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The Occult World

Christopher Partridge

The Occult Middle Ages

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315745916.ch2 Peter J. Forshaw Published online on: 18 Dec 2014

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Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:53 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315745916, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315745916.ch2 T an impressivenewcorpusof worksonastrology,alchemyandmagic(GarciaAvilés Castile (1221–84),introduced scholarstonewconceptionsoftheoccultsciences and learning totheWest,through, forexample,thescriptoriumofKingAlfonsoX of Arabic intoLatininthetwelfth andthirteenthcenturies.ThetransmissionofArabic and scienceswastranslated intoArabic,followedbyafloodoftranslationfrom surpassing theabilitiesofhislessinformedpeers. of recognizingnature’ssecrets,couldmanipulatethem inordertoproducewonders astrology, alchemyandmagic.Thegiftedpractitionerof theseoccultsciences,capable extend intothemanydivinatoryarts,there are generallythreemainrepresentatives: kept secretfromtheuninitiatedandprofane.While the listofoccultsciencescan discovering and harnessing them came to be known as the ‘occult sciences’, knowledge Newman 1996). or theoccult,i.e.,‘interior’propertiesofalchemical substances (Eamon1994,24; animals, vegetablesandminerals,thewondrous(electrical)raysoftorpedofish, emanating fromtheplanets,sympathiesandantipathiesbelievedtoexistbetween specific mixture ofthefour elements. Otherexamples werethebelief ininfluences visible totheeye,butitscauseoccultbecausemagneticvirtuedidnotresultfrom terms. A popular examplewasthepower of loadstonestoattract iron, aproperty scholastic philosophywasbased.Someproperties could notbeexplained inthose people had aboutthe normal behaviour of the four elements on which Aristotelian Occult qualitiesattimesappearedtobeincompatiblewiththegeneralexpectations of theirmanifestphysicalqualities(e.g.,light,heat,motion,taste,colour,odour). as awayofaccountingforqualitiesinanobjectthatwerenotexplicablebyknowledge 104). Thisencompassestheconceptof‘occultqualities’(virtutesoccultae)innature, perceptible, indeedattimesincomprehensibletothehumanintellect(Kwa2011, that whichishidden,secretorconcealed,butalsoinsensible,notdirectly as theperiodfrom500to1500ce.Asaworkingdefinition,‘occult’isunderstood During theninthandtenthcenturiesmuchGreekmaterial relatingtothesearts Nature, then,wasarepositoryofoccultpowersand thestudiesinvolvedin the notionofoccultthoughtduringChristianMiddleAges,roughlydefined his chapterintroducessomeoftheartsandsciencesgenerallysubsumedunder THE OCCULTMIDDLEAGES Peter J.Forshaw CHAPTER TWO 34 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:53 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315745916, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315745916.ch2 manuals of the MiddleAges (Barton 1994; Tester 1987, Chapter 4). The astrology bythesecond-century Greco-RomanastrologerClaudiusPtolemy(90–168). and the Tetrabiblos, two of the most famous classical textbooks of astronomy and practice ofastrology.ThisbecamepossiblewiththeLatin translationsoftheAlmagest Latin thatChristianthinkersgainedaccesstoessential reading formoresophisticated (Clark 1982). the headruledbyfirstsign,Aries,downtofeet ruledbythelastsign,Pisces the astrologicalman,whosebodypartsaregovernedby thesignsofzodiac,from manuscripts ofastrologicalmedicine,isthepresence themelothesia,imageof (Prioreschi 2003,64).Acommonmanifestationof thisinfluence,inmedieval of medicine,retainedaninfluenceinChristianculture rightintoearlymoderntimes appropriate timesforpurgations,venesections,andthe preparation andadministering ce), thateveryphysicianoughttobefamiliarwithastrology, whichindicatesthe classical medicalauthoritiesHippocrates(c.460–370bc)andGalen(129–99/217 astrological medicine(Tester1987,124–26).Isidore’sassertion,inkeepingwiththe predictions, forinstanceoffloodordroughtandincludesiatromathematics, individual; ‘Natural’astrology,ontheotherhand,concernsitselfwithmeteorological makes use of horoscopes and seeks to predict the character and the fate of an argument formedievalscholarstojustify‘licit’astrology.