An Exploration of Jordanian English Language Teachers' Attitudes

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2006 An Exploration of Jordanian English Language Teachers' Attitudes, Skills, and Access as Indicator of Information and Communication Technology Integration in Jordan Zeinab Tawfik Abu Samak

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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

AN EXPLORATION OF JORDANIAN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS’ATTITUDES, SKILLS, AND ACCESS AS INDICATOR OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION IN JORDAN

ZEINAB ABU SAMAK

A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Middle and Secondary Education In partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Awarded Fall Semester, 2006

The members of the Committee approve the dissertation of Zeinab Abu Samak defended on August 14th, 2006.

______Deborah Hasson Professor Directing Dissertation

______Barbara Palmer Outside Committee Member

______Pamela Carroll Committee Member

______Angela Lupo-Anderson Committee Member

Approved:

______Pamela Carroll, Chair, Middle and Secondary Education

The Office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named committee members.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables ...... Page v List of Figures ...... Page vi Abstract ...... Page vii

1. CHAPTER ONE ...... Page 1

Introduction ...... Page 1 Background of the Study ...... Page 1 Statement of the Problem ...... Page 6 Research Questions...... Page 7 Rationale for the Study ...... Page 8 Significance of the Study...... Page 10 Why English is Important in the Arab World ...... Page 12 Limitations of the Study ...... Page 14 Definitions of Terms...... Page 15 Assumptions ...... Page 17 Summary ...... Page 17

2. CHAPTER TWO ...... Page 18

Literature Review ...... Page 18 The Use of ICT throughout the World...... Page 18 ICT Use in Education in the Arab World ...... Page 21 Promoting ICT in Education in the Arab World...... Page 24 The Jordanian Context for ICT in Education...... Page 26 Public Education in Jordan ...... Page 27 ICT and Educational Reform in Jordan ...... Page 28 Language Instruction and ICT ...... Page 31 EFL, ICT, and Educational Reform in Jordan ...... Page 36 Theoretical Framework of the Study ...... Page 39 Diffusion of Innovations Theory ...... Page 39 Teachers’ Attitudes and ICT...... Page 41 Factors Related to EFL Teachers’ Attitudes towards ICT...... page 45 Computer Attributes ...... Page 45 Cultural Perceptions ...... Page 47 Computer Competence ...... page 48 Computer Access ...... page 49

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Teacher Characteristics and ICT...... Page 50 Age and ICT ...... Page 50 Gender and ICT...... Page 51 Computer Experience/ Use and ICT...... Page 51 Professional Training and ICT...... Page 53 Summary ...... Page 54

3. CHAPTER THREE ...... Page 56 Methodology...... Page 56 Introduction...... Page 56 The Nature of the Study ...... Page 56 Differences and Similarities between Albirini’s and This Study ...... Page 57 Research Questions...... Page 58 Study Population and Sample ...... Page 59 Population...... Page 59 Sample ...... Page 60 Research Design ...... Page 61 Instrumentation ...... Page 62 Attitudes towards ICT...... Page 63 Perceived Attributes of ICT...... Page 64 Cultural Perceptions...... Page 64 Perceived Computer Competence...... Page 64 Perceived Computer Access ...... Page 65 Teacher Characteristics...... Page 65 Validity and Reliability...... Page 66 Validity ...... Page 66 Reliability...... Page 67 Procedures for Data Collection...... Page 67 Pilot Study ...... Page 67 Data Analysis...... Page 69 Summary ...... Page 72

4. CHAPTER FOUR ...... Page 73 Data Analysis and Results ...... Page 73 Reliability of the Instrument ...... Page 74 Validity of the Instrument ...... Page 75 Data Analysis ...... Page 78 Descriptive Summary of Teachers’ Characteristics ...... Page 79 Research Question One...... Page 82 Research Question Two ...... Page 85 Computer Attributes ...... Page 86 Cultural Perceptions...... Page 89

Computer Competence...... Page 92 Access to ICT...... Page 94 Research Question Three ...... Page 95 Research Question Four...... Page 100 Summary ...... Page 103 5. CHAPTER FIVE ...... Page 104 Summary of the Study ...... Page 104 Theoretical Framework...... Page 104 Relevance to Jordan ...... Page 106 Discussion of the Findings...... Page 107 What Are The Attitudes Towards ICT Among Jordanian EFL Teachers? ...... Page 108 What Are The Perceptions OF EFL Jordanian Teachers In Regard to: ICT Attributes? ...... Page 110 Cultural Perceptions of ICT? ...... Page 113 Perceptions Of Computer Competence ? ...... Page 115 Perceptions Of Computer Access? ...... Page 116 What Is The Relationship Between the Attitudes And the Independent Variables? ...... Page 118 Computer Training and Teachers’ Attitudes ...... Page 119 Teachers’ Characteristics and Teachers’ Attitudes ...... Page 121 Age...... Page 121 Teaching Experience...... Page 122 Education Degree...... Page 124 Gender, Teaching, and Grade Level ...... Page 124 What Is The Proportion Of Variance In Teachers’’ Attitudes Explained By The Independent Variables? ...... Page 124 Implications ...... Page 126 The Instrument...... Page 127 The Value of Replication...... Page 128 Limitations ...... Page 128 Recommendations ...... Page 128 Conclusion ...... Page 130

APPENDICES ...... Page 132 A ICT Survey of EFL Teachers in Jordan (English version) ...... Page 132 B ICT Survey of EFL Teachers in Jordan (Arabic version)...... Page 139 C The original survey used in Albirini’s (English version)………… ..... Page 145 D The original survey used in Albirini’s (Arabic version) …………...... Page 149 E FSU Approval Letter ...... Page 153 F JMOE Approval Letter ...... Page 154

G Amman First District Approval Letter ...... Page 155 H Amman Second District Approval Letter ...... Page 156

REFERENCES ...... Page 157

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ...... Page 168

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Comparison of Educational Roles of in the Industrial Society and the Information Society...... Page 20

Table 2: Three Stages of Computer-Assisted Language Learning...... Page 32

Table 3: Gender, Qualifications, and Grade Level taught among teachers of EFL in the First and Second Districts of Amman 2005-2006 ...... Page 60

Table 4: Statistical analysis Procedures used to Answer Research Questions ...... Page 69

Table 5: Reliability Coefficient of ICT Survey ...... Page 75

Table 6: Variance Explained in ICT by Factor Analysis ...... Page 78 Table 7: Summary of Respondents Characteristics ...... Page 80 Table 8: Summary of the Jordanian EFL Teachers ‘Training...... Page 82 Table 9: frequency Percentages on the Attitude Scale ...... Page 83

Table 10: Distribution of Mean Scores on the Attitude Scale of the ICT Survey ...... Page 85 Table 11: Frequency Percentages on the Computer Attributes Scale...... Page 86 Table 12: Distribution of Mean Scores on ICT Attributes Scale...... Page 89 Table 13: Frequency Percentages on Cultural Perceptions Scale...... Page 90 Table 14: Distribution of Mean Scores on Cultural Perceptions, Competence, and Access ……………………………………… Page 92

Table 15: Frequency Percentages on the Computer Competence Scale Page 92 Table 16: Distribution of Responses and Mean Scores on the Computer Access Scale ……………………………………………………… Page 94 Table 17: Correlation of Attitudes Scales with the Subscales of Computer Attributes ……………………………………………………………. Page 96

Table 18: Pearson Product Moment Correlations Of Attitudes and Independent Variables ………………………………………….. Page 97 Table 19: Spearman Correlation between Attitudes and Demographic Variables ………………………………………………………….. Page 99 Table 20: Analysis of Variance ……………………………………………... Page 102

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Table 21: Comparison of Significant Differences between Albirini’s Study And the Current Study ……………………………………………. Page 106 Table 22: Comparison of the Current Study and Albirini’s Mean Scores On the Attitude Scales of the ICT Survey ………………………. Page 108 Table 23: Comparison of Mean Scores on ICT attributes between Albirini’s And the Current Study……………………………………………… Page 110 Table 24: Comparison of Mean Scores on Cultural Perceptions between Albirini’s and the Current Study …………………………………… Page 112 Table 25: Comparison of the Mean Scores on Computer Competence……… Page 114 Table 26: Comparison of the Mean Scores on Computer Access ……….. Page 115 Table 27: Comparison of Spearman Correlations between Attitudes and Demographic Variables ……………………………………………. Page 121 Table 28: Comparison of Analysis of Variance ……………………………… Page 123

viii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Regional Map of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan ...... Page 26 Figure 2: A Representation of the Model Residuals versus the Predicted ...... Outcomes …………………………………………………………... Page 101

ABSTRACT

This study explored factors that may influence the attitudes towards information and communication technology (ICT) by Jordanian teachers of English as a foreign language (EFL). This study replicated research with extension by Albirini (2004), who explored attitudes ICT among teachers of EFL in Syria. This study’s focus was ICT use among EFL teachers in Jordan. The Diffusion of Innovations (Rogers, 1995), and the theoretical relationship between attitudes and behavior posed by the Theory of Reasoned Action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980) served as a theoretical framework. A multi-sections survey in Arabic language was administered to the EFL teachers in the first and second districts of the capital city of Jordan, Amman for the scholastic year 2005-2006. A random sample of 363 was utilized. The data was analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. The study showed that Jordanian EFL teachers have positive attitudes towards ICT. Jordanian EFL teachers’ perceptions of ICT perceptions from highest to lowest in mean scores were: observability, relative advantage, complexity, and compatibility. Jordanian EFL teachers have moderate positive cultural perceptions of ICT. Jordanian EFL teachers have a moderate computer competence and have a high access to ICT. Also, Jordanian EFL teachers’ access to ICT was higher than Syrian EFL teachers. However, the location of access was different: in Jordan, school was the place where most Jordanian EFL teachers have access while home was the place that most Syrian EFL used. It was also found that Age and teaching experience had a negative correlation with attitudes, whereas qualification had a positive correlation with attitudes. There was a weak positive correlation between training and attitudes. Type of training, obtaining an ICDL Certificate, and length of training were explored. Gender, teaching methods, and Grade level were found not significantly correlated with attitudes towards ICT. 64% of the total variance in Jordanian EFL teachers’ attitudes towards ICT was explained by the four main independent

x variables of the study: attributes cultural perceptions, competence, and access. More studies are needed to add to EFL instruction and ICT integration in the Arab region. Future qualitative studies are needed to provide deeper insight.

CHAPTER 1

Introduction

This study replicated research by Albirini (2004), who explored attitudes towards information and communication technology (ICT) among teachers of English as a foreign language (EFL) in Syria. This study differed from Albirini's, however, in that its focus was attitudes towards ICT among EFL teachers in Jordan, where both ICT integration and EFL instruction have become key educational mandates tied to modernization and development. This chapter provided a background to the study, the problem to be addressed, the primary research questions guiding the study, a rationale for replication, and the significance of the study. In addition, the terms most commonly used throughout the study are defined, and limitations to the study and basic assumptions are described.

Background of the Study

Many policymakers consider the adoption and use of ICT by developing countries as integral to their progress and modernization (Hafkin & Taggart, 2001; Na, 1993; OECD, 2001; Pelgrum, 2001; Sooknanan, 2002). In the Middle East, numerous international initiatives, such as the United Nations Development Program, have sought to help Arab countries embrace modernization by bringing about reforms in their educational systems (Information and Communication Technology for Development in Arab Region (ICTDAR, 2005). Consistent with these efforts, in 1999 King Abdullah II of Jordan initiated the installation of ICT in all schools throughout the kingdom in an attempt to make the country the "IT hub" (Jordanian Ministry of Education, 2003, p. 1) of the Middle East. This initiative reflected recognition by the Jordanian Ministry of Education (JMOE) that human capital development, particularly through professional development for teachers and better education for students, was a basic step toward preparing Jordan to participate in future knowledge-based world economies (JMOE, 2002). Similarly, the acquisition of English by Jordanian students was seen by the JMOE

1 as integral to educational and economic development in Jordan. For this reason, in 1999, the teaching of English also was mandated by royal decree in all Jordanian public and private schools beginning in first grade (JMOE, 1999). The significance Jordan placed on achieving these ambitious goals was evident in a statement from Jordanian Minister of Education, Dr. Khalid Toukan: In the 'Knowledge Economy,' the products of such an education system will be a major national asset, a source of national security, and the emerging characteristic that shifts Jordan to the status of a developed country, with a valued resource to share, and with attractions that make it an outstanding competitor among its neighbors. There is an emerging and a very large challenge accompanying Jordan’s shift towards participation in the global knowledge economy….The starting place must be the identification of the necessary basic knowledge, skills, and abilities that are going to be demanded in the future….Increasingly, it is evident that the skills, abilities, and attitudes that an individual has, rather than their specific knowledge, will determine future success. (JMOE, 2002, p. 3) With the mandate for ICT implementation in all K-12 classrooms, the Jordanian Ministry of Education became responsible for adequately preparing teachers to integrate ICT into their instruction. Due to its oversight of more than 1.5 million students - over one-third of the population - in addition to its indirect involvement with higher education institutions such as universities, community colleges, and human resources training centers (JMOE, 2003), the task set for the JMOE has been a major one. Further, in spite of the belief of policymakers in Jordan and elsewhere that integrating ICT in the educational system will lead to improved outcomes for Jordanian students, it cannot be assumed that the placement of ICT in Jordanian classrooms equals effective integration for teaching and learning. Research in the United States and Europe, for example, has indicated that many factors play a part in effectively integrating ICT into economic and educational systems (Becker, 2000; Blankenship, 1998; Braak, 2001; Chiero, 1999; Christensen & Knezek, 2001; Dupagne & Krendel, 1992; Hendricks, 1998; Earle, 2002; Kotrlik, Harrison, & Redmann, 2000; Murphy, 2000; Pelgrum, 2001; Siegel, 1995; Turnbull & Lawrence, 2002 ).

2 During the past decade, government initiatives in the United States, for example, have brought about significant increases in computer hardware and Internet access in its public education system. While little research on ICT implementation in classrooms in the Middle East exists, research on the effective use of technology in American and European classrooms (Rizza, 2000) has suggested that computer technology cannot be automatically linked with effective integration of ICT for instructional purposes. In 2003, the ratio of students to computers in all U.S. public schools was 4.4 to 1, for example, but the responses of teachers to this new technology were less than confident (U.S. Department of Education, 2004). According to the U.S. Department of Education, only 10 percent of public school teachers reported feeling “very well prepared” for the use of ICT in the classroom, while the majority (53 percent) reported feeling “somewhat prepared,” and 13 percent reported feeling “not at all prepared” (p. 66). Thus, despite the presence of ICT in the classroom, the extent to which such technology resulted in actual improvements in teaching and learning cannot be assumed. One variable that has been linked to the effective use of ICT by American and European teachers is teacher attitudes, (Becker, 2000; Braak, 2001; Christensen & Knezek, 2001; Dupagne & Krendel, 1992; Earle, 2002; Hendricks, 1998; Hignite & Echternacht, 1992; Kotrlik, Harrison, & Redmann, 2000; Kumar & Kumar, 2003; Murphy, 2000; Turnbull & Lawrence, 2002). In school settings in developing countries, where teachers who are expected to integrate ICT into their instruction effectively function as primary "change agents" (Chin & Hortin, 1994, p. 83), individual attitudes may play a significant role in the extent to which teachers carry out their responsibility. While several studies have addressed the impact of teacher attitudes towards ICT, few have investigated this phenomenon in the Arab region. Nevertheless, existing success stories of ICT implementation in developing countries suggest that ICT implementation, whether for business or educational purposes, must be tailored to the cultural and social contexts in which it is employed in order to engage the various stakeholders (http//:www.itu.int/osg/spu/wsis-themes/ict_stories). Further, such accounts suggest, in general, that diffusion of ICT best occurs when it is accompanied by training programs and contains content that appeals to its local context. Because ICT as a teaching and learning tool in educational systems emerged only in the early 1990s, it may be considered an innovation (Porter, 1997). According to

3 Rogers (1995), an innovation can be defined as “an idea, a practice, or object that is perceived as new by individual or other units of adoption” (p. 11), and diffusion as “the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system” (p. 10). Rogers (1995), in his Theory of the Diffusion of Innovations, indicated that an understanding of the culture and local environment in which a technology is introduced is a prerequisite to understanding how best to promote its adoption. The notion of attitudes is central to the concept of adoption, thus, culturally-related perceptions may have a strong influence on attitudes that ultimately lead to adoption decisions. According to Rogers' model, many factors contribute to whether an individual develops favorable or unfavorable attitudes toward an innovation, and consequently either adopts or rejects it. In the context of innovations designed for educational systems, teachers are assumed to be major stakeholders in making such adoption decisions (Spiegel, 2001). In his model of the diffusion of innovations, Rogers (1995) described five main attributes of an innovation that influence the attitudes of potential adopters. The first attribute is relative advantage, that is, the notion that an innovation is better than that which came before it. The second attribute is the compatibility of the innovation within the existing socio-cultural context of the social system. The third attribute, complexity attribute, involves the degree to which an innovation is perceived to be difficult to use, while observability relates to the degree to which the advantages of an innovation are observable. The last attribute, trialability, refers to the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with before reaching a decision to adopt or reject it (Rogers, 1995). In Jordanian classrooms, the first four of these attributes may impact the teacher's decision about how he or she actually would use ICT for instruction. The last consideration, trialability, is not relevant in Jordan, since ICT was installed in classrooms without the teachers’ input. In a study by Albirini (2004), which this research sought to replicate in a Jordanian setting, the relationship between the attitudes toward ICT of Syrian EFL teachers and factors such as computer attributes, cultural perceptions, computer competence, computer access, and teacher demographics were explored. Albirini (2004) employed Rogers' (1995) Diffusion of Innovation Theory and Ajzen and Fishbein's

4 (1980) Theory of Reasoned Action as theoretical frameworks for the development of his research questions and data collection tools. The Theory of Reasoned Action asserted that individual behavior is rational and based on a systematic assessment of the information available to them in a certain situation. Thus, an individual’s behavior—in the case of this study, the use or rejection of ICT— is determined by his or her intentions to perform the behavior, and this intention is influenced jointly by the individual's "attitudes and subjective norms" (Dillon & Morris,1996, p. 6). Attitudes are thought to be composed of cognitive, affective, and behavioral elements. Cognitive refers to the perceptions of the attitude object; affective refers to feelings towards the attitude object; and behavior refers to the response to the attitude object (Ajzen, 1988). According to Ajzen and Fishbein (1980), “a complete description of attitudes requires that all three components be assessed by obtaining measures of all three response classes” (p. 20). Albirini's instrument for measuring teacher attitudes toward ICT takes into account these three components, which are assumed to correlate with actual behavior based on evidence from related studies supporting the Theory of Reasoned Action (Albirini, 2004; Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). In addition, three additional factors associated with teacher attitudes towards ICT—competence, access, and teacher demographics—were reflected in Albirini's survey instrument and explored in this study. For developing countries, the potential benefits of ICT integration, as well as the widespread teaching of English, have been promoted by a number of international organizations, such as the United States Agency for International Development, Intel, and the United Nations Development Fund. Yet more research is required to ensure that such countries can benefit from models and practical information related to effective implementation, particularly in the Arab world. No empirical studies on the attitudes of Jordanian teachers toward ICT exist, especially for purposes of EFL instruction. Thus, this replication of Albirini's (2004) work helped to build the knowledge base for ICT implementation in the educational systems of countries in the developing world.

5 Statement of the Problem

In spite of the belief of policymakers worldwide that ICT is essential to improving the quality of life for individuals in developing countries such as Jordan, research suggests that many factors play a part in effectively integrating ICT into economic and educational systems (OCED, 2001; Wheeler, 2000). In school settings in developing countries, where teachers effectively function as primary "change agents" (Chin & Hortin, 1994, p. 83), such factors may play a significant role in the extent to which teachers carry out the responsibility of utilizing technology for instructional purposes, and ultimately, for development. While several studies have addressed the relationship between teacher attitudes and effective use of ICT in the classroom (Chiero, 1999; Dupagne & Krendel, 1992; Hardy, 1998; Hignite & Echternacht, 1992; Kendel, 1995; Koohang, 1987; Rizza, 2000; Spiegel, 2001; Woodrow, 1992), few have investigated this phenomenon in the Arab region (Al-Ammari, 2004; Al-Asmari, 2005; Al-Oteawi, 2002; Kibbi, 1995; Sadik, 2005), and fewer still have looked at attitudes towards ICT among Middle Eastern EFL teachers (Albirini, 2004). In the modern Jordanian educational system, all teachers are expected to utilize ICT to achieve two purposes: first, to qualify students for a brighter future, and second, to enable teachers to better achieve their instructional goals. For Jordanian EFL teachers, the stakes are even higher, given the national mandate to teach English in all public schools beginning in first grade. However, teachers’ awareness of the significance of ICT for both their professional development and their students’ achievement does not guarantee that ICT is actually implemented nor that such implementation is effective. This problem is highlighted by the fact that Jordan, as a developing country, has embraced ICT in education as a means to progress and modernization. Despite the mandating of both ICT and EFL instruction in all Jordanian public and private schools, there is little research specific to the locale to inform such a mandate. Thus, two dimensions exist with regard to ICT in Jordanian schools: the human factor and the innovation itself. To understand what makes one EFL teacher embrace the use of ICT and another resist using it, we need to examine teachers’ attitudes towards computers. We must ask: Do factors such as age, gender, qualification, training,

6 computer competence, and access play a role in influencing teachers’ attitudes? Does the process of diffusion in the public school setting and the perception of ICT attributes by teachers influence their attitudes towards ICT? In asking these questions of EFL teachers in Syria, Albirini (2004) began such an inquiry. In replicating his work, this study would serve a dual purpose. It would both provide answers specific to Jordan and add to the body of scholarly literature related to ICT use in education in the Arab region by EFL teachers, the Diffusion of Innovations (Rogers, 1995), and the theoretical relationship between attitudes and behavior posed by the Theory of Reasoned Action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). Research Questions

In this study, which replicates a study conducted in Syria by Albirini (2004), the relationship between Jordanian EFL teacher attitudes towards ICT and a number of variables related to ICT use, was explored. Based on Ajzen and Fishbein's (1980) Theory of Reasoned Action, the dependent variable "attitudes" is composed of cognitive, affective, and behavioral dimensions. Two of the independent variables, teacher perceptions of ICT attributes and culture-related perceptions of ICT are based on Rogers' (1980) Theory of Diffusion of Innovations. The other independent variables, chosen by Albirini based on a review of the literature, are: 1) competence in using ICT, 2) level of access to ICT, and 3) teacher characteristics (gender, age, income, teaching experience, educational background, and teaching method). Accordingly, the following research questions to be investigated follow those specified in Albirini's study: 1) What are the attitudes towards ICT among Jordanian EFL teachers? 2) What are the perceptions of Jordanian EFL teachers in regard to: • ICT attributes? • Cultural perceptions of ICT? • Computer competence? • Computer access? 3) What is the relationship between the attitudes toward ICT among Jordanian EFL teachers and their perceptions of each of the independent variables (including teachers’ characteristics)?

7 4) What is the proportion of the variance in the dependent variables (attitudes toward ICT by Jordanian EFL teachers) that can be explained by the independent variables? Since the implementation and integration of both ICT and English instruction has been mandated in all Jordanian public and private schools, and since little research has explored the relationship between factors that may influence EFL teacher attitudes towards ICT and their actual integration of ICT in their classrooms in Jordan, it was assumed that this current research would fill an immediate need in that country.

Rationale for the Study

Education research is thought to have two related purposes to which this study would contribute: adding to the fundamental understanding of education-related phenomena and events, and informing practical decision-making (Shavelson & Towne, 2002). Effective educational research requires a balanced consideration of the validity of knowledge claims, the credibility of researchers, and the utility and relevance of the work to situations of educational practice. Replication, such as that to be conducted in this study, plays an important role in accomplishing these goals and broadening the groundwork for further research. Shavelson and Towne (2002) have addressed the nature of scientific inquiry in education, and the manner in which the results of research lead to the accumulation of knowledge. They have advocated the need for a set of norms, to be enforced by a community of researchers, which would help to shape the kind of cumulative knowledge that exists in the physical sciences, like engineering or biology. To this end, they enumerated six essential principles of any scientific research, including education research. Among these guiding principles is the imperative to “replicate and generalize across studies” (p. 70). Since all studies rely on a limited set of observations, replication is an essential means of determining the extent to which individual findings be generalized to larger populations and settings (Shavelson & Towne, 2002). Similarly, Schneider (2004) has argued that the rarity of replication in education studies has produced disparate results that undermine the education research community’s ability to

8 accumulate knowledge. In Schneider's view, replication represents an important and unifying concept, and as such, a starting point, for a constructive dialogue that might help to unite a community of diverse paradigms and methods. This is because replication necessitates the development of common languages and measures, data sharing, data analysis, and technological mechanisms that support these types of activities. According to King (1995), the most common and scientifically productive method of building on existing research is to replicate an existing finding - to follow the precise path [italics added] taken by a previous researcher, and then improve on the data or the methodology in one way or another. (p. 445) Shavelson and Towne (2002) have asserted that replication involves the repetition of "an investigation in more than one setting (from one laboratory to another or from one field site to a similar field site) [to] reach similar conclusions” (p. 70). Likewise, Shadish, Cook, and Campbell (2002) have described replication as “conducting an investigation repeatedly with comparable subjects and conditions to achieve what would be expected to be similar results” (p. 1). Others, however, have noted that a replication study, such as the one described here, may differ from the original somewhat in terms of population and setting. Hubbard (1994) has made a distinction between replication and replication with extension. According to Hubbard, replication studies duplicate as closely as possible the research designed in the original study by employing the same variable definitions, settings, instruments, analytical techniques, and so on. Replication with extension, on the other hand, maintains the same conceptual relationships as those in the original study, but changes some aspects of the research design. Replication with extension may involve modifying either the measured or manipulated variables (but not both), repeating the study with a sample drawn from a different population (e.g., in terms of gender, socioeconomic background, or geographical setting), or examining whether "time may influence the results of earlier studies" (p. 235). Hubbard (1994) asserts that replication with extension serves the function of assessing whether outcomes can be generalized beyond the original context. As such, he argues replication and replication with extension "play a valuable role in ensuring the

9 integrity of a discipline’s empirical results" (p. 234). In his view, the responsibility of researchers goes beyond conducting original research to "question whether a given result is plausible, reproducible, and/or generalizable" (p. 234). Similarly, Campbell and Jackson (1979) stress the value of replication with extension as a means of determining the validity and the reliability of results, as well as the extent of their generalizability. This study, then, replicated with extension the work of Albirini (2004), who explored attitudes towards ICT among Syrian EFL teachers. Like Albirini, this researcher attempted to determine the relationship between such attitudes and factors shown in previous research to be related to attitudes towards ICT: computer attributes, cultural perceptions, computer competence, computer access, and teacher demographics. As such, this study drew upon the same theoretical frameworks used by Albirini in composing his research questions and his instrument, that is, Rogers' (1995) Diffusion of Innovation Theory and Ajzen and Fishbein's (1980) Theory of Reasoned Action. Thus, in replicating with extension Albirini's (2004) research, this study adopted the same theoretical framework, research questions, instrumentation, sampling technique, and analytical techniques. While both studies utilize a random sample from a population of Middle Eastern EFL teachers, however, this study focused specifically on Jordanian EFL teachers in the capital city of Amman rather than in Syria. In light of Shavelson and Towne's (2002) description of the purposes of education research, then, this study has value in both adding to our fundamental knowledge of ICT use by EFL teachers in developing countries, and informing the actual practice of such use in Jordan. As a replication with extension of Albirini's (2004) research with Syrian EFL teachers, this study helped to determine the extent to which Albirini's results can be generalized to other developing countries with similar priorities in the Middle Eastern region, as well as add to the scholarly discourse on the use of ICT for instructional purposes, especially among teachers of English as a foreign language.

Significance of the Study

A major aspect of the significance of this replication of Albirini's (2004) study of Syrian EFL teachers' attitudes towards ICT relates to the scarcity of studies on the use of

10 ICT by teachers in the Arab world, and among Arab EFL teachers in particular. Appropriate support for the use of ICT by EFL teachers in Jordan, where ICT use and English instruction both have become national mandates, requires research that can provide insights specific to this population. Because so little research has addressed ICT use among EFL teachers in the Middle East, where both ICT use and EFL instruction have major implications for national development, part of the significance of this study is in its contribution to the larger knowledge base in this regard. In addition to providing empirical data to fill in the gap in the international literature, this study provides more knowledge that may be of value to researchers in other developing countries. In addition, based on the findings of this study, other research can be conducted in various parts of the world to compare and contrast with Jordan. In this sense, the study has theoretical significance. The findings of this study also are beneficial to educators and scholars in the field of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) as well as in the field of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL). Little is known about EFL education in the Middle East or technology integration in EFL instruction in public schools in the region. This lack of research creates obstacles to the improvement of English curricula and teaching practices that incorporate the modern tools of instructional technology. On a more applied level, the Ministry of Education in Jordan has acknowledged the importance of such research. In light of global trends towards the integration of technology in schools, and the personal interest and ambition of King Abdullah II in making Jordan a country in which all Jordanians are English literate, the Jordanian MOE has expressed strong support for “detailed studies at the national level to assess [Jordan’s] human resource capabilities and requirements, and to target the role of education in developing [Jordan’s] capacity and marketable skills to meet the labor market’s changing needs” (JMOE, 2000, p. 3). It is essential to build teacher support for ICT if the Jordanian government is to achieve its goal of creating an educational system that embodies ‘excellence’ and offers every student the experience of mastery that relies on the human potential, on the human capacity to learn and grow, and on the human desire to contribute to the larger society in a meaningful way. (JMOE, 1999, p. 3)

11 Thus, the present study is significant in that it can shed light on barriers to the actual adoption of ICT use by Jordanian EFL teachers and provide information that is helpful in supplementing existing in-service training programs. Policy makers and professional development designers, among others, can benefit from empirically derived information about teacher attitudes, incorporating such information as they design and implement efficient and effective in-service training programs. The results of this study provide baseline data about the selected Jordanian EFL teachers’ attitudes, competence, and access to ICT. Over the past five years, the Jordanian Ministry of Education has made an enormous investment in establishing an infrastructure for ICT in public schools, in addition to staff development through workshops and its ICDL certificate program. Thus, the findings of this study should be of practical interest to the Jordanian Ministry of Education. Officials would find it useful to know the amount, types, and methods of computer use by public school teachers, so that funding for technology and staff development can be optimally directed. Because the results may be used to inform real- world activities, then, the study has applied significance as well.

