closer to the average household of market participants is recommended with the due light that population is not a liability but an asset and an opportunity that could be harnessed to achieve a desired macroeconomic objective. The study divulged that extent of commercialization by total farm size is more pronounced among the sampled haricot bean producing households. Obviously farm size, whether the earth is bountiful or niggardly, provides the opportunity to produce surplus production which is critical in improving market participation. The researcher, thus, recommends, even though farm size cannot be increased in absolute terms, increasing the cultivable farm land and consolidation of fragmented farming and farm lands that could partly contributes for the maximization of total cultivable land. The finding of this study revealed that the main difference between market participants and non-participants as far as their likelihood of commercialization was concerned was also related to access to (and utilization of ) credit. Because of this those sample households who did not have access to credit were thwarted in their motivation and behavior of market participation. It was also learned that lack of finance and expensiveness of market participation (as evidenced in the costs of inputs and technologies acquisition) were some of the reasons for failure to participate in commercialization. My previous studies on adoption aslo disclosed a similar result. So provision of credit and enhancing the financial strength of the farmers will be of paramount importance for farmers to participate in commercialization.
Reference
1. Alene AD, Manyong VM, Omanya G, Mignouna HD, Bokanga M, Odhiambo G (2008). Smallholder market participation under transaction costs: Maize supply and fertilizer demand in Kenya. Food Policy 33: 318-328. 2. Amemiya, T, 1981. Qualitative response models: A survey. Journal of Economic Literature.19: 1483-1536
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3. Demeke, M and Ferede, T (2005): The performance of grain marketing in Ethiopian; the case of Addis Ababa Central Marketing in south west Oromia, Southern Bale and Adami Tulu editions. The future of small holder farming in Easttern African: The Roles of states, markets, and Civil Society; IFPRI Eastern Africa Food Policy Project. 4. DilBahadurRahut, Ivan Velasquez Castellanos and Pravakarsahoo (2010) Commercialization of agriculture in the Himalyas 5. Edward Martey, Ramatu M. Al-Hassan and John K. M. Kuwornu (2012) Commercialization of smallholder agriculture in Ghana: A Tobit regression analysis 6. Francesco Goletti, Timothy Purcell, and Dominic Smith(2003) Concepts of Commercialization and Agricultural Development 7. Maddala, G.S, 1997 Limited Dependent and Quantitative Variables inEconometrics.Cambridge University Press. 8. MulugetaArega (2009) Determinants of Intensity of Adoption of old Coffee Stumping technology in Dale Wereda,SNNPRS, Ethiopia.A Thesis Submitted to the Department of Rural Development and Agricultural Extension, School of Graduate Studies Haromaya University. 9. Samuel Gebreselassie and Eva Ludi (2008)Agricultural Commercialization in Coffee Growing Areas of Ethiopia 10. Tadese Adgo Mihiretu(2008) Farmers evaluation and Adoption of improved onion production package in Fogeradistrict, South Gondar, Ethiopia MSc thesis. Haromaya University 11. Vance C, Geoghegan J (2004). Modeling the determinants of Semi- subsistent and Commercial Land uses in an Agricultural Frontier of Southern Mexico: a switching regression approach. Int. Regional Sci. Rev., 27(3): 326–347
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IMPACT OF RRBS ON HARYANA ECONOMY
Mrs. Ritika Sharma Research Scholar Dept. of Economics Maharshi Dayanand University Distt. Rohtak,Haryana
Haryana is one of the most progressive States in the country. It has been a pioneer State in carrying out fiscal reforms and our fiscal management is reckoned as one of the best in the country. The Planning Commission has also appreciated the State Government for the reform initiatives taken in various sectors. Haryana Per Capita Income is the highest amongst the large States in the Country. Haryana State displayed an achievement of raising 192 percent of the State resources as compared to the original projection. At the time of commencement of the 11th Five Year Plan (2007-12), the State had projected the resources at Rs 33,374 crore and against which Rs 64,123 crore were actually mobilized by the State. Impact of Different Sector on the Haryana Economy During the first two years of the 11th Five Year Plan (2007-12) i.e. 2007-08 and 2008-09, the State economy registered the growth of 8.4 and 8.2 percent respectively in spite of the negative growth of 0.3 percent recorded in Agriculture