‘Superstitious’astrology between of lateantiquethoughtformedievalChristianscholarship.Isidore’sdistinction (c. 570–636)(VonStuckrad2007,187–88).Thesetwoworksweremajorconduits Etymologiarum libriXX–20VolumesofEtymologiesIsidore,BishopSeville Christian andPlatonicphilosopherBoethius(480–524)theencyclopedic the 1990). Whatknowledgetherewasofclassicalastrologyexistedintwomainsources, to havebeenrareinEuropeuntilthetwelfthcentury(Tester1987,Chapter5;Flint or astrologyintheChristianWest;indeeddetailedobservationsofheavensappear In theEarlyMiddleAges,therewerefewdevelopedtextbooksoneitherastronomy that weretobeofcontinuinginfluenceintheRenaissance. introducing importantfigures,significantworks,andoutlininginfluentialthemes alchemy andastrology,thebroadcategoryoflearnedmagic,withaim thought intheLatinChristianWest:terrestrialandcelestial‘occultsciences’, the Greek,ArabicandJewishworlds,mainfocusofthisessaywillbeonoccult of theirviewsonmagic’(Kieckhefer1989,18). widespread thatEuropeanscholarshadto‘undertakefundamentalreconsideration influence onthelearnedChristianWest,indeedimpactofthismaterialwasso thirteenth centuries,duringtheHighMiddleAges,andwastohaveaprofound Arabic knowledge onthe West is particularly apparent fromtheeleventh to the 1997; DominguezRodriguez2007;Fernández2013).Theimpactof to Ptolemy’s philosophical arguments in support of astrology, the novice astrologer It was only, however, with the twelfth-century translation of Arabic treatises into It wasonly,however,withthetwelfth-centurytranslation ofArabictreatisesinto While muchcouldbe said aboutthepresenceofoccult theories andpractices in Consolatio philosophiae–ConsolationofPhilosophy(c.523)theRoman was translated in 1138 and became one of the most popular astrological Tetrabiblos wastranslatedin1138andbecame oneofthemostpopularastrological astrologia superstitiosaandnaturalisbecamethestandard ASTROLOGY INTHEMIDDLEAGES – chapter 2:TheOccultMiddleAges– 35

There, in addition There, in addition

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:53 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315745916, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315745916.ch2 fifteenth century(Kusukawa1993,34). mathematics, musicandgeometry;wasfirmly alliedwithmedicinebythe philosophical curriculumofWesternuniversities,as part ofthequadriviumwith mid-thirteenth century,astrologyhadbeenincorporated intothestandard work producedinLatinthethirteenthcentury’(Thorndike 1929,826).Bythe textbook, theLiberastronomicus,describedas‘themostimportantastrological astrologers ofhistime,theItalianGuidoBonatti(d.c. 1297) wroteacomprehensive instructs themwithagreatdealofmedievalstarlore. Oneofthemostfamous with ahistoryofastrologystretchingbacktothefirst magician,Zoroaster,and introductorius –IntroductoryBook,MichaelScot(fl.1217–35)presentshisreaders of AbuMashar’sideastoaChristiancontext(Silvestris1990).IntheLiber became oneofthemostimportantworksHighMiddleAgesforitsadaptation Microcosmus, concerningrespectivelythegreaterworldandcreationofman, Silvestris’s It attractedtheattentionofinfluentialthinkers.ThePlatonistphilosopherBernardus and interestbegantospreadfromtheclergycourt,otherlayersofsociety. to predictsuch‘universal’events(Zambelli1986,21–22). this form of astrology legitimate, arguing that it was in fact easier and more accurate medieval theologians like Thomas Aquinas, Roger Bacon and Bonaventure considered condemnation by the church due to concerns about the question of free will, influential 61). Whereasthecastingofhoroscopesindividualsunderwentperiods respectively, thereturnofChristorbeginningmessianicera(Boudet2005, These ideasweretakenupbybothChristiansandJewsinordertocalculate, religions andempirestotheoutbreakofwars,plaguesfloods(Albumasar2000). natural, politicalandreligiousterrestrialevents,fromthegrowthdeclineof that the comingtogether of these two most slow-moving planets exerted on major Saturn. InthisworkAbuMasharsetforthhischronosophicaltheoryoftheimpact the conjunctionsofoutermostplanetsPtolemaiccosmos,Jupiterand Conjunctions, wasanelaboratetreatiseonmundaneastrology with special regard to in Latin1133(Albumasar1997).HisDemagnisconiunctionibus–OntheGreat Astrological Prediction(knownintheWestasLiberIntroductoriusmaior)appeared treatment ofallaspectsastrologicaltheoryandpracticeinhisIntroductionto the PersianphilosopherAbuMashar(LatinAlbumasar,787–886),whoseencyclopedic astrology, suchas the doctrineof ‘Revolutions’. Akeyproponent of thistheorywas knowledge frommedievalIslamicculture,withworksthatintroducednewgenresof Greek andRomanmaterialpreservedinArabic,butalsoopenedupawealthof essentials ofbothmundaneandjudicialastrology(onthese,seePage2001). Mars, Sun,Venus,Mercury,Moon),thetwelveconstellationsofZodiac,and learned ofthepowerssevenplanetsPtolemaiccosmos(Saturn,Jupiter, (c.1140–1210). InDedivisionePhilosophie – OntheDivisionofPhilosophy , the scholasticphilosophers Dominicus Gundissalinus(fl.1150)andDanielofMorley Two earlyLatinreferences to the‘scienceofalchemy’canbefoundinworks of By theendoftwelfthcentury,astrologywasprevalentinalmostallmonasteries, This boomintranslationdidnotjustprovidetheWestwithcopiesofclassical Cosmographia (1147–48), with itstwoparts, Megacosmus and ALCHEMY INTHE MIDDLE AGES – PeterJ.Forshaw 36 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:53 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315745916, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315745916.ch2 for analchemicaloperation wouldbewritteninthewrongorder,somepartsonly of knowledgewas‘dispersa intentio’(dispersionofknowledge),wheninstructions cinnabar werespecifictoalchemy. Afurthermethodcontributingtotheconcealment other signs or ‘hieroglyphs’, such as those for minerals like antimony, sulphur and were sharedwiththeastrological signsfortheplanets(sun,moon,Venus,etc.), but processes. Thealchemicalsymbolsforthesevenmetals (gold,silver,copper,etc.), communication wasdeepenedbythesubstitution of signsforsubstancesand 1990; Obrist1982;Gabriele1997).Theoccultation, asitwere,ofalchemical and fifteenth-century manuscriptworksastheAuroraconsurgens–TheRisingDawn Alchemy (c.1257),succeededbyfarmoreelaborateimage sequencesinsuch one oftheearliestexamplesbeingConstantinePisa’s BookoftheSecrets before theemergenceofanewgenrealchemicalimages intheLateMiddleAges, Given thehighlyvisualnatureofalchemicalmetaphor, itwasonlyamatteroftime much to the puzzlement of the uninitiated (Ferrario 2009; Read 1995, Chapter 4). mention ofblackravens,whiteswans,multicoloured peacocks,andgoldeneagles, speak ofeagleswithbowsintheirtalons.Colourchangeswouldbeimpliedbythe the necessary‘water’;insteadofadvisingusevolatilesalts,anauthorwould with quicksilver,analchemistwouldwriteaboutthe‘dragon’,orsimplyspeakof employed intheGreatWorkfromprofane.Hence,ratherthandiscusswork made useofcover-namestoconcealtheidentitysubstancesandprocesses in manymedievalworkscanbeparticularly‘occult’,thesensethattheirauthors express themselvesindown-to-earthlanguage,alchemicalformsofcommunication Middle AgesandintotheRenaissance.Althoughsomealchemicalwriterschoseto a majorstyleoftransmissiontheoccultsciencealchemyforrest 2013, 32;Kahn1994;Ruska1926).Suchopaque,poeticlanguagewastorepresent the sunasitsfather,moonmother,andearthnurse(Principe ‘operation ofthesun’,bethatelixirorPhilosophers’Stone,has,forexample, is abovelikewhatbelow’,tothenotionthatsought-forgoalofalchemical to theclassicHermeticformulation‘Whatisbelowlikewhatabove;and hundreds oftreatisesonastrology,magicandalchemy.Therethereaderisintroduced Emerald Tablet,attributedtothelegendaryHermesTrismegistus,allegedauthorof twelfth century was the short enigmatic text known as the alchemical termsandprocedures(Morienus1974,27). for thework‘comesfromyou,whoareyourselfitssource’,alongsidediscussionsof in the text, particularly with the presence of such assertions as that the matter needed which leavesopenthepossibilitythattherearevariouslevelsofinterpretationatplay (Principe 2013,51f).Theworkispresentedinattimeshighlyallegoricallanguage, by theChristianmonkMorienusRomanustoUmayyadprinceKhalidibn-Yazid a translationofinstructionsonhowtomakethePhilosophers’Stone,allegedlygiven Chester’s apparently, oneoftheeightpartsastrology(Forshaw2013,147). Natures ofLowerandUpperThingswediscoverthatthe‘scientiadealckimia’is, science, whileinMorley’sLiberdenaturisinferiorumetsuperiorum–Bookonthe Gundissalinus introducesthe‘scienciadealquimia’asoneofeightpartsnatural Another early alchemical worktobecome available toWestern readers in the The West’sinitiationintothemysteriesofalchemybeginsin1144withRobert Buch der heiligenDreifaltigkeit –BookoftheHolyTrinity(Constantine Pisa Liber decompositionealchemiae–BookontheCompositionofAlchemy, – chapter 2:TheOccultMiddleAges– 37 or Tabula Smaradgina or

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:53 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315745916, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315745916.ch2 2013, 68). pagan philosopherstopredictthevirginbirthofChrist (Crisciani1973;Principe and divine, and that a knowledge of the generation of the Philosophers’ Stone enabled – author ofanotherpopularwork,thefourteenth-centuryPretiosamargaritanovella always consideredpurelynatural,itisworthmentioningthatPetrusBonus,the the MiddleAges(DeVun2009).Lestanyonethink,however,thatalchemywas water’ ofthealchemists.Rupescissa’spopularworkisonemostwidespread the preparation of alcohol distilled from wine, to produce the paradoxical ‘fiery 1310–c. 1362)describedthedistillationofquintessencesvariousthings,including of theQuintessenceAllThings(1351–52),FranciscanJohnRupescissa(c. Liber deconsiderationequintaeessentiaeomniumrerum–BookontheConsideration stones andprecious(Principe2013,47,72;Pereira&Spaggiari1999).Inhis transmutation, theenhancementofhumanhealth,andproductionartificial taken up by Pseudo-Lull,whose the and