Why English is important in the Arab World

The acquisition of speaking and writing ability in the English language is a priority for citizens of many countries throughout the world. It is estimated that “300 million people are learning English at the present time” (Griffith, 1999, p. 9). Al- Khatib (2000) highlighted the importance of English language learning for students in the Arab region: Teaching English and other European languages as foreign or second languages in the Arab world can be traced back to 1920s, when different parts of the region came under the British and French mandates. With the increase in the use of English as a lingua franca, most Arab governments began to recognize its importance by introducing the teaching of English into the school curriculum. At present, in most Arab countries, all students who finish the public secondary school education must have had at least eight years of instruction in English as a school subject. It is also worth noting that formal training was and is still

12 compulsory in most elementary, preparatory, and secondary Arab private schooling. So, because the widespread use of English as a second language, the subject of language teaching in general, and teaching of English as a foreign or second language in particular, has become the focus of attention of most Arab researchers. (p. 122) Zughoul (2003) described English as the “language of globalization,” particularly in the Arab world (p. 10). Crystal (1997, cited in Zughoul, 2003) has outlined twelve international “domains” of the English language that contribute significantly to its privileged status worldwide. These domains account for the dominance of English because it is: • the working language of international organizations and conferences…85% of international organizations use English, 49% use French, and less than 10% use Arabic, Spanish, or German. • the “international currency of science and technology” (p.10). • the language of international banking, economic affairs, and trade. • the language of advertising for global brands. • the language of audio-visual/cultural products. • the language of international tourism. • the language of tertiary education. • the language of international safety (e.g. airplane). • the language of international law. • a “ relay language” in interpretation and translation. • the language of technology transfer. • the language of Internet communication (Zughoul, 2003, p.10). According to Zughoul (2003), the current status of English in the world has two major causes: British colonialism, and the rise of the U.S. as a strong political and military power. The English language became more entrenched in the Arab region after the First Gulf War, when Kuwait and Jordan decided to start teaching English in the first grade. English is believed to play an important role in the educational and economic development among the policy makers in the Arab region. Accordingly, English is now taught from first grade at both public and private schools in Jordan, and has become the

13 language of instruction in the colleges of science, engineering, medicine, and nursing in Jordan. The cultural environment of Jordan is distinguished by its widespread use of English as a foreign/second language in addition to the use of Arabic, the native language, in formal and informal settings. According to Crystal (2001), English is now spoken by more people (as a first, second, or foreign language) than any other language in the world, and is recognized by many countries as a more desirable “lingua franca than any other language” (p. 54). In addition, English functions as a gatekeeper to positions of prestige in society (Crosby, 2004). Being fluent in English seems to be significantly connected with higher social positions as well as higher paying jobs. In the Arab world, individuals who would like to secure better living conditions in the society need to be fluent in English. Many students who pursue higher education abroad are required to pass the TOEFL and GRE with increasingly higher scores. By the same token, English is the language of technology. Accordingly, it is no surprise to see that in a developing country like Jordan, English language teachers are considered to be highly responsible for bringing change and reform to the education system and the society as a whole.

Limitations of the Study

Several limitations exist in regard to the study, and are enumerated below: 1) The data were collected by self-reported surveys administered in Jordan. A set of instructions accompanied the surveys, ensuring the teachers’ anonymity in responding and thanking the teacher in advance for answering the survey candidly. Nevertheless, as in any self-reported survey, the researcher must assume that some measure of respondent self-consciousness may influence the responses. 2) The instrument used to collect the data was in Arabic, the native language of the subjects, in an attempt to minimize any cultural or linguistic bias. However, in translating the results back into English, some small amount of discontinuity may have resulted. 3) The population of the study was limited to English language teachers in the First and Second Districts of Amman, the most urban areas of the capital. As a result,

14 the findings from this study may not be strictly generalizable to Jordan as a whole.

Definitions of Terms

The following terms were used throughout the study: ICT: Any computer-based or communication technologies, networked or stand alone, hardware or software, which can be used as teaching, learning, and information resources.

Attitude: “A psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor” (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993, p. 15). In this study, attitude toward ICT was defined as the degree of favor or disfavor towards the existence of ICT in Jordanian schools. It consisted of three components: affective, cognitive, and behavioral (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). Affective questions refer to the teacher’s feelings about ICT in education; cognitive questions refer to the teacher's actual knowledge of ICT, and behavioral questions refer to the teacher’s explicit use of and behavior towards ICT.

Innovation attributes: Rogers (1995) has identified five attributes of an innovation which determine the degree of its adoption: (1) relative advantage, (2) compatibility, (3) complexity, (4) observability, and (5) trialability. Relative advantage refers to the degree to which an innovation is perceived to be better than the idea it takes over; compatibility refers to the degree to which an innovation is consistent with existing values, past experiences, and the needs of potential adopters; complexity refers to the degree to which an innovation is perceived to be difficult to use; observability refers to the observed advantages of the innovation; and trialability refers to the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with before reaching a decision to adopt or reject it (Rogers, 1995). In this study, perceived attributes of ICT are operationally defined as the degree of

15 relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, and observability of ICT perceived by Jordanian EFL teachers. The fifth attribute, trialability, was not included in the study since EFL teachers in Jordan have not had the chance to experiment with ICT before it has been placed in schools by government decree.

Cultural perceptions: Based on Rogers’s (1995) idea of cultural compatibility, cultural perceptions can be defined as “the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being consistent with the existing values, past experiences, and needs of potential adopters” (p. 15). In this study, cultural perceptions refer to the extent to which Jordanian EFL teachers’ perceive ICT use to be consistent with the cultural context of the Jordanian society and public schools.

Computer knowledge: The comprehension of fundamental ideas related to ICT as measured by items in the research survey.

Computer skills: The self-reported ability to use ICT as measured by the items in the research survey.

Computer access: The self-reported actual availability of ICT at home or at school or any other location.

Teacher characteristics: The demographic variables of gender, age, qualifications, school level, teaching experience, computer training, and teaching method.

International Computer Driving License (ICDL): An internationally recognized computer literacy training program that began in 1997, now considered to be the leading global ICT certification program in more than 50 countries. ICDL is obtained after the successful completion of the seven 45-minute test modules on: basic concepts of IT; using the computer and managing files; word processing; spreadsheets; databases; presentations; Internet and e-mail (Caspo, 2002).

16 Note: In this study, the following terms were used interchangeably: “technology in education,” “computers in the classroom,” and “ICT integration.” These terms are used when discussing machines, software, electronic information systems, and communication capabilities used in a classroom setting.

Assumptions

For the purposes of this study, it was assumed that each school had the resources available for teachers to incorporate ICT such as computers, software, and Internet into their daily lessons. In 2003, the Jordanian Ministry of Education (JMOE) reported that more than 1,650 schools were equipped with PCs, networking, and basic peripherals in more than 1,724 school-based computer labs. About 1,100 secondary schools, selected from different directorates, were to be connected to the Internet by the end of 2003 as well, as part of an agreement between JMOE and the Jordanian Telecommunication Company (JTC). Other public schools were to be connected thereafter at the rate of about 200 schools per month in an effort to achieve full connectivity of all public schools by December 2003. Second, it was assumed that each school had a wide spectrum of technology users who demonstrated little/no use to frequent use. The final assumption was that each school had teachers with a variety of years of teaching experience.

Summary

This chapter provided an introduction to this study, including a background to the study, the statement of the problem, the research questions guiding the study, and the significance of the study. In addition, the terms most commonly used throughout the study were defined, limitations to the study were addressed, and the assumptions on which the study is based were outlined.

17 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

This chapter contains a review of the literature relevant to the theoretical and practical framework of the study. The use of ICT throughout the world, and the importance of ICT to Jordan and its educational system are discussed. Also, language instruction and ICT, and the educational reform in Jordan and its influence on EFL are presented. Rogers' Theory of Diffusion of Innovations (1995), and its applicability to the study of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) use in classrooms, is discussed. In addition, research is described pertaining to the Theory of Reasoned Action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980) and its applicability to the examination of teachers’ attitudes towards ICT. Empirical studies investigating other factors related to teachers’ attitudes towards ICT were also presented. Because I was unable to locate any empirical studies addressing the attitudes of Jordanian EFL teachers towards computers or the use of ICT, and only a few related studies set in the Arab region, the studies reviewed in this chapter were mainly conducted in American or European settings. To the extent that these studies identify variables associated with the use of ICT in the classroom, they serve as a starting point for further investigation in the Arab context. In addition, the model of ICT use and EFL instruction used in Jordan has largely been imported from American and European organizations (Jordanian Ministry of Education, 2003). However, in recognition of the cultural differences between Jordan and Western countries, the instrumentation for the study includes questions that examine teacher perceptions about the fit between ICT use in the classroom and the Jordanian culture.

The Use of ICT in Education throughout the World

ICT is having a significant influence on the future of education. A review of the relevant research suggests that ICT is considered essential in business and industry as

18 well as education (OECD, 2001; Wheeler, 2000). In order for countries to become successful members of the global marketplace, they must produce laborers who are highly qualified in the realm of information and communication technology (Gonzenbach & Davis, 1999). Roblyer and Edwards (2000) proposed five reasons for teachers to use technology in education: (1) motivation, (2) distinctive instructional abilities, (3) higher productivity of teachers, (4) essential skills for the Information Age, and (5) support for new teaching techniques. Pelgrum (2001) has noted that ICT is "not only the backbone of the Information Age, but also an important catalyst and tool for inducing educational reforms that change our students into productive knowledge workers” (p. 2). He sought to conduct a comparative international educational assessment of ICT integration that would include contextual factors that might explain the variations among the countries. His worldwide survey of 26 countries examined the application of ICT in elementary and secondary schools, specifically the main obstacles associated with the use of ICT in classrooms. The countries represented in the study included Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Hong Kong, Hungary, Iceland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, New Zealand, Norway, Russian Federation, Singapore, Slovenia, Slovak Republic, South Africa, Taiwan and Thailand. According to Pelgrum, the results of this wide-ranging study indicated that the top three obstacles related to the integration of ICT were insufficient number of computers, teachers’ lack of knowledge/skills, and difficulty in integrating ICT in instruction. Many governments and organizations have taken up the effort to increase the technological expertise of teachers for instructional purposes. In the United States, an initiative to help meet the need for computer-literate teachers nationwide was introduced by President Bill Clinton in 1997 (Panel on Educational Technology). In 2000, the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) introduced the National Educational Technology Standards (NETS) for technology in education (ISTENETS, 2005). The purpose of the project was to allow “stakeholders in pre-K-12 education to develop national standards of educational technology that facilitate school improvement in the United States” (p. 1). Pelgrum (2001) has observed that a shift has occurred in the roles of school, teacher, student, and parent due to the introduction of ICT in society.

19 Table 1 Comparison of Educational Roles in the Industrial Society and the Information Society

Actor Education in the Industrial Society Education in the Information Society

School • Isolated from society • Integrated in society • Most information on school • Information openly functioning is confidential available

Teacher • Initiator of instruction • Helps students find • Whole class teaching appropriate instructional • Evaluate students path • Places low emphasis on • Guides students’ communication skills independent learning • Helps students evaluate their progress • Places high emphasis on communication skills

Student • Mostly passive • More active • Learns mostly at school • Learns at school and • Hardly any teamwork outside school • Takes questions from books • Much teamwork or teachers • Asks questions • Learns answers to questions • Finds answers to • Low interest in learning questions • High interest in learning

Parent • Hardly active in the learning • Very active in the process learning process • No steering of instruction • Co-steering • No life-long learning model • Parents provide a model

*Note: Source: (Pelgrum, 2001, p. 2)

Because of the global nature of technology, the need for recognizable and shared standards for preparing, developing and improving teachers’ technology skills worldwide is essential. The European Computer Driving License (or ECDL) is a pan-European qualification that demonstrates competence in essential computer skills and knowledge (the European Computer Driving License website). Outside of Europe, the ECDL

20 program is known as the International Computer Driving License (ICDL) program (Caspo, 2002). This computer literacy training and certification program is widely recognized as the global computer literacy standard. Launched in 1997 with participants from more than 50 countries, the program leading to the ICDL is now used in Europe, the Middle East, Africa, and Asia, and is fast becoming “the leading formal computer skills certification sought by students, workers, employees, and the general public” (Caspo, 2002, p. 1). In the Middle East, an authorized ICDL center was established under UNESCO in Egypt in the early 2000 (http://www.icdl-unesco.org). In Jordan, the Ministry of Education endorses the ICDL as the optimal computer certification program for all teachers, in both in public and private schools. The program is based on seven modules, and tests the following topics: 1. Basic concepts of IT 2. Using the computer and managing files 3. Word processing 4. Spreadsheets 5. Databases 6. Presentations 7. Internet and E-mail (Caspo, 2002, p. 2) Participants must complete the seven modules successfully in order to earn their ICDL license. A period of two years is offered for completion of the license. JMOE offers incentives and promotions for the teachers who obtain the license. ICT Use in Education in the Arab World Several studies involving the use of computers in education have been conducted in Gulf States in the past few years (Al-Ammari, 2004; Al-Asmari, 2005; Al-Kahtani, 2001). In Qatar, Al-Ammari (2004) investigated female teachers’ perceptions of computers in education, and examined the correlation between the female teachers’ perceptions and computer training and computer lab use. The findings of the study showed that the Qatari female teachers placed a high value on computer implementation in education. They saw it as a useful educational tool for both teachers as well as students. However, the study revealed that the female teachers encountered many barriers, both external and internal, to their implementation of computers in education.

21 External barriers included: a lack of manuals, limited number of labs, lack of time, lack of incentives for using computers, limited proficiency in the English language, and the high cost of hardware and software. The internal barriers were related more to personal factors, such as a teacher's lack of knowledge and competence, fear of computers, and lack of confidence. Al-Kahtani (2001) conducted a study to describe the current status of CALL in the EFL departments of four universities in Saudi Arabia. He utilized a mixed method design including both quantitative (survey) and qualitative (semi-structured interviews) approaches to collect the data. Al-Kahtani found that most of the hardware in these universities was out of date. Although most faculty demonstrated positive attitudes towards the use of CALL in EFL instruction, barriers such as lack of Internet connectivity, lack of adequate software and networks, and limited access to computers by the students hindered the faculty’s integration of CALL in their teaching. Of the `technologies used by the EFL faculty, the Internet, email, and word processing were the most frequently employed technologies. In 2004, Albirini conducted a study to explore the Syrian EFL teachers’ attitudes towards ICT in relation to computer attributes, cultural perceptions, computer competence, and computer access. He also investigated the relationship between attitudes towards ICT and certain demographic variables: age, gender, income, school location, teacher qualification, teaching experience, computer training, and teaching method. The researcher utilized a mixed method: quantitative and qualitative to collect the data in the city of Hims in the scholastic year 2003-2004. A random sample of 326 Syrian EFL teachers was surveyed and 15 teachers were interviewed. The study findings showed that Syrian EFL teachers had positive attitudes towards ICT in education. They demonstrated neutral perceptions in terms of cultural relevance of ICT to the Syrian society and schools. However, the teachers expressed their concern about the improper materials found on the Internet during the interviews. Conversely, Syrian EFL teachers reported low levels of computer competence, computer access, and limited in-service training. The researcher contended that 58% of the variance in the dependent variable, attitudes towards ICT, was explained by the independent variables mentioned earlier. He recommended that Syrian policy makers offer more professional development workshops

22 in regard to computer training and build a more comprehensive and updated infrastructure to ensure teachers’ access to computers in schools. The most recent study, conducted in 2005 by Al-Asmari, examined the use of the Internet by EFL teachers in four Saudi Arabian colleges of technology. The researcher used a mixed methods design to examine a group of demographic variables in relation to Internet use by EFL teachers. These demographic variables included personal characteristics (computer experience and computer training), access to the Internet, teacher perceptions of the value of the Internet, and teacher perceptions of their own computer competence. The findings of the study indicated that EFL teachers mainly used the Internet for personal, rather than instructional purposes. Despite their positive perceptions of the value of Internet use as an educational tool, they demonstrated low levels of competency in computer skills. Further, Al-Asmari found that EFL teachers had limited access to the Internet on the university campuses. In another region in the Middle East, Alaa Sadik (2005) conducted a study of the attitudes of Egyptian teachers toward the personal and school use of computers and the various factors that may affect these attitudes and uses. The study also aimed to validate an Arabic version of the Computer Attitude Scale (CAS), originally created by Lloyd and Gressard (1984), and the Attitudes towards the Use of Computers in Schooling, created by Troutman (1991) The sample consisted of 443 public school teachers in the southern districts of Egypt. The findings from the study indicated that the majority of Egyptian teachers demonstrated positive attitudes towards computer use. Further, the demographic variables of gender and computer experience were found to be significantly related to the teachers’ attitudes towards computers. Male teachers demonstrated more positive attitudes than females, and teachers with more computer experience showed more positive attitudes toward computers than less experienced teachers. In terms of the teachers’ attitudes towards the use of computers in schooling, Sadik (2005) found that teachers again scored high on positive attitudes and confidence in using and learning to use computers. Compared with other instructional approaches, however, the teachers surveyed saw the computer as a less useful teaching tool. On the other hand, the variables of frequency of computer use, computer training, years of teaching, and attitudes towards the personal use of computers correlated positively with

23 teacher attitudes towards the use of computers in schooling. Clearly, the findings of the study indicate that teachers who have positive attitudes towards their personal use of computers also have positive attitudes towards the use of computers in schooling. Kibbi (1995) conducted a study examining the extent of computer implementation in classrooms in 411 private schools in the capital city of Lebanon, Beirut. The study utilized Rogers’ (1995) Theory of Diffusion of Innovations as its theoretical framework. Kibbi used a mixed methods design that included a questionnaire, interviews, and analysis of documents in order to compare the current status of computer use in the Beirut schools under study with corresponding goals and plans devised by Lebanon's Ministry of Education. The study revealed a lack of consistent implementation of computer use in the private schools. Not only was the implementation of computers in the classroom restricted to the elementary levels of schools, the teachers lacked a unified computer curriculum that to follow in teaching computer skills to students. Further, great variation existed in the teachers’ computer-related qualifications and skills. At the same time, the majority of the teachers who participated in the study agreed that computer skills were important for boosting student achievement and increasing their chances of finding work in the future. The main problems reported by the Lebanese teachers in terms of successfully integrating computers in classroom instruction included: a lack of in- service training, limited Arabic software programs and applications, and limited funds for the purchase and maintenance of hardware. Kibbi has called for more such studies to be conducted in other Middle Eastern countries in order to produce findings for ongoing comparison and insights. This current study shed light on the current use of ICT by EFL teachers in another country in the Middle East. It helped in presenting a more comprehensive description of the region in terms of ICT implementation for future initiatives and evaluations.

Promoting ICT in Education in the Arab World

Access to information and technology is seen as so crucial to the progress of developing countries that the United Nations placed it third on the list of the most important global issues after poverty and domestic violence (Hafkin & Taggart, 2001). In

24 2003, the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) created a program called Information Communication Technologies in the Arab Region (ICTDAR) to help Arab countries in "harnessing ICT to reduce poverty and improve both public administration performance and private sector hold and expansion”(ICTDAR, 2003, para. 1). ICTDAR has been described as “'human development' driven by the active use of ICT to build, develop, and sustain knowledge acquisition and utilization” (ICTDAR, 2003, para.1). In a 2004 report by the Regional Program for Arab States of the UNDP, the Arab region was described as having the lowest levels of ICT usage relative to other world regions. ICTDAR aims to address problems of low uptake and to harness ICT for poverty reduction by focusing on four lines of service involving: 1) awareness raising and stakeholder campaigns, 2) capacity building, 3) pro-poor growth and employment generation, and 4) digital initiatives. The United Nations Development Program sees ICT as a means to help the Arab region to embrace modernization at every level, by moving from rigid, central structures to flexible decentralized ones. The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) compiled a 2004 report detailing ICT indices in the Middle East and Asia and comparing them with those in Europe and the U.S. The purpose of the UNCTAD is to monitor the developed countries in the Middle East in relation to their technological efforts to “leapfrog” and fill the growing “digital divide” between Western and Eastern developed countries (UNCTAD, para. 4). In the UNCTAD report the authors noted, "The development of ICT in the Middle East is estimated to be three to four years behind the U.S., and two years behind Europe” (IRIN, 2005, para.2). Further, Jordan ranks 75th among developed Middle Eastern countries in the integration of ICT throughout the country, in the midrange of ICT development indices. The Gulf States of United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia rank at the top of this list, due to the investments of their governments in hardware and software that ensures rapid Internet connectivity. The UNCTAD report advised Arab countries to see the development of ICT as tied “to the development of education, trade, health, and other sectors to generate wider benefits,” and argued that technology is important in the "knowledge economy of the global market” (IRIN, para. 5).

25 The Jordanian Context for ICT in Education

The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (see Figure 1) is a small country situated in the Middle East, sharing borders of worldwide strategic importance with Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Syria, and the Palestinian Authority/Israel. Because 60.5% of the total population (5,460,265) of Jordan is between 15-64 years old, it can be considered a young country (Central Intelligence Agency, 2003). Yet, its limited natural resources and industry, growing national debt, and fast growing population have caused the government of Jordan to identify the building of human resources as the best opportunity for achieving economic and social development.

*Note: Source: http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/jo.html Figure 1: Regional Map of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan

King Hussein governed Jordan from 1952 to 1999, and King Abdullah II, his eldest son, assumed the throne after his father’s death in 1999. Debt, unemployment, and poverty were the main challenges facing King Abdullah II, so upon taking leadership of Jordan he launched an ambitious plan for economic and educational reform. Jordan

26 joined the World Trade organization in 2000, signed a Free Trade Agreement with U.S. in 2000 and joined the European Free Trade Association in 2001 (CIA, para. 1). In addition, King Abdullah II took major steps towards creating a dynamic and practical approach to entering the international ICT sector by mandating the teaching of English language from first grade and the implementation of ICT in every sector of the government. Public Education in Jordan Jordan has a student population of 1.4 million (122,000 in secondary schools), of which 840,000 are enrolled in public schools. Of the approximately 5,000 schools (930 secondary schools) in the Kingdom, approximately 60% are public schools (government owned/run). The Jordanian education system is divided into the following three stages: • Pre-school Stage: a non-compulsory stage run by the private sector only. Children from the age of 3 and up can be admitted to kindergartens based on the parents’ decision since it is not a mandatory stage in the Jordanian education system. • Basic Education Stage: a compulsory stage of ten years ranging from the first grade to the tenth grade. The subject matter taught is unified across the Kingdom and students are evaluated annually. Based on the academic achievements of the students in the 8th, 9th, and 10th grades, they are assigned to one of the various streams in the next stage. If the student elects to end his or her education at this stage, a certificate would be issued for the purposes of employment. However, it would not qualify the student for entrance to a college or university. • Secondary Education Stage: a two-year stage that ends with sitting for the general certificate examination, or the Tawjihi. According to the grade the student achieves on the Tawjihi, he or she may qualify for different colleges and universities. The MOE issues transcripts and certificates to the students who pass the Tawjihi, who then move on to one of three main streams, a scientific, literary, or vocational specialization The scientific stream includes such subjects as math, biology, chemistry, and physics, in addition to religion and language. The literary stream, on the other hand, includes language grammar, literature, literary criticism, religion, and a choice of one science class (JMOE, 1996).

27 The JMOE is responsible for planning, implementing, upgrading, and evaluating all the educational components of public education for students (e.g., young, adult special education), teachers, and staff, including curricula, facilities, literacy centers, special education standards, and so on. Jordan is divided into six general directorates: Amman, Zarqa, Balqa, Irbid, Mafraq, and Kerak. These directorates are divided into 26 smaller districts. The Jordanian capital of Amman contains four such educational districts. The Jordanian MOE considers teachers the "most important" element in the educational process (JMOE, 1996, p. 20). Jordanian universities are in charge of planning and implementing pre-service training programs for teachers in three categories: class teachers (elementary education teachers from 1st grade through 4th grade), field teachers (subject matter teachers in the Basic Education Stage), and subject teachers (subject matter teachers in the Secondary Education Stage). In-service training programs for teachers are the sole responsibility of the JMOE. In a 1996 national report by the MOE the goals of such programs were outlined: • Qualifying basic education teachers by upgrading their level of education from a two-year community college diploma to a B.A or B.Sc., the first university degree. • Qualifying secondary education teachers by upgrading their level of education from a first university degree to a Diploma of Education (one year after B.A/B.Sc.). • Qualifying educational leaders such as supervisors and school principals through M.A. degrees. (p. 22 ).

ICT and Educational Reform in Jordan As early as 1989, a national plan for educational reform in Jordan was created, in part involving the introduction of ICT in Jordanian schools. The plan was launched in two phases, the first (1989-1995) during the rule of King Hussein, as a means to develop “teacher training, general examinations, new curricula, educational technology, school buildings, restructuring the educational system, and vocational education and training” (JMOE, 1996, p. 6). The second phase of the plan (1996-2000), implemented after King Abdullah II succeeded his father, was designed to accomplish educational reform in the

28 areas of staff development, assessment, school-based innovations, technical and vocational training, pre-school education, and non-formal education (JMOE, 1996). Thus, the use of ICT in classrooms was one of many important goals set for Jordanian educational reform. With the encouragement of King Abdullah II, private organizations took some initiative in developing an ICT sector in Jordan. The vision of King Abdullah II that “Jordan will become the IT hub for the region” (JMOE, 2003, p. 1), announced during the First National Economic Forum in November 1999, has become accepted as the best solution for the long-term success of the country’s economy and the prosperity of its citizens. In 1999, a proposal to develop and strengthen the Information Technology (IT) sector in Jordan was established by a core group of members of the Jordan Computer Society (int@j). The resulting REACH Initiative was a comprehensive framework for widespread IT development in Jordan in general. REACH is an acronym that stands for • Regulatory Framework • Enabling Environment • Advanced Programs • Capital & Finance • Human Resources Development Put website addresses (www.reach.jo). The REACH action plan and strategy was developed through consultation with and technical support from the Access to Microfinance and Improved Implementation Policy Reform (AMIR) project of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The Jordanian Ministry of Education was given oversight responsibility for the project due to its responsibility for the education of more than 1.5 million students—over one-third of the population—in addition to its indirect involvement with higher education institutions such as universities, community colleges, and human resources training centers (JMOE, 2003). The MOE is considered to be the largest user of IT in Jordan. In 2001, the Jordanian MOE declared three initiatives to be implemented in cooperation with the World Bank, international organizations, and the international and national private sectors by 2005. These initiatives involved school connectivity, basic

29 teacher training, and teacher professional development training (World Economic Forum, 2001, para. 3). More specifically, the goals of the initiatives were to: • Provide computers to 500 schools not funded under World Bank and Spanish and Canadian governments’ loans. • Provide basic computer literacy training to 25,000 public school teachers via the Intel Teach to the Future Program, wherein all teachers were to receive 102 hours of computer training over a period of four years in order to complete the International Computing Drivers License. • Provide advanced teacher professional development in the integration of technology in the classroom, including the use of tele-collaborative projects and curriculum development to teachers in Jordan’s 807 public secondary schools via the World Links program. The World Links program uses four 40-hour modules to train teachers in the integration of technology in the classroom. These teachers were to represent a core of “master trainers” who, in turn, would train additional teachers nationwide to build a native skill base in technology (World Links, 2005, para. 1). Launched in Jordan in June 2003, the World Links program was designed to prepare students, teachers, and educational organizations to enter the information age by providing schools with substantial solutions for mobilizing and harnessing the necessary technologies, skills, and educational resources to improve learning and prepare youth to compete successfully in the knowledge- based economy. (World Links, 2005, para. 1) By 2001, the Jordanian Ministry of Education had launched an ambitious set of projects to finance the introduction of technology into Jordan’s 3,183 public schools, with the eventual goal of having one computer for every ten Jordanian students (World Economic Forum, 2001). In February 2001, King Abdullah II proclaimed, “The ‘remodeling’ of education remains a top priority" (JMOE, 2002, p. 1). By this time, the Jordanian Ministry of Education had become acutely aware of the importance of focusing on factors associated with human capital development as a means of preparing Jordan to take part in future knowledge-based world economies. The government of Jordan placed this notion of enhanced human resources as the highest priority for the country, as

30 evidenced by His Majesty’s presence and active participation in many high-profile education and ICT forums. In 2003, the JMOE reported that more than 1,650 schools were equipped with PCs, networking, and basic peripherals in more than 1,724 school- based computer labs. About 1,100 secondary schools, selected from different directorates, were to be connected to the Internet by the end of 2003 as well, as part of an agreement between JMOE and the Jordanian Telecommunication Company (JTC). Other public schools were to be connected thereafter at the rate of about 200 schools per month in an effort to achieve full connectivity of all public schools by December 2003. In addition, four schools were to have video conferencing facilities (JMOE, 2003). The extent of progress made towards the achievements of these goals is not clear, however, since no government reports on the movement towards these objectives have been published to date.