Sector during 2007-08 and very low growth of 2.6 percent achieved in Manufacturing Sector during 2008- 09. The Services Sector with the robust growth rate of 13.6 and 11.6 percent recorded during 2007-08 and 2008-09 respectively acted as the main catalyst for sustaining the economic growth of the State above 8 percent. During the year 2009-10, the robust growth of 11.7 percent was achieved due to high growth of Services Sector (17.0 percent) followed by Industry Sector (11.4 percent). During the year 2010-11, the growth of 8.8 percent could be achieved in spite of the low growth posted in Agriculture & Allied (5.4 percent) and Industry (7.3 percent) Sectors. In Haryana, the role of the Government has been to persuade the banking institutions to give greater importance to the agricultural & allied sector and for poverty alleviation programmes. The institutional finance available through Commercial Banks, Co- operative Banks and other Term Lending Institutions reduces pressure
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on the budgetary resources of the State Govt. The total number of Commercial Banks (CBs) and Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) branches working in the State was 3,015 (September, 2012) as compared to 2,653 in 2011. The total deposits of CBs and RRBs increased from Rs 1, 26,890 crore in Sept., 2011 to Rs 1, 59,453 crore in Sept., 2012. (ECONOMIC SURVEY OF HARYANA, 2013) 1.1. Regional Rural Banks in Haryana The Regional Rural Banks were established in accordance with the Regional Rural Bank Ordinance 1975 which was replaced by Regional Rural Bank Act, 1976 (under Section 21) of Government of India, issued on 26th September 1975. Below two banks are covered as per the period of the study: 1.1.1. Gurgaon Gramin Bank Gurgaon Gramin Bank sponsored by Syndicate Bank and having its Head Office at Gurgaon was established on 28.03.1976, under the RRBs Act 1976. The Bank is placed under the 2nd Schedule of Reserve Bank of India. Gurgaon is situated in the Southern part of the Haryana and cater to the banking and credit requirements of seven Districts namely Gurgaon, Rewari, Mahendergarth, Mewat, Palwal, Faridabad and Sonepat Districts are having Industries where Rewari, Mahendergarth, Palwal Districts are dependent on agricultural produce. 1.1.2. Haryana Gramin Bank The Bank has completed its eighth financial year successfully after coming into existence vide Govt. of India notification dated 21.12.2005 under Section 21 of the RRB Act, 1976 with its Head Office at Rohtak. The Bank has its area of operation spread in sixteen districts of Haryana, namely, Bhiwani, Rohtak, Jhajjar, Jind, Panipat, Ambala, Kurukshetra, Kaithal, Panchkula, Yamuna Nagar, Hisar, Sirsa, Fatehabad, Rewari, Mohindergarh & Karnal. It came into existence after the amalgamation of three erstwhile RRBs, namely, Haryana Kshetriya Gramin Bank, H.O. Bhiwani, Hisar Sirsa Kshetriya Gramin Bank, H.O. Hisar and Ambala –Kurukshetra Gramin Bank, H.O. Ambala City. 1.2. Objectives of the Study To study the impact of RRBs on the development of rural economy in Haryana. 1.3.Tools of Analysis
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The data collected from different sources has been classified and arranged in tables in one or more forms according to the requirements of analysis. For the analysis of results, the following techniques have been applied. 1.4 Statistical Techniques 1. Tabular Analysis: 1(a) Simple Statistical Techniques 1(b) Compound Growth Rate 2. t-test 3. Standard Deviation 4. Co-efficient of variation (C.V) 1. Tabular Analysis In tabular analysis, percentages are calculated to draw the inferences. It is a very scientific and perfect analysis. 1(a) Simple Statistical Techniques For analysis of the data collected, the other simple statistical techniques like diagrams, graphical presentation, percentages and averages have been used. 1 (b) Compound Growth Rate While calculating compound growth rate 1 , the following equation has been used: n An= Ao (1+r/100)
Where An = the figure of nth year
Ao= the figure of the base year n= the number of years and r= the rate of growth. 2. t-test: It is a small sample test. It was developed by William Gosset in 1908. He published this test under the pen name of “Student”. Therefore, it is also known as student’s t-test. For applying t-test value of t-statistic is compute. For this, the following formula is used. t = Deviation from the population parameter Standard Error of the sample statistic
1 Compound Growth Rate: The interest rate at which given present value of any variable like deposit advances etc. would ‘grow’ to given future value in a given amount of time Formula is CGR = (fv/pv) 1/n-1 Where fv is future value and pv is present value and n is number of years.