projection,thequestforLapisPhilosophorum(Philosophers’Stone) involving, for example, calcination, dissolution, sublimation, coagulation, fixation, through theartoftransmutationbymeansaserieslaboratoryprocesses, concerned withthisOpusMagnum(GreatWork),theproductionofpreciousmetals aim oftheirultimatetransmutationintogold.Mostmedievalpractitionerswere of alchemical endeavour in the Middle Ages, the amelioration of base-metals with the Medicine), orindeedSpiritualAlchemy.Thefirstoftheserepresentsthemajorform readings ofitasatextChrysopoeia(Gold-Making),Chymiatria(Chemical There havebeenmanydifferentinterpretationsoftheEmeraldTablet,rangingfrom Principe 2013,45). work andhas‘hiddenitwherewehavespokenmostopenly’(Newman1991,784f; alchemy, writesofscatteringinformationhereandthereindifferentchaptershis generally agreedtobethemostinfluentialmedievalworkofpracticaltransmutational perfectionis magisterii–SummationofthePerfectionMagistery(c.1300), exponent ofthisapproachisthemedievalauthorGeber,whoinhisSumma fragmentary, sometimeswiththefullprocessdistributedindifferentbooks.Amajor divination, includingobservation oftheflightbirds(augury),entrails of (hydromancy, pyromancy, aeromancy, geomancy),well-knownmethodsofclassical writings: necromancy,the formsofdivinationlinkedwiththefourelements contains acatalogueofmagical artsthatwouldremainastandardtoposinmedieval angels. Despitehisoverallnegative attitudetowardsmagic,Isidore’sentryon‘magi’ Etymologies, forexample,wereadthatmankindlearnedthemagical artsfrombad important earlyclassificationsofmagicareavailable. InIsidoreofSeville’s Although farlessdocumentaryevidencesurvivesfrom theearlyMiddleAges,some The LatinWestinheritedarichtraditionofmagical literaturefromantiquity. New PearlofGreatPrice(1330),claimedthatalchemywasnatural,supernatural Elixir, forthehealingofeither‘sick’metalsorhumanbeings.Theseideaswere GOALS OFMEDIEVALALCHEMY MAGIC INTHEMIDDLEAGES – PeterJ.Forshaw Testamentum (c.1330) spoke ofmetallic 38 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:53 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315745916, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315745916.ch2 and recipes,predominantly concernedwithpracticalrecipesforproducingcosmetics of popularbookssecrets developed,containingcollectionsofsecreta, contributed toaninterestin thehiddenpropertiesofnature.Indeed,awholeculture pseudo-Albertan work,Demirabilibusmundi–On theWorld’sMarvels,likewise Book of Collection or of Secrets of the Virtues of Plants, Stones and Animals . Another Liber aggregationisseu secretorum de virtutibus herbarum, lapidumet animalium – Experimenta, frequently,iffalsely,attributedtoAlbertus,andlater knownasthe 60). Probablythemostwidespreadmedieval treatise onnaturalmagicwasthe distinguishing it from the demonic kind (Thorndike 1929, Chapter LIX, esp. 548– animalibus –OnAnimals,thoughinhistheologicalworkhewascautiousabout acknowledged thepossibilityofnaturalmagicinphilosophical writings,suchasDe theologian and natural philosopher Albertus Magnus (ca. 1193–1280) similarly configurations andthepartsofhumanbody(Lang 2008,25).TheDominican between thethreekingdomsofnature(animal,vegetable andmineral),celestial magical correspondences,implyinganunderlying network ofsecret relationships (1231–36), he discussed experimentarelated to these occult powers and the notion of inherent intheobjectsofnature.InslightlylaterDeUniverso–OnUniverse justifying itsinclusionbyarguingthatitoperatesmerelythroughnaturalvirtues, introduced theterm‘naturalmagic’aseleventhpartofnaturalphilosophy, of Auvergne(c.1180–1249).InDeLegibus–OntheLaws(1228–30),William use ofthethingsnature(Lang2008,51–78;Page2013,31–48). apply theknowledgeforbenefitofmankindthroughapracticalmagicthatmade natural virtues,andoffernaturalisticexplanationsforthephenomena,buttheycould manipulation bydemons.Notonlycoulddiscerningscholarsknowaboutthese and antipathiesexistinginthewholeofnature,withoutassistanceor natural things, the properties of stones, metals, plants, and animals, the sympathies Natural magicenabledhumanbeingstoknowandmakeuseoftheoccultvirtues a distinctionbetweenlicitformofnaturalmagicandanillicitdemonicmagic. as demonic,afterthemannerofSaintAugustine(354–430),somewritersarguedfor science, ‘natural magic’, to learned discourse. Rather than simply rejecting all magic natural philosophyalmostinevitablyintroducedtheconceptofanewbranch (Eamon 1994,59),theinfluenceofnewlytranslatedArabictreatisesindomain idea thatanytypeofmagicshouldbeincludedinthecurriculumlegitimatelearning Despite theoppositionoftheologianslikeHughStVictor(c.1096–1141)to magic. an introductiontothemostimportantgenres:naturalmagic,astralmagicandritual of