Language Instruction and ICT

With the exception of the chalkboard, few tools have been designed solely for the purpose of learning (Johnson, 1992, cited in Murphy, 2000, p. 1). Information and communication technology (ICT) is one of many tools that have been appropriated for use by teachers for the purpose of learning. Unlike the television and the tape recorder, however, ICT requires specific training in order for teachers to become competent and successful in utilizing it to its fullest potential. The National Standards in Foreign Language Education, developed through a collaborative project headed by American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL), represent the results of advocacy for minimal competencies with computers. The standards suggest that all foreign language teachers acquire the basic technology skills associated with using email and the Internet in their classrooms (Shelly, 1998, p. 272). The employment of computer technology in the field of second/foreign language instruction is intertwined with the use of computer-assisted language learning (CALL). As Warschauer and Healey (1998) have noted, “Computers have been used for language teaching since the 1960s” (p. 1). In a well-recognized review of CALL-related research, Warschauer and Healey (1998) identified three phases of CALL use in the classroom:

31 structural, communicative, and integrative, as illustrated in Table 2. Warschauer and Healey have noted that these phases are not clear-cut in terms of a particular time line. As the authors stipulated, “Current uses of computers in the language classroom correspond to all three of the paradigms" (p. 59).

Table 2

Three Stages of Computer-Assisted Language Learning

______

Stage

1970s-1980s: 1980s-1990s: 21st Century:

Structural CALL Communicative CALL Interactive

CALL

Technology Mainframe PCs Multimedia, WWW

English-Teaching Grammar-translation Communicate[sic] Content-based, ESP Paradigm and audio-lingual language teaching

View of Language Structural Cognitive Socio-cognitive and Social interaction

Principal Use of Drill and practice Communicative Authentic discourse Computers exercises

Principle Objective Accuracy Fluency Fluency and Agency

*Note: Source: (Warschauer, 2000, p. 3).

32 Bax (2003) has suggested three new categories of CALL use: Restricted, Open, and Integrated. According to Bax, although the second approach to CALL—Open CALL—is used most frequently in classrooms, a state of “normalization” needs to be reached in which the technology is “invisible and truly integrated” (pp. 11-12). Bax drew on Rogers’ (1995) Diffusion of Innovation Theory to explain how CALL might be adopted over time, suggesting that the progress of CALL towards normalization might take place in the following stages: 1) Early adoption of CALL by a few teachers and schools who adopt the technology out of curiosity. 2) Ignorance/skepticism among most people, who are skeptical or ignorant about CALL's existence. 3) A single try by some people who then reject CALL because of early problems, failing to see its value, since it doesn’t appear to add any “relative advantage” (Rogers, 1995, p. 21) (In this researcher's view, this response relates to the complexity of the innovation.) 4) Another try by some people after someone tells them CALL really works, and an acknowledgement of some relative advantage. (In this researcher's view, this group might be considered the early majority.) 5) Continued fear and awe, as well as exaggerated expectations, as more people start to use CALL. 6) Gradual normalization of the use of CALL as it is seen as something normal. 7) Complete normalization of the use of CALL, which becomes so integrated into our lives that it is almost invisible. A study by Tuzcuglu (2000) examined teachers’ attitudes towards CALL in the Foreign Language Department at a Turkish university. The teachers surveyed were found to have positive attitudes towards the use of CALL in language instruction. Nevertheless, the teachers were reluctant to use the computer lab, thus underutilizing the use of computers in their language instruction. Despite the teachers' awareness that the use of CALL promoted student achievement and linguistic competence in general, the study revealed that the teachers' lack of training and experience in using CALL resulted in the under-use of computers in the classroom.

33 Pope and Golub (2000) outlined seven principles as key standards for integrating technology into English language arts teacher preparation programs. These standards reflect the National Educational Technology Standards for students developed by the International Society for Technology in Education. In their 2000 report, Connecting Curriculum and Technology, the authors argued that teachers of pre-service teachers need to: 1. Introduce and infuse technology in context 2. Focus on the importance of technology as a literacy tool 3. Model English language arts learning and teaching while integrating technology 4. Evaluate critically when and how to use technology in English language arts classrooms 5. Provide a wide range of opportunities to use technology 6. Examine and determine ways of analyzing, evaluating, and grading English language arts technology projects 7. Emphasize issues of equity and diversity (p. 90) Shelly (1998) conducted a study investigating the adoption and use of electronic e-mail by K-12 foreign language teachers. She used Rogers’ (1995) five stages of adoption—relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability— to measure their integration of technology and to design four instructional workshops. Shelly found that the teachers who received the instruction used e-mail significantly more frequently than those who did not receive instruction. Many factors seemed to affect these foreign language teachers’ adoption of e-mail, including “e-mail training, the need to keep up with the latest educational technology trends, the desire to contact teachers and students around the world, the availability of a relatively easy-to-use system, a hands-on email experience, school support, and individual computer anxiety level” (p. 269). Liaw (1998) investigated the effects of using e-mail writing on students’ language skills in two EFL classrooms, and explored the dynamics involved in the process. Surveys and interviews were used to collect data from 26 college freshmen in Taiwan. The findings from the study showed that using e-mail writing as an instructional strategy

34 was beneficial in improving the reading and the writing language skills of EFL students. Furthermore, the experience positively affected student attitudes towards the use of computers in language learning. Accordingly, Liaw advocated a shift in the use of computers from mere tools for drill and practice to a means for more naturalistic language learning. A national study was conducted by Turnbull and Lawrence (2002) to examine the beliefs, attitudes, and experiences of French second language (FSL) teachers in relation to their use of technology in FSL education. In this study, the first of its kind in Canada, 500 surveys were distributed to a representative sample of FSL teachers at all class levels across Canada with a response rate of about 55%. Forty-one percent of the respondents indicated never having used a computer in their classroom, in comparison with 58% who had used one in FSL teaching. The main factor behind the teachers’ under-use of computer technology was a lack of training and knowledge about "how to integrate computer technology in their teaching" (p. 4). Nevertheless, 90% of the respondents indicated positive attitudes towards the use of computer technology in the classroom. The main computer activities by the teachers were word processing, e-mail, and Internet-use, respectively. In terms of training, only one-fifth of the respondents indicated that they have received training in the use of computer technology for FSL. Murphy (2000) examined teachers’ beliefs about teaching and learning French as a second or foreign language (FSFL) using the Internet. She used two approaches to collecting data, both on-line discussion and a mailed survey. The on-line discussion was intended for those teachers who primarily used the Internet in both English and French and involved teachers from around the world who subscribed to a particular website. The mailed survey was intended for both users and non-users of the Internet and was sent to 130 K-12 Canadian teachers. The study revealed the various challenges language teachers faced when using the Internet. Most saw the Internet as presenting add-on material to be taught at the expense of other topics in the curriculum, or they simply did not use it because there was too much to be covered in the curriculum to leave any time for experimenting with the Internet. The teachers also pointed out a “lack of prerequisite language skills” (p. 4) in order for their students to be able to search and retrieve the information from the correct sites. Some teachers pointed out that the dominance of

35 English language restrained their use of the Internet. Controlling and monitoring was another major challenge for the teachers, who felt they needed to ensure that the students were working in French and that their browsing activity was pedagogically acceptable. Most teachers recognized the value of the Internet as a useful teaching tool; however, they also indicated a lack of training in how to incorporate computers in their language teaching. In addition, teachers reported other challenges in their use of the Internet, such as lack of access, slow connection speeds, difficulties in scheduling language lab time, and technical problems with the computers. Finally, Graus (1999) noted that that other factors to be taken into account when deciding to integrate CALL into language instruction. Factors that may impede or promote the use of CALL in EFL instruction include type of access to computers, resistance to change, lack of time and training, and lack of suitable software. The current study shed some light on EFL teachers’ use of ICT in the Arab region, particularly in Jordan. EFL Instruction, ICT, and Educational Reform in Jordan

As a result of King Abdullah II's eagerness to turn Jordan into a regional IT hub, the year 2001 witnessed many major educational reforms across Jordan that promoted the teaching of English as a foreign language. These reforms included a mandate for “the introduction of English as a second language from grades one to four at all public institutions [and] the full computerization of the kingdom’s state–run secondary schools” (Jordan Times, 2001, para. 1). This educational reform was seen as vital to supporting the country’s drive for modernization and helping "future generations cope with the challenge of globalization” (Jordan Times, 2001, para. 1). In 2001, more than $50 million was spent by the JMOE on IT in schools in an effort to speed up national economic and social transformation. The associated educational reforms demanded that teachers acquire computer skills and expand their English language skills through in-service training programs. By the year 2006, the Jordanian MOE hopes to achieve a ratio of one computer for every eight students and to computerize the fields of math, science and English (Jordan Times, 2001). In order to implement this plan, JMOE needs to review school curricula, improve teachers’

36 technology skills, and establish the infrastructures necessary for computerizing all 1,250 public primary schools. At a 2002 international conference on ICT hosted by Jordan, the government presented their national technology development vision before more than 1,000 delegates from national and international government and non-governmental organizations (Jordanian Ministry of Information and Communication Technology, 2002). During the conference, the Jordanian government announced two initiatives in cooperation with Intel Corporation's "Teach to the Future" program, a professional development program that aims to help both in-service and pre-service teachers to integrate technology in their instruction. The first initiative was called “Teachers of the Future,” which entailed the technology training of all Jordanian teachers. The second initiative was “Connecting Jordanians,” an effort to connect every school and university in the country via “a broadband fiber-optic communications network” by 2005 (JMOICT, 2002, para. 1). Intel claims that more than two million teachers in 30 countries have been trained via their Teach to the Future program (Intel Education, para. 1). Since the launch of the Intel Teach to the Future initiative in Jordan, a reported 5,000 Jordanian teachers have successfully accomplished IT training (Jordan Times, 2004). According to Intel's program director for Europe and the Middle East, Martina Roth, “Jordan is the first Arabic country we worked with and the results are astounding” (Jordan Times, 2004, para. 2). In conjunction with JMOE efforts to upgrade the technology skills of teachers, the International Computer Driving License (ICDL) was adopted as the main criterion in assessing the technology skills of 50,000 teachers in the Kingdom (Business Wire, 2003). ICDL is the international version of the European Computer Driving License (ECDL). This program aims to increase the level of knowledge about computer competency skills worldwide and offer a global recognized certification (Business Wire, 2003). ECDL Foundation establishes a branch in each country to administer the program locally in cooperation with the government agencies. In 2003, MOE signed a contract with Electric Paper, an Irish based e-learning company, to supply the automated tests in Arabic and English (Business Wire, 2003). Electric Paper is accredited in the U.K., Ireland, and Australia. With major contracts with China, the U.S., and Latin America, Electric Paper

37 has Chinese, Spanish, and Arabic versions of ICDL in addition to its Arabic one. In Jordan, the MOE links teachers’ success in ICDL to their promotion. In order to achieve the vision of a technology-based economy and to promote the teaching and learning of English in schools, it is essential to help Jordanian teachers in all subjects become IT proficient. In 2004, the office of the Middle East Partnership Initiative (MEPI) in the U.S. awarded the Cisco Learning Institute (CLI) $2.9 million to produce and deliver English language education in Jordan (Chief Learning Officer, 2005). The U.S. Department of State declared, “This award represents an ongoing investment by the U.S. in Jordan’s educational development” (U.S. Department of State, 2004, para. 1). CLI is already responsible for the development of K-12 math and science in Jordan, and its objective in this project is to develop and implement an interactive EFL curriculum. The U.S. Department of State has asserted, “This online learning program will combine industry leading EFL curricula and online learning technology and provide the Jordanian Ministry of Education with a scalable, cost-effective, and curriculum driven learning program to a wide number of students, teachers, and schools” (U.S. Department of State, 2004, para. 3). CLI has specified that the English Interactive Online (EIO) program “will be used in a blended e-learning format by the Jordanian students and teachers in grades 7-12” (Chief Learning Officer, 2005, para. 3). The varied efforts made toward the integration of ICT in Jordanian education, and particularly for the purpose of English language learning, hold much promise for the development of the country. As noted by the Mark East, the director of Microsoft in Europe, Middle East, and Africa, “Jordan is one of the most unique countries in its vision and approach to building a knowledge based economy” (Microsoft, 2003, para. 5). It is evident that the implementation and integration of both ICT and English instruction mandated in all Jordanian public and private schools is of great importance to JMOE. EFL teachers are seen as change agents who are thought to be highly responsible for bringing change and reform to the education system and the society as a whole. As a result, it is imperative to explore their attitude towards ICT, for it may play a crucial factor on the adoption of such innovation on the long run.

38 Theoretical Framework of the Study

Diffusion of Innovations Theory Rogers' (1995) Theory of the Diffusion of Innovations provides theoretical guidance for this study of the factors associated with the adoption of ICT by teachers of EFL in Jordan. Diffusion of Innovation Theory describes the processes of individual and social change that occur with the introduction of a technological or other innovation. Rogers (1995) defined diffusion as “the process in which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system” (p. 10). Four major elements are thought to constitute this diffusion process: the innovation, communication channels, time, and the social system. The central element in the diffusion process, the innovation itself, is defined by Rogers as, “an idea, a practice, or object that is perceived as new by individual or other units of adoption” (p. 11). For the scope of this study, one of the diffusion elements was discussed. A social system, as Rogers (1995) defined it, is “a collectivity of units which are functionally differentiated and engaged in joint problem solving with respect to a common goal” (p. 28). A social system may consist of individuals, groups, or organizational systems. The underlying socio-cultural structures in a social system determine the extent to which an innovation is adopted and the time it takes for an innovation to be diffused. In other words, the social system plays a significant element in reducing uncertainty and facilitating the adoption of an innovation. Furthermore, Rogers (1995) highlighted the notion of system effect, that is, the tendency of the social system's structure to affect the behavior of individuals, and consequently, the entire diffusion process. According to Rogers (1995), when an innovation is introduced into a social system, the rate at which it is adopted depends on an individual's perceptions of particular characteristics, or attributes, associated with the innovation. These attributes fall into five broad categories involving the relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability of the innovation. Relative advantage refers to the degree to which an innovation is perceived to be better than that operating in one's current situation. Compatibility concerns the degree to which an innovation is consistent with one's existing values, past experiences, and needs. Complexity refers to the degree to which an

39 innovation is perceived to be difficult to use, while observability is about the degree to which the advantages of an innovation are observable. The last attribute, trialability, refers to the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with before reaching a decision to adopt or reject it (Rogers, 1995). The stages in the innovation decision process—knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation, confirmation— are often used to describe the progress of the adoption process. The adopter of an innovation “passes (1) from first knowledge of an innovation, (2) to forming an attitude toward the innovation, (3) to a decision to adopt or reject, (4) to implementation of the new idea, and (5) to confirmation of this decision” (Rogers, 1995, p. 161). Because ICT was only introduced to Jordan in 1999, the focus of the first three of these stages, that is, knowledge of the innovation, attitude toward the innovation, and implementation, were the focus of this study. Diffusion of Innovations Theory (Rogers, 1995) has generated a good deal of research that focuses on specific elements of the diffusion process. In the discipline of education, three components of diffusion theory—those concerning innovation attributes, individual innovation, and the innovation decision process—are commonly used by researchers. Since innovation attributes refer to those broad characteristics of the innovation that influence the decision to adopt an innovation, educational innovations are likely to be positively diffused if the adopters see the innovation as: having an advantage over other innovations; being compatible with current practices; being not complex to use; producing observable outcomes; and something that can be experimented with before adoption (Rogers, 1995). Using Rogers’ (1995) theory as a theoretical framework for investigating ICT adoption by Jordanian EFL teachers, this study examined key attributes of ICT (the innovation) to determine the extent to which it has successfully been diffused and adopted in the Jordanian educational system by EFL teachers. In this study, only four of the perceived attributes of ICT were examined among a sample of Jordanian EFL teachers. These attributes were relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, and observability. In line with diffusion theory, then, in order for ICT to be effectively utilized for EFL instruction in Jordan, EFL teachers first needed to see the relative advantage of ICT. Second, they needed to believe that ICT can be compatible with the

40 existing socio-cultural structures. Third, they needed to feel that the use of ICT is less complex and makes their work easier. Fourth, they needed to see visible positive benefits of the use of ICT in the classroom. Trialability was excluded from the analysis since EFL teachers in Jordan did not have the opportunity to experiment with ICT and make a decision about adoption prior to its implementation by the Jordanian Ministry of Education in the first and second school districts of Amman. Thus, for these teachers, the trialability of the innovation was not a relevant variable. The exclusion of trialability from this analysis is consistent with Rogers' (1995) assertion that “one problem with measuring the five attributes of innovation is that they may not in all cases be the most important perceived characteristics for a particular set of respondent” (p. 209). Studies of educational innovations often consider the roles played by individuals who are in some way involved in the process of adopting an innovation (Carr, 2005). Individuals confronting the adoption of an innovation typically fall into one of five roles: innovator, early adopter, early majority adopter, late majority adopter, or laggard. As Rogers (1995) has noted, socioeconomic factors and educational background are variables that correlate significantly with the inclination to adopt an innovation. In this study, teachers' educational backgrounds were examined in relation to their attitudes towards ICT. Socioeconomic factors were not taken into consideration because there is no variation in salary among teachers in Jordan. In the following sections, teachers’ attitudes towards ICT and the various factors pertaining to it are discussed as it was discussed in many studies in variant contexts.

Teacher Attitudes and ICT

During the early 1970s the Theory of Reasoned Action was developed and expanded upon by Ajzen and Fishbein. By 1980 the theory was used to study human behavior and develop appropriate interventions. This theory provides a framework to study the link between attitudes and behavior. According to the theory, the most important determinant of a person's behavior is behavioral intent. The individual's intention to perform a behavior is a combination of his or her attitude toward

41 performing the behavior and subjective norms. Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) assumed that individuals are usually quite rational and make systematic use of information available to them. Accordingly, people "consider the implications of their actions before they decide to engage or not engage in a given behavior" (p. 5). Attitude is defined as a positive or a negative feeling associated with performing a specific behavior (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). Ajzen and Fishbein stipulated that an individual will have a favorable attitude if he or she believes that the performance of the behavior will lead to mostly positive results and vice-versa. In other words, a person’s attitude toward a behavior consists of 1) a belief that that particular behavior leads to a certain outcome and 2) an evaluation of the outcome of that behavior. Subjective norms refer to a person’s perception of what others around them believe that the individual should do. In its purest essence, a subjective norm is a type of peer pressure. Whether or not a person participates or intends to participate in any behavior is influenced strongly by the people around them (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) indicated that attitudes consist of three elements: affect, cognition, and behavior. The affective element refers to the individual’s emotional feelings or liking of a person or an object. The cognitive element refers to the person’s knowledge about a person or an object. The behavioral element refers to the person’s overt behavior towards a person or an object. According to Ajzen and Fishbein, “a complete description of attitude requires that all three components be assess by obtaining measures of all the three response classes” (1980, p. 20). In this study, teachers’ attitudes were measured using the above-mentioned components formulated in section one of the instrument. A detailed description of this analysis is provided in Chapter Three. Similarly, Rogers (1995) asserted that attitudes determine whether a person is willing to try a new innovation or not. Woodrow (1992) has asserted that a teacher's positive attitude toward technology is a “necessary condition for the effective use of computers in the classroom” (p. 200). According to Chin and Hortin (1994), the teacher clearly must act as the “change agent” (p. 83) in the relationship between instructional technology and the learner. Increasingly, research points to the critical role played by the teacher in successful student learning through the use of computers and related instructional technology.

42 With the explosion of information in all areas of our lives, the growing need for a more competent workforce increases the need for the integration of ICT in elementary and secondary classrooms. In large part, then, the responsibility for preparing highly qualified workers who are up to the challenges of a global economy rests on teachers. In order for teachers to be able to integrate technology successfully in their classrooms, then, it is crucial that they cultivate and maintain positive attitudes toward technology and attain adequate computer skills (Hignite & Echternacht, 1992). Lloyd and Gressard (1986) found that teachers’ positive attitudes toward computers correlated positively with their experience in using computers. Many researchers have observed that successful integration of technology in the classroom depends primarily on addressing teachers’ attitudes towards computers (Delcourt & Kinzie, 1993; Gardner, Discenza & Dukes, 1993; Kluever, Lam, Hoffman, Green & Swearingen, 1994; Koohang, 1989; Selwyn, 1997). Therefore, teachers’ attitudes towards computers are a significant factor in enhancing the quality of learning and teaching using computers (Yuen & Ma, 1999). According to Pancer, George, and Geobotys (1992), “fundamental to the study of computer-related attitudes is the notion that understanding what these attitudes are and how they are formulated will help us predict actual behavior” (p. 212). Teachers must have at least a basic knowledge of both hardware and software applications in order to be well qualified enough to integrate technology in their instructional practices (Hardy, 1998; Siegel, 1995). In 2000-2001, Christensen and Knezek (2001) conducted a study of teachers’ attitudes, skills, and access to computer tools in Laredo, Texas. They utilized a combination of research instruments, including the Teachers’s Attitude towards Computer (TAC), Teachers’s Attitudes towards Information Technology (TAT), Teacher Perceptions Self Assessment (TPSA), Stages of Adoption (Rogers, 1995) and Concern- Based Analysis Measure (CBAM) throughout the spring semester of the 2000-2001 school year, among a sample of 517 teachers representing 21 public schools in the district. The researchers found that the teachers' competence and confidence in their computer use correlated with their home access. Accordingly, the researchers surmised that the frequent use of a computer at home would increase a teacher’s level of confidence when using technology in school. In general, all teachers obtained higher

43 scores in two areas, one dealing with their level of comfort with computers and the other with their perceived sense that computers helped instruction. While the majority of teachers were found to be at Level 6, 7, or 8 of the CBAM, and no teachers were at Level 1, 7.7% of the teachers reported not using the computer at all in instruction. In terms of the Stages of Adoption measure, the majority of teachers with home access were at Stage 4, while teachers with no home access were at Stage 3. Further, teachers with the highest scores on the Significance and Accommodation categories of the TAC (which dealt respectively with the perceived significance of computers for teaching and the extent to which computers made instruction easier) were found to be at Stage 6 of adoption (Christensen & Knezek, 2001). Kotrlik, Harrison, and Redmann (2000) conducted a study comparing information technology (IT) training, knowledge, and skill among Louisiana secondary vocational teachers. The researchers sought to identify: 1) the extent to which the teachers surveyed valued the use of IT for instructional purposes, 2) their general knowledge and skill in IT, 3) their knowledge and skills concerning software, 4) the availability of IT to teachers, 5) the amount of IT training teachers received, and 6) the differences among teachers in regard to their program areas (Kotrlik et al., 2000). The population for the study consisted of all vocational teachers in Louisiana, and a stratified random sample of 1,126 of these teachers was used. The results of the study indicated that secondary vocational teachers in Louisiana had limited access to both the Internet and new technologies. Nevertheless, most of the teachers thought highly of technology regardless of their program area. Although the study revealed positive attitudes towards IT, the knowledge and skills of the teachers surveyed were found to be average to below average both in terms of software as well as general computer competency. Even more importantly, the results indicated that most of the teachers were self-taught or self-directed, depending on the extent of their personal experience and opportunities to participate in in-service workshops provided by the state. A very low percentage of teachers reported participating in any college courses or workshops related to instructional technology in the classroom.

44 Factors Related to EFL Teachers’ Attitudes towards ICT

In this section a number of factors that may affect teachers’ attitudes towards ICT are presented. The studies that have explored such factors differ in contexts, methodologies, and findings. However, this review provides a link to the variables to be examined in the current study, including computer attributes, cultural perceptions, computer competence, computer access, and teacher characteristics. Computer Attributes In his model of Diffusion of Innovation, Rogers (1995) explicitly described five main attributes of an innovation. The first attribute is relative advantage, that is, the notion that innovation is better than its predecessors. The second attribute is the compatibility of the innovation within the existing socio-cultural context of the social system. Complexity is the third attribute that relates to the degree to which an innovation is perceived to be difficult to use, while observability is about the degree to which the advantages of an innovation are observable. The last attribute, trialability, refers to the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with before reaching a decision to adopt or reject it (Rogers, 1995). These attributes of an innovation, in this case, ICT, were investigated in relationship with Jordanian EFL teachers’ attitudes towards ICT. As Rogers (1995) contended, “one problem with measuring the five attributes of innovation is that they may not in all cases be the most important perceived characteristics for a particular set of respondents” (p. 209). In this study, only four computer attributes were relevant to the respondents: relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, and observability. Trialability was not a useful attribute for study since EFL teachers in Jordan did not have the opportunity to experiment with ICT and make a decision about adoption prior to its implementation by the Jordanian Ministry of Education in the first and second school districts of Amman. Thus, despite the fact that Jordanian EFL teachers were told to use ICT in their instruction, their ability to try out the innovation prior to its adoption was curtailed. The relationship between an innovation’s attributes and adoption has been examined in a number of diffusion studies (Albirini, 2004; Blankenship, 1998; Hendricks, 1998; Huang, 2003; Sooknanan, 2002). Dillon and Morris (1996) contended

45 that these studies revealed that “innovations that offer advantages, compatibility with existing practices and beliefs, low complexity, potential triablity, and observability will have a more widespread and rapid rate of diffusion” (p. 6). Sooknanan (2002) conducted a study to investigate the adoption of technology in the educational system of Trinidad and Togo utilizing four of Roger's attributes: relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, and observability. The researcher excluded trialability for the same reason that this variable was excluded in both Albirini's (2004) and the present study, because teachers were not able to experiment with the innovation—in this case ICT—before making a decision to either adopt or reject it. (According to these studies, the Ministries of Education in Trinidad and Syria, as well as in Jordan, made the decision to adopt ICT in the education system without consulting the teachers in their countries.) Sooknanan found that the computer attributes he studied were significantly correlated to the adoption process, with the exception of complexity. The next computer attribute most closely correlated to teachers’ attitudes was relative advantage. Sooknanan's study accentuated the importance of computer attributes in the process of computer adoption in developing countries. In terms of the second attribute, compatibility, Rogers (1995) stated that the extent of innovation compatibility will influence the rate of its diffusion. The relationship between the teachers’ attitudes and the compatibility of an innovation is linked positively. As was shown in Sooknanan’s (2002) study, compatibility was the most significant computer attribute in relevance to teachers’ attitudes. Teachers who perceived the computers to be “reliable, accurate, and meet their information needs” (p. 129) demonstrated positive attitudes towards ICT. The third attribute, complexity, also affects the rate of adoption. As Rogers (1995) indicated, the more complex an innovation is perceived, the slower it will be in its adoption rate. The final element of computer attributes to be examined in the study is observability, which, as Rogers (1995) pointed out, is positively related to the rate of adoption. Sooknanan’s (2002) study showed that observability was a significant factor impacting teachers’ attitudes towards ICT. Teachers who had never before encountered computers as an educational tool demonstrated negative attitudes towards ICT.

46 In conclusion, the literature indicated that there is a positive relationship between teachers’ attitudes towards ICT and computer attributes. When teachers perceive ICT as a beneficial, compatible with their current activities, easy to use and have observable outcomes, they will demonstrate positive attitudes towards ICT.

Cultural Perceptions The social system, as defined by Rogers (1995), is “a collectivity of units which are functionally differentiated and engaged in joint problem solving with respect to a common goal” (p. 28). The social system may consist of individuals, groups, or organizational systems. The underlying socio-cultural structures in a social system determine the extent to which an innovation is adopted and the time it takes for an innovation to be diffused (Rogers, 1995). The social system is a significant element in reducing uncertainty and facilitating the adoption of an innovation. Within the boundaries of a social system, the social norms influence the rate of adoption. These norms are defined as “the established patterns of behavior that tell members of the system what behavior is expected” (Rogers, 1995, p. 26). Furthermore, Rogers (1995) highlighted the notion of system effect where the structure of the social system affects the behavior of the individuals, and consequently, the entire diffusion process. According to Rogers (1995), few studies have investigated the relationship between the cultural perception and the rate of adoption. Harper (1987) claimed that the study of the role of culture on technology perception is significant in examining individuals’ attitudes towards ICT. He contended that culture can play a role in the existence of negative attitudes towards computers for two causes: first, “people’s apprehension that life is becoming too mechanical, so they resist contributing to a computer culture. The second cause is the concern that there are other social problems that need to be solved before computer-education is addressed” (p. 47). In a recent study by Al-Oteawi (2002), it was revealed that Saudi teachers avoided using the Internet in their instruction due to the fear of encountering unethical material. Most of the teachers perceived the materials found on the Internet to be unsuitable to the Saudi culture. Therefore, they were reluctant to support the use of the Internet as an educational tool.

47 For the purpose of this study, it seems that cultural perception of ICT might play a role in terms of the teachers’ attitudes towards ICT. Jordanian EFL teachers may perceive ICT positively in the Arabic cultural context, and thus, they will demonstrate positive attitudes towards ICT. On the other hand, their negative cultural perception of ICT may affect their attitudes towards ICT negatively.

Computer Competence Research has highlighted the importance of teachers’ computer competency in order to utilize computers as an educational tool in their classrooms (Hardy 1998; Knezek & Christensen, 2000; Siegel, 1995). According to the U.S Department of Education (2004), only 10% of public school teachers reported feeling “very well prepared” for the use of ICT in the classroom, while the majority, 53% reported feeling “somewhat prepared,” and 13% reported feeling “not at all prepared” (p. 66). It has been shown that teachers’ self-competence and their perception of the relevance of computers into their teaching is a significant factor behind teachers’ use of computers (Marcinkiewicz, 1994). In another context, Na (1993) conducted a large scale study in Korea to examine the attitudes of agricultural teachers towards computers in education in relation to selected variables: computer training, perceived level of computer knowledge, perceived level of computer skills, computer availability, and personal characteristics. The study showed that computer training, knowledge, skills, and availability were positively correlated to the attitudes of the teachers towards computers in education. Knezek and Christensen (2000) identified three main variables that contributed to technology implementation: attitudes towards technology, skills using technology, and access to technology in terms of hardware, software, and technical support. Their model hypothesizes that high level of will (attitude), skill (proficiency), and tools (level of access) will produce higher levels of technology integration that will reflect on student achievements positively. There are also demographic variables that might play a significant role in the integration of technology, such as age, gender, grade level, and teaching experience. Their model postulates that educators with higher levels of will, skill, and tools will exhibit higher level of technology integration in the classroom. The

48 greater the presence of these components within the educator, the more the educator will apply technology. In the current study, the competence of EFL teachers in terms of computer knowledge was also investigated.