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2(a).Under this test of hypothesis about difference between two means in case of independent samples.
Let two independent random samples of sizes n1 and n2 (n1<30
and n2<30) be drawn from two normal populations with means µ1 and µ and equal standard deviation ( = = ) to test whether the two 2 σ1 σ2 σ3 population means are equal and whether the difference x - x is ̄1 ̄2 significant we used t-test
Calculated value of ‘t’ is compared with the table value of ‘t’ for given degree of freedom at certain specified level of significance. If the calculated value of t > table value of t at the 5% level of significance, then we reject the null hypothesis and vice versa. 3. Standard Deviation It is the most important and widely used measure of studying dispersion. The standard deviation is also known as root mean square deviation for the reason that it is the square root of the mean of the squared deviation from the arithmetic mean. The standard deviation measures the absolute variability of distribution. The greater the standard deviation, the greater will be the magnitude of the deviations of the values from their arithmetic mean. A small standard deviation means a high degree of uniformity of the observation as well as homogeneity of the series or vice-versa. The standard deviation has been calculated as under: Formula:
Where: S.D = Standard deviation x = (X-X), Deviation from actual mean N = Number of observations 4. Co-efficient of variation (C.V) The co-efficient of variation (C.V) is a relative measure of dispersion. It is computed to compare the relative variations in different phenomenon. The least co-efficient of variation implies greater consistency and vice-versa. The co-efficient of variation is computed as below:
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1.5. Time period of the study Time period of the study is from year 2005-06 to 2012-13 and based on secondary data. Under This Topic Impact of RRB’s on the Haryana Economy is discussed by taking different Indicators: 1.6. Loan Disbursement of Gramin Banks to Priority and Non-priority Sector A. Priority Sector: Priority sector includes agriculture, short-term crop loans: (These loans are given to small and marginal farmers for purchasing seeds, manures, pesticides, payment of wages to the labourers etc.) ,term loans for agriculture and allied activities: (Such loans are required by the farmers for a period ranging from three month to three years (medium term loan) or for more than three years (long term loan), rural artisans, small scale and cottage industries, retail trade, small enterprises /business and self-employment, self-help groups etc. B. Non-Priority Sector: The RRBs are also providing to the non- priority sector various financial assistance comprising loans to different rural development scheme of the government, consumer loans, home loans, etc. 1.6 Loan Disbursement of Gramin Banks to Priority and Non-priority Sector Table: 1.6.1 Haryana Gramin Bank (Rs. in Lakh) Priority Sector Non-priority Sector Year Loan Disbursed % Loan Disbursed % Disbursed Growth Growth Disbursed Growth Growth 2005-06 58428 ------8217 ------2006-07 77820 19392 33.19 7023 (-)1194 (-)14.53 2007-08 102108 24288 31.21 5602 (-)1421 (-)20.23 2008-09 121919 19811 19.40 14798 9196 164.16 2009-10 156725 34806 28.55 188232 173434 1172.01 2010-11 210504 53779 34.31 191217 2985 1.59 2011-12 225531 15027 7.14 11233 (-)179984 (-)94.13 2012-13 278099 52568 23.31 8142 (-)3091 (-)27.52