thefollowingsectionswillbeondiversitylearnedmagicinMiddleAges, framework wellsuitedtosupportingnumerousformsofmagicalpractice.Thefocus philosophical andastrologicalcorpusprovidedWesternscholarswithatheoretical the influxofnewlearningintwelfthandthirteenthcenturies.TheArabic (Kieckhefer 1989,11). sacrificial animals(haruspicy),andthepositionsofstarsplanets(astrology) An influential voice in this natural magic worldview was the theologian William As withastrologyandalchemy,magicalliteraturewasprofoundlyinfluencedby – chapter 2:TheOccultMiddleAges– NATURAL MAGIC 39 experimenta Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:53 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315745916, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315745916.ch2 techniques andpracticescould alsobeidentifiedwithfarmoresubversivegenres characters, imagesandspirits –weremorecontroversial’andastralmagical in nature,especiallythoseof celestialorigin,‘manyofitssourcespower–words, power ofastar,stone,herb andcharacter;others,however,weremoredubious. Some arguedthatthesewerepurelynaturaltalismans, incorporatingthecombined or heavenlybodytoimbueitwithpower under well-definedastrologicalcircumstances. over athree-dimensional object (image, talismanor statue) inorderto induce aspirit 6). Here,then,wehaveslightlyambiguousinstructions forritualstobeperformed slightly earlierinthetwelfthcentury,thereonefindsprayers tospirits(Burnett1996, Seville’; if,however,thereaderpossessestranslation byAdelardofBath,made Such isthecase,too,ifreaderconsultsLatintranslation by‘MagisterJohnof but instead an emphasis on the creator of talismans drawing down celestial virtue. the stars.InAl-Kindi,thereisnosuggestionofrituals directedtoplanetaryspirits, talismans, anactivitythatThabitdeclaresistheheight andsummitofthescience his book is a work dealing with the practical issues of creating astral magical means ‘talismans’ (hence the frequent reference to this genre as ‘Image Magic’) and and philosopherThabitibnQurra(826–901).By‘AstrologicalImages’, work, terrestrial objectsformagicalpurposes,onanaturalratherthansupernaturalbasis. direct thevirtuesofcelestialbodies(planets,constellations,fixedstars)downinto harmony ofinterconnectedrays,withtheinformedpractitionerhavingabilityto (Travaglia 1999).Hereastralmagic is presentedasworkingthrough acosmic prayer andsacrificecanallbepowerfulmagicalwaysofinfluencingthecosmos stars included,sendoutrays,butsotoodowordsandactions,suchthatritual, promotes thetheorythatnotonlydoallmaterialthingsinnaturalworld, Latin translationfromthethirteenthcenturythroughtoRenaissance,Al-Kindi theories ofoccultinfluence(Al-Kindi1974).InDeradiis,whichcirculatedwidelyin stellarum –OntheRaysofStars,weretohaveaprofoundimpactonWestern in particularhisinfluentialcombinationofPlatonismandAristotelianismDeradiis philosopher ofthe Islamic world’,Abu Yusuf Ya-qubibnIshaq al-Kindi (d.c.870), occupy amidpointbetweentoleratednaturalandillicitdemonicmagic. variously termed astral, astrological, celestial, or image magic, a set of practices that Arabic sourcesduringthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturies,agenrethathasbeen new categoriesoflearnedmagicintroducedintotheChristianWestfrommainly With thisreferencetotalismansweenterthedomainofonemostimportant astrology andthefabricationoftalismans(Eamon1994,45ff;Williams2003). the occultsciences,onalchemy,informationfromlapidariesandherbals,medical its fulltranslationdatingfromthemid-thirteenthcentury,isfilledwithmaterial has beencalled‘themostpopularbookintheMiddleAges’(Thorndike1929,267), – BookoftheSecretSecrets,pseudonymouslyattributedtoAristotle,aworkthat or dyeingtextiles,preparingdrugsbrewingbeer.TheLiberSecretumSecretorum Although, followingAl-Kindi, imagemagicostensiblydependedonoccultpowers Al-Kindi’s theoreticalworkonmagicwascomplementedbyanotherninth-century The ninth-centuryworksoftheIraqimathematician,physicianand‘first De imaginibusastrologicis–OnAstrologicalImagesbytheSabianscholar – PeterJ.Forshaw ASTRAL MAGIC 40 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:53 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315745916, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315745916.ch2 (Thorndike 1929,602ff;Walker 2003,43;Skemer2006,63f). whom thecommunication isaddressed,andthatbeingmostlikelydemonic signs, figuresorimages,for theyreceivetheirefficacyfromanintelligentbeing to may bepresentinnatural, unfashionedamulets;herejectstalismansthatinclude 3, Chapters104&105),heappearstoacceptthatsome powerfromcelestialbodies bodies ortoseparatedintellectualsubstances).InSummacontragentiles (esp.Book the elementsandtheiractionsmustbetracedtohigher principles(eithertoheavenly some bodies,suchasmagnets,haveworkingsthatcannot