Computer Access David (1994) pointed out four requirements for teachers’ effective use of technology. These requirements were: professional development, access to technology, technical support, and functionality of the technology. In addition, Granger, Morbey, Lotherington, Owston, and Wideman (2002) asserted that teachers could not integrate ICT into their curricula without having access to a computer that worked. Also, full–time technical support to maintain and update the equipment and software was essential to decrease teachers’ frustration with ICT and encourage their efforts to use ICT in the classroom. Earle (2002) asserted that many factors could hinder or promote the use of technology in a classroom. He classified these as first-order and second-order barriers. First-order barriers included access, time, support, resources, and training. Second-order barriers consisted of attitudes, beliefs, practices, and resistance. According to Earle, second-order barriers are more difficult to change, since overcoming them involves the prolonged use of technology rather than a one-day workshop. He pointed out that teachers need to observe technology, reflect and discuss their evolving ideas, and collaborate with others to overcome these second order barriers. Likewise, Hadley and Sheinghold (1993) found that teachers with a high level of confidence toward computer use received a significant amount of on-site support and advice. The support was manifested in the presence of a school computer coordinator or aide, the support of the school administration, and advice from peers. The findings of the study suggest that the school administration can play a crucial role in advancing ICT implementation in the classroom. Further, technical support was found to be a key factor in increasing the teachers’ willingness to implement ICT. In a major study in the U.S., Becker (2000) contended that unless teachers had the necessary computer skills and convenient access to equipment, the use of computers as a valuable instructional tool

49 would remain limited. In the current study, computer access was determined by EFL teachers’ access to computers at schools and/or home.

Teacher Characteristics and ICT In the course of researching and reviewing the many studies that concerned instructional technology and teachers, it became apparent that several conflicting findings exist concerning the relationship between demographic variables, such as age, gender, years of teaching, and computer experience, professional training, and the actual use of computers by teachers. The following sections describe studies investigating some of the major demographic factors associated with teacher attitudes towards computers.

Age and ICT Some studies have showed that age is not a significant factor in reference to teachers’ attitudes towards computers (Handler, 1993; Massoud, 1991; Woodrow, 1992). On the other hand, a number of studies have revealed that age plays a critical factor in relation to attitudes towards computer (Blankenship, 1998; Chio, 1992; Kendel, 1995). It was shown in Chio’s (1992) study that older teachers had more positive attitudes towards the use of computer in instruction. However, young teachers demonstrated a higher computer literacy than older ones. Similarly, Kendel (1995) found that age was a statistically significant factor for teachers’ attitudes towards computers. However, in his study, the younger teachers demonstrated more positive attitudes than older teachers towards computers. Spiegel (2001) investigated the attitudes and the usage habits of secondary school teachers at four public schools in the Netherlands. He examined the correlation of age with the attitudes and usage of computers. He found that age was significantly related to some uses of computers, such as e-mails and web page development. However, the findings of the study revealed that age was not significantly correlated with attitudes towards computers. Thus, there appears to be conflicting results in the literature with respect to age as a factor related to attitudes towards computers. Age was examined in this study to

50 ascertain the extent of the impact of this teacher characteristic and Jordanian teachers’ attitudes towards ICT. Gender and ICT While some studies have found no gender differences in attitudes towards computers (Gressard & Lloyd, 1987; Kendel, 1995; Woodrow, 1992), the results of other studies (1998) found that female undergraduate students manifested higher levels of anxiety in relation to computers than male undergraduate students. Sixty-four percent of the females in his study agreed that computing is a masculine activity and that men are better at computing. Interestingly, over half of the participants reported that it was “a teacher” (p. 65) who introduced them to computers. North and Noyes (2002) have asserted that computing is widely perceived as a “masculine activity” (p. 137), and their research provided evidence for a linkage between gender and technophobia. The tendency for males to dominate the fields of mathematics and computing, combined with male dominance in the computer industry, also suggests a “technological gender gap” (p. 137). The contradictions in the findings of the aforementioned studies may be accounted for by biased sampling, inappropriate data analysis methods, or multidimensional computer attitude scales (Chen, 1997). The present study might shed some light on relationships between gender and computer use, particularly in a Mid- Eastern culture where male and female roles are defined clearly. Computer Experience/Use and ICT Teachers have many concerns about the use of computers in the classroom. Some are skeptical about the value of computers in education (Chin & Hortin, 1993). Actual experience with the computer can play a major role in reducing computer anxiety, which is one of the main sources of teacher resistance to integrating technology in their classrooms (Gardner et al., 1993). As Dupagne and Krendel (1992) have shown, positive attitudes increase as computer experience increases. Similarly, Yildirim (2000) found a significant correlation between prior computer experience and attitudes toward computers, both of which [attitude, and experience] significantly affect teacher competence with computers.

51 Yang, Mohamed, and Beyerbach (1999) investigated the relationship among computer experience and teacher anxiety and various demographic variables, specifically learning style, age, gender, ethnicity/culture, subject area, educational level, and type of school. The subjects of the study were vocational/technical teachers in Dade County, Florida. The researchers used a short form of the Computer Anxiety Scale by Otting (1983), as well as Kolb’s (1985) Learning Styles Inventory, and found that the majority of the subjects demonstrated positive attitudes towards taking part in computer training and use in the classroom. The researchers also identified relationships between computer anxiety and school type, educational level, and subject area, but not between anxiety level and age, ethnicity, or subject area. Research has shown that teachers’ negative attitudes towards computers change after receiving formal training about computer use (Dupagne & Krendel, 1992; Koohang, 1987). Computer experience encourages positive attitudes toward computer use, whereas negative attitudes can be attributed to a low level of confidence as a result of a lack of experience with the computer. In essence, the tendency to resist the use of ICT in the classroom reflects a vicious circle for teachers: a low level of confidence with computers results in a high level of anxiety that leads to negative attitudes and ultimately influences the learning and teaching process (Koohang, 1987, 1989). Chiero (1999) investigated the professional uses of computers by secondary public school teachers. Fifty-three percent of the respondents indicated that they used the computer “routinely…to create instructional materials” (p. 380). The same percentage reported that they “did not use the computer to interact with colleagues” (p. 380). Most of the respondents in Chiero’s study perceived their computer use as having “a positive impact on their work, making them more professional, more creative, better-informed, and generally better educators” (p. 383). Delcourt and Kinzie (1993) conducted a study to identify computer-related attitudes and behaviors among 328 pre-service and in-service teachers. The researchers used a 19-item attitudinal scale to measure the teachers' attitudes towards computers, an 11-item scale to measure the teachers’ perceptions of the usefulness of computers, and an 8-item scale to measure the teachers’ level of anxiety concerning computers. The study provided additional evidence that teachers' attitudes toward computers correlate with the

52 extent to which they use computers. Further, the study showed that word processing, e- mail, and CD-ROM databases were the most reported uses of computers in the classroom. The current study identified the competence of ICT reported by EFL teachers in Jordan in the classroom. Professional Training and ICT Brand (1998) has stated, “If students are going to be prepared for a technological society, they must be taught by confident and skilled teachers. This can only be done by adequate training and development of teachers” (p. 13). Lack of training is a potential source for teachers’ low levels of confidence and negative attitudes towards computers (Cox, Rhodes & Hall, 1988; Kumar & Kumar, 2003). According to Kent and McNergney (1999), “only 15% of teachers across the United States have received 9 or more hours of technology training …Without question, technology education influences the level of use of technology in the classroom” (p. 10). Furthermore, the likelihood that teachers will use ICT in the classroom is limited by the reality that teachers who were educated 20 years ago were trained by people who themselves were trained before the arrival of computers in schools (Roberts, Hutchinson & Little, 2003). Several studies have indicated that a variety of barriers exist that may prevent teachers from using ICT in the classroom. Hardy (1998) listed the following as barriers: lack of time for classroom activities, lack of hardware and software, uncertainty about how to integrate the computer in the curriculum, and a lack of adequate professional training. Kluever et al. (1994) conducted a study to examine changes in teacher attitudes towards computers following participation in computer-related professional development. The researchers surveyed 265 elementary school teachers before and after they had taken part in a computer training workshop. The training consisted of demonstrations of software use, applications of computer-integrated models to different subjects and grade levels, and instruction on the use of multimedia for teaching and learning. The results of the study indicated a significant difference in the teachers’ attitudes towards computer use following the training as evidenced by significantly higher scores on the study's post- test than on the pre-test. Similar results were reported by Yildirim (2000), who found that teachers’ attitudes towards computers were related to previous computer training. A total of 104

53 pre-service and in-service teachers received computer training through enrollment in an undergraduate level course. The researcher used the Computer Attitude Scale (CAS) (Lloyd & Gressard, 1986) to measure the teachers’ attitudes towards computers in four areas: computer anxiety, computer liking, computer confidence, and computer use. The data was then subject to multivariate analysis. The results of the study indicated that the teachers’ anxiety towards computers decreased significantly after training. In addition, the teachers’ levels of confidence and liking of computers increased after the training. A qualitative study by Granger, et al. (2002) explored the implementation of ICT in four public schools in Canada. The purpose of the study was to learn about the factors that contributed to the successful implementation of ICT by teachers in the classroom. The findings of the study revealed that collaborative and informal learning were the most beneficial means of providing knowledge and skills to the teachers. The study also concluded that a resistance to technology integration among teachers existed, as manifested by their reluctance to enroll in staff development workshops. At the same time, the teachers most often described "logistics" as the biggest obstacle to ICT implementation (p. 488). It is apparent that in-service training plays a significant role in regard to teachers’ attitudes towards computers. Chio (1992) found that in-service training helped Korean high school teachers to better understand and implement the instructional uses of computers. In this study, in service training was investigated by enquiring about the type and amount of training EFL teachers received and whether or not they completed the ICDL certificate. Summary

Research on teachers’ attitudes and the use of ICT in cultures other than Western has been scant, highlighting the importance of further study in the area. Research focusing on the use of ICT to enhance EFL instruction is particularly important for many countries, since the acquisition of English as a second language is so often linked with economic and social development. This review of the literature described the theoretical framework of the study, Rogers’(1995) Diffusion of Innovation Theory and the Theory of Reasoned Action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). It also included a discussion of the research

54 related to teacher attitudes towards computers, other teacher factors related to the use of computers, the use of ICT for EFL and other instruction, Jordanian efforts to integrate ICT into its educational system, and the relevance of ICT to development in Jordan.

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY

Introduction

The primary purpose of this study was to explore factors that might influence the attitudes towards information and communication technology (ICT) by Jordanian teachers of English as a foreign language (EFL). This study replicated with extension research by Albirini (2004), who explored attitudes towards information and communication technology (ICT) among teachers of English as a foreign language (EFL) in Syria. This study differed from Albirini's, however, in that its focus was ICT use among EFL teachers in Jordan, where both ICT integration and EFL instruction have become key educational mandates tied to modernization and development. Specifically, the study sought to determine the extent of relationship between the attitudes towards ICT by Jordanian EFL teachers and a number of related variables, including the teachers' perceptions of the attributes of ICT, culture-related perceptions of ICT, competence in using ICT, and level of access to ICT, as well as a variety of teacher characteristics, such as demographic characteristics. This chapter outlines the research questions guiding this inquiry, as well as an explanation of the methodology to be used, including both a description of the sample and the instrument, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques to be used.

The Nature of the Study

This study replicated with extension the work of Albirini (2004), who explored attitudes towards ICT among Syrian EFL teachers. Like Albirini, this researcher attempted to determine the relationship between such attitudes and factors shown in previous research to be related to attitudes towards ICT: computer attributes, cultural perceptions, computer competence, computer access, and teacher demographics. As such, this study drew upon the same theoretical frameworks used by Albirini in composing his

56 research questions and his instrument, that is, Rogers' (1995) Diffusion of Innovation Theory and Ajzen and Fishbein's (1980) Theory of Reasoned Action. Thus, in replicating with extension Albirini's research, this study adopted the same theoretical frame, research questions, instrumentation, sampling technique, and analytical techniques. While both studies utilized a random sample from a population of Middle Eastern EFL teachers, however, this study focused specifically on Jordanian EFL teachers in the capital city of Amman rather than in Syria.

Differences and Similarities between Albirini’s and This Study It is worth noting that this study draws upon and largely replicates the work of Albirini (2004), who explored the relationship between Syrian EFL teachers’ attitudes toward ICT and factors such as computer attributes, cultural perceptions, computer competence, computer access, and teacher demographics. Albirini employed Rogers' (1995) Diffusion of Innovation Theory and the Theory of Reasoned Action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980) as a theoretical framework for his study. Because the theoretical frame and intention of Albirini's work paralleled much of this research, his instrument was adopted by this researcher after minor alterations to be described at the end of this section. This study replicates Albirini’s (2004) study exactly in terms of research questions, theoretical framework, instrument to be used, and the analytical techniques. Both studies utilize a random sample from the population of the study, EFL teachers. The main two differences between the two studies are the population and the setting. Albirini (2004) examined Syrian EFL teachers’ attitudes towards ICT in the city of Hims, in Syria. This study investigated Jordanian EFL teachers’ attitudes towards ICT in the capital city of Amman. In addition, the data collection method varies in the current study from Albirini’s (2004). The latter employed a mixed quantitative and qualitative method by using surveys and structured interviews, whereas this study only utilized surveys as the sole method for data collection. However, the research followed the same steps and timeline which was employed in Albirini’s (2004). That is, the surveys were delivered and collected in person to and from the schools’ principals. Phone calls were placed as a

57 reminder before the final collection of the surveys. A period of two weeks was given to the teachers to complete the surveys. A follow up phase would have been launched in case the return rate was less than the required percentage following the same steps. However, due to the high return rate (95.6 %), no follow up was done. Another point of similarity is the use of Albirini’s (2004) Arabic version of the survey. However, minor alterations to the instrument were made and are described as follows. All references in the original instrument to “Syria” and “Syrian” were replaced with “Jordan” and “Jordanian.” Also, there were some modifications in Section 5, computer access, and section six, the demographic variables. In the current study, there was a separate item about computer access for the library and the lab, while in Albirini’s the two locations were measured in one item (see Appendices A and C). In Section 6, Albirini (2004) investigated the following variables: age, gender, qualification, income, teaching experience, training, school location, and teaching method. In addition, in the final section, Section 6: Teacher Characteristics, two items were deleted pertaining to income and the rural/urban location of the school. The first was deleted because all teachers receive the same salary in Jordan; the second was deleted because the locations of all the schools in which teachers were surveyed were urban in nature. In addition, the answer choices for a question about academic degrees held were changed from terms reflecting Syrian degrees to terms appropriate to Jordan. Also in Section 6, an item was added as a follow up to a question about the one teaching method teachers used most often. The added question contained the same stem but asked teachers to check all of the teaching methods they used in the classroom. Additional questions pertaining to in- service training and ICDL certificate were added. Also, the variable of grade level was added to represent a new variable. So, in the current study, the teacher demographics were: age, gender, qualification, grade level, teaching experience, training, ICDL certificate, and teaching method.

Research Questions

The study first addressed a number of research questions aimed at describing attitudes, behavior, perceptions related to the use of ICT among EFL teachers in Jordan.

58 While this descriptive information in itself was useful for providing a wider context for understanding the dissemination of ICT in Jordanian EFL classrooms, an important part of this inquiry involved statistical analyses designed to examine the relationship between the dependent variable (attitudes towards ICT) and independent variables (perceived attributes of ICT, culture-related perceptions of ICT, self-reported computer competence, self-reported access to computers, and participant characteristics.) The research questions investigated were: 1) What are the attitudes towards ICT among Jordanian EFL teachers? 2) What are the perceptions of Jordanian EFL teachers in regard to: • ICT attributes? • Cultural perceptions of ICT? • Computer competence? • Computer access? 3) What is the relationship between the attitudes toward ICT among Jordanian EFL teachers and their perception of each of the independent variables (including teachers’ characteristics)? 4) What is the proportion of the variance in the dependent variable (attitudes toward ICT by Jordanian EFL teachers) that can be explained by the independent variables? According to Gay (1996), a collection of statistical data is highly recommended when the researcher believes it will contribute to the overall understanding of the phenomenon under study. In this study, the purpose of the statistical analysis was to demonstrate relationships between the independent and dependent variables that might ultimately bear on the practice of teaching English as a foreign language by teachers in Jordan. Study Population and Sample Population The target population for this study was Jordanian EFL teachers in the first and second districts of Amman during the school year 2005-2006. The researcher chose to focus on these two districts because they represent the urban side of the capital in which the ICT infrastructure has been installed more rapidly than other parts of Jordan. Also,

59 these two districts were more convenient in location to the researcher in terms of access and delivery of the survey. Jordanian Ministry of Education officials had already provided the researcher with a list of the EFL teachers in the first and second districts of Amman. As of November 2005, the total number of Jordanian EFL teachers in these two districts was 760 (357 males; 403 females). Sample The lists of EFL teachers in the two districts under study were used as a sampling frame for this research. The lists obtained by the researcher included each teacher's name, gender, educational qualifications, grade level taught, and school site. Table 3 shows the distribution of EFL teachers in Amman districts one and two according to gender, qualifications, and the grade level taught. Gay and Airasian (2000) have recommended that a simple random sample is “the best single way to obtain a representative sample” (p. 140). Rea and Parker (1997) designed a table that delineates the sample sizes required for 95% and 99% percent levels of confidence for various population sizes. For a population size of 500, for example, the required sample size is 250 in order to achieve a 3 percent confidence interval. Rea and Parker have stated that “in certain cases, [as in very small populations]…a sample size of 50 percent of the population size has been determined to provide the required accuracy.” (p. 121).

Table 3 Gender, Qualifications, and Grade Level Taught among Teachers of EFL in the First and Second Districts of Amman 2005-2006A

First district

Gender Male Female 155 258 Qualifications M.A 4 4 Post B.A. 7 4 B.A. 112 205 2 years college 32 45

60 Table 3- continued ______First district

Gender Male Female Grade Level Taught Basic (1-10th grade) 126 223 High (11-12th grade) 29 35

Second district

Gender Male Female 202 145

Qualifications M.A. 1 3 Post B.A. 8 7 B.A. 133 115 2 years College 60 20

Grade Level Taught Basic (1-10th grade) 121 108 High (11-12th grade) 81 37 ______

Given that the population size for this sample was 760, a sample size of 380 was appropriate for the purposes of this study. The researcher used “a table of random numbers” (Graziano & Raulin, 1997, p. 214) in selecting this sample. Each subject in the population of 760 was assigned a number, and then 380 numbers were selected randomly.

Research Design

This study employed a cross-sectional technique in that “it [was] based on data usually collected at one point in time with a typical interest in describing relationships among variables for a stable population” (Tate, 1998, p. 6). Further, the study was largely exploratory in nature because very little research has been conducted on the use of ICT by EFL teachers in the Arab world in general and in Jordan in particular. Tate (1998) stated, “A choice of whether a specific study is to be confirmatory or exploratory …

61 depends on whether there is an adequate basis in the research literature” (p. 4). The study’s goal was to explore EFL teachers’ attitudes towards ICT in a different context. At the same time, certain principles of innovation adoption were tested in the course of this study.

Instrumentation

Due to the cultural context of the study, the instrument used in this study was a survey taken from a recent study of ICT use by teachers in Syria, conducted by Albirini (2004, 2005). Syria is a neighboring country located on the northern border of Jordan. Both countries share the same cultural context in terms of religion, language and social values. The researcher obtained Abirini's permission to use this instrument, which was selected for three major reasons: first, it is available in Arabic; second, the Arabic version of the instrument already had established validity and reliability; and third, the instrument reflected recent research on the use of ICT in EFL instruction. Albirini’s (2004) study had the same focus as the current research. He explored the attitudes of Syrian EFL teachers towards ICT in the Hims District of Syria. His unpublished doctoral dissertation was completed in 2004, and an article about his research was published online in 2005. Albirini (2004) created the instrument after an extensive literature review of many studies related to computer attitudes among teachers. In addition, just as in this study, Roger’s (1995) Theory of the Diffusion of Innovations and the Theory of Reasoned Action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980) served as the theoretical framework. Some minor alterations in the survey instrument were made to accommodate the setting of this study. All references in the instrument to Syria, the setting of Albirini's study (2004), were changed to Jordan, the setting of this study. In Section 5, there was a separate item about computer access for each the library and the lab while in Albirini’s (2004) the two locations were measured in one item (see Appendices A and C). In addition, in the final section, Section 6: Teacher Characteristics, two items were deleted pertaining to income and the rural/urban location of the school. The first was deleted because all teachers receive the same salary in Jordan; the second was deleted because the locations of all the schools in which teachers were surveyed were urban in nature. In

62 addition, the answer choices for a question about academic degrees held were changed from terms reflecting Syrian degrees to terms appropriate to Jordan. Additional questions pertaining to in-service training and ICDL certificate were added. Also, the variable of grade level was added to represent a new variable. Finally, also in Section 6, an item was added as a follow up to a question about the one teaching method teachers used most often. The added question contained the same stem but asked teachers to check all of the teaching methods they used in the classroom. Because these changes to Albirini's instrument were limited to the section of the survey that asked for demographic information, the validity and reliability of the instrument as established by Albirini (see below) were thought to be sufficient for the purposes of replicating his study in Jordan. The survey, which for the purposes of this study was known as the ICT Survey of EFL Teachers in Jordan, contained six sections, each of which represented one of the variables examined in the research questions. These sections were labeled: 1) Attitudes towards ICT; 2) Perceived Computer Attributes; 3) Cultural Perspectives; 4) Perceived Computer Competences; 5) Perceived Computer Access; and 6) Teacher Characteristics. Attitudes towards ICT This section consisted of 20 statements divided into three subscales: affective (items 1-6), cognitive (items 7-15), and behavioral (items 16-20). Affective questions referred to the teacher’s feelings about ICT in education; cognitive questions referred to the teacher's actual knowledge of ICT, and behavioral questions referred to the teacher’s explicit use of and behavior towards ICT. As in Albirini's study (2004, p. 62), the combined score of the 20 items in this section represented the dependent variable for this study. Participants answered each question according to a 5-point Likert-type scale in which responses ranged from strongly disagree (1), to disagree (2), to neutral (3), to disagree (4) to strongly disagree (5). According to Albirini, The responses were reduced to a mean score that demonstrates how positive or negative each respondent’s attitude towards ICT was. Since respondents rated their attitudes on each item from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5), the range of possible mean scores was between 1 and 5, with higher scores indicating positive attitudes. (p. 62) In this study, this same summative method was used to create a score for this section.

Perceived ICT Attributes Of the five innovation attributes identified by Rogers (1995), only four—relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, and observability—were examined in Albirini's (2004) questionnaire. Trialibility, the fifth attribute identified by Rogers, was not examined because the majority of teachers in the Mid-East had no chance to experiment with computers before they were introduced into schools The Perceived Computer Attributes Scale consisted of 18 Likert-type statements. The items were grouped into four subscales corresponding to the four innovation attributes mentioned above. Thus, items 21-25 measured teacher perceptions concerning the relative advantages of ICT, items 26-30 measured perceptions of computer compatibility, items 30-34 measured perceptions of computer complexity, and items 35- 38 measured perceptions of computer observability. To ensure systematicity in the negative/positive direction of all subscales, the negative items of the complexity subscale were reversed, and thus the simplicity (non-complexity) of ICT was measured. In other words, higher scores on the complexity subscale indicated positive perceptions about the simplicity of ICT (or negative perceptions of the complexity of ICT) and not the opposite. The scaling and the rating of the overall Perceived Computer Attributes scale were the same as that of the Attitudes toward ICT Scale, with higher scores indicating more positive perceptions of computer attributes. Cultural Perceptions The Cultural Perceptions Scale consisted of 16 Likert-type statements. The statements took into account the teachers’ perceptions of the cultural value, relevance, and impact of ICT as it related to both Jordanian scholastic and national cultures. The scaling and rating of this scale were the same as that of the previously described scales, with higher scores indicating more positive cultural perceptions. Perceived Computer Competence The Perceived Computer Competence Scale consisted of 15 items. The items focused on the common uses of computers in education: software installation (item 1), basic hardware (items 2-3), productivity software (e.g., word processing; items 4-7), telecommunication resources (items 8-9), basic troubleshooting (item 10), graphic

64 application (item 11), grade keeping (item 12), educational software evaluation (item 13), organization tools (e.g., use of folders) (item 14), and virus handling (item 15). Computer Competence was quantified by the score of the 15 items on a four-point scale, ranging from no competence (1), to little competence (2), to moderate competence (3), to much competence (4). The responses were reduced to a mean score that demonstrated the level of each respondent’s perceived computer competence, with higher scores indicating greater competence. Perceived Computer Access The Perceived Computer Access Scale consisted of three statements that took into account the possible locations where computers might be available for use by the EFL teachers: at home, in school, and other places (the last choice was given to accommodate locations not mentioned in the first two guided responses). Computer Access, as an independent variable, was quantified by the respondent's score on the three access-related items, each measured according to a 5-point scale, ranging from never (1), to once a month (2), to once a week (3), to 2 or 3 times a week (4), to daily (5). The responses were reduced to a mean score indicating each respondent's perceived level of computer access, with higher scores indicating greater computer access. Teacher Characteristics The teacher characteristics about which questions were asked in the survey included the variables of age, gender, qualifications, grade level, teaching experience, training, ICDL certificate, and teaching method. The demographic section included questions about previous training experiences with ICT, both formal (ICDL) and informal (self-taught). Further, two questions about teaching method sought to determine the teacher's preferences for different instructional techniques, including active discussion, collaborative activities, demonstration, hands-on learning, lecturing, role-playing, and computer-assisted instruction. In the original study, Albirini (2004) examined the following variables: age, gender, qualification, income, teaching experience, training, school location, and teaching method. The variables of income and school location were omitted because first, there is no variance in salary among Jordanian EFL teachers and second, the study was conducted in the urban districts of the capital city of Amman.

65 These demographics presenting the independent variables were correlated with attitudes, the dependent variables. The variables in this section were quantified by individual scores on each of the ten items and then correlated with measures of attitudes toward and use of ICT.

Validity and Reliability

Validity refers to the extent to which an instrument measures what it is designed to measure (Brown, 1996, p. 231), while reliability refers to the consistency and accuracy of the measurement (Seliger & Shohamy, 1989). According to Wyckoff (1998), “A valid instrument measures what the researcher claims to measure; a reliable instrument measures the data in a consistent and accurate manner rather than randomly” (p. 48). Validity Albirini (2004) established face and content validity for the Arabic version of his instrument with the help of a panel of experts consisting of three content experts, two bilingual experts, one measurement expert, four population experts (Syrian teachers). This panel evaluated the instrument both before and after it was used and necessary modifications were made. In addition, bilingual experts reviewed both the English and Arabic versions of the survey to ensure the comparability of the instruments. An assumption was made that the face validity for Albirini's instrument, which was designed for Syria, could be extended to the use of the instrument in Jordan, since both are Middle Eastern countries with highly similar cultural contexts in terms of religion, language and social values. Further, since the only other instruments to date that have measured the relationship between ICT use and EFL instruction were created in English or European languages, Albirini's instrument, designed as it was for an Arabic-speaking country, seemed a more appropriate match for Jordanian teachers whose first language is Arabic. Albirini’s findings using the Arabic version of the instrument were published in an online peer reviewed journal, Computers & Education, in January 2005. Further information pertaining to the validation of the instrument is reported in Chapter Four.

66 Reliability According to Gay and Airasian (2000), “Reliability is the degree to which a test consistently measures whatever it is measuring” (p. 169). Albirini (2004) established the reliability of his Arabic-language instrument using the data from a pilot study that he carried out with 30 subjects in Syria. After altering some items in the first three of the four scales of the instrument (attitude toward ICT, computer attributes, cultural perceptions, computer competence), Albirini (2004) obtained the following alpha coefficients for the actual study: computer attitude = .90, computer attributes = .86, cultural perceptions = .76, and computer competence = .94. The alpha coefficients of the computer attitude subscales were: affective = .71, cognitive = .81, and behavioral =.79. The reliability coefficients of the computer attribute subscales were: relative advantage = .80, compatibility =.61, complexity = .66, and observability = .60. In this study, the researcher conducted a pilot study with 15 EFL teachers in Jordan immediately after the approval of the prospectus and the obtaining of permission from the Human Research Approval board. These subjects were volunteers from the target population. Cronbach’s alpha was used to measure internal consistency and calculated via the SPSS 13 statistical package. Results of reliability are reported in Chapter Four. Procedure for Data Collection Pilot Study

A pilot study was conducted before the actual collection of data to field test the instrument and its appropriateness for the Jordanian context. Fifteen English language teachers in Jordan took part in completing the survey voluntarily. The majority of the subjects (60%, n=9) were female while the males represented 40% (n=6). These subjects were dropped from the master sheet to be used in selecting the sample randomly to avoid duplication. They were asked to complete the survey and report any ambiguous or improper wording of items. Also, they were asked to report on the relevancy of the survey to the Jordanian society in general and English language teachers in particular. The surveys were mailed back to the researcher. Upon reviewing them, it was found that most of the respondents found the survey to be clearly worded and appropriate to the

67 Jordanian context. Most of them, however, stated it would be hard to calculate the training by hours and suggested to limit it to days only. Accordingly, changes were made in the final Arabic version of the survey. The data were collected in one stage. Given that the population size was 760, a sample size of 380 was used to provide the required accuracy, as Rea and Parker (1997) suggested. The sample was selected randomly utilizing a table of random numbers. It was stated that “the best procedure to draw an unbiased sample to represent a population adequately is to draw a random sample” (Graziano & Raulin, 1997, p. 214). The researcher utilized a table of random numbers provided in a textbook by Graziano and Raulin. The aforementioned table met two criteria: (1) each number had the same chance of being selected, and (2) each number was independent of the others (p. 214). Each subject in the population was assigned a number; then, using the table of random numbers to get random numbers from 1 to 760 until a total of 380 nonduplicated numbers was selected. Thus, 380 subjects were randomly selected from the population. All names and numbers were recorded on a master sheet with the names and the corresponding numbers of the sample subjects. Each survey packet was assigned a number that corresponded to a name on the master sheet. This technique was employed for follow up purposes in case it was needed. In this manner, the researcher would be able to identify who responded and who did not. However, only the number was showing on the survey packet to assure the subjects of the confidentiality of the obtained information. The survey packets consisted of a cover letter in Arabic and English and the survey in Arabic. The subjects were asked to complete the survey and were informed that was their consent to participate in the study. Human subject approval was obtained on April, 28th, 2006. The Ministry of Education in Amman was contacted then and their approval was also obtained. The pilot study was administered on April 30th; a total of 15 participants were used. The surveys were distributed and collected in the same day. Changes were made accordingly. A total of 380 surveys were distributed over a three day period from May 4th through May 7th, 2006. The surveys were delivered in person by a colleague to the school principals of each participant or group of participants (often two or more subjects were from the same school). In turn, the principals distributed them to the teachers. This procedure was

68 necessary to avoid a low response rate. Given that Jordanian schools were about to close for the summer break, the teachers were given two weeks to complete the surveys, following Albirini’s (2004) procedures. School principals were called via telephone to remind them to remind the teachers to complete the surveys and return them. The surveys were collected in person from school principals on May 18th and May 21st, 2006. A total of 363 surveys were collected from the participants by the same colleague, thus, the collection of the survey data encompassed two weeks starting May 4th and ending May 21st. The response rate of 95.6% was high enough that no follow up was required.