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Ẍ 153891.75 54308 S.D. 77806.21 83631.87 C.V. 50.56 154 CGR 21.53 (-)0.11 Source: - Annual Reports of Haryana Gramin Bank (Rohtak) for the years 2005-06 to 2012-13 It depicts the loan distributed by Haryana Gramin Bank to priority sector is amounted to Rs. 58428 lakh in 2005-06 which increased to Rs.278099 lakh during 2012-13, and growth in percentage is showing fluctuating trend . Loans issued by Gramin Bank to non- priority sector is to the tune of Rs. 8217 lakh in 2005-06, notifying a mixed trend, reached to the figure of Rs. 8142 lakh during the year 2012-13. Growth in percentage is also showing fluctuating trend. The results of coefficient of variation of loans given to priority and non-priority sector are 50.56 per cent and 154 per cent respectively which expresses that less variation and spread has been noted in case of loans provided to priority sector. Table:- 1.6.2 Gurgaon Gramin Bank (Rs. in Lakh) Priority Sector Non-priority Sector Year Loan Disburse % Loan Disburse % Disburse d Growt Disburse d Growt d Growth h d Growth h 2005-06 27100 ------5105 ------2006-07 45359 18259 67.37 9398 4293 84.09 2007-08 56650 11291 24.89 14830 5432 57.81 2008-09 65424 8774 15.49 26176 11346 76.51 2009-10 73395 7971 12.18 20945 (-)5231 (-)19.98 2010-11 87853 14458 19.7 32083 11138 53.18 2011-12 104476 16623 18.92 34391 2308 7.19 2012-13 113935 9459 9.05 32025 (-)2366 (-)6.88
Ẍ 71774 21869.13 S.D. 29449.01 11146.94 C.V. 41.03 50.97 CGR 19.66 25.80 Source: - Annual Reports of Gurgaon Gramin Bank for the years 2005- 06 to 2012-13 The mean value of loan issued to priority and non-priority sector is Rs. 71774 lakh and Rs. 21869.13 lakh respectively. It shows that more loans and advances have been distributed to priority sector as
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compared to non-priority sector as the mean value of loans given to non-priority sector is less. Growth in percentage is showing fluctuating trend in case of both above said sectors. The compound growth rate of loan issued to priority and non-priority sector are noted at 19.66 & 25.80 per cent per annum. The results of coefficient of variation of loans given to priority and non-priority sector are 41.03 per cent and 50.97 per cent respectively which expresses that less variation and spread has been noted in case of loans provided to priority sector meaning thereby that it is more consistent and uniform. Statistical Analysis: Table: - 1.6.3: t-Test (Group Statistics) Loan Disbursement by two Gramin Banks to Priority Sector & non priority sector (Post- Merger) 1. Haryana Gramin Std. Bank Std. N Mean Error 2. Deviation Mean Gurgaon Gramin Bank PS Loan 1 8 153891.75 77806.215 27508.651 Disbursed(lacs) 2 8 71774.00 29449.009 10411.797 NPS Loan 1 8 54308.00 83631.875 29568.333 Disbursed(lacs) 2 8 21869.13 11146.939 3941.038 Table: - 1.6.4: t-Test (Equality of Means) Loan Disbursement by two Gramin Banks to Priority Sector & non priority sector (Post- Merger) Post Merger Sig. Mean Std. Error T Df (p- Difference Difference value) PS Loan 2.792 14 .014 82117.750 29413.116 Disbursed(lacs) NPS Loan 1.087 14 .295 32438.875 29829.819 Disbursed(lacs) (Table value=2.14) The calculated value of t was noted at 2.792 which was found greater than the table value 2.14 at 5 per cent level of significance and
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the p-value was less than the specified α of 0.05, the null hypothesis had been rejected. Therefore there was statistically significant difference among the two regional rural banks (Post Merger) in Haryana on the basis of loan disbursed to priority sector. The calculated value of t was noted at 1.087 which was found lesser than the table value 2.14 with 14 df at 5 per cent level of significance and the p-value was more than the specified α of 0.05, the null hypothesis had been accepted. Therefore there was statistically insignificant difference among the two regional rural banks (Post- Merger) in Haryana on the basis of loan disbursed to non priority sector. 