becausedbythepowersof occultis operibusnaturae–OntheOccultWorksofNature , Aquinasconcededthat forms oftalismanicmagicwerediscussedbyThomas Aquinas(1225–74).InDe inscription ofcharacters. of resortingtoidolatrousrituals,suffumigations or invocations,exorcism author oftheSpeculum)solelywithutilizingstellarinfluxeswithoutanysuggestion fashioning imagesatasuitableastrologicalmoment, concerned(accordingtothe imaginum –WorkofImages,worksthatprovidepracticalinformationabout group oftwoacceptableworks:Thabit’sDeimaginibusandPseudo-Ptolemy’sOpus which aretobeexorcizedbycertainnames(Véronèse2012).Whatremainsisathird dubious origin,andperformedbyinscribingcharacters and theuseofdemonic seals, avoiding ceremonies, but nonetheless encouraging the use of unknown characters of On theFourRingsofSolomonandAlmandal,is‘lessunsuitable’, invocations tospirits.Thesecondgroup,includingDequatuorannuliSalomonis– dangerous category,beingidolatrous,includingritesthatrequiresuffumigationsand Book ofTalismansandtheLiberLunae–Moon,constitutesmost The firstgroup,representedbysuchHermeticworksastheLiberpraestigiorum– Hermetic images,‘detestable’Solomonicandacceptableastrologicalimages. (Science ofImages)distinguishesthreecategoriestexts,respectively‘abominable’ Lang 2008,27).TheSpeculum’seleventhchapter,devotedtotheScientiaImaginum necromantic worksconcerningimages,charactersandseals(Zambelli1992,241ff; differentiates betweenusefulandinnocentastrologicaltextsdangerous astrology, in accordance with both Aristotelianism and Christianity. In the process he The author’sprimaryinterestisinestablishingthephilosophicallegitimacyof astronomical andastrologicalpractices(Zambelli1992;ParaviciniBagliani2001). to learnedinterestinastralmagicwithitssurveyofnewlytranslatedGreekandArab – MirrorofAstronomy(1255–60), usually attributed to Albertus Magnus, contributed 2011, 156). as oneforcreatingadivinatoryheadfromdecapitatedprisoner(Boudetetal. and ritualsusinghumanblood, although thetranslatoromitscertainpassages,such includes far more dangerous practices, including animal sacrifices directed to spirits Latin translationasthePicatrix,introducesitselfabookofnecromancyand Spain intheeleventhcentury.Thiswork,betterknownChristianWestits from 224magicalsources,theGhayatal-HakimorGoalofWise,composedin complex workof astral magic available to theWest,Arabiccompendium drawn the invocationofdemons(Page2013,48).Suchwascertainlycasewithmost such asnecromantictextsandmanuals,creatingaffinitiesbetweenastralmagic A decade or solater, similarconcernsaboutdiscriminatingbetweenlicitandillicit One ofthemostimportantmedievalworksonastrology,Speculumastronomiae – chapter 2:TheOccultMiddleAges– 41 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:53 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315745916, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315745916.ch2 shapes andmagicalcharacters –drinkingofspecialdecoctions,andsoforth, exercises involvingtheinspection ofnotae–complexfigurescomposed ofwords, others containingmysterious verbaignota,purificatoryrituals,contemplative knowledge. Thisinvolves the recitationofprayers,somerecognizablyorthodox, knowledge of the liberal arts, philosophy, theology, medical and divinatory for the successful practitioner to become the beneficiary of a divine infusion of to theArsnotoriaitisasetofholyprayersrevealedSolomonbyanangel inorder intellectual giftsfromtheHolySpiritbymeansofangelic intermediaries.According or themonkearnestlyhopingforvisionaryexperience, toacquirespiritualand enable the solitary practitioner, the student intent on bettering himself in his studies representatives ofthisangelmagicistheArsnotoria– Notory Art,withitsclaimto 2013, 89–113). Holy Trinityandaccompanyingangels(Page2011; Page 2013,93–129;Klaassen form offasting,confession,periodssilenceandmeditation, lengthyprayerstothe and extensiveritualsforthepurificationofpractitioner’ssoul,preparationsin improving thepractitioner’schancesofsalvation.Thisnormallyinvolvedintensive of thepractitioner’smemory,eloquenceandunderstanding,withultimateaim direct infusionofknowledgeandexperiencethecelestialrealm,fordevelopment revelation, techniquesforinducingdreamsandvisions,speakingtospirits,a powers andanotherinvolvingangelicdemonicpowers. distinctions betweentheurgiaandgoetia,namely,amagicconcernedwithangelic complete (Fanger1998a,vii–ix;Lang2008,162–88). this genreisthattheritualsareoftenlongandcomplex,sometimestakingmonthsto many ofthepracticesnaturalandastralmagic,oneidentifyingcharacteristic practices, most notably exorcism, for their structure and justification. In contrast to manuscripts drawforthemostpartonChristianbiblicalandliturgicaltexts influence ofearlierGreek,ArabicNeo-Platonic,andJewishtraditions,theextant