Data Analysis

The data were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics were used to describe and summarize the properties of the data collected (Gay & Airasian, 2000), and inferential statistics, including both Pearson and Spearman correlations and multiple regression analysis were used to explore relationships between the variables in the study. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 13 was used in analyzing the data in order to determine relationships between the independent and dependent variables. Table 4 provides an outline of the research questions and the statistical methods that were used to answer them.

Table 4 Statistical Analysis Procedures Used to Answer Research Questions ______

Research Question Statistical Method ______

1. What are the attitudes towards ICT among Means, standard Jordanian EFL teachers? deviations

2. What are the perceptions of Jordanian EFL teachers Means, standard

69 Table 4- continued ______Research Question Statistical Method ______in regard to: deviations • ICT attributes? • Cultural perceptions of ICT? • Computer competence? • Computer access

3. What is the relationship between the attitudes Pearson and toward ICT among Jordanian EFL teachers Spearman correlations and their perception of each of the independent variables (including teachers’ characteristics)?

4. What is the proportion of the variance in Multiple Regression the dependent variables that can Analysis be explained by the independent variables? ______The descriptive statistics to be used in summing the data included means, standard deviations, modes, and ranges. Following Gay and Airasian’s (2000) recommendations, simple correlations (using Pearson and Spearman analyses) were used to detect correlations between individual independent variables and dependent variables. In addition, multiple regression analysis was used to show the proportion of variance in the dependent variable explained by the selected independent variables. The multiple regression analysis would help in examining the relationship between teachers’ attitudes towards ICT (the dependent variable) and the independent variables, including teacher perception of the attributes of ICT, culture-related perceptions of ICT, self-reported competence, and self-reported access to ICT. In addition, multiple regression analysis was utilized to investigate the relationship between attitudes towards and use of ICT and the demographic variables, framed as teacher

70 characteristics, selected for this study. According to Tate (1998), “Phenomena in social sciences are complex…the simple linear regression model would be clearly inadequate in the attempt to begin to model the complexity of reality” (p. 68). Furthermore, multiple regressions, as the name implies, allows the inclusion of multiple independents variables (IVs) in the same model for an outcome. The use of multiple IVs provides statistical control in the estimation of the unique effect of each IV on the outcome, a concept central in any attempt to make casual inference with co relational data. (p. 68) Tate (1998) has outlined the primary data analysis steps in a typical multiple regression analysis. The following steps were implemented in this study: 1. Conduct the preliminary analyses • Missing subjects and data analysis. Assess the extent and pattern of any missing subjects and data. • If there are any missing subjects, assess whether the remaining sample is still representative of the population. • If there are any missing data, chose a subject deletion or observation replacement strategy. 2. Conduct a case analysis as needed • Identify any outliers and conduct follow-up, in-depth case studies if possible. • Identify any observations with excessive influence on study results using ∆ßs and sensitivity studies. 3. Assess violations of assumptions. • Identify violations using the residual plot and logical analysis of the study circumstances. • If any violations are found, determine from the literature the robustness of the multiple regressions to those violations. • Seek remedies for any violations for procedures which are not robust. 4. Assess the overall relationship. Estimate and test the model R² and determine the adjusted R². In Tate's (1998) words, “R² represents the strength of the relationship

71 between the dependent variable and all the independent variables and is interpreted as the portion of Y variability explained by the model” (p. 80). The adjusted R² is “an approximate unbiased estimate of the coefficient determination” (p. 341). 5. Describe the unique effect of each independent variable (IV) on the dependent variable. According to Tate (1998), "For interval and dichotomous IVs, estimate the regression coefficient to describe the effect--including a significance test, an interval test, and an assessment of the practical importance of the effect. Then, use the unique contribution to R² to describe the effect” (p. 98).

Summary

This chapter has described the nature of this research as a replication study with extension from Albirini’s (2004) work. It also outlined the proposed methodology for this study of attitudes towards ICT by Jordanian teachers of EFL. The research questions were identified, and the population and means for obtaining a representative sample were explained along with the data collection method. In addition, the independent and dependent variables, as well as the statistical methods to be used in analyzing the data were described.

72 CHAPTER FOUR DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

This study, a replication of a study conducted in Syria by Albirini (2004), explored the relationship between the attitudes of Jordanian EFL teachers towards instructional and computer technology (ICT) and a number of variables related to ICT use. Based on Ajzen and Fishbein's (1980) Theory of Reasoned Action, the dependent variable, attitudes, was assumed to contain cognitive, affective, and behavioral dimensions. Two of the independent variables, teacher perceptions of ICT attributes and culture-related perceptions of ICT, were based on Rogers' (1995) Theory of Diffusion of Innovations. The other independent variables, which were identified by Albirini based on a review of the literature, included: 1) competence in using ICT, 2) level of access to ICT, and 3) teacher characteristics (gender, age, income, teaching experience, educational background, and teaching method.) Accordingly, the following research questions were investigated: 1. What are the attitudes towards ICT among Jordanian EFL teachers? 2. What are the perceptions of Jordanian EFL teachers in regard to: ICT attributes; cultural perceptions of ICT; computer competence; and computer access? 3. What is the relationship between Jordanian EFL teachers' attitudes toward ICT and their perceptions of each of the independent variables (including teacher characteristics)? 4. What is the proportion of the variance in the dependent variable (attitudes toward ICT among Jordanian EFL teachers) that can be explained by the independent variables? This chapter first presents a discussion of the reliability and validity of the instrument used for data collection. Then, the findings of the data analysis are provided in five sections, beginning with a brief description of selected characteristics of the Jordanian EFL teachers surveyed. The second section presents descriptive statistics of the

73 teachers’ attitudes towards ICT. The third section presents descriptive statistics of the teachers’ perceptions of (a) computer attributes, (b) the cultural relevance of computers, (c) their own computer competence, and (d) their level of access to computers. In the fourth section, Pearson and Spearman correlations are used to illustrate the relationship between attitudes towards ICT, the dependent variable, and each of the independent variables. The fifth section utilizes multiple regression analysis to show the proportion of variance in the dependent variable that is explained by the selected independent variables and the relative significance of each independent variable in explaining the dependent variable. Reliability of the Instrument

The instrument used in this study, the ICT Survey of EFL Teachers was adapted from an instrument developed by Albirini (2004) for use in Syria. The Arabic version of the instrument had established validity and reliability by Albirini. However, since the instrument was used in a different setting, the reliability had to be recalculated. One of the most common methods for estimating reliability is the internal consistency measure, which uses Cronbach’s alpha coefficient (Graziano & Raulin, 1997). As a rule of thumb, a cut-off point of .60 is common in exploratory research (Garson, 2006). Furthermore, when an instrument consists of scales measuring different constructs, the internal consistency coefficient must be calculated for each scale individually (Gliem & Gliem, 2003). The ICT Survey of EFL Teachers consisted of four main scales: attitudes, attributes, competence, and access. The attitude scale covered three subscales: affective, cognitive, and behavioral. The attributes scale involved four subscales: relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, and observability. Thus, Cronbach’s alpha was used to determine the degree of internal consistency of the items with each scale. Taking the aforementioned guidelines into account, the Cronbach’s alpha was calculated for the main scales and subscales of the instrument from the total sample of 363. The reliability analysis in Table 5 shows the statistics for Cronbach’s alpha for each main scale and its respective subscale. None of the scales had a value below .60, indicating that all items were reliable. It is worth noting that Cronbach's alpha increases as the number of items in the scale increases (Graziano & Raulin, 1997), which accounts for the high scores of the

74 scales with many items in comparison with scales that had fewer items. For example, the subscale for compatibility only had four items only, while the subscale for competence had sixteen items.

Table 5 Reliability Coefficient of ICT Survey ______

Scale Reliability Coefficient ______Attitude towards ICT .92 Affective .79 Cognitive .84 Behavioral .85 ICT Attributes .87 Relative Advantage .77 Compatibility .61 Complexity .67 Observability .70 Cultural perceptions .81 ICT Competence .94 ______

Validity of the Instrument

An instrument is considered valid when it measures what it claims to measure (Brown, 1996). In addition to content validity, Graziano and Raulin (1997) listed four types of validity: statistical validity, construct validity, external validity, and internal validity (p. 201). In this study, the content validity of the Arabic version of the ICT

75 Survey was established by Albirini (2004) with the help of a panel of experts that included three content experts, two bilingual experts, one measurement expert, and four population experts (Syrian teachers). The panel that was utilized by Albirini (2004) evaluated the instrument both before and after it was used, and necessary modifications were made. In addition, bilingual experts reviewed both the English and Arabic versions of the survey to ensure the comparability of the instruments. An assumption in this study was made by the researcher that the face validity for Albirini's instrument, which was designed for Syria, could be extended to use of the instrument in Jordan, since both are Middle Eastern countries with highly similar cultural contexts in terms of religion, language, and social values. Further, since the only other instruments to date that have measured the relationship between ICT use and EFL instruction were created in English or European languages, Albirini's instrument, designed as it was for an Arabic-speaking country, seemed a more appropriate match for Jordanian teachers whose first language is Arabic. For the current study, the construct validity of the survey instrument was established using an Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA). Garson (2006) stipulated that a construct can be a good construct when it has a theoretical basis that is reflected through clear operational definitions and measurable variables. He stated that the more a construct is used with outcomes consistent with theory, the greater its construct validity. The use of an EFA is recommended “when a researcher aims to identify a set of unique constructs underlying a group of measured variables” (Fabrigar, Wegner, MacCallum, & Strahan, 1999, p. 4). Factor analysis can be used for many purposes such as data reduction and establishing construct validity. The EFA conducted for this study explored the four main scales of the survey: attitudes, attributes, cultural perceptions, and competence. The EFA was not calculated for computer access due to a limited number of items in that scale. Accordingly, 69 items were utilized to conduct the EFA. The results of the EFA of the ICT Survey of EFL Teachers are shown in Table 6. A principal component analysis using varimax rotation was conducted in order to achieve the best possible loading. The goal of the rotation was to simplify and clarify the data structure. The analysis forced four factors each with

76 eignvalues of greater than one. The default in factor analysis is to retain factors with eignvalues greater than 1.0 (Velicor & Jackson, 1990). A number of steps were followed to conduct the EFA. First, Kaiser-Meyer- Olkin’s (KMO) Measure of Sampling Adequacy was used to test the assumption underlying the principal component analysis. The KMO test scores range from 0 to 1; the closer the test static is to 1, the better correlation between pairs of variables can be explained by other variables. The KMO was .928, which can be considered as very good (Fabrigar et al., 1999). The next step was to select an extraction method. When data are normally distributed, maximum likelihood is the best extraction method. Fabrigar, et al. (1999) stated that the reason for such a method is that it allows “the computation of wide range of indexes of the goodness of fit of the model [and] permits statistical significance testing of factor loading and correlations among factors and the computation of confidence intervals” (p. 227). Tabachnick and Fidell (2001) cited .32 or higher as a good rule of thumb for the minimum loading of an item to be retained. An item is considered to be “crossloading” when it loads at .32 or higher on two or more factors (Costello & Osborne, 2005, p. 4). Poorly written items may cause crossloading and it is up to the researcher to decide to drop or retain these items. Table 6 indicates that the amount of variance in the respondents' attitudes towards ICT accounted for by each factor totaled 43.02%. The item loadings ranged from .39 to .79, which indicates that all items can be retained for future research. Only one item, a14, had a loading value of .29, and because this value was below the cutoff point of .32, it was not viewed as loading on any factor. Other items loaded on more than one factor. These items were: a6, a9, a15, a19, b3, b4, b10, b13, and b16. Any decision to keep or delete items from the instrument should be made after further examination and empirical testing with similar items and a larger sample to determine their robustness (Fabrigar et al., (1999).

77 Table 6 Variance Explained in ICT Survey by Factor Analysis ______Factor Total % of Variance Cumulative%_ 1 18.95 26.46 26.46 2 5.87 8.51 35.98 3 2.50 3.63 39.61 4 2.35 3.41 43.02 ______

Therefore, any future testing of the ICT survey with a different sample should include all 69 items of the instrument. However, it is assumed that the removal of these items may increase the total variance, resulting in an improvement in the validity of the instrument. Data Analysis

After reviewing the collected surveys, it was found that 363 surveys were returned by respondents. However, a preliminary analysis of the extent of missing data revealed that 167 surveys contain missing values. In order to detect any patterns in the missing data, a coded variable for missing values was created for each variable and the resulting sample was calculated after a listwise deletion, which dropped any subject with a missing value on any of the variables to be used in the analysis. The resulting sample after a listwise deletion was 196. Observation replacement with imputed values was utilized to avoid the loss of sample size and statistical power. Because of the potential consequences of subject deletion, an observation replacement strategy was adopted. Two general strategies can be used when there are missing values in a data set, subject deletion or observation replacement. The consequence of deleting all subjects with missing values is a reduction in the statistical power of the data analysis (Tate, 1998). An additional consequence is the “under representation of subgroups of population of interest and a corresponding introduction of bias into the study results" (Tate, p. 46). According to Tate (1998), “when

78 the power loss would not be acceptable with list wise deletion, replace the missing values with imputed values” (p. 62). He also stipulated that “the obvious strength of this strategy is that there is no loss of sample size, and statistical power” (p. 47). The Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) 13 was used to analyze the data. In all, 387 surveys were distributed, 363 were returned, resulting in a return rate of 95.5%. All of the returned surveys, a total of 363, were used in the analysis. Descriptive statistics (frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations) were computed as a means of describing the respondents' attitudes towards ICT, as well as their perceptions of ICT attributes, their cultural perceptions of ICT, their levels of ICT competence, and levels of access to ICT. Pearson’s Product Moment and Spearman correlation coefficients were used to determine the relationship between the independent variables: ICT attributes cultural perception, competence, access, and teacher characteristics and the English language teachers’ attitudes towards ICT. Furthermore, linear multiple regression was used to measure the degree to which the independent variables would explain the proportion of variance in the dependent variables.

Descriptive Summary of Teachers’ Characteristics

Data were collected on selected characteristics of the Jordanian EFL teachers surveyed, including demographic information such as gender, age, teaching experience, grade level taught, qualifications, district, preferred teaching method, and other teaching preferred methods. As shown in Table 7, less than 40% of the respondents were male while approximately 60% of the participants were females. In terms of age, 39% of the subjects were within the 30-39 age range, 26% of them were within the 20-29 age range, and only two teachers were 60 years old and above. When asked how long they had taught English, 29% of the respondents stated that they had taught English for one to five years. Twenty eight percent of the teachers who responded taught English 6 to 11 years, 11% of them taught English from 11 to 15 years, and 20% taught English for 16 to 20 years, and about 13% of the participants reported more than 20 years experience in teaching English. It was shown that approximately half

79 of the respondents taught at the Basic level of school system, which is from 1st grade to 10th grade, and a similar percentage taught at the High level, that is 11th and 12th grade. Also, the majority of the EFL teachers who took part in the study held a B.A. in English language whereas only four percent held a Master’s degree. The most commonly used method of teaching among the participants was active discussion followed by demonstration. However, computer-assisted teaching was among the few used methods by the participants.

Table 7 Summary of Respondent Characteristics Variable Category Frequency Percent Gender Male 142 39.1 Female 221 60.1

Age 20-29 97 26.7 30-39 143 39.4 40-49 97 26.7 50-59 24 6.6 > 60 2 .6

Teaching 1-5 years 104 28.7 Experience 6-10 years 100 27.5 11-15 years 40 11.0 16-20 years 73 20.1 > 20 46 12.7

Grade Level Basic 180 49.0

80 Table 7- continued

Variable Category Frequency Percent High 183 50.4

Qualification Comm. College 32 8.8 B.A. 286 78.8 Diploma 29 8.0 M.A. 16 4.4

Teaching Methods Active discussion 170 46.8 Collaborative 64 17.6 Activity Demonstration 82 22.6 Hands-On 10 2.8 Lecture 4 1.1 Computer-assisted 15 4.1

Also, the information pertaining to computer training, frequency and type of training as well as obtaining an ICDL is presented in Table 8. Most of the respondents reported that they had computer training whereas only 17% of the participants stated that they had no training at all. About 33% of the respondents received 41-60 days of training, and only 23% of the subjects received more than 61 days of training, whereas more than 11% of the trained teachers had between 1-20 days of training. In terms of the type of training, most of the EFL teachers participating in the study reported that they received their training through JMOE workshops while only 34% of the respondents reported that they were self-trained. When asked about obtaining an ICDL certificate, slightly more than half of the subjects reported that they already had an ICDL, and 18 percent of them were still taking courses. Only 30 percent of the participants stated that they did not have an ICDL or were taking part in any courses.

Table 8 Summary of the Jordanian EFL Teachers’ Training

Variable Category Frequency Percent

Training No 63 17.4

Yes 299 82.6 1-20 days 42 11.6 21-40 days 58 16.0 41-60 days 111 32.6 >60 days 85 23.4

Type Self-Trained 125 34.4 MOE workshops 206 56.7 None 32 8.8 ICDL No 110 30.3 Yes 186 51.2 Still taking 67 18.5 courses

Research Question One: What are the Jordanian EFL Teachers’ Attitudes toward ICT? The ICT survey contained 20 Likert-type items that asked respondents to describe their attitudes towards ICT. Table 9 shows the frequency of responses to this 20- item Attitude Scale of the survey. Respondents’ attitudes were measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Higher scores indicated positive attitudes towards ICT while lower scores indicated less positive attitudes.

82 Table 9 Frequency Percentages on the Attitude Scale (N= 363) ______Item Computer Attitude Scale Percent (%) ______SD D N A SA

1 Computers do not scare me at all 3.3 8.9 4.4 43.1 40.3 2 *Computers make me feel uncomfortable 37.2 41.6 6.9 11.3 3.0 3 I am glad there are more computers these days 4.2 4.8 7.6 45.8 37.6 4 *I do not like talking with others about computers 24.5 43.8 7.6 4.8 4.2 5 Using computers is enjoyable 1.1 5.0 4.2 53.1 36.6 6 *I dislike using computers in teaching 24.5 44.4 16.8 10.2 4.1 7 Computers save time and money .8 6.2 5.4 45.8 41.8 8 *Schools would be a better place without computers 35.8 39.1 16.3 6.6 2.2 9 Students must use computers in all subject matters 4.8 16.0 29.4 35.3 14.6 10 *Learning about computers is a waste of time 52.3 36.3 7.4 1.9 1.7 11 Computers would motivate students to do more study 3.1 8.7 24.6 45.1 18.5 12 Computers are fast and efficient means of getting 1.1 3.1 3.9 41.5 50.4 information 13 *I would never need a computer in my classroom 21.2 48.2 17.9 9.6 3.0 14 Computers can enhance students’ learning 2.2 5.0 13.9 62.6 16.3 15 *Computers do more harm than good 33.9 46.0 12.4 13.8 4.1 16 *I would rather do things by hand than with a computer 14.6 52.9 14.6 13.8 4.1 17 If I had the money, I would buy a computer 2.2 5.3 9.0 32.0 51.4 18 *I would avoid computers as much as possible 36.9 47.7 7.4 5.2 2.5 19 I would like to learn more about computers 2.5 5.0 4.2 51.8 36.4 20 *I have no intention to use computers in the 39.1 43.0 9.9 3.0 5.0 near future ______Scale: SD=Strongly Disagree, D=Disagree, N=Neutral, A=Agree, SA=Strongly Agree Note: *negative items were reversed before scoring

The scale was divided into three subscales: (a) affective domain (items 1 to 6); (b) cognitive domain (items 7 to 15), and (c) behavioral domain (items16 to 20).

83 Statements 1 through 6 concerned the affective domain. In response to the statement: "Computers do not scare me at all," the majority of respondents indicated that they agreed (43.1%) or strongly agreed (40.3%). A minority disagreed (8.9%) or strongly disagreed (3.3%). Only 14% of the respondents agreed with the second statement that computers made them feel uncomfortable, whereas the majority of the respondents (78.8%) indicated their disagreement with the statement. Less than one-tenth (9.0%) of the participants indicated that they were not glad there are more computers these days, while the majority of the respondents (83.2%) indicated their agreement with the statement that they were glad there are more computers these days. Also, a majority of respondents (89.7%) strongly agreed or agreed that using computers is enjoyable. When asked to respond to the negative statement, "I do not like talking about computers," more than half of the respondents disagreed (43.8%) or strongly disagreed (24.5%), and less than 10% agreed with it. When asked to respond to the negative statement six, "I dislike using computers in teaching," the majority of the EFL teachers taking part in the survey disagreed (44.4%) or strongly disagreed (24.5%). A minority of the respondents indicated they agreed strongly (4.1%) or agreed (10.2%). As for the cognitive subscale, it was shown that the majority of the respondents (87.6%) agreed or strongly agreed that computers save time and money. On the other hand, most of the participants disagreed strongly (52.3%) or disagreed (36.6%) with the negative statement, "Learning about computers is a waste of time." Almost all of the respondents (91.9%) indicated their agreement that computers are a fast and efficient means to get information. Only 4% of the participants indicated their disagreement with the above statement. In terms of the benefit of computers for students, the majority of the respondents (78.9%) agreed that computers can enhance students’ learning. Similarly, more than half of the participants (63.6%) agreed that computers would motivate students to study more. In response to statement thirteen, "I would never need a computer in my classroom," about 69% of the respondents disagreed. Only 12.6% of the respondents indicated their agreement with the statement. Also, in response to the negative statement fifteen, "Computers do harm more than good," the majority of the participants (79.9%) expressed their disagreement.

84 Statements 16 to 20 addressed the behavioral domain. Most respondents (83.4%) indicated their strong intentions to own a computer if they had the money. Also, a majority of participants (88.2%) expressed their interest in learning more about computers. In response to the negative statement about avoiding computers as much as possible, almost 85% of the respondents indicated their disagreement with the statement. Only a small minority (7.7%) of EFL teachers taking part in the study indicated that they would avoid computers as much as possible. Similarly, the majority of the subjects (67.5%) stated that they would rather do things by computer rather than by hand. After reversing the negatively stated items, the range for the Attitude Scale was "Agree” (4). Table 10 illustrates that the mean score of the participants’ responses on the affective domain was 3.96 (SD = .724) indicating a positive attitude towards ICT. Likewise, the mean score for the respondents on the cognitive domain was 3.96 (SD = .623). The highest mean score for the respondents was on the behavioral domain, that is 4.04 (SD = .767). In general, EFL teachers’ attitudes towards ICT were positive, with an overall mean of 3.98 and a standard deviation of .62, as shown in Table 10.

Table 10 Distribution of Mean Scores on the Attitude Scale of the ICT Survey ______Scale Mean Std. Deviation Range ______Affective 3.96 .724 4 Cognitive 3.96 .623 4 Behavioral 4.04 .767 4 Overall Attitude 3.98 .626 4 ______

Research Question Two: What are the Jordanian EFL Teachers’ Perception of Factors Related to Attitudes towards ICT?

85 This section presents a description of the EFL teachers’ perceptions of the four independent variables in the study: (a) computer attributes, (b) cultural perceptions, (c) computer competence, and (d) level of computer access. Computer Attributes Participants were asked to respond to 18 Likert-type items that measured their perceptions of the attributes of computers. Table 11 illustrates the frequency percentages of the participants’ responses to the 18-item Computer Attributes Scale of the ICT Survey. The scale was divided into subscales as follows: relative advantage (items 1-5), compatibility (items 6-10), complexity (items 11-14), and observability (items 15-18).

Table 11 Frequency Percentages on the Computer Attributes Scale (N=363)

Item Computer Attributes Scale Percent (%) ______SD D N A SA 1 Computers will improve education 1.9 4.7 13.2 58.4 21.8 2 Teaching with computers offers real advantages 3.9 6.6 22.3 48.5 18.7 over traditional methods of instruction 3 *Computer technology cannot improve the quality 14.3 52.9 17.4 12.1 3.3 of students’ learning 4 Using computer technology in the classroom would 1.1 3.0 10.7 59.0 26.2 make the subject matter more interesting 5 *Computers are not useful for language learning 28.1 53.7 9.6 7.2 1.4 6 *Computers have no place in schools 36.4 46.6 10.2 3.9 3.0 7 Computer use fits well into my curriculum goals 4.1 12.4 46.6 31.4 5.5 8 *Class time is too limited for computer use 3.9 22.3 14.0 41.0 18.7 9 Computer use suits my students’ learning preference 1.7 9.9 35.0 45.7 7.7 and their level of computer knowledge 10 Computer use is appropriate for many language 8 6.3 11.3 66.4 15.2 learning activities 11 *It would be hard for me to learn to use computers in 12.7 62.3 12.9 8.8 3.3 teaching

86 Table 11- continued Item Computer Attributes Scale Percent (%) ______SD D N A SA

12 I have no difficulty in understanding the basic 3.9 24.0 14.6 49.0 8.5 basic of computers 13 *Computers complicate my task in the classroom 14.00 49.6 20.4 12.1 3.9 14 Everyone can easily learn to operate a computer 2.5 9.4 20.7 53.4 14.0 15 *I have never seen computers at work 46.6 39.4 7.4 5.2 1.4 16 Computers have proved to be effective learning tools 2.8 4.7 10.7 49.0 32.8 worldwide 17 *I have never seen computers being used as an 30.3 47.9 8.8 10.7 2.2 educational tool. 18 I have seen some Jordanian teachers use computers for1.7 6.9 8.8 60.3 22.3 educational purposes Scale: SD=Strongly Disagree, D=Disagree, N=Neutral, A=Agree, SA=Strongly Agree Note: *negative items were reversed before scoring

Statements 1 to 5 addressed the relative advantages of ICT. The majority of the participants (80.2%) agreed that computers would improve education. Also, most of the respondents (85.2%) stated their agreement that using computers in the classroom would make the subject matter more interesting. In response to statement two, "Teaching with computers offers real advantages over traditional methods of instruction," about 68% of the subjects indicated that teaching with computers offers real advantage over traditional methods. In response to the negative statement, "Computers do not improve the quality of students’ learning," more than half of the respondents (67.2%) disagreed with the statement, and a small number agreed (12.1%) or strongly agreed (3.3%) with it. Statement 5 stated that computers are not useful in language learning. The majority of the respondents (81.8%) indicated their disagreement with this statement, and only 9% of the subjects agreed with it. Items 6 to 10 comprised the compatibility subscale. Most of the respondents (81.6%) agreed that computer use is appropriate for many language learning activities, while only 7.1% indicated their disagreement with the statement. However, more than

87 half of the subjects (59.7%) agreed that class time is too limited for computer use. In response to the statement, “Computer use suits my students’ learning preference and their level of computer knowledge," 60% of the participants indicated their agreement. However, over a third (35%) of the respondents had a neutral position in response to this item. When asked if computer use fits well into the EFL teachers’ curriculum goals, only 37% agreed with the statement, while 47% of the subjects had a neutral position. However, a significant majority of the respondents (83.2%) disagreed that computers have no place at school. A minority of only 7% agreed with that statement. As for the complexity subscale, respondents replied to items 11 to 14. When asked if it would be hard for them to use computers in teaching, most of the participants (75.0%) disagreed with the statement. The remainder agreed (12.1%) or had a neutral position (12.9%) about the statement. Also, just over half of the subjects (57.5%) expressed their agreement with the statement that they have no difficulty in understanding the basic functions of computers. At the same time, 64% of the subjects disagreed with the statement that computers complicate their task in the classroom, and only 15% of the participants indicated their agreement with the statement. Also, a majority of the respondents (67.4%) agreed that everyone can easily learn to operate a computer. A minority of 12% disagreed with the statement while 21% had a neutral position. In terms of the fourth subscale of computer attributes, observability, items 15 through 18 addressed that domain. The majority (82.6%) of the EFL teachers taking part in the study stated that they have seen Jordanian teachers using computers for educational purposes. Likewise, in response to the negative statement that they had never seen computers being used for educational purposes, more than three-quarters of respondents (78.2%) indicated their disagreement with that statement. A minority of 13% agreed with it, however. Similarly, when asked to respond to the negative statement, "I have never seen computers at work," 86% of the subjects indicated their disagreement with the statement. A minority of only 7% agreed with it. Finally, most of the respondents agreed strongly (32.8%) or agreed (49.0%) with the statement that computers have proven to be effective tools worldwide.

88 In general, the respondents' perceptions of the attributes of ICT were positive, with an overall mean score of 3.72 and a standard deviation of .52. The mean score of the participants’ responses on observability (4.04) was the highest among the four subscales, indicating a strong positive observed advantage of ICT. Also, the mean score of the respondents on the relative advantage was 3.86 (SD = .658) indicating a positive perception of ICT advantage over other innovations. The respondents' perceptions of the compatibility and complexity of ICT were midway between neutral and positive, with mean scores of 3.44 (SD =.579) and 3.58 (SD =.695), respectively (see Table 12).