1. 7 Loan Disbursement by Gramin Banks to Scheduled Caste/Scheduled Tribe, Loan Disbursement by Gramin Banks to Scheduled Castes/ Scheduled Tribes, Minorities and Small Farmers/ Marginal Farmers/ Landless Agricultural Labourers The bank is committed to the development of scheduled castes/scheduled tribes, minorities and SF/MF/LAL. They are considered to be those who are in need of financial assistance to uplift their living standard. Hence, special attention is required for these people to fulfill their funding requirement. Minorities and SF/MF/LAL Table:- 1. 7.1 Haryana Gramin Bank (Rs. in Lakh) Loans to SC/ST Loans to Minorities SF/MF/LAL Year
Loan Loan Loan Growth Growth Growth % Growth % Growth % Growth Disbursed Disbursed Disbursed Disbursed Disbursed Disbursed 2005-06 2257 ------1416 ------9485 ------2006-07 2314 57 2.51 6677 5261 371.48 12642 3157 33.28 2007-08 2777 463 20.00 8088 1411 21.13 12437 (-)205 (-)1.62 2008-09 2842 65 2.34 8408 320 3.95 27357 14920 119.96 2009-10 8684 5842 205.55 10018 1610 19.14 111626 84269 308.03 2010-11 7694 (-) 17228 71.97 158831 (-)990 11.40 7210 47205 42.29 2011-12 3513 (-) 15870 (-)7.88 162193 (-)4181 54.34 (-)1358 3362 2.12 2012-13 4731 34.67 12191 (-) 149238 (-) 1218 (-)3679 23.18 12955 (-)7.99 Mean 4351.5 9987 80476.12 S.D. 2509.58 5104.87 71322.02
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C.V. 57.67 51.12 88.63 C.G.R. 9.69 30.88 41.13 Source: - Annual Reports of Haryana Gramin Bank (Rohtak) for the years 2005-06 to 2012-13
Above table depicts the growth in percentage of loan distributed by Haryana Gramin Bank to SC/ST, Minorities & SF/MF/AL are showing mixed trend. The compound growth rate of loan issued to SC/ST, minorities and SF/MF/AL are noted at 9.69, 30.88 & 41.13 per cent per annum. The results of coefficient of variation of loans issued to SC/ST, minorities and SF/MF/AL are 57.67 percent, 51.12 per cent and 88.63 per cent respectively which shows that loan issued to Minorities is more consistent and uniform having less variation as compared to loans distributed to others. Table:- 1. 7.2 Gurgaon Gramin Bank (Rs. In Lakh) Loans to SC/ST Loans to Minorities SF/MF/LAL Sector Year
Loan Loan Loan Growth Growth Growth % Growth % Growth % Growth Disbursed Disbursed Disbursed Disbursed Disbursed Disbursed 2005-06 512 ------2181 ------22480 ------2006-07 713 201 39.26 3304 1123 51.49 31261 8781 39.06 2007-08 1162 449 62.97 4198 894 27.06 39939 8678 27.76 2008-09 (-) (-) (-) 1388 226 19.45 3998 36421 (-) 200 4.76 3518 8.81 2009-10 1428 40 2.88 6709 2711 67.81 41135 4714 12.94 2010-11 1695 267 18.7 8079 1370 20.42 52933 11798 28.68 2011-12 (-) 2012 317 18.7 6341 78518 25585 48.33 (-)1738 21.51 2012-13 2145 133 6.61 6608 267 4.21 91487 12969 16.52 Mean 1381.88 5177.25 49721.75 S.D. 577.19 2035.53 23938.93 C.V. 41.77 39.32 48.59 C.G.R. 19.61 14.86 19.18 Source: - Annual Reports of Gurgaon Gramin Bank for the years 2005- 06 to 2012-13 Above table depicts the growth in percentage of loan distributed by Haryana Gramin Bank to SC/ST, Minorities & SF/MF/AL are showing mixed trend.. The compound growth rate of loan issued to