times elaborateinstrumentsandweaponsemployedinsomeceremonies. employed in certain forms of necromantic ritual and for the fabrication of the at knowledge ofthemateriamagicanaturalmagicwasessentialbothforsacrifices the zodiac,tomoresophisticatedcalculationsofplanetaryevents;likewise,a attention tospecificplanetarydaysandhours,orthetransitsofmoonthrough demonic operations,incorporatingastrologicalpractices,rangingfromsimple extremely commontofindritualmagicians,busywiththeirangelic,theurgicor boundaries betweenthesevariousgenres,however,arepermeable,indeeditis differentiates this genreofmagic from itsmorelicit natural andastralforms.The conjurations asmeansofcommunicating with thesesupernaturalpowersclearly spiritual, demonic, or angelic assistance and the magicians’ use of prayers and summoning ofinfernaldemonsortheinvocationcelestialangels.Therelianceon manuals ofritualmagic,concernedwiththeconjuringspirits,bethat The latermiddleageswaswitnesstoincreasingnumbersofanewkindwork, Although theword‘magic’isnotfoundintext, one ofthemostimportant The firstformofritualmagic,angelicortheurgic,describedritualsconcernedwith Ritual magicmanifestsintwofundamentalforms,alongthelinesofclassical While thesetextsofritualmagic,likethoseotherforms,clearlyshowthe RITUAL MAGICINTHELATEMIDDLEAGES – PeterJ.Forshaw 42 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:53 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315745916, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315745916.ch2 1989, 151–75). dominating otherstogratify sexualdesires(Klaassen2013,115–55;Kieckhefer more malign desires to manipulate human emotions, cause physical or mental harm, discovering secretinformation, throughgaininginvisibility,creatingillusions,to the anodyne goalsoflocating hiddentreasureandstolengoods(orthethief), or operator’s will.Theaimsofnecromanticpractitioners rangefromtherelatively practices inspiredbyreligiousritesofexorcism,inorder toconstrainthemdothe by thedead’,butgenerallyunderstoodasconjuring ofdemonicbeings,through of idolatry,ismostoftenreferredtoasnecromancy,literally translatingas‘divination dignification overallspirits(Veenstra2012;Klaassen 2013,102). vision ofGod,knowledgeGod’spower,theabsolution ofsins,sanctification,and which similarlyassurestheoperatorthatuseof the SigillumDeiwillgranta of magic,theSummasacremagice,by Spanish scholar BerengariusGanellus, parts ofthismaterialarealsofoundintheimpressive fourteenth-century compendium such as a hazel wand, swords, a whistle, use of voces magicae and so forth. Significant and terrestrialspirits,theconstructionofamagiccircle,usemagicalequipment, Subsequent partsofthemanualincludefurther rituals forconjuringplanetary, aerial the practitionerwithavisionofGod,whilestillinmortalframe(Mathiesen1998). being theopusvisionisdivine,anoperationleadingtoradicaltransformationof the operator can conjure angels and demons for various purposes, the highest activity requisite prayersandinvocationofasetaroundonehundreddivinenames,sothat rituals ofconsecration(involvingbloodamole,dove,batorhoopoe),andthe set ofinstructionsforfashioningaSigillumDei(SealGod),directionsthe spirits areconstrainedonlybypuremen,notthewicked.Whatfollowsisadetailed magic inquestionisoneofbindingandloosingspirits).Theirargumentthatsuch bishops andprelateswhohavebeenledastraybydemons(despitethefactthat Toledo, who defend the magical art and reject the unjust charges of misguided learn ofageneralcouncileighty-nineMastersMagicfromNaples,Athensand ritual, however,requiresseventy-twodays!IntheprologuetoLiberiuratus,we less thantheBeatificVision(Hedegård2002;Mesler1998);completeHonorius France. Thisworkclaimstoprovideatwenty-eightdayritualthatwillresultinno original compositioninLatindatingfromprobablyfourteenth-centurysouthern the formularies. that manuscripts of the Ars notoria and its derivatives have been mistaken for prayer 2006). Ingeneral, these manualsof Christian ritualmagicare so orthodoxintone vision ofChristduringsleep(Gilly&vanHeertum2002,vol.1,288–89;Véronèse provides aritualofdreamincubationinordertogranttheearnestpractitioner latter text,forexample,inacombinationofmagictechniqueandpiousdevotion, Art of the Crucifix, both attributed to the Majorcan hermit Pelagius (d. 1480). The well asotherformsofChristianizedmagic,liketheAnacrisisandArscrucifixi– Liber visionum–BookofVisionsJohnMorigny(Fanger1998b,216–49),as latter halfofthetwelfthcentury;itsinfluencecanbeseeninfourteenth-century version oftheArsnotoriaprobablyoriginatesinNorthernItalyanddatesfrom extending over a four-month period (Véronèse 2007; Camille 1998). The earliest The other,potentiallyfarmoresubversiveformofritual magic,frequentlyaccused