Table 12 Distribution of Mean Scores on ICT Attributes Scales ______Scale Mean Std. Deviation Range ______Advantage 3.86 .658 4 Compatibility 3.44 .579 4 Complexity 3.58 .695 4 Observability 4.04 .681 4 Overall Computer Attributes 3.72 .527 4

Cultural Perceptions Section three of the survey was composed of 16 Likert-type statements covering EFL teachers’ cultural perceptions of computers and the impact of computers on Jordanian society. Table 13 shows the frequency of the participants’ responses in this regard. Overall, the responses in this section ranged from agree to strongly agree with a few items indicating a neutral position. Significantly, in response to item two, "Students need to know how to use computers for future jobs," the majority of the respondents (83.5%) agreed or strongly agreed. In response to statement seven, "Using computers would not hinder Arab generations from learning their tradition," the majority agreed (52.9%) or strongly agreed (10.2%).

89 Table 13 Frequency Percentages on Cultural Perceptions Scale (N= 363)

Item Cultural Perceptions Scale Percent (%) ______SD D N A SA 1 *Computers will not make any differences in our class- 27.3 47.9 14.9 6.9 3.0 rooms, schools, or lives 2 Students need to know how to use computers for future .8 4.1 11.6 53.2 30.3 jobs. . 3 *Students prefer learning from teachers to learning from 5.2 21.8 41.6 26.7 4.7 computers 4 Knowing about computers earns one the respect of 3.9 9.6 24.2 49.0 13.2 others 5 *We need computers that suit better the Arabic culture 1.4 5.8 10.7 49.9 32.2 and identity 6 Computers will improve our standard of living 2.8 6.9 39.4 36.4 14.6 7 Using computers would not hinder Arab generations 3.3 14.0 19.6 52.9 10.2 from learning their traditions. 8 *Computers are proliferating too fast 2.2 5.2 5.1 42.7 44.8 9 People who are skilled in computers have privileges 1.4 3.9 15.4 56.7 22.6 not available to others. 10 *Computers will increase our dependence on foreign 12.9 30.6 27.3 19.6 9.6 countries. 11 *There are other social issues that need to be addressed 1.4 8.0 19.0 51.0 20.7 before implementing computers in education. 12 The increased proliferation of computers will make 1.7 4.7 23.1 54.0 16.5 our life easier. 13 *Computers dehumanize society. 11.3 47.1 21.8 14.9 5.0 14 Working with computers does not diminish people’ 6.9 19.0 24.8 42.7 6.6 relationships with one another. 15 *Computers encourage unethical practices. 7.2 26.7 28.4 26.2 11.6 16 Computers should be a priority in education. 2.2 12.1 15.2 55.6 14.9 Scale: SD=Strongly Disagree, D=Disagree, N=Neutral, A=Agree, SA=Strongly Agree Note: *negative items were reversed before scoring

90 However, a majority of the respondents agreed (49.9%) or strongly agreed (32.2%) that there is a need for computers that suit the Arabic culture and identity. Only 19.6% of respondents agreed that computers will increase Jordan's dependence on foreign countries, while 30.6% disagreed. Furthermore, in response to statement sixteen, "Computers should be a priority in education," more than half of the respondents agreed (55.6%) or strongly agreed (14.9%). When asked to indicate their response to statement nine, "People who are skilled in computers have privileges not available to others, the majority of the participants agreed (56.7%) or strongly agreed (22.6%)." A majority also expressed strong agreement (agrees, 54.0%; strongly agree, 16.5%) with the statement that computers will make life easier. In response to the statement that computers encourage unethical practices, the respondents split approximately evenly between agree (26.2%) disagree (26.7%), and those who maintained a neutral position (28.4%). The majority of the respondents disagreed (47.1%) or strongly disagreed (11.3%) with the statement that computers dehumanize the society. Likewise, in response to the statement that working with computers does not diminish people’s relationship with each other, 42.7% of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed (6.6%) while 19.0%)disagreed. In addition, the majority of the respondents (75.2%) indicated their disagreement with the statement that computers will not make a difference in the classroom or in people's lives. When asked about their perceptions about whether students prefer to learn from teachers rather than from computers, a high percentage (41.6%) had a neutral position, while 26.4% agreed and 21.8% disagreed. In conclusion, the overall mean on the cultural perceptions scale was 3.22, with a standard deviation of .454, indicating that EFL teachers have largely positive perceptions of the relationship between ICT and Jordanian culture (see Table 14). Means for Computer Competence and Access, which will be discussed in the following sections, are presented in Table 14.

91 Table 14 Distribution of Mean Scores on Cultural Perceptions, Competence, and Access ______Scale Mean Std. Deviation Range ______Cultural Perceptions of ICT 3.22 .454 3 Computer Competence 2.99 .717 3 Computer Access 3.41 .949 4

Computer Competence Participants were asked to respond to 15 statements to indicate their level of computer competence. The 4-point scale of responses ranged from one (No Competence) to four (Much Competence). Table 15 summarizes the percentages of the EFL teachers’ responses on the Computer Competence Scale. Over half of the respondents (58.1%) indicated that they used computers for grade keeping with much competence. Similarly, 58.9% of respondents said they used computers for word processing with much competence. Other ways in which respondents used computers with much competence included: for power point presentations (50.4%); in Excel (40.9%); and in Access (36.1%). Less competence was reported in the use of Photoshop, a graphic program, as only 24% of respondents reported that were able to use it with much competence.

Table 15

Frequency Percentages on Computer Competence Scale

N Computer Competence Items Percent (%) ______No Little Moderate Much Competence competence competence competence 1 Install new software on a computer 19.0 16.8 45.5 18.7

92 Table 15- continued

N Computer Competence Items Percent (%) ______No Little Moderate Much Competence competence competence competence 2 Use a printer 6.6 7.7 33.3 52.3 3 Use a computer keyboard 2.5 7.7 30.6 59.2 4 Operate a word processing program 6.1 9.1 25.9 58.9 (e.g., Word) 5 Operate a presentation program 8.0 12.4 29.2 50.4 (e.g., Power Point Presentation) 6 Operate a spreadsheet program 9.4 14.9 34.8 40.9 (e.g., Excel) 7 Operate a data base program (e.g., 14.9 16.8 32.2 36.1 Access) 8 Use the Internet for communication 10.2 11.6 28.8 48.5 9 Use the World Wide Web to access 8.5 10.7 23.1 57.6 different types of information 10 Solve simple problems in operating 12.9 24.2 41.6 21.2 computers 11 Operate a graphic program (e.g., Photoshop) 21.5 20.9 33.6 24.0 12 Use computers for grade keeping 6.3 7.4 28.1 58.1 13 Select and evaluate educational 14.6 27.3 38.8 19.3 software 14 Create and organize educational 13.8 21.2 34.4 30.6 software 15 Remove computer viruses 39.1 23.7 17.6 19.6 ______Scale: SD=Strongly Disagree, D=Disagree, N=Neutral, A=Agree, SA=Strongly Agree Note: *negative items were reversed before scoring

About 39.1% of respondents stated that they lacked the competence to remove computer viruses, in contrast with 19.6% of the respondents who stated that had much competence in doing that task.

93 Almost two-thirds of the respondents indicated that they have much (28.8%) to moderate (48.5%) competence in using the Internet. More than half of the respondents (57.6%) used the World Wide Web to access information with much competence. Only 10.7% stated that they had no competence in using the WWW. Relatively few respondents indicated a lack of competence with: using a key board (2.5%), using a printer (6.6%), solving operating problems (12.9%), selecting and evaluating educational software (14.6%), and creating and organizing educational software (13.8%). Overall, most respondents indicated that they had “Moderate” to “Much” competence in using computers. The mean score of the Computer Competence Scale was 2.99, with a standard deviation of .994 indicating that the majority of the respondents felt that they had moderate competence in handling most of the computer tasks as presented in Table 15 Access to ICT Section 5 of the ICT survey was composed of questions pertaining to the level of access to computers in terms of location and frequency. The access questions covered: (a) the location of computers used by the EFL teachers (school library, school lab, home, or other locations), and (b) the frequency of access (never, once a month, once a week, two to three times a week, and daily). The subjects’ responses are summarized in Table 16.

Table 16 Distribution of Responses and Mean Scores on the Computer Access Scale ______Scale Percent (%) Mean S.D. ______Never Once Once 2-3 times Daily a month a week a week Home 14.0 14.9 16.5 25.3 29.2 School library 12.4 28.1 25.3 26.2 8.0 School lab 60.1 27.5 5.8 4.1 2.5 Other Overall Access Level 3.41 .949

The school library was the most frequent place of computer access with 87.6% of respondents having access to computers either daily (29.2%), two to three times a week (25.3%), once a week (16.5%), or once a month (14.9%). Home was the second most frequently-cited place (85.9%) where teachers have access to computers. Only 39.1% of respondents indicated that they had access to computers in the school lab. Approximately 1% of the respondents had access to a computer in places other than home and school. Only a few respondents indicated that they had access to computers at an Internet café while a few others mentioned the university. The responses were represented by a mean score on a 5-point scale. The mean score on the Computer Access Scale was 3.41 (SD = .949), which implies that, on average, the Jordanian EFL teachers had access to a computer three times a month, as shown in Table 16. Research Question Three: The Relationship between Teacher Attitudes and the Independent Variables This section addresses the relationship between the teachers’ attitudes towards ICT and the main independent variables: computer attributes, cultural perceptions, computer competence, and computer access. The correlation coefficient provides "a measure of the degree and direction of relationships between variables" (Graziano & Raulin, 1997, p. 111). Thus, the correlations that are reported in this section represent a descriptive statistic that describes some aspects of the data and involves at least two variables. Different correlation coefficients exist for different types of data. The Pearson product-moment correlation is used with interval variables, while the Spearman rank- ordered correlation is used when variables are ordinal. Accordingly, the Pearson product moment correlation was used to describe the relationship between the respondents' attitudes towards ICT and the independent interval variables of computer attributes, cultural perceptions, computer competence, computer access, and training. On the other hand, the Spearman rank-ordered correlation was used to describe the relationship between the respondents' attitudes towards ICT and ordinal and nominal independent variables such as demographic variables and training type.

95 A Pearson product–moment correlation can range from -1.00 to + 1.00. A correlation of +1.00 means that two variables are perfectly related in a positive direction— as one variable increases, the other variable likewise increases in a positive direction. A correlation of -1.00 represents a perfect negative relationship—as one variable increases, the other variable decreases by a predictable amount. A correlation of zero means that there is no relationship between two variables (Graziano & Raulin, p. 110). As shown in Table 17, a strong positive relationship exists between attitudes toward ICT and perceived computer attributes. Based on further analysis, it was revealed that the strongest positive relationship was between respondent attitudes toward ICT and respondents perceptions of relative advantage (r =.743, p < .01). The relationship between attitudes toward ICT and perceptions of complexity was second in strength, with a correlation coefficient of .625 at the .01 level of significance. Analysis of the other two subscales of perceived ICT attributes resulted in a moderate positive relationship with respondent attitudes toward ICT (compatibility, r = .580; observability, r = .530, p < .01).

Table 17 Correlation of Attitudes Scale with Subscales of Computer Attributes ______

Variable Attitude Compatibility Advantage Complexity Observability ______Attitude 1.00 Compatibility .580** 1.00 Advantage .743** .657** 1.00 Complexity .625** .540** .552** 1.00 Observability .530** .467** .553** .450** 1.00 ______* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

Table 18 illustrates the relationship between teacher’s attitudes towards ICT and the other independent variables. It shows positive correlations between attitudes towards ICT and ICT attributes, culture perceptions, competence, access, and training. There was a considerable positive relationship between respondent attitudes towards ICT and their cultural perceptions (r = .629, p < .01). Also, a strong relationship was found between respondent attitudes and their level of computer competence (r = .504, p < .01). The relationship between the respondents' level of computer access and their attitudes towards ICT was less strong, but positive (r = .398, p < .01). The weakest relationship was found between training length and attitudes towards ICT. Nevertheless, the correlation was positive, implying that as teachers receive more training, their attitudes towards ICT become more positive.

Table 18 Pearson Product–Moment Correlations of Attitudes and Independent Variables ______Variable Attitude Attribute Culture Competence Access Training ______Attitude 1.00 Attributes .771** 1.00 Cultural .629** .716** 1.00 Competence .504** .478** .312** 1.00 Access .398** .393** .276** .505** 1.00 Training .171** .159** .059 .381** .169** 1.00 ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

The Spearman rank-order correlation is interpreted like the Pearson product- moment: a correlation of -1.00 is a perfect negative relationship, a correlation of 1.00 is a perfect positive relationship, and a correlation of zero means that no linear relationship exists. As shown in Table 19, a weak positive relationship exists between teachers' educational qualifications and their attitudes towards ICT (r = .147, p < .01). Also, a

97 weak positive relationship exists between obtaining an ICDL certificate and teachers' attitudes towards ICT (r = .165, p < .01). On the other hand, it was shown that age (r = -.135, p < .01) and experience (r = -.149, p < .01) had a weak negative relationship with teachers’ attitudes towards ICT. Such a negative correlation indicates that as a teacher's age decreases, his or her positive attitudes towards ICT increase. The same applies to experience, that is, the less experience a teacher has, the more positive his or her attitudes towards ICT seem to be.

Research Question Four: What is the Proportion of Variance in the Jordanian EFL Teachers' Attitudes toward ICT Explained by the Independent Variables? In order to determine the proportion of variance in the dependent variable that was explained by the independent variables, a linear multiple regression was utilized. Tate (1998) stated that the use of multiple regressions, as the name implies, allows the inclusion of multiple independents variables (IVs) in the same model for an outcome. The use of multiple IVs provides statistical control in the estimation of the unique effect of each IV on the outcome, a concept central in any attempt to make casual inference with co relational data (p. 68). Tate (1998) has outlined the primary data analysis steps in a typical multiple regression analysis. These steps were followed in this study. First, a preliminary analysis was conducted to identify any missing data. Accordingly, the results of the analysis are based on a 95% response rate for the ICT survey. Missing data for the variables of interest for those responding to the survey were replaced with imputed values. Secondly, a case analysis was conducted to identify any outliers. Outliers are observations of excessively large residuals (Tate, 1998). Three apparent outliers were identified, each having the studentized residuals of -4.52, 3.28, and -3.30 respectively. An inspection of the case indices reflecting the impact of the individual observation on regression coefficients (delta betas ∆ β) indicated that no observations, including the three outliers, exerted excessive influence on the estimated coefficients. According to Tate, “The index ∆ β is defined as the change in the jth regression coefficient when the ith observation is deleted from the sample” (p. 51).

98 Table 19

Spearman correlation between Attitudes and the demographics ______Variable Attitude Gender Age Experience Grade Degree Training Trainin ICDL Teaching

Level Type Method

Attitude 1.00 Gender -.025 1.00 Age -.135** -.282** 1.00 Experience -.149** .338** .828** 1.00 Grade level .064 .007 .052 .066 1.00 Degree .147** -.028 -.054 -.063 .173** 1.00 Training type .011 -.027 .106* .134* -.034 .035 .365** 1.00 ICDL .165** .081 -.089 -.071 .132* .141** .384** .159** 1.00 Teaching .063 .022 .034 -.002 -.087 .064 -.100 .009 -.125* 1.00 Method *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

In the case that the value was small (0.3 or smaller), these outliers would have no influence on the regression and vice-versa. Upon investigating ∆ β, it was 0.2. In addition, a sensitivity analysis in which the three outliers were temporarily dropped indicated that they did not have undue influence on the model R². Accordingly, those three outliers were retained for future data analysis. The R square for the regression was .658 with the inclusion of these cases. The third step in a regression analysis is to assess the possible violation of assumptions. In order to investigate the violation of the assumptions, a scatter plot of the studentized residuals versus the standardized predicted Ү value was used (see Figure 2). The different patterns show possible violation of the three assumptions, that is, the band of points is approximately centered around the horizontal axis (i.e., has a mean of approximately zero for each combination of IVS and therefore for each predicted Ү value, is of approximately equal width over the range of the predicted Ү value (is consistent with the constant variance assumption) and exhibit a variation of density consistent with the normal distribution of residuals at each IV combination and predicted Ү values. (Tate, 1998, p. 54) Visual inspection of the scatter plot of the model residuals versus the predicted outcomes did not suggest any violations of the regression assumptions of correct fit, constant variance, or normality. Furthermore, there were no conditions suggesting the possibility of a violation of the independence assumption, and the reliabilities of the independent variables were high enough to assume robustness to the slight violation of the assumption that all independent variables were known exactly.

100 Scatterplot

Dependent Variable: Attitudes Scale'

Derived from Regression Standardized Predicted Value -6 -4 -2 0 2

4 4 Derived from Regression Studentized Residual

2 2

0 0

-2 -2

-4 -4 Regression StudentizedResidual

-6 -4 -2 0 2 Regression Standardized Predicted Value __ Figure 2: a representation of the model residuals versus the predicted outcomes.

When a regression model has multiple IVs, the coefficient of determination R² represents the strength of relationship between the dependent variable and all of the IVs and is interpreted as "the proportion of Y variability explained by the model" (Tate, 1998, p. 80). The model R² of 0.658 reflecting the overall strength of relationship between EFL teachers’ attitudes towards ICT and the independent variables of ICT attributes, cultural perception, computer competence, and computer access, was significant statistically at the 0.05 level (F = 28.269, p < .001). The adjusted R², compensating for the positive bias in R², was 0.635, reflecting an overall strong relationship indicating that about two thirds (63%) of the variability in attitudes was explained by the IVs (see Table 20).

101 Table 20 Analysis of Variance (N=363) ______Source Sum of df Mean F Value R R Adjusted P Squares square square ______

Model 93.191 23 4.05 28.269 .658 .635 <.001 Residual 48.445 338 .143 Total 141.636 ______

Summary

This chapter presented a discussion of the reliability and validity of the instrument used in this study, as well as the findings of the data analysis. A brief description of selected characteristics of the respondents' was displayed. Descriptive statistics (frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations) were used to describe the English language teachers’ attitudes towards ICT in addition to their perceptions of ICT attributes, their cultural perceptions of ICT, their levels of ICT competence, and levels of access. Pearson’s Product Moment and Spearman correlation coefficients were used to determine the relationship between the independent variables of ICT attributes, cultural perception, competence, access, and teacher characteristics, and the dependent variable, Jordanian EFL teachers’ attitudes towards ICT. Finally, linear multiple regression was used to measure the degree to which the independent variables explained the proportion of variance in the dependent variables.

102

CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

After a brief summary of the study, this chapter presents the similarities and differences between the findings of the current study and that of Albirini (2004), on which this study was based. The purpose of this study was to reach a deeper understanding of the attitudes of Jordanian EFL teachers towards ICT in the Middle East by connecting it to a theoretical framework emerging primarily from the theory of Diffusion of Innovations by Rogers (1995) and the Theory of Reasoned Action by Ajzen and Fishbein (1980). Accordingly, this chapter draws conclusions and proposes recommendations for both the effective implementation of instructional and computer technology (ICT) in Jordanian public schools and for further research. Summary of the Study Theoretical Framework This study sought to replicate with extension a previous study conducted in Syria by Albirini (2004). The purpose of the current study was to explore the relationship between the attitudes toward ICT of Jordanian EFL teachers and factors such as computer attributes, cultural perceptions, computer competence, computer access, and teacher demographics. The current study employed Rogers' (1995) Diffusion of Innovation Theory and Ajzen and Fishbein's (1980) Theory of Reasoned Action as theoretical frameworks for the development of the research questions and data collection tools. The Theory of Reasoned Action asserts that individual behavior is rational and based on a systematic assessment of the information available to individuals in a certain situation. Thus, an individual’s behavior—in the case of this study, the use or rejection of ICT—is determined by his or her intentions to perform the behavior, and this intention is influenced jointly by the individual's "attitudes and subjective norms" (Dillon & Morris, 1996, p. 6). Rogers' (1995) Diffusion of Innovations Theory deals with the diffusion process, its elements, and stages as well as the innovation attributes that plays a

103 significant role in individual’s decision to adopt or reject an innovation. Thus, both theories were deemed to be highly relevant to this study. Relevance to Jordan In 1999, King Abdullah II of Jordan initiated the installation of ICT in all schools throughout the kingdom in an attempt to make the country the "IT hub" (Jordanian Ministry of Education, 2003, p. 1) of the Middle East. This initiative reflected the recognition by the Jordanian Ministry of Education (JMOE) that human capital development, particularly through professional development for teachers and better education for students, was a basic step toward preparing Jordan to participate in a future knowledge-based world economy (JMOE, 2002). Likewise, the acquisition of English by Jordanian students was seen by the JMOE as integral to educational and economic development in Jordan. For this reason, in 1999, the teaching of English was mandated by royal decree in all Jordanian public and private schools beginning in first grade (JMOE, 1999). With the mandate for ICT implementation in all K-12 classrooms, the Jordanian Ministry of Education became responsible for adequately preparing teachers to integrate ICT into their instruction. All teachers since then have been expected to utilize ICT to achieve two purposes: first, to qualify students for a brighter future, and second, to enable teachers to better achieve their instructional goals. However, teachers’ awareness of the significance of ICT for both their professional development and their students’ achievement does not guarantee that ICT is actually implemented nor that such implementation is effective. This problem is highlighted by the fact that Jordan, as a developing country, has embraced ICT in education as a means to progress and modernization. Despite the mandating of both ICT and EFL instruction in all Jordanian public and private schools, there is little research specific to the locale to inform such a mandate. To understand what makes one EFL teacher embrace the use of ICT and another resist using it, we need to examine teachers’ attitudes towards computers. We must ask: Do factors such as age, gender, qualification, training, computer competence, and access play a role in influencing teachers’ attitudes? Do the process of diffusion in the public school setting and the perception of ICT attributes by teachers influence their attitudes towards ICT?

104 In asking these questions of EFL teachers in Syria, Albirini (2004) began such an inquiry. In replicating his work, this study serves a dual purpose. It both provides answers specific to Jordan and adds to the body of scholarly literature related to ICT use in education in the Arab region by EFL teachers. Accordingly, the following research questions were investigated to follow those specified in Albirini's (2004) study: 1. What are the attitudes towards ICT among Jordanian EFL teachers? 2. What are the perceptions of Jordanian EFL teachers in regard to: • ICT attributes? • Cultural perceptions of ICT? • Computer competence? • Computer access? 3. What is the relationship between the attitudes toward ICT among Jordanian EFL teachers and their perceptions of each of the independent variables (including teachers’ characteristics)? 4. What is the proportion of the variance in the dependent variables (attitudes toward ICT by Jordanian EFL teachers) that can be explained by the independent variables? This study employed a cross-sectional technique that “is based on data usually collected at one point in time with a typical interest in describing relationships among variables for a stable population” (Tate, 1998, p. 6). The ICT Survey of EFL Teachers, which was developed by Albirini (2004), was utilized to collect quantitative data in Arabic from the population of EFL teachers in the First and Second districts of the capital city of Amman in Jordan. Albirini's survey for measuring teacher attitudes toward ICT took into account the three components of attitudes: affective, cognitive, and behavioral. These components were assumed to correlate with actual behavior based on evidence from related studies supporting the Theory of Reasoned Action (Albirini, 2004; Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). In addition, three additional factors associated with teacher attitudes towards ICT—competence, access, and teacher demographics—were reflected in Albirini's survey instrument and were also explored in this study. A random sample of 363 Jordanian EFL teachers took part in this investigation. In light of the research

105 questions used to guide the study, the following discussion is based on the results of the survey which were provided in Chapter Four.

Discussion of the Findings This study was guided by four research questions. This section addresses each of these questions by summarizing the key results, indicating the differences and/or the similarities compared to Albirini’s (2004) results and providing related interpretations. A brief description of the sample utilized in this investigation follows in order to present a comprehensive picture of the subjects in this study. The sample of the study consisted of 363 EFL teachers in the First and Second districts of the capital city of Jordan, Amman, in the scholastic year 2005-2006. Table 21 presents major differences between Albirin’s sample and the sample in this study. The participants in the current study were younger, higher in their educational qualifications, had more training, and spent fewer years as teachers than their counterparts in Syria. Fifteen of the Jordanian EFL teachers used computer- assisted language learning as a teaching method, whereas none of the EFL Syrian teachers did. Approximately 39% of the sample in the current study consisted of males while only 20% of Albirini’s (2004) sample were male.

Table 21

Comparison of the Significant Differences between Albirini’s (2004) Study and the Current Study Variable Category Albirini This study Gender Male 63 142 Female 251 222 Age 20-29 28 97 30-39 166 143 40-49 95 97 50-59 24 24 60 > 0 2 Teaching 5-1 68 104 Expereience

106 Table 21-continued Variable Category Albirini This study -6 10 40 100 11-15 67 40 Education Teacher certificate 151 32 .B. A 160 286 .M. A 3 16 Training No 203 63 Yes 111 300 hodTeaching Met Computer Assisted 0 15

1. What are the attitudes towards ICT among Jordanian EFL teachers? Attitudes are thought to be composed of cognitive, affective, and behavioral elements. Cognitive refers to the perceptions of the attitude object; affective refers to feelings towards the attitude object; and behavior refers to the response to the attitude object (Ajzen, 1988). According to Ajzen and Fishbein (1980), “a complete description of attitudes requires that all three components be assessed by obtaining measures of all three response classes” (p. 20). Attitudes towards computers are thought to influence not only the acceptance of computers, but also future behaviors, such as using computers as a professional tool in classroom instruction (Becker, 2000; Blankenship, 1998; Braak, 2001; Christensen & Knezek, 2001; Dupagne & Krendel, 1992; Earle, 2002; Hendricks, 1998; Hignite & Echternacht, 1992; Kotrlik, Harrison, & Redmann, 2000; Kumar & Kumar, 2003; Murphy, 2000; Turnbull & Lawrence, 2002). The combined score of the 20 items in Section 1 of the ICT Survey of EFL Teachers represented teachers’ attitudes towards ICT, the dependent variable for this study. Section 1 consisted of 20 statements divided into three subscales: affective (items 1-6), cognitive (items 7-15), and behavioral (items 16-20). Affective questions referred to the teacher’s feelings about ICT in education; cognitive questions referred to the teacher's actual knowledge of ICT, and behavioral questions referred to the teacher’s explicit use of and behavior towards ICT. Findings from the survey data showed that Jordanian EFL teachers had overall positive attitudes towards ICT in education, with an overall mean of 3.98 and standard deviation of .626. The high means for the three subscales of this attitude is a further confirmation of these positive results.

107 It was significant that the highest mean score among EFL teachers was on the behavioral subscale, indicating that the EFL teachers’ explicit behavior towards ICT is positive. The majority of the respondents (88.2%) expressed their interest in learning more about computers and about 83% indicated their strong intention to own a computer if they had money to afford one. As for the affective subscale, it was shown that the majority of the EFL teachers (89.7%) enjoyed using computers and felt comfortable about ICT (78.8%). Also, most of participants (68.9%) stated that they like using computers in teaching. In regard to the cognitive subscale, it revealed that most of the EFL teachers (87.6%) share the belief that computers save time and money. Also, they acknowledged the role of ICT as tool to be used in all subject matters and its uniqueness in terms of speed and efficiency in getting information. These findings are highly significant, since they demonstrate a readiness among Jordanian EFL teachers to use computers in the classroom. Table 22 illustrates the relationship between the results of the attitude scale questions posed in the current study and Albirini's (2004) investigation. The mean scores provided are close, indicating that EFL teachers in Jordan as well as in Syria have positive attitudes towards ICT. It also gives strength to the findings of this study, and confirms Albirini’s results.

Table 22

Comparison of Current Study and Albirini's Mean Scores on the Attitude Scale of the ICT Survey ______Scale Mean S.D. Albirini’s Mean S.D. ______Affective 3.96 .724 4.00 0.5 ______Cognitive 3.96 .623 4.05 0.4 Behavioral 4.04 .767 4.13 0.5

108

Table 22- continued ______Scale Mean S.D. Albirini’s Mean S.D. ______Overall Attitude 3.98 .626 4.05 0.38 ______2. a. What are the perceptions of Jordanian EFL teachers in regard to ICT attributes? Only four of the five innovation attributes identified by Rogers (1995), that is, relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, and observability, were examined in the ICT Survey of EFL Teachers. The Perceived Computer Attributes Scale consisted of 18 Likert-type statements. The items were grouped into four subscales corresponding to the four innovation attributes mentioned above. Thus, items 21-25 measured teacher perceptions concerning the relative advantages of ICT, items 26-30 measured perceptions of computer compatibility, items 31-34 measured perceptions of computer complexity, and items 35-38 measured perceptions of computer observability. The participants’ perceptions of the observability of ICT were quite positive. This result indicates that the degree to which the advantages of an innovation, ICT in this case, are observable by EFL teachers in Jordan is very high. The majority of the respondents stated that they had seen computers at work and that they had seen Jordanian teachers using computers for educational purposes. Also, most of EFL teachers contended that computers proved to be an effective learning tool worldwide. According to Rogers (1995), innovations that are perceived to have observability will be adopted faster than other innovations. It seems in the case of EFL teachers in Jordan, observability plays a significant role in the teachers’ adoption process. Interestingly, observability was not the highest of the mean scores in Albirini’s (2004) study. The difference between the two studies may be due to the fact that computers are more available in Jordanian schools than in Syria. Albirini reported that the insufficient number of computers in school was one of the reasons behind teachers’ limited access to computers. In spite of their belief that computers were useful tool in education and language learning, the opportunity for EFL teachers in Syria to see computers at work or observe other teachers using it in the classroom was fairly limited.