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SC/ST, minorities and SF/MF/AL are noted at 19.61, 14.86 & 19.18 per cent per annum. The results of coefficient of variation of loans issued to SC/ST, minorities and SF/MF/AL are 41.77 percent, 39.32 per cent and 48.59 per cent respectively which shows that loan issued to Minorities is more consistent and uniform having less variation as compared to loans distributed to others. Statistical Analysis: Table: - 1. 7.3: t-Test (Group Statistics) Loan Disbursement by two Gramin Banks to Scheduled Caste/Scheduled Tribe and Minorities & SF/MF/LAL (Post- Merger) 1.Haryana Std. Gramin Bank Std. N Mean Error 2.Gurgaon Deviation Mean Gramin Bank SC/ST Loan 1 8 4351.50 2509.580 887.271 Disbursed(lacs) 2 8 1381.88 577.192 204.068 Minorities 1 8 9987.00 5104.871 1804.844 Loan 2 8 5177.25 2035.538 719.671 Disbursed(lacs) SF/MF/LAL 1 8 80476.13 71322.023 25216.143 Loan 2 8 49271.75 23938.937 8463.692 Disbursed(lacs)
Table: - 1. 7.4: t-Test (Independent Samples Test) Loan Disbursement by two Gramin Banks to Scheduled Caste/Scheduled Tribe and Minorities & SF/MF/LAL (Post- Merger) Post Merger Sig. Mean Std. Error T df (p- Difference Difference value) Calculated value is greater than SC/ST Loan tabulated 3.262 14 .006 2969.625 910.435 Disbursed(lacs) value. Results are significant. H0 rejected. Calculated Minorities value is Loan 2.475 14 .027 4809.750 1943.036 greater than Disbursed(lacs) tabulated
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value. Results are significant. H0 rejected. Calculated value is less than SF/MF/LAL tabulated Loan 1.173 14 .260 31204.375 26598.646 value. Results Disbursed(lacs) are insignificant. H0 accepted. (Tab value; 2.14)
The calculated value of t was noted at 3.262 which was found greater than the table value 2.14 at 5 per cent level of significance and the p-value was less than the specified α of 0.05, the null hypothesis had been rejected. Therefore there was statistically significant difference among the two regional rural banks (Post-Merger) in Haryana on the basis of loan disbursed to Loans to SC/ST. The calculated value of t was noted at 2.47 which was found greater than the table value 2.14 with 14 df at 5 per cent level of significance and the p-value was less than the specified α of 0.05, the null hypothesis had been rejected. Therefore there was statistically significant difference among the two regional rural banks (Post- Merger) in Haryana on the basis of loan disbursed to minorities. The calculated value of t was noted at 1.173 which was found lesser than the table value 2.14 with 14 df at 5 per cent level of significance and the p-value was more than the specified α of 0.05, the null hypothesis had been accepted. Therefore there was statistically insignificant difference among the two regional rural banks (Post- Merger) in Haryana on the basis of loan disbursed to SF/MF/AL. 1.8. Kisan Credit Card: The Kisan credit card was launched as a credit product in 1998-99 to offer a single line of short-term credit to farmers through formal institutions. The scheme is implemented by the state co-operative banks, regional rural banks (RRBs), and commercial banks (CBs) under the supervision of NABARD. As of March 2009, more than 8.2 crore farmers had subscribed to these cards issued by various banks.
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Table:- 1.8.1 Number Of KCC issued and Amount Disbursed by Haryana Gramin Bank Number Of KCC issued Amount Disbursed Year Total Growth % Growth Loan Disbursed Disbursed % Numbers (In Lakhs) Growth Growth 2005-06 16600 ------30400 ------2006-07 14654 (-)1946 (-)11.72 17976 (-)12424 (-)40.87 2007-08 28459 13805 94.21 35858 17882 99.48 2008-09 28533 74.00 0.26 34815 (-)1043 (-)2.91 2009-10 19860 (-)8673 (-)30.4 29694 (-)5121 (-)14.71 2010-11 27325 7465 37.59 46891 17197 57.91 2011-12 23049 (-)4276 (-)15.65 39485 (-)7406 (-)15.79 2012-13 14672 (-)8377 (-)36.34 28741 (-)10744 (-)27.21 CGR (-)1.53 (-)0.70 Source: - Annual Reports of Haryana Gramin Bank for the years 2005-06 to 2012-13