The samecouldnotbesaid,however,ofanotherinfluentialtreatiseangelmagic, Liber sacer sive iuratus Honorii – The Holy or Sworn Book of Honorius,an Book or Sworn – TheHoly Liber sacersiveiuratusHonorii – chapter 2:TheOccultMiddleAges– 43 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:53 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315745916, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315745916.ch2 was finallydignifiedwith the name‘OccultPhilosophy’. material waswaitingforthe nextstageofassimilationwhen,intheRenaissance, it provides insightsinto some oftheenigmatic terms intheEmerald Tablet. Allthis historians ofalchemywouldbesurprisedtodiscover that thenecromanticPicatrix for their‘lowerastronomy’.Atothertimestheconnections arelessobvious:many specifics ofcorrectastrologicaltiming,seekingthemost propitiouscelestialmoment of the alchemical laboratory; likewise at least some alchemists paid attention to the way: forexample,afashioneroftalismanswoulddoubtless benefitfromtheproducts said, manyoftheseoccultpractices were clearlyinterrelated,sometimesinanobvious ritual magic,tendtofollowtheirownseparatestream oftransmission.Thisbeing can befoundboundtogether,althoughsomegenres, suchastheconjurationsof the treatisesfromthese different occult currents (astrological, alchemical and magical) papal Bullbannedthepracticeofalchemy(Page2013, 30). the consequencesofprisonorexcommunication.Justfiveyearslater,in1317,a any kind,ortoengageinalchemy,necromancy,theinvocationofdemons,face 1312, allmembersoftheFranciscanorderwereforbiddentopossessoccultbooks condemnations ofalchemyin1272,1287,1289,and1323(Newman1989,439).In treated withsuspicionbytheendofthirteenth century. TheDominicans issued repositories ofvaluablenewknowledgeandusefulpracticalartswerealreadybeing be saidthattextstranslatedintoLatininthetwelfthcenturyandinitiallyseenas due totheindustriousprogrammeoftranslationArabictexts,althoughitshould The MiddleAgesreceivedawealthofoccultmaterialfromantiquity,particularlyso onwards. become the most popular magical manuscript in Europe from the eighteenth century Key ofSolomon,whichfewcopiessurvivefromthemiddleages,butwasto swords, knives,lancesandsoforthfoundinworksliketheClaviculaSalomonis– inclusion ofanimpressivearrayinstrumentamagica:therings,mirrors,wands, magic circleswithpentagrams,astrologicalcharacters,demonicseals,andthe more visible, moreover, inthese goetic rites, is the useofsuffumigations,creation of lists ofdemons,anddetailedinstructionsforconjuringspirits(Kieckhefer1997).Far conjurations ofSatan,detailsonhowtoobtainknowledgefromamagicalmirror, be saidoverperiodsofweeks.Thesearefollowedbypagesadjurationsand providing manypagesofprayersrepletewithdivinenamesandwordspower,to fifteenth-century strict regimenofabstinence,prayer,confession,communication,andpenance.The power oftheChristianoperator,whohasritualisticallypreparedhimselfthrougha operations, looselybaseduponexorcism,conjureandbinddemonsthroughthe liturgy, withmultipleinvocationsofGod,theVirginMary,saintsandangels.The 2013, 123).Aswithangelicmagic,necromanticritualsarealsoderivedfromthe British dedicatedmanuscriptcollectionsdatefromthefifteenthcentury(Klaassen Fortunately, agreatdealofmanuscriptmaterialsurvives inthearchives,manyof The earlyhistoryofnecromancy,however,isfragmentaryandtheearliestsurviving Liber Consecrationum,forexample,advisesfastingandprayer, – PeterJ.Forshaw CONCLUSION 44 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:53 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315745916, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315745916.ch2 ——2000, Albumasar 1997,TheAbbreviationoftheIntroductiontoAstrology,editedandtranslatedby Al-Kindi 1974,Deradiis,editedbyd’Alverny,M-Th&Hudry,F,Archivesd’histoiredoctrinale ——2006, Boudet, J-P2005,‘Astrology,’inMedievalScience,Technology,andMedicine:An Blume, D2000,RegentendesHimmels.AstrologischeBilderinMittelalterundRenaissance, Berthelot, M(ed.)1967,LaChimieaumoyenâge,3vols.,Paris1893;repr.OttoXeller, Barton, TS1994,PowerandKnowledge:Astrology,Physiognomics,Medicineunderthe Bakhouche, B,Fauquier,F&Pérez-Jean,B(trans.)2003,Picatrix:Untraitédemagiemédiéval, Boudet, J-P, Caiozzo, A, & Weill-Parot, N (eds) 2011, ——1998 b,‘Plunderingthe Egyptian Treasure:JohntheMonk’sBookofVisionsandits Fanger, C1998a,‘MedievalRitualMagic:Whatitisand WhyWeNeedtoKnowMore Eamon, W1994,ScienceandtheSecretsofNature:BooksinMedieval andEarly Dominguez Rodriguez,A2007,Astrologíay DeVun, L2009,Prophecy,Alchemy,andtheEndofTime:JohnRupescissa intheLate Crisciani, C&ParaviciniBagliani,A(eds)2003,Alchimiae ——2002, IlPapael’alchimia:FeliceV,GuglielmoFabril’elixir , Viella,Rome. 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