109

Table 23 Comparison of Mean Scores on ICT Attributes Scales between Albirini’s (2004) and the Current Study ______Scale Mean S.D Albirini’s Mean S.D. ______Advantage 3.86 .658 4.04 0.59 Compatibility 3.44 .579 3.54 0.54 Complexity 3.58 .695 3.48 0.67 Observability 4.04 .681 3.70 0.68 Overall Computer Attributes 3.72 .527 3.70 0.38

On the contrary, in 2003, the Jordanian Ministry of Education (JMOE) reported that more than 1,650 schools were equipped with PCs, networking, and basic peripherals in more than 1,724 school-based computer labs. About 1,100 secondary schools, selected from different directorates, were to be connected to the Internet by the end of 2003 as well, as part of an agreement between JMOE and the Jordanian Telecommunication Company (JTC). Other public schools were to be connected thereafter at the rate of about 200 schools per month in an effort to achieve full connectivity of all public schools by December 2003 (JMOE, 2003). However, there is no available official update on this dimension. The Jordanian EFL teachers’ perceptions of the relative advantages of ICT had the second highest mean score, 3.86. The majority of the respondents (81.8%) reported that computers are useful in language learning. Furthermore, most (85.2%) stated that using computers would make the subject matter more interesting. Also, a high percentage of the participants (68 %) asserted that teaching with computers offered a real advantage over teaching using traditional methods. It seems that the teachers’ perceptions of the observable benefits of ICT as well as its advantage over other teaching methods were related significantly to their positive attitudes towards ICT.

110 On the other hand, the Jordanian EFL teachers’ perceptions of complexity and compatibility were the least positive among the four measured attributes of ICT. Teachers’ perceptions of the complexity of ICT had a 3.58 mean score, while compatibility had a 3.44 mean score. Almost half of the participants stated that they had no problem understanding the basic functions of computers. In addition, about two-thirds of the respondents reported that it would be easy to use computers in teaching. However, more than 45% of the Jordanian EFL teachers had a neutral position concerning the place of computer use in the curriculum. This finding is consistent with the results of a comparative international study by Pelgrum (2001), in which the difficulty in integrating ICT in instruction was reported to be a major obstacle worldwide. Also, Albirini (2004) reported that 41.1 % of the Syrian EFL teachers shared the same perception with Jordanian EFL teachers. In addition, more than 60% of the Jordanian EFL teachers reported that time was too limited for using computers in the classroom. This factor has been discussed in the literature (Al-Ammari, 2004; Earle, 2002 ; Graus, 1999; Murphy, 2000) and was consistent with Albirini’s results. Furthermore, Hardy (1998) listed lack of time as a barrier that prevented teachers from integrating ICT in the classroom. In conclusion, the highest to lowest mean scores on perceptions of ICT attributes in the current study were: observability, relative advantage, complexity, and compatibility, whereas in Albirini’s (2004) study the order was: relative advantage, observability, compatibility, and complexity. The findings of this study reaffirmed the applicability of Rogers' (1995) Theory of Diffusion of Innovations. Rogers’ work suggests that in order for ICT to be effectively utilized by EFL teachers in Jordan, teachers first they need to see visible positive benefits of the use of ICT in the classroom. Second, they need to see the relative advantage of ICT. Third, they need to feel that the use of ICT is less complex and makes their work easier. Fourth, they need to believe that ICT can be compatible with the existing socio-cultural structures. The results of the current investigation were also consistent with previous studies in which Diffusion of Innovation was examined (Albirini, 2004; Blankenship, 1998; Hendricks, 1998; Huang, 2003; Sooknanan, 2002). Sooknanan (2002) reported that observability was significantly related to the teachers’ attitudes towards ICT in Trinidad

111 and Togo education. It is worth mentioning that relative advantage was the most positive attribute perceived by Syrian teachers in Albirini’s (2004) study in comparison with the other attributes. Moreover, this finding confirms what Dillon and Morris (1996) asserted: “innovations that offer advantages, compatibility with existing practices and beliefs, low complexity, potential trialability, and observability will have a more widespread and rapid rate of diffusion” (p. 6). 2. b. What are the Jordanian EFL teachers’ cultural perceptions of ICT? Rogers (1995), in his Diffusion of Innovations Theory, indicated that an understanding of the culture and local environment in which a technology is introduced is a prerequisite to understanding how best to promote its adoption. The notion of attitudes was central to the concept of adoption, thus, culturally-related perceptions may have a strong influence on attitudes that ultimately lead to adoption decisions. Section three, the Cultural Perceptions Scale, consisted of 16 Likert-type statements which took into account the teachers’ perceptions of the cultural value, relevance, and impact of ICT as it related to both Jordanian scholastic and national cultures. Table 24 shows that the mean score of the participants on this scale was less positive than the previous scales. The majority of EFL teachers taking part in the study indicated their belief that it was important for students to learn how to use computers and that knowing about computers earned the respect of others. Moreover, the majority of them felt that people skilled in computers had privileges not available to others. Also, more than half of them expressed that computers should be a priority in education.

Table 24 Comparison of Mean Scores on Cultural Perceptions between Albirini’s (2004) and the Current Study ______Scale Mean S.D. Albirini’s Mean S.D. ______Cultural Perceptions of ICT 3.22 .454 3.38 0.44

112 However, a majority of the respondents (82.1%) stated that there was a need for computers that were better suited to Arabic culture and identity. Also, the majority of them felt that there were more persistent social issues that should take priority over computer use in the schools. On the other hand, more than half of the EFL teachers did not feel that computers would hinder future Arab generations from learning their tradition. Moreover, less than 20% of respondents expressed their belief that computers might increase Jordan’s dependence on foreign countries. When it came to the unethical practices that computers might encourage, the Jordanian EFL teachers’ responses were split almost evenly among three groups: 26.7 % disagreed, 26.2% agreed, and 28.4% maintained a neutral position. It is apparent that EFL teachers in Jordan had complex feelings about ICT; as much as they acknowledged the educational benefit of computers and their necessity as a tool to achieve advancement, they also recognized it as a foreign construct to Arabic culture and embracing it might entail accepting values and traditions that are not part of their value system. Furthermore, a considerable positive relationship existed between respondent attitudes towards ICT and their cultural perceptions (r = .629, p < .01). It seems that the cultural perceptions of ICT among EFL teachers in Jordan were similar to those of EFL teachers in Syria (see Table 24) and other parts of the Arab World (Albirini, 2004; Al- Oteawi, 2002; Kibbi, 1994). Although Albirini (2004) found that Syrian EFL teachers did not feel ICT was a threat to Arabic culture and neither did this current study, Kibbi (1995) reported that the lack of Arabic software was a significant reason behind the limited integration of ICT in schools. EFL teachers in Syria were “emphatic” about the need for Arabic software and programs that reflected Arabic identity and values (Albirini, 2004, p. 131). 2. c. What are the Jordanian EFL teachers’ perceptions of computer competence? The Perceived Computer Competence Scale consisted of 15 items on a four-point scale ranging from no competence (1), to little competence (2), to moderate competence (3), to much competence (4). The items focused on the common uses of computers in education: software installation (item 1), basic hardware (items 2-3), productivity software (e.g., word processing, items 4-7), telecommunication resources (items 8-9), basic troubleshooting (item 10), graphic application (item 11), grade keeping (item 12),

113 educational software evaluation (item 13), organization tools (e.g., use of folders, item 14), and virus handling (item 15). A strong relationship was found between respondent attitudes and their level of computer competence (r = .504, p < .01). Unlike Albirini’s (2004) study, almost two thirds of the participants in this investigation used the Internet with much to moderate competence. More than half of the Jordanian respondents stated that they have much competence in using the worldwide web (WWW). A limited number (5%) of the Syrian EFL teachers reported that they were able to use WWW with much competence. Likewise, more than half of the Jordanian respondents said they had much competence in using word processing. However, only 12% of their Syrian counterparts stated the ability to use word processing with much competence. A high percentage of the Jordanian teachers (58.1%) used computers for grade keeping with much competence while none of the Syrian teachers reported their ability to do it with the same level of competence. Only 24% of the Syrian teachers stated they did grade keeping with moderate competence. It is apparent that there is a digital gap between Syrian and Jordanian EFL teachers in terms of computer competence as illustrated in Table 25.

Table 25 Comparison of Mean Scores on Computer Competence between Albirini’s (2004) and the Current Study ______Scale Mean S.D. Albirini’s Mean S.D. ______Computer Competence 2.99 .717 1.78 0.67

The majority of the Jordanian EFL teachers in this study reported that they had moderate competence to much competence in using computers for the aforementioned skills, unlike Albirini’s (2004) finding in which the only skill in which Syrian EFL teachers were moderately competent was the use of the keyboard. The mean score of computer competence in the current study was 2.99 in comparison with the mean score of 1.78 in Albirini’s study. Overall, there was a visible difference between EFL teachers’

114 computer competence in Jordan and their counterparts in Syria. It was apparent that Jordanian teachers in this sample were more skillful and more competent in computer use than their counterparts in Syria in Albirini’s study. This could be due to many factors such as the huge investments of JMOE in the hardware as well as the in service training. Also, Jordanian teachers were mandated to obtain ICDL as part of their in service training while there is no mention of ICDL in Albirini’s study. Indeed, it was not even a variable in his study.

2. d. What are the Jordanian EFL teachers’ perceptions of computer access? The Perceived Computer Access Scale consisted of three statements that took into account the possible locations where computers might be available for use by EFL teachers: at home, in school, and other places (the last choice was given to accommodate locations not mentioned in the first two guided responses). Computer access, as an independent variable, was quantified by the respondent's score on the three access-related items, each measured according to a 5-point scale, ranging from never (1), to once a month (2), to once a week (3), to 2 or 3 times a week (4), to daily (5). It was found that the relationship between the respondents' level of computer access and their attitudes towards ICT was positive (r = .398, p < .01) but not as strong that as shown for the other variables.

Table 26 Comparison of Mean Scores on Computer Access between Albirini’s (2004) and the Current Study ______Scale Mean S.D. Albirini’s Mean S.D. ______Computer Access 3.41 .949 1.96 0.86

It is evident from comparing the mean score of 1.96 in Albirini’s (2004) study and the mean score of 3.41 of the current research (see Table 26) that there is a big difference between Syria and Jordan in terms of the infrastructure and connectivity to ICT sources

115 in educational settings. While most of the Jordanian teachers (87.6%) reported that the school library was the most frequent place of computer access, only 33.4% of Syrian teachers had access to computers at school. Home was the place most EFL Syrian teachers (57%) had access to computers, whereas home was the second cited place by Jordanian EFL teachers for computer access. Furthermore, only one percent of the respondents in the current study reported that they had access to computers in places other than school and home, such as Internet cafés or universities. However, twenty five percent of EFL teachers in Syria had computer access outside school and home such as Internet cafés, friends, relatives, and universities. This huge difference between EFL teachers in Jordan and Syria highlights the big gap between the two countries in terms of funding, investments, and initiatives to integrate ICT in the education system and to achieve advancement and modernization in general. It is evident that Jordanian public schools are better equipped with computers and Jordanian teachers enjoy a much greater access to computers than Syrian teachers. 3. What is the relationship between the attitudes toward ICT among Jordanian EFL teachers and their perceptions of each of the independent variables (including teachers’ characteristics)? This section addresses the relationship between the teachers’ attitudes towards ICT and the main independent variables: computer attributes, cultural perceptions, computer competence, and computer access. Also, the relationship of the EFL teachers’ characteristics with their attitudes towards ICT was investigated. The Pearson product- moment correlation and the Spearman rank-ordered correlation were used depending on the nature of the variables. There was not a distinctive difference in the correlation results between Albirini’s (2004) study and the current one. The overall correlation between the Jordanian EFL teachers’ attitudes towards ICT and attributes was (r =. 77, p< .01) (see Table 17 in Chapter 4). In Albirini’s study the correlation coefficient was somewhat similar, with a value of (r =.74, p< .05). The correlation coefficient between the Jordanian teachers’ attitudes towards ICT and the subscales of computer attributes were as follow: relative advantage (r = .74, p<.01), complexity (r=.62, p<=.01), compatibility (r = .58, p<.01), and observability (r = .53, p< .01). Similarly, the highest correlation was

116 between attitudes and relative advantage (r = .71, p <.05), then complexity (r = .58, p< .05), compatibility (r = .59, p< .05) , and observability (r = .43 , p <.05). As for the correlation between teachers’ attitudes and cultural perceptions in the current study (r = .62, p <.01) and Albirini’s (2004) sample (r = .62, p <.05), it was similar although the significance level was different. In the current study, the level of significance was 0.01, whereas in Albirini’s, the level of significance was .05. The smaller the p-value, the more significant the result is said to be. So a result that is "significant at the 1% level" is more significant than a result which is "significant at the 5% level" (Graziano & Raulin, 1997, p. 145). However, p-values are reported for descriptive purposes and not for the point of strict hypothesis testing. In other words, the p-value at which the results of the current study were obtained highlights the robustness of the results. It was shown in Albirini’s(2004) study that there was a weak positive correlation between attitudes and computer competence (r = .30, p <.05). However, the higher statistics in the current study (r = .50, p < .01) indicated a stronger and more positive relationship between the Jordanian EFL teachers’ attitudes and computer competence. The weakest positive correlation in Albirini’s study was between attitudes and computer access (r = .17, p <.05), whereas the correlation in the current study was also higher (r = .39, p <.01) indicating a stronger relationship Computer Training and Teachers’ Attitudes Lack of training is a potential source for teachers’ low levels of confidence and negative attitudes towards computers (Cox, Rhodes & Hall, 1988; Kumar & Kumar, 2003). Brand (1998) has stated, “If students are going to be prepared for a technological society, they must be taught by confident and skilled teachers. This can only be done by adequate training and development of teachers” (p. 13). Hardy (1998) listed a lack of adequate professional training as one of the barriers that hinders teachers’ ability to integrate ICT in the classroom. In this study, Jordanian EFL teachers were asked to report on whether they received any training, identify the type of training received, whether it was self–training, JMOE workshops, and also the length of training in the number of days. They were also asked to indicate whether they had completed International Computing Drivers License

117 (ICDL) or not or if they were in the process of obtaining it. About 83% of the participants received training while 17% of EFL teachers did not receive any training at all. Most of the training (56%) was in-service training offered by JMOE while about 34% of EFL teachers were self- trained. In addition, more than half of the respondents already had an ICDL while only 30% of EFL teachers did not have it and 19 % of them were still taking ICDL courses. On the other hand, two thirds of the respondents (65%) in Albirini’s (2004) study did not receive any training while only 35% of them were trained. He did not request any further information about training except the length of training in days. The highest frequency among Syrian EFL teachers was 15%, and they participated in 21-40 days of training. However, the highest frequency of training among Jordanian EFL teachers was 33%, and they took part in 41-60 days of training. Kent and McNergney (1999) asserted that “only 15% of teachers across the United States have received 9 or more hours of technology training…Without question, technology education influences the level of use of technology in the classroom” (p. 10). It seems that the EFL teachers in Jordan in the current study received more training hours than their counterparts in the United States. It is worth noting that the finding of the current study highlights the active role that JMOE played and still does in providing professional development for the teachers in Jordan. This work is in line with the JMOE philosophy that teachers are the “most important” element in the educational process (JMOE, 1996, p. 20). In 2001, the JMOE announced an initiative to provide basic computer literacy training to 25,000 public school teachers via the Intel Teach to the Future Program, wherein all teachers would receive 102 hours of computer training over a period of four years in order to complete the International Computing Drivers License (ICDL). It is evident that all the investments produced positive and astounding results as shown in the sample of this study. To investigate the relationship between teachers’ attitudes towards ICT and training, the Pearson product-moment correlation was used. It was found that there was a weak relationship between training length and attitudes towards ICT (r = .17, p <.01). Nevertheless, the correlation was positive, implying that as teachers receive more training, their attitudes towards ICT increased positively. The correlation reported in Albirini’s (2004) study between the length of training and attitudes was close to the

118 correlation found in this study (r = .15, p< .05). It seems that the length of training is a significant factor that requires further investigation. For example, Earle (2002) stipulated that second-order barriers such as attitudes are more difficult to change and they required the prolonged use of technology rather than a one-day workshop to overcome them. It is worth noting that Albirini (2004) was the first one to examine the relationship between the length of training and the teachers’ attitudes towards ICT. In addition, in this study it was revealed that having an ICDL certificate increased the positive attitudes of Jordanian EFL teachers towards ICT. A correlation coefficient of r = .16 (p < .01) was found among Jordanian EFL teachers who obtained ICDL and their attitudes towards ICT. On the other hand, the type of training did not have a relationship that is statistically significant with teachers’ attitudes towards ICT. The value of the correlation coefficient was r = .01 (p <.01). These aspects of training, type of training and ICDL certificate were not investigated in Albirini’s (2004) study. He reported in his study that the Department of Education in Hims, Syria offered free training for science teachers only (p. 122). The Syrian EFL teachers requested that equal funding be provided to them during the interviews conducted by Albirini as part of his study. The result of the current study in terms of training is consistent with the findings of various studies (David, 1994; Granger, et al., 2002; Kluever et al., 1994; Roberts, Hutchinson & Little, 2003; Yildirim, 2000). Professional training was one the four requirements for teachers in United States to be able to use technology effectively (David, 1994). Also, Kluever et al (1994) reported that a significant difference in the teachers’ attitudes towards computer use occurred following the professional training. In addition, the results of Yildirim’s (2000) study indicated that the Turkish teachers’ anxiety towards computers decreased significantly after training, while at the same time, their levels of confidence and liking of computers increased. Also, Tuzcuglu (2000) found that revealed that the teachers' lack of training and experience in using CALL resulted in the under-use of computers in the classroom. Teachers’ Characteristics and Teachers’ Attitudes The teacher characteristics about which questions were asked in the survey included the variables of age, gender, qualifications, grade level, teaching experience, training, ICDL certification, and teaching method. Albirini (2004) examined the

119 following variables: age, gender, qualifications, income, teaching experience, training, school location, and teaching methods. The variables of income and school location were omitted in the current study, because first, the variance in salary among Jordanian EFL teachers is very limited. A teacher received an amount of $5 to $10 as a yearly raise. A raise of 10% of the basic salary which ranges from 85-90 JD would be granted once the teacher accomplished the ICDL. In case the teacher did not pass the ICDL exam, then he/she would be required to retake the exam at his/ her expense. JMOE pays the fees for the teachers to obtain the ICDL (personal communication, June 22, 2006). Second, the study was conducted in the urban districts of the capital city of Amman. A description of the relationship between EFL teachers’ attitudes towards ICT and these characteristics follows, and comparison between this study and Albirini are given in Table 27. Age Some studies showed that age was not a significant factor in reference to teachers’ attitudes towards computers (Handler, 1993; Massoud, 1991; Spiegel, 2001; Woodrow, 1992). On the other hand, a number of studies revealed that age played a critical factor in relation to attitudes towards computer (Blankenship, 1998; Kendel, 1995; Na, 1993). Blankenship (1998) found that age was the most significant factor that influenced teachers’ use of computers. Also, Na (1993) revealed a significant negative relationship between attitudes towards ICT and age. In Albirini’s (2004) study, age was not a significant factor in relation to teachers’ attitudes towards ICT. However, it was revealed in the current study that age correlated negatively with the Jordanian EFL teachers’ attitudes towards ICT in Jordan (r = -.13, p <.01). This result demonstrated that as the age of the teachers decreased, their attitudes towards ICT increased. In other words, younger EFL teachers in Jordan had more positive attitudes towards ICT than older teachers. This finding confirms the results of Na (1993), who found that age correlates negatively with attitudes towards computers. It also affirms the finding of Roberts, Hutchinson and Little’s study (2003) that the probability that teachers would use ICT in the classroom was limited by the reality that teachers who were educated 20 years ago were trained by people who themselves were trained before the arrival of computers in schools. In addition, it was evident in this study that the younger generation of teachers was more computer-oriented because they were in contact

120 with computers during their school years as students and pre-service training in the universities.

Teaching Experience Respondents stated their teaching experience according to five classifications: 1-5 years, 6-10 years, 11-25 years, 16-20 years, and more than 20 years of teaching. When asked how long they had taught English, 29% percent of the respondents stated that they had taught English for 1 to 5 years, 28% for 6 to 10 years, 11% for 11 to 15 years, 20% for 16 to 20 years, and about 13% for more than 20 years (see Table 19 in Chapter Four) . It was found that teaching experience correlated negatively with the Jordanian EFL teachers’ attitudes towards ICT (r = -.14, p < .01). Albirini (2004) did not find a statistically significant correlation for this (see Table 27). However, Sadik (2005) found that years of teaching correlated positively with Egyptian teachers’ attitudes towards computers. This finding indicated that teachers who had less teaching experience had more positive attitudes towards ICT. This factor was not found to be significant in Albirini’s (2004) study. Na (1993) found no significant relationship between teaching experience and attitudes towards ICT. The researcher in that study stipulated that it seemed that age was related to the teaching experience as well as the education level. Younger teachers who had less teaching experience and higher education qualifications than their older colleagues demonstrated more positive attitudes towards ICT, as was the case with the Jordanian EFL teachers. Table 27 illustrates the differences in correlation of attitudes and demographic variables between Albirini’s study and the current one.

Table 27 Comparison of Spearman Correlation between Attitudes and Demographic Variables between Albirini’s (2004) and the Current Study ______Variable This study Albirini’s Correlation

Attitude 1.00 1.00

121 Table 27- continued ______Variable This study Albirini’s Correlation

Gender -.025 -.08 Age -.135** -.08 Experience -.149** -.10 Grade level .064 __ Degree .147** .01 Training .177** .15* ICDL .165** ___ Teaching .063 .01 Method * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

Education Degree Participants were asked to describe their educational qualifications according to four classifications: community college, B.A., Diploma, and M.A. The majority (79 %) of EFL teachers who took part in the study held a B.A. in English whereas only 4% held a Master's degree. It was shown that teachers’ educational background had a positive relationship with their attitudes towards ICT (r = .14, p <.01). However, this characteristic was not found statistically significant in Albirini’s (2004) study. On the other hand, this finding confirms with Na’s study (1993) which reported that a significant relationship was found between the educational background of Korean teachers and their attitudes towards computers. Gender, Teaching method, Grade level While some studies have found no gender differences in attitudes towards computers (Gressard & Lloyd, 1987; Kendel, 1995; Woodrow, 1992), the results of other investigations indicated that females have less favorable attitudes towards technology

122 than males (North & Noyes, 2002; Rosen & MacGuire, 1990; Shashaanii ck spelling & Khalili, 2001; Sadik, 2005). North and Noyes’ (2002) findings indicated that females had less favorable attitudes towards technology than males in the United States. Also, it was shown that Egyptian male teachers demonstrated more positive attitudes than females (Sadik, 2005). However, the findings of the current study did not confirm either aspect of these studies because gender was found not significantly correlated with Jordanian EFL teachers’ attitudes towards ICT. Similarly, teaching methods and the grade level that EFL teachers teach were not found to be significant characteristics that might affect the teachers’ attitudes towards ICT. Those were not mentioned in Albirini’s (2004) study in spite of their inclusion with the independent variables in his study. 4. What is the proportion of the variance in the dependent variables (attitudes toward ICT by Jordanian EFL teachers) that can be explained by the independent variables? Multiple regression was used to determine the variance in the Jordanian EFL teachers’ attitudes towards ICT explained by the independent variables in the study. The findings showed that the independent variables explaining the greatest amount of variance in EFL teachers’ attitudes towards ICT were computer attributes, cultural perceptions, computer competence, and computer access. Approximately 64% of the total variance in teachers’ attitudes was explained by these four independent variables. This was unlike the result of Albirini’s study (2004). He found only three independent variables that influenced Syrian EFL teachers’ attitudes towards ICT. These variables were: attributes cultural perceptions and competence. Computer access was not found to be a significant factor in explaining any proportion of variance in the teachers’ attitudes (see Table 28).

Table 28 Comparison of Analysis of Variance between Albirini’s (2004) and the Current Study ______Source R R Adjusted P Albirinis’R R Adjusted P Square Square Square Square ______Model .658 .635 <.001 .59 .58 <.001

123 Table 28- continued ______Source R R Adjusted P Albirinis’R R Adjusted P Square Square Square Square ______Residual 48.445 33.00 Total 141.636 80.03 ______

These results support similar findings of other investigations in this area (Blankenship, 1998; David, 1994; Granger, et al., 2002; Knezek & Christensen, 2000; Kotrlik et al., 2000; Na 1993; Sadik, 2005; Sooknanan, 2002; Yildirim, 2000). In the United States, Knezek and Christensen (2000) hypothesized that high levels of will (attitude), skill (proficiency), and tools (level of access) would produce higher levels of technology integration that will reflect on student achievements positively. Their model postulated that educators with higher levels of will, skill, and tools would exhibit higher levels of technology integration in the classroom. In Egypt, Sadik (2005) found the variables of frequency of computer use, computer training, years of teaching, and attitudes towards the personal use of computers correlated positively with teacher attitudes towards the use of computers in schooling. The multiple regression findings in the current study were consistent with the correlation findings, in which these four variables (attributes, culture, competence, and access) showed statistically significant correlations with EFL teachers’ attitudes towards ICT in Jordan. Also, training had a weak correlation with attitudes, which supports related findings by Granger et al. (2002), Hardy (1998) Kumar and Kumar (2003), Roberts, Hutchinson & Little (2003), and Yildirim (2000).

Implications

Information and communication technology (ICT) has assumed a critically important role in almost every facet of our society. As a result, during the past decade, the demand for technology-literate teachers has increased dramatically worldwide. However, the introduction of ICT in schools, although often long awaited and strongly supported, has sometimes encountered problems related to the attitudes of the people who

124 have been responsible for its use in the classroom. Attitudes have long played a role as predictors of behavior (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). The importance of the relationship between teacher attitudes towards ICT and its effective use is highlighted by the number of studies of American and European teachers that have been conducted in Western settings (Becker, 2000; Braak, 2001; Christensen & Knezek, 2001; Dupagne & Krendel, 1992; Earle, 2002; Hendricks, 1998; Hignite & Echternacht, 1992; Kotrlik, et al., 2000; Kumar & Kumar, 2003; Murphy, 2000; Turnbull & Lawrence, 2002). The importance of this relationship is further emphasized by the limited research into this phenomenon in the Arab region (Al-Ammari, 2004; Al-Asmari, 2005; Albirini, 2004; Al-Kahtani, 2001; Kibbi, 1995; Sadik, 2005), as well as the decision of the Jordanian government to embrace ICT in every aspect of Jordanian life as a means of achieving economic prosperity and political advancement. This study was successful in establishing a baseline description of EFL teachers’ attitudes towards ICT in Jordan in relation to their perceptions of ICT attributes their cultural perceptions of ICT, computer competence, and computer access. This section presents the implications of the results for current and future EFL teachers in Jordanian settings. Based on the findings of this study, the overall positive attitudes and perceptions of Jordanian teachers in regard to ICT suggests that Jordanian EFL teachers in the First and Second Amman districts have adopted ICT as an innovation to a great degree. Jordanian EFL teachers seem to be effectively utilizing ICT because of the positive perceptions they demonstrated towards ICT attributes. Also, the cultural perceptions of ICT were largely favorable and were not a hindrance in the diffusion process of ICT. Rogers (1995) indicated that an understanding of the culture and local environment in which a technology is introduced is a prerequisite to understanding how best to promote its adoption. It was shown that Jordanian EFL teachers consider computers a valuable educational tool that saves time and money and helps to motivate the students and enhance their learning. The results of this study revealed that Jordanian society is notably more receptive and accepting of ICT than Syrian society as noted in the differences between the findings of this study and the results of Albirini’s (2004) study. In less than seven years since the JMOE initiated ICT educational reform in 1999, EFL teachers in Jordan have accepted ICT and have demonstrated no resistance towards it.

125 The Instrument The plethora of instruments on computer attitudes are often limited in that they are designed for specific populations, or lack a theoretical framework, or are dated (Rainer & Miller, 1996). Other than Albirini's (2004) instrument, no computer attitude scale has been developed with an Arabic speaking population in mind. All of the instruments found in the field were developed and used by Western researchers for Western populations in the U.S. or Europe. The interest in studying the spread of ICT in the Arab region and in collecting accurate educational data on teachers’ attitudes in that part of the world has increased in recent years (Hafkin & Taggart, 2001). However, cross-cultural research is undermined by the lack of culturally and linguistically appropriate attitudinal instruments to describe and measure similar phenomenon in different cultures and various linguistic backgrounds. To produce such a survey instrument requires rigorous testing and retesting. In the current study, the ICT Survey for EFL Teachers was field tested in Jordan to ensure its equal performance in another Arabic context besides the original setting of Syria. Final validation of the instrument with EFL teachers in Jordan and Syria as well as other Arab countries is necessary for further implementation of similar research question and collection of data about ICT in the education system.