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It depicts number of KCC issued by Haryana Gramin Bank are noted to 16600 in 2005-06 which decreased to 14672 during 2012-13, growth in percentage is showing mixed trend and registering a compound growth rate of (-) 1.53 per cent per annum. Loans issued under this scheme is to the tune of Rs. 3040 lakh in 2005-06, notifying a mixed trend, reached to the figure of Rs. 28741lakh during the year 2012-13. Growth in percentage is showing fluctuating trend and registering a compound growth rate of (-) 0.70 per cent per annum. Table:- 1.8.2 Number Of KCC issued and Amount Disbursed by Gurgaon Gramin Bank Number Of KCC issued Amount Disbursed Year Total Growth % Loan Disburse % Numbers Growth Disbursed d Growth (in Lakhs) Growth
2000-01 6136 ------2341 ------2001-02 8725 2589 42.19 4390 2049 87.53 2002-03 11147 2422 27.76 4279 (-)111 (-)2.53 2003-04 19678 8531 76.53 9562 5283 123.46 2004-05 30982 11304 57.44 16628 7066 73.9 2005-06 28325 (-)2657 (-)8.58 18791 2163 13.01 2006-07 37137 8812 31.11 23351 4560 24.27 2007-08 37982 845 2.28 27952 4601 19.7 2008-09 32322 (-)5660 (-)14.9 30711 2759 9.87 2009-10 37644 5322 16.47 36933 6222 20.26 2010-11 37477 (-)167 (-)0.44 45401 8468 22.93 2011-12 48722 11245 30.01 63576 18175 40.03 2012-13 54843 6121 12.56 71903 8327 13.1 CGR 18.35 30.14 Source: - Annual Reports of Gurgaon Gramin Bank for the years 2000- 01to 2011-12 Above table depicts number of KCC issued by Gurgaon Gramin Bank are noted to 6136 in 2001-02 which increased to 54843 during 2012-13, growth in percentage is showing mixed trend and registering a compound growth rate of 18.35 per cent per annum. Loans issued under this scheme is to the tune of Rs. 2341 lakh in 2001-02, notifying an increasing trend, reached to the figure of Rs. 71903 lakh during the year 2012-13. Growth in percentage is showing fluctuating trend and registering a compound growth rate of 30.14 per cent per annum.
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1.9. Women Development Cell: Both of the Gramin banks reconstituted women development cell as per revised guidelines received from NABARD to facilitate and ensure increased credit flow to women on a sustainable basis. For this the banks have increased the share of the women in their landing schemes. Table:- 1.9.1 Loan Disbursement (Outstanding) to Women beneficiaries by Haryana and Gurgaon Gramin Bank (Rs. in Lakh) Women(Haryana) Women(Gurgaon) Year Loan Disbursed % Loan Disburse % Disbursed Growth Growth Disbursed d Growth Growth 2005-06 425 ------2778 ------2006-07 1752 1327 312.24 3381 603 21.71 2007-08 4045 2293 130.88 5486 2105 62.26 2008-09 5283 1238 30.61 7897 2411 43.95 2009-10 7522 2239 42.38 8882 985 12.47 2010-11 7761 239 3.18 1333 (-)7549 (-)84.99 2011-12 11186 3425 44.13 14018 12685 951.61 2012-13 14103 2917 26.08 19585 5567 39.71 Ẍ 6509.63 7920 S.D. 4320.81 5815.28 C.V. 66.38 73.42 CGR 54.92 27.65 Source: - Annual Reports of Haryana and Gurgaon Gramin Bank for the years 2005-06 to 2012-13
It depicts in above table the loan distributed by Haryana Gramin Bank to women beneficiaries is amounted to Rs. 425 lakh in 2005-06 which increased to Rs. 14103 lakh during 2012-13 and registering a compound growth rate of 54.92 per cent per annum. Loans issued by Gurgaon Gramin Bank to women beneficiaries is to the tune of Rs. 2778 lakh in 2005-06, notifying a mixed trend, reached to the figure of Rs. 19585 lakh during the year 2012-13 and registering a compound growth rate of 27.65 per cent per annum. The results of coefficient of variation of loans given to women beneficiaries is 66.38 per cent and 73.42 per cent of HGB and GGB respectively which expresses that less variation and spread has been noted in case of loans provided by HGB meaning thereby that it is more consistent and uniform as compared to loans provided by GGB .