The Value of Replication Campbell and Jackson (1979) stress the value of replication with extension as a means of determining the validity and the reliability of results, as well as the extent of their generalizability. Hubbard (1994) asserts that replication with extension serves the function of assessing whether outcomes can be generalized beyond the original context. This study, then, replicated with extension the work of Albirini (2004), who explored attitudes towards ICT among Syrian EFL teachers. Like Albirini, this researcher attempted to determine for a specific sample of EFL teachers in Jordan the relationship between such attitudes and factors shown in previous research to be related to attitudes towards ICT: computer attributes, cultural perceptions, computer competence, computer access, and teacher demographics. As such, this study drew upon the same theoretical frameworks used by Albirini in composing his research questions and his instrument, that

126 is, Rogers' (1995) Diffusion of Innovation Theory and Ajzen and Fishbein's (1980) Theory of Reasoned Action. Thus, in replicating with extension Albirini's (2004) research, this study adopted the same theoretical frame, research questions, instrumentation, sampling technique, and analytical techniques. While both studies utilized a random sample from a population of Middle Eastern EFL teachers, however, this study focused specifically on Jordanian EFL teachers in the capital city of Amman rather than in Syria. Both studies showed that EFL teachers in Syria and in Jordan have positive attitudes towards ICT. However, there were minor differences in terms of the respondents' perceptions of computer attributes. Observability was the most positive attribute of ICT among Jordanian EFL teachers while relative advantage was the highest among Syrian EFL teachers. Both Jordanian and Syrian EFL teachers demonstrated a moderate positive cultural perception of ICT. They expressed their interest in having computers that are more equipped for an Arabic speaking society. However, Syrian teachers were more concerned with the unethical practices that might be encouraged by computers than Jordanian teachers. It is worth noting that participants in Albirini’s (2004) study were from urban and rural areas in Hims, Syria, whereas all the participants in the current research were from Amman, the capital city of Jordan and one considered to be much more of a modern, cosmopolitan, urban, Westernized city. The digital gap between Syria and Jordan was evident in relation to EFL teachers’ computer competence. While Jordanian EFL teachers reported that they had mastered many computer skills with much competence (e.g., word processing, grade keeping, Internet and WWW), Albirini (2004) reported that using the keyboard was the only skill that Syrian EFL teachers performed with much competence. In terms of computer access, there was no similarity between EFL teachers in Jordan and Syria. For the latter group, home was the place where most computer access occurred while the school library was the place where most Jordanian EFL teachers reported having access to computers. This study sets the stage for future planning in terms of teacher training and funding of ICT within the educational system in Jordan. It also serves as a model for more studies to be conducted about ICT in the Arab region and its integration by teachers as carriers of

127 change and improvement to better prepare the young generation for knowledge-based world economies. Limitations

The study was conducted in the First and Second districts of the capital city of Jordan, Amman. The sample of EFL teachers was drawn randomly from the directory list provided by the JMOE for the scholastic year 2005-2006. The participants of the study were in-service EFL teachers in the public schools. The quality of the data would be limited to hand delivered surveys. The participants were expected to respond honestly and accurately. Also, this study is a cross-sectional study, so it is limited to a particular point in time. The findings of this study can be generalized to other EFL teachers in other districts of Amman and other urban cities in Jordan. The results may also be used as a model or a baseline for future studies about EFL teachers’ attitudes towards ICT in particular and ICT in education in the Arab region in general.

Recommendations

In view of the findings of the study and the implications arising from them, the following recommendations can be made. They are related to strategies that policymakers can utilize for future development and that researchers can use if they are interested in conducting studies about ICT in the Arab world. 1) The instrument that was developed by Albirini (2004) and used in the current study can be utilized to examine EFL teachers’ attitudes towards ICT in different educational settings in the Arab region and with populations similar to the population of the study, which is EFL teachers in an Arabic speaking country. Also, the methodology used in this study, which is a replication with extension of Albirini’s study, may be used to repeat this study to collect data about EFL teachers in other parts of Jordan whether urban or rural, and other Arabic speaking EFL teachers in the region. 2) This study is a quantitative study in nature, and a multi-part survey is the sole instrument to collect data. It is recommended that qualitative research be conducted,

128 targeting the same population, to provide in-depth information that can enrich the findings of the current study and highlight issues that may not be touched upon through the survey. Future qualitative methods that may be considered by future researchers can be in-class observations, interviews, and focus groups. The variables examined in this study were responsible for approximately 64% of the variance in the EFL teachers’ attitudes towards ICT. Future research may examine other factors that may be related to such attitudes, such as self-efficacy, peer influence, administration support, and parents’ involvement with schooling. 3) The current study employed a cross-sectional method to gather data on EFL teachers in Amman at a single point of time. It is recommended that future research be of a longitudinal nature in order to provide a more detailed description of the phenomenon and to capture other factors that may play a role in influencing EFL attitudes towards ICT at a deeper level. 4) The findings of the current study were generally similar to those found by Albirini (2004). Overall, EFL teachers in Jordan and in Syria had positive attitudes towards ICT. Yet the results of this study bear further replication, and other researchers interested in EFL teachers in the Arab region may wish to use the current study as model. As Schneider (2004) has argued, the lack of replication in education studies has produced disparate results that undermine the education research community’s ability to accumulate knowledge. In Schneider's view, replication represents an important and unifying concept, and as such, a starting point for a constructive dialogue that might help to unite a community of diverse paradigms and methods. 5) This researcher believes that a regional center or a research group centered in Jordan would contribute to building a knowledge base and adding to the understanding of the relationship between EFL teachers and ICT in the Arab region. Further, such a center would be informative to regional policy makers and could serve as a starting point for conducting comparative studies across the Arab region and worldwide. Replication necessitates the development of common languages and measures, data sharing, data analysis, and technological mechanisms that support these types of activities. Accordingly, an atmosphere of comradeship among Arab researchers would be

129 developed, one that would lead to future joint efforts for wider ICT integration in education in the Arab region. 6) The instrument used in this study was appealing to the researcher for two reasons: its theoretical framework, and the language to which it had been translated, that is, Arabic. In light of the scarcity of educational research instruments that are culturally and linguistically appropriate for the populations in the Arab region, it is recommended that this instrument be tested rigorously to establish greater validity and reliability for future administration with populations similar to the one in the current study. 7) Since this study is the first of its kind in the Jordanian educational system, it is clear that more studies are needed to contribute to the growing body of knowledge in the field of EFL instruction and ICT in the Arab region, a matter closely linked to economic and social development. It is recommended that future research be conducted with a different population, such as math teachers in Jordan, or with the same population in geographical settings other than capital city of Amman, Jordan. 8) Given the significant influence of cultural perceptions in determining EFL teachers' attitudes toward ICT, future studies may consider investigating further the role of culture on EFL teachers’ attitudes towards ICT and the rate of adoption of such innovations in settings other than Jordan in the Arab region. It is evident that culture is a significant factor influencing the decision to accept or reject an innovation as well as the rate of adoption of an innovation, particularly in developing countries.

Conclusion

This study has contributed to the growing body of knowledge in the field of ICT and EFL teachers, particularly in the Arab region. Also, it has added to diffusion research in general and the diffusion of innovation in developing countries in particular. The findings of the study affirm the assertion of Rogers’ (1995) Diffusion of Innovation Theory, which states that there is a relationship between the attributes of an innovation and the adoption of an innovation. Such a finding is relevant to educational systems to evaluate the implementation of ICT, the innovation, and its acceptance by the teachers in

130 schools. The JMOE embarked on implementing ICT without a triability stage which puts a tremendous pressure on teachers to bring out positive results. Consequently, the goal of this study was to identify the factors that might influence the adoption and implementation of ICT by EFL teachers. To this end, the study investigated the attitudes and the perceptions of EFL teachers towards ICT, their cultural perceptions of ICT, their computer competence, and level of access in an attempt to identify these factors. Many factors played a role in the relatively accelerated adoption of ICT in the Jordanian public schools. These factors included teachers’ positive attitudes and their strong perceptions of the attributes of ICT, the intensive mandated in service training through ICDL Certificate and additional workshops offered by JMOE, as well as the high level of computer competency of EFL Jordanian teachers, all contributed significantly to the rapid adoption of ICT by teachers. Furthermore, computer access was not a problem for EFL teachers due to the active rule of JMOE in ensuring that a high percentage of schools are equipped with modern computer labs and that Internet services are available for teachers and students. However, EFL teachers in Jordan did mention that the limited time in the school day affects computer use negatively. Because of this pioneering study, the policy makers in the JMOE will be more informed in their future endeavors regarding the factors that impede or facilitate the implementation of ICT and its adoption rate by Jordanian teachers through out the country’s educational system. This study is the first step on that road; hopefully it will lead to further examinations of other areas to expand the research to make EFL instruction better in the context of the Arab region as well other countries.

131

APPENDIX A

ICT Survey of EFL teachers in Jordan Adopted from Albirini’s- English Version

General instructions: The purpose of this survey is to examine your attitudes towards the introduction of the information and communication technology (ICT) into the Jordanian schools. The survey consists of six sections. Each section begins with some directions pertaining to that part only. As you begin each section, please read the instructions carefully and provide your responses candidly in the format requested.

Section 1( ): Instructions: Please indicate your attitudes to ICT as expressed in each of the following statements by

circling the number that represents your level of disagree agree agreement/disagreement with it. Make sure to respond to every statement. Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Strongly

1. Computers do not scare me at all. 1 2 3 4 5 .2 .2 Computers make me feel uncomfortable. 1 2 3 4 5 3. I am glad there are more computers these days. 1 2 3 4 5 .4 .4 I do not like talking with others about computers. 1 2 3 4 5 5. Using computers is enjoyable. 1 2 3 4 5 .6 .6 I dislike using computers in teaching. 1 2 3 4 5

132 7. Computers save time and effort. 1 2 3 4 5 .8 .8 Schools would be a better place without computers. 1 2 3 4 5 9. Students must use computers in all subject matters 1 2 3 4 5 10. Learning about computers is a waste of time. 1 2 3 4 5 11. Computers would motivate students to do more study. 1 2 3 4 5 .21 .21 Computers are fast and efficient means of getting 1 2 3 4 5 information. 13. I do not think I would ever need a computer in my 1 2 3 4 5 classroom. 14. Computers can enhance students’ learning. 1 2 3 4 5 15. Computers do more harm than good. 1 2 3 4 5 16. I would rather do things by hand than with a computer. 1 2 3 4 5 17. If I had the money, I would buy a computer. 1 2 3 4 5 18. I would avoid computers as much as possible. 1 2 3 4 5 19. I would like to learn more about computers. 1 2 3 4 5 20. I have no intention to use computers in the near future. 1 2 3 4 5

Section 2( ) Instructions: Please indicate your perceived ICT attributes as expressed in each of the following statements by circling the number that represents your level of agreement or disagreement with it. Make sure to respond to every statement. Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

.1 .1 Computers will improve education. 1 2 3 4 5 2. Teaching with computers offers real advantages over 1 2 3 4 5 traditional methods of instruction.

.3 .3 Computer technology cannot improve the quality of 1 2 3 4 5 students’ learning. 4. Using computer technology in the classroom would 1 2 3 4 5

133 make the subject matter more interesting. .5 .5 Computers are not useful for language learning. 1 2 3 4 5 6. Computers have no place in schools. 1 2 3 4 5 .7 .7 Computer use fits well into my curriculum goals. 1 2 3 4 5 8. Class time is too limited for computer use. 1 2 3 4 5 .9 .9 Computer use suits my students ‘learning preferences 1 2 3 4 5 and their level of computer knowledge. 10. Computer use is appropriate for many language learning 1 2 3 4 5 activities. 11. It would be hard for me to learn to use the computer in 1 2 3 4 5 teaching. 12. I have no difficulty in understanding the basic functions 1 2 3 4 5 of computers. 13. Computers complicate my task in the classroom. 1 2 3 4 5 14. Everyone can easily learn to operate a computer. 1 2 3 4 5 15. I have never seen computers at work. 1 2 3 4 5 16. Computers have proved to be effective learning tools 1 2 3 4 5 worldwide. 17. I have never seen computers being used as educational 1 2 3 4 5 tool. 18. I have seen some Jordanian teachers use computers for 1 2 3 4 5 educational purposes.

Section 3( ) Instructions: Please indicate your cultural perceptions of computers as expressed in each of the following statements by circling the number that represents your level of agreement or disagreement with it. Make sure ongly agree to respond to every statement. Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Str

134 1. Computers will not make any difference in the 1 2 3 4 5 classrooms, schools, or lives. .2 .2 Students need to know how to use computers for their 1 2 3 4 5 future jobs. 3. Students prefer learning from teachers to learning from 1 2 3 4 5 computers. .4 .4 Knowing about computers earns one the respect of 1 2 3 4 5 others. 5. We need computers that suit better the Arabic culture 1 2 3 4 5 and identity. .6 .6 Computers will improve our standards of living. 1 2 3 4 5 7. Using computers would not hinder Arab generations 1 2 3 4 5 from learning their traditions. .8 .8 Computers are proliferating too fast. 1 2 3 4 5 9. People who are skilled in computers have privileges not 1 2 3 4 5 available to others. 10. Computers will increase our dependence on foreign 1 2 3 4 5 countries. 11. There are other social issues that need to be addressed 1 2 3 4 5 before implementing computers in education. 12. The increased proliferating of computers will make our 1 2 3 4 5 life easier. 13. Computers dehumanize society. 1 2 3 4 5 14. Working with computers does not diminish people’s 1 2 3 4 5 relationships with one other. 15. Computers encourage unethical practices. 1 2 3 4 5 16. Computers should be a priority in education. 1 2 3 4 5

135

Section 4( ) Instructions: Please indicate your current computer competence level .e.i( , your knowledge of skill in using computers) regarding each of the following statements. Make sure to respond to every statement. Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree Strongly disagree

.1 .1 I nstall new software on a computer. 1 2 3 4 5 2. Use a printer. 1 2 3 4 5 .3 .3 Use a computer keyboard. 1 2 3 4 5 4. Operate a word processing program (e.g., Word). 1 2 3 4 5 .5 .5 Operate a presentation program .g.e( , PowerPoint). 1 2 3 4 5 6. Operate a spreadsheet program (e.g., Excel). 1 2 3 4 5 .7 .7 Operate a database program .g.e( , Access). 1 2 3 4 5 8. Use the Internet for communications ( e.g., Email& chat 1 2 3 4 5 rooms) .9 .9 Use the world Wide Web to access different types of 1 2 3 4 5 information. 10. Solve simple problems in operating computers. 1 2 3 4 5 11. Operate a graphic program .g.e( , Photoshop). 1 2 3 4 5 12. Use computers for grade keeping. 1 2 3 4 5 13. Select and evaluate educational software. 1 2 3 4 5 14. Create and organize educational software. 1 2 3 4 5 15. Remove computer viruses. 1 2 3 4 5

Section 5( ) Instructions: Please identify how often you have computer access in the following contexts. Daily a 2/3 times week week a Once month a Once Never

1. In your home. 1 2 3 4 5 .2 .2 At school ( computer lab) 1 2 3 4 5 3. At school ( library) 1 2 3 4 5

136 4 4 . Other (Like Internet Café, etc…) 1 2 3 4 5 ______.

Section (6): Instructions: Please indicate your response to the following questions by checking the appropriate boxes. 1. What is your gender? Male Female 2. What is your age? 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60 and over 3. How many years you have been teaching? 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 over 20 4. What is the grade level of the school? Basic High 5. What is your highest completed academic degree? 2 ys college degree B.A. Diploma M.A. 6. Have you ever attended any in-service training on using computers? No Yes If “Yes”, please specify the number of days: ______days 7. What kind of computer training you received? I have not received any training. I self taught myself about computers. I attended workshops offered by MOE Other (please specify) ______7. Have you completed ICDL? No Yes still taking courses. 8. What is the teaching method you use most often? (check ONE only) active discussion Collaborative activities Demonstration Lecturing

137 Hands-on learning Role playing computer-assisted instruction Other (please specify) ______.

9. What is the teaching method you use second to the above mentioned? (Check all that apply). active discussion Collaborative activities Demonstration Lecturing Hands-on learning Role playing computer-assisted instruction Other (please specify) ______.

Thank you for your time

138 APPENDIX B

ICT Survey of EFL Teachers in Jordan-Arabic Version Adopted from Albirini

ﺁراء اﺪر ﺔ اﺎ. أ و ً- اﺎت:- ﻚ داﺮة ﻮل اﺮ اﺬي ﺪد ﺪى ﻮاﻚ أو ﺪم ﻮاﻚ آ اﺎرات اﺎﺔ ا اﺎهﺎﻚ ﻮ اﺎﻮب ، اﺮﺎء اﻹﺎﺔ ﻰ اﺮات :-

ﺪة

ﺄآﺪ

أﺎرض أوا

أﺎرض

أوا

ﻏﺮ

1 اﺎ أ ﺪ اً . 1 2 3 4 5 5 2 أﺮ ﺎرﺎح ﺎ اﺎ . 1 2 3 4 5 5 3 أﺎ ﺪ ﻮﺮ اﺎ ﻜﺮة هﺬ اﻷﺎم . 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 أ اﺪث اﺮ اﺎ . 1 2 3 4 5 5 5 اﺪام اﺎ . 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 أ أن اﺪم اﺎ اﺪر . 1 2 3 4 5 5 7 ﻮﺮ اﺎ اﻮ واﻬﺪ . 1 2 3 4 5 5 8 ﻜﻮن اﺪارس أﻀ ﺪون اﺎ . 1 2 3 4 5 5 9 أن ﺪم اب اﺎ اﻮاد اﺪراﺔ . 1 2 3 4 5 5 10 ﱡ اﺎ ﻀﺔ ﻮ . 1 2 3 4 5 5 11 ﺰ اﺎ اب ﻰ زﺎدة دراﻬ . 1 2 3 4 5 5 12 اﺎ وﺔ ﺮﺔ وﺎﺔ ﻮل ﻰ اﻮﺎت . 1 2 3 4 5 5 13 أ أ ﺄﺎج ﺎ ا أ ﺪ اً . 1 2 3 4 5 5 14 ﺰز اﺎ اب . 1 2 3 4 5 5 15 ﻀﺮ اﺎ أآﺮ ﺎ . 1 2 3 4 5 5 16 أﻀ أن أ اﻷﺎء ﺪي ﻰ أن أﻬﺎ ﺎﺎ . 1 2 3 4 5 5 17 ﻮ آﺎن ﺪي اﺎل ﺮ ﺎ ﺎً ﺎ ﺎً . 1 2 3 4 5 5 18 ﺄﺎول اﺎ ﺪر اﺎع . 1 2 3 4 5 5

139 19 أ و دّ اﺰﺪ اﺎ . 1 2 3 4 5 5 20 أﻮي اﺪام اﺎ ا اﺮ . 1 2 3 4 5 5

ﺪة

ﺄآﺪ

أﺎرض أوا

أﺎرض

أوا

ﻏﺮ

ﺎ ﺎً- اﺎت -: ﻚ داﺮة ﻮل اﺮ اﺬي ﺪد ﺪى ﻮاﻚ أو ﺪم ﻮاﻚ آ اﺎرات اﺎﺔ ا ﺎ اﺔ ﺎﻮب ، اﺮﺎء اﻹﺎﺔ ﻰ اﺮات -:

ﺪة

ﺄآﺪ

أﺎرض أوا

أﺎرض

أوا

ﻏﺮ

1 ﻮف ُّ اﺎ ا . 1 2 3 4 5 5 2 اﺪر ﺎﺪام اﺎ ﺰاﺎ أﻀ اﺪر ﺎﺪام اﺮق اﺪﺔ. 1 2 3 4 5 5 3 ﻜ ﺔ اﺎ أن ُّ ﻮﺔ اب . 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 اﺪام ﺔ اﺎ اﺎدة اﺔ أآﺮ ﻮ ﺎً . 1 2 3 4 5 5 5 ﺪ اﺎ اﺔ . 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 ﻜﺎن ﺎ اﺪارس . 1 2 3 4 5 5 7 ﻮا اﺪام اﺎ ﺎﺎً أهﺪاف اﻬ اﺪرا . 1 2 3 4 5 5 8 و اﺔ اﺪراﺔ اﻀ ﺎﺪام اﺎ ( ا). 1 2 3 4 5 5 9 ﺎ اﺪام اﺎ ﻮل اﺔ و ﻮى ﺮﻬ ﺎﺎ . 1 2 3 4 5 5 10 اﺪام اﺎ ﺎ ﻜﺮ أﺔ اﺔ . 1 2 3 4 5 5 11 ا ّ اﺪام اﺎ اﺪر . 2 3 4 5 5 12 أﺪ أي ﻮﺔ ﻬ اﻮﺎ اﺔ ﺎ . 1 2 3 4 5 5 13 اﺎ ﻬ ا أآﺮ ﺪ اً (ﻮﺔ). 1 2 3 4 5 5 14 اﻬ ﻰ أي أﺪ أن اﺎل اﺎ . 1 2 3 4 5 5 15 أر ﺎ ﺎً ﺎﺔ . 1 2 3 4 5 5 16 أ اﺎ أ وﺔ ﺔ ﺎﺔ ﻰ ﻮى اﺎ . 1 2 3 4 5 5 17 أر ﺎ ﺎً ُﺪم آﻮﺔ ﺔ . 1 2 3 4 5 5 18 رأ ﺾ اﺪر اﻷرد ﺪﻮن اﺎ ﻷﺮاض ﺔ . 1 2 3 4 5 5

140 ﺎ ﺎً- اﺎت -: ﻚ داﺮة ﻮل اﺮ اﺬي ﺪد ﺪى ﻮاﻚ أو ﺪم ﻮاﻚ آ اﺎرات اﺎﺔ ا اﺄﺮ اﺎ ﺎﻮب ، اﺮﺎء اﻹﺎﺔ ﻰ اﺮات -:

ﺪة

ﺄآﺪ

أﺎرض أوا

أﺎرض

أوا

ﻏﺮ

1 ﺮ اﺎ ﺎً ﻮﺎ أو ﺪارﺎ أو ﺎﺎ . 1 2 3 4 5 5 2 ﺎج اب إﻰ ﺮﺔ ﺎﺪام اﺎ أ اﻮل ﻰ ﻬ ً . 1 2 3 4 5 5 3 اب ﻀﻮن ا ا ﻰ ا اﺎ . 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 ﺮﺔ ا ﺎﺎ ﻜ اﺮام اﺮ . 1 2 3 4 5 5 5 ﺎج إﻰ ﺎ ﺎ اﺎﺔ اﺮﺔ واﻬﻮﺔ اﺮﺔ . 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 ﻮف ﺎﺪﺎ اﺎ ﻰ ﻮى ﺎ . 1 2 3 4 5 5 7 ﺮف اﺪام اﺎ اﻷﺎل اﺮﺔ ﺮاﻬﺎ . 1 2 3 4 5 5 8 ﺰداد اﺎر اﺎ ﺪﺎ ﺮﺔ آﺮة ﺪ اً . 1 2 3 4 5 5 9 ﺄﺮ ذوو اﻬﺎرة ﺎﺎ ﻰ ﺰاﺎ ﻬﺎ ﺮه . 1 2 3 4 5 5 10 ﺰﺪ اﺎ اﺎدﺎ ﻰ اد اﻷﺔ . 1 2 3 4 5 5 هﺎك اﻜﺮ اﺎ اﺎﺔ ا اﺮق إﻬﺎ ﺄﺔ ﺮ 5 5 4 3 2 1 11 اﺎ ﺎل ا . . 12 إن اﺎر اﺰاﺪ ﺎ اﺎة أﻬ . 1 2 3 4 5 5 13 ﺮد اﺎ ا ا اﺎﺔ . 1 2 3 4 5 5 14 ُﻀ ا ﻰ اﺎ ﺔ اﺎس ﻀﻬ اﺾ . 1 2 3 4 5 5 15 ُ اﺎ ﻰ اﺎر اﺎرﺎت اأﺔ ا . 1 2 3 4 5 5 16 أن ﻜﻮن اﺎ أوﻮﺎت ا . 1 2 3 4 5 5

141 ر ا ﺎً- اﺎت -: ﻚ داﺮة ﻮل اﺮ اﺬي ﺪد ﻮى ﺪرﻚ ﺎﺎ (أي ﻮى ﺮﻚ وﻬﺎرﻚ اﺪام اﺎ) : - -

ﺪرة

ﻮﺔ

ﺔ آﺔ

ﺪي

ﺪرة

1 ﺰ ﺮﺎ ﺪﺪ ﻰ اﺎ . 1 2 3 4 4 2 اﺪام اﺎﺔ . 1 2 3 4 4 3 اﺪام ﻮﺔ اﺎ . 1 2 3 4 4 4 ﺮﺎ ﺎ اﻮص (: وورد). 1 2 3 4 4 5 ﺮﺎ ﺮض اﺮا (: ﺎور ﻮ). 1 2 3 4 4 6 ﺮﺎ ﺪاول اﺎﺎت (: إآ). 1 2 3 4 4 7 إﺎء ﺎﺪة ﻮﺎت (ﻮاﺔ ﺮﺎ : ﺁآ). 1 2 3 4 4 اﺪام ﻜﺔ اﺎت اﺎﺔ (اﻹﺮ) ﻷﺮاض اﺎﺔ (: 4 4 3 2 1 8 اﺮﺪ اﻹﻜﺮو وﺮف اﺪردﺔ). اﺪام ﻜﺔ اﺎت اﺎﺔ (اﻹﺮ) ﻮﻮل إﻰ ﻮﺎت 4 4 3 2 1 9 ﺔ . . 10 ﺎآ ﺔ أﺎء اﺎ . 1 2 3 4 4 11 ﺮﺎ رﻮﺎت (: ﻮﻮ ) 1 2 3 4 4 12 اﺪام ﺔ اﺎ درﺎت اب . 1 2 3 4 4 13 اﺎر و ﺮا ﺎ ﺔ . 1 2 3 4 4 14 إﺎء و اﺎت ﻰ اﺎ . 1 2 3 4 4 15 إزاﺔ ﺮوﺎت اﺎ . 1 2 3 4 4

ﺎ ﺎً- اﺎت -: ﻚ ّﺪد ﺪد اﺮات ا ﻬﺎ اﻮﻮل إﻰ اﺎ واﺪا آ اﻷﻜﺔ اﺎﺔ _: _:

142 اﻷﻮع

اﻷﻮع اﻬﺮ

ﺎً ﻮ ﻮﺎ اً ﺪ أﺪا

ﺮات

ﺮة

2-3

1 اﺰل . 1 2 3 4 5 5 2 ﺮ اﺎ اﺪرﺔ . 1 2 3 4 5 5 3 اﻜﺔ اﺪرﺔ 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 أﻜﺔ أﺮى (ﺪّد ﻀﻚ) ......

ﺎ د ﺎً- اﺎت:- ﺮﻰ اﻷﺎﺔ اﺮات ﻚ إﺎرة (×) ﻰ اﺮ اﺬي ﺪد إﺎﻚ ﻰ اﻷﺔ اﺎﺔ:-

.1 ﺎ هﻮ ﻚ؟ ( ) ذآﺮ ( ) أﻰ

.2 آ ﺮك؟ ( ) 20 و 29 ﺔ ( ) 30 و 39 ﺔ ( ) 40 و 49 ﺔ ( ) 50 و 59 ﺔ ( ) 60 ﺔ ﺄآﺮ

.3 آ ﺪد ﻮات ﺮﻚ اﺪر ﺎ ﻬﺎ هﺬ اﺔ؟ ( ) 1 – 5 ﻮات ( ) -6 10 ﻮات ( ) 11 - 15 ﺔ ( ) 16 - 20 ﺔ ( ) أآﺮ 20 ﺔ

.4 ﺎ ﻮى ا اﺪرﺔ ا ﺪرس ﻬﺎ؟ ( ) أﺎ ( ) ﺎﻮي

5. ﺎ ه أﻰ ﻬﺎدة ﺔ ﻬﺎ؟ ( ) ﻬﺎدة آﺔ ( ) ﻬﺎدة ﺎﺔ ( ) دﻮم ﺎ ( ) ﻬﺎدة ﺎﺮ

.6 ه ﻚ أن ﺮت أي درس أو دورة ﺪرﺔ أو ﺪوة اﺪام اﺎ ا؟ ( ) ( ) إذا أ ـ "" اﺮﺎء ﺪﺪ ﺪد اﻷﺎم: ...... ﺪد اﻷﺎم

.7 ﺎ ﻮع اﺪر اﺬي ﺎ ﺎﺎ ا؟ ( ) أ أي ﺪر ﻰ اﺎ ا

143 ( ) اﺪت ﻰ ﺎ ﺬﻚ ( ) ﺮت ورﺎت ا واﺪورات ا وﺮﻬﺎ وزارة اﺮﺔ وا

.8 ه ﻰ ﻬﺎدة اﺎدة اﺪوﺔ اﺎﻮب (ICDL) ؟ ( ) ( ) ( ) ﺎ ز أدرس ﺎﺎﻬﺎ

9. ﺎ ه ﺮﺔ اﺪر ا ﺪﻬﺎ ﻏﺎﺎً؟ ( ﺮﻰ اﺎر وﺔ واﺪة ﺎ ) ) ( ) اﺎﺔ اﺎﺔ . ( ) اﻷﺔ اﺎﺔ . ( ) اﺮح . ( ) ا ﺮ اﻷداء . ( ) اﻹﺎء . ( ) ا ﺮ أدوار . ( ) ا ﺎﺪة اﺎ . ﺮق أﺮى ......

10. ﺎ ه ﺮﺔ اﺪر ا ﺪﻬﺎ ﺎﻹﺎﺔ إﻰ اﻮﺔ اﺎرة أ؟ ( ﻜﻚ اﺎر أآﺮ وﺔ واﺪة ) ) ( ) اﺎﺔ اﺎﺔ . ( ) اﻷﺔ اﺎﺔ . ( ) اﺮح . ( ) ا ﺮ اﻷداء . ( ) اﻹﺎء . ( ) ا ﺮ أدوار . ( ) ا ﺎﺪة اﺎ . ﺮق أﺮى ......

ﻜ ﺮ اً ﺰ ً ﻰ ﺔ هﺬ اﺎﺔ.

144 APPENDIX C

The Original Survey Used in Albirini’s Study (English Version)

145

146

147

148 APPENDIX D

The Original Survey Used in Albirini’s Study (Arabic Version)

149

150

151

152 APPENDIX E

FSU Human Subject Approval Letter

153 APPENDIX F

JMOE Approval Letter

154 APPENDIX G

Amman First District Approval Letter

155 APPENDIX H

Amman Second District Approval Letter

156

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Education: 1991 B.A. in English Language & Literature University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan 1996 M.A. Curriculum & Instruction University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan 1997 Diploma in School Administration UNRWA, Amman, Jordan 2006 PhD. Multilingual & Multicultural Education Florida State University Experience: 1991-1993 Translator (E/A, A/E) Dar AlBashir Publishing House, Amman, Jordan 1995-1998 High School English Language Teacher UNRWA School, Zarqa 1998-2000 Assistant Principal Nazal UNRWA High School, Amman, Jordan 2000-2002 Student Assistant Communication and Media Services, College of Engineering, FSU 2002-2002 Graduate Assistant, “ Teaching in Diversity Population” College of Education, Curriculum & Instruction Department, FSU 2003-2004 ABET Coordinator, College of Engineering, Chemical Engineering Department, FSU 2004-2004 Technical Grant Writer, College of Engineering, Chemical Engineering Department, FSU 2005-2005 Program Coordinator, Human Resources Management, Training & Development, FSU

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