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1.10. Farmer Club: Farmer Club the bank has maintained the tempo of progress in promoting farmer club under vikas volunteer vahini scheme of NABARD. The program of farmer club linked with customers meet, Kisan goshthies and different awareness program among people regarding various deposit and loans scheme. Table:- 1.10.1 Number of Farmers Years HGB GGB 2005-06 127 77 2006-07 129 87 2007-08 247 155 2008-09 452 176 2009-10 590 198 2010-11 706 241 2011-12 623 510 2012-13 833 602 CGR 26.50 29.31
It depicts in above table total farmer club maintained by Haryana Gramin Bank are 127 in 2005-06 which increased to 833 during 2012-13 and registering a compound growth rate of 26.50 per cent per annum. Total farmer club maintained by Gurgaon Gramin Bank are 77 in 2005-06 which increased to 602 during 2012-13 and registering a compound growth rate of 29.31 per cent per annum.
1.11. Financial Inclusion 1.11.1 Haryana Gramin Bank
Pursuing its thrust on financial inclusion the Haryana Gramin Bank continued to extend its arms to reach the unreached people. The bank has accepted financial inclusion as a big business model. HGB have achieved 100% financial inclusion in Ambala District selected by Government of India under DBT (Direct benefit Transfer) Scheme & efforts of the bank have been appreciated by Ministry of finance, Govt. of India. With a view to extending the benefits of DBT scheme to each beneficiary, HGB have completed 98% work of opening “Once Account- One Family” and also covered all 268 villages having population above 2000 till 2012-13.
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1.11.2 Gurgaon Gramin Bank The Bank has successfully implemented the Financial Inclusion in all the 234 villages having population of above 2000. Bank has initiated steps to implement Financial Inclusion in 102 villages with population between 1600 to 2000 as per the directions of the Director (Financial Inclusion) Ministry of Finance, Government of India and also completed Direct Benefit Transfer in Sonepat district till 2012-13.
Conclusion
The above study shows that Gramin Banks in Haryana contributed very well to the development of rural sectors. The Gramin banks in Haryana were effective in reaching to the door steps of rural masses. The disbursement of loan and advances to priority sector, non priority sector, small farmers, marginal farmers, SC/ST was good. Gramin banks introduced and successfully executed various schemes and programs like debt swap schemes, Kisan credit card, corporate social responsibilities, health camps, village adoptions, awareness, and women empowerment etc for the development of the rural economy of the Haryana.
References
1. Ahmad, Rais. (1998). Rural Banking and Economic Development. New Delhi: Mittal Publication. 2. Akhtar, J.S.M. and Alam, M.S. (2011). Banking system in India. New Delhi: New Century Publications. 3. Arora, R.C. (1979). Integrated Rural Development. New Delhi: S.Chand and Co. 4. Chakrabarty, T.K. (2003). Rural Income: Some Evidence of Effect of Rural Credit During Last Three Decades. Reserve Bank of India Occasional Papers, 24(3), 225-238. 5. Joshi, M.K. (1984). Regional Rural banks: Provisions and review of progress. Finance Agriculture,16(2), 15-21. 6. Joshi, N.C. (1978). Indian Banking. New Delhi: Ashish Publishing House.
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7. Mohsin, Nadeem. (1987). Regional rural banks and integrated rural development programme. Yojana,31(13), 10-13. 8. Molyeneux, P. and Thornton, J. (1992). Development of European bank profitability: A note. Journal of Banking and Finance, 16, 1174-1178. 9. Mukherjee, P. (1976). Banks and rural development. Khadi Garamodyog, 23(3), 140-146. 10. Uppal, R.K. and Kaur, Rimpi. (2007). Rural Development through bank credit in a competitive Era. Singh, Y.S. (Eds), Rural Development Macro-Micro Realities(186-196). Jaipur: Rawat Publication Pvt. Ltd. 11. Varde, S.V. and Singh ,S.P.(1982). Profitability Performance of Regional Rural Banks. Prajnan, 11(4), 246-252.
Annual Reports:
1.Annual Reports of Haryana Gramin Bank (2005-06 to 2012-2013). 2.Annual Reports of Gurgaon Gramin Bank (2000-01 to 2012-2013). 3.NABARD Review of Performance of RRBs as on 31st March 2005to 31stMarch 2013. 4.Key Statistics of RRBs 2005-06 to 2012-13.
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