Klaipeda University Lithuanian Institute of History

KLAIPEDA UNIVERSITY LITHUANIAN INSTITUTE OF HISTORY

Paulius BUGYS

ARMOUR IN THE GRAND DUCHY OF LITHUANIA IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 13 TH – 1ST HALF OF THE 16 TH CENTURY (ON THE BASIS ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATA)

Summary of doctoral dissertation Humanities, History (05 H)

Vilnius 2014 Doctoral dissertation was prepared at Klaipeda University in 2009- 2013

Scientific supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gintautas ZABIELA (Klaipeda University, humanities, history – 05 H)

The defence of dissertation takes place at the Council of Historical Studies of Klaipeda University and the Lithuanian Institute of History

Chairman: Prof. Dr. Albinas KUNCEVI ČIUS (Vilnius University, humanities, history – 05 H)

Members: Dr. Ernestas VASILIAUSKAS (Klaipeda University, humanities, history – 05 H) Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mindaugas BERTAŠIUS (Kaunas University of Technology, humanities, history – 05 H) Dr. Vykintas VAITKEVI ČIUS (Klaipeda University, humanities, history – 05 H) Prof. Dr. Rimvydas PETRAUSKAS (Vilnius University, humanities, history – 05 H)

Opponents: Prof. Dr. Valdas RAKUTIS (The General Jonas Žemaitis Military Academy of Lithuania, humanities, history – 05) Dr. Gintautas RACKEVI ČIUS (UAB „Kult ūros vertybi ų paieška, humanities, history – 05 H)

The defence of dissertation will be held at the public session of the Council of Historical Studies at 13 p.m. on November 7, 2014, in the Aula Hall (Block 6) of the University of Klaipeda. Address: Herkaus Manto Street 84, 92294, Klaip ėda, Lithuania.

The Summary of doctoral dissertation is sent out on October , 2014.

The dissertation is publicly available at the libraries of the University of Klaipeda and the Lithuanian Institute of History KLAIP ĖDOS UNIVERSITETAS LIETUVOS ISTORIJOS INSTITUTAS

Paulius BUGYS

ŠARVUOT Ė LIETUVOS DIDŽIOJOJE KUNIGAIKŠTYST ĖJE XIII A. ANTROJE PUS ĖJE-XVI A. VIDURYJE (ARCHEOLOGIJOS DUOMENIMIS)

Daktaro disertacijos santrauka Humanitariniai mokslai, istorija (05 H)

Vilnius 2014 Disertacija rengta 2009-2013 metais Klaip ėdos Universitete

Mokslinis vadovas: doc. dr. Gintautas ZABIELA (Klaip ėdos Universitetas, humanitariniai mokslai, istorija – 05 H)

Disertacija ginama Klaip ėdos universiteto Istorijos mokslo krypties taryboje:

Pirmininkas: prof. dr. Albinas KUNCEVI ČIUS (Vilniaus universitetas, humanitariniai mokslai, istorija – 05 H)

Nariai: dr. Ernestas VASILIAUSKAS (Klaip ėdos universitetas, humanitariniai mokslai, istorija – 05 H) doc. dr. Mindaugas BERTAŠIUS (Kauno technologijos universitetas, humanitariniai mokslai, istorija – 05 H) dr. Vykintas VAITKEVI ČIUS (Klaip ėdos Universitetas, humanitariniai mokslai, istorija – 05 H) prof. Dr. Rimvydas PETRAUSKAS (Vilniaus Universitetas, humanitariniai mokslai – 05 H)

Oponentai: prof. dr. Valdas RAKUTIS (Generolo Jono Žemai čio Lietuvos karo akademija, humanitariniai mokslai, istorija – 05 H) dr. Gintautas RACKEVI ČIUS (UAB „Kult ūros vertybi ų paieška“, humanitariniai mokslai, istorija – 05 H)

Disertacija bus ginama viešame Istorijos mokslo krypties tarybos pos ėdyje 2014 m. lapkri čio 7 d. 13 val. Klaip ėdos universiteto Auloje (VI korpusas). Adresas: Herkaus Manto g. 84, 92294 Klaip ėda, Lietuva.

Disertacijos santrauka išsiuntin ėta 2014 m. spalio d.

Disertacij ą galima perži ūrėti Klaip ėdos universiteto ir Lietuvos istorijos instituto bibliotekose.

ENGLISH SUMMARY OF DOCTORAL DISSERTATION

Introduction Wars and conflicts have played a key role in the history of the world and individual nations throughout the ages. From the outset of its history, mankind incessantly got involved in various conflicts which often would evolve into wars entailing heavy casualties. Winning conflicts, major or smaller, required not only certain warfare skills but also increasingly elaborate weapons and protective means against them. Armour developed alongside with the changes and advances in warfare tactics and weaponry. The developments of military strategy, tactics, weaponry and armour are, in particular, closely interconnected. With emergence of the schools of research of weapons and armour at the end of the 19 th century in Western Europe, military history has been increasingly aug- mented with the sources reflecting material culture of warfare. A comprehensive analysis of weapons and armour has facilitated solving numerous questions of both warfare and general history which, up to date, have remained without answer. The mid-13 th century represents a significant time in the history of Lithuania. At that period, a single ruler consolidates his power; the state is established and subsequently recognized in Europe by his efforts. Furthermore, Lithuania becomes a kingdom with a full-fledged king, Mindaugas. The origins of the statehood were undoubtedly related to the emergence of military power of a single ruler and the formation of professional troops. Regretfully, the Kingdom of Lithuania had a very short- lived existence. With the assassination of Mindaugas a brief period of expansion of a new official state religion in Lithuania came to an end. Christianity did not take deeper roots neither among commoners nor even among the ruling elite during a short period. Archaeological evidence does not show any changes neither in burial grounds nor in cultural layers of settlements. Survival of the pagan funeral rites in the medieval state has a tremendous advantage for archaeology which helps to better reveal patterns of material culture and social stratification of the

1 population. A rapid abandonment of the old customs is not typical for the new Christian communities, which had been converted by efforts of the state. Thus, even after 1387, the practice of cremation of the dead being in decline, the deceased would be buried with rich grave goods for a rather long time yet. Such situation bodes well to expect location of graves that belonged to military community which might contain parts and fragments of armour. Unfortunately, the practice of cremation of the dead diminishes such probability. Turning back to the specifics of the period, it must be noted that from ca. the mid-13 th century the chain mail, prevalent up to that point in time, was being successively replaced (or supplemented) by the coat of plates. Therefore the probability of locating archeologically the coat of plates is enhanced from around the mid-13 th century. Relevance of the work : The state of Lithuania successfully enter- ing the third decade of its independence regained, there is a natural interest among general public in the past of its country which is inconceivable without the centuries-long struggles and wars. The emergence of the Lithuanian state is closely linked to the onset of a large military threat as well as the rise of its own military aristocracy, military expeditions and marauding inroads into the adjacent lands. It is impossible to envisage the whole ensuing history of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania without incessant fighting with hostile neighbours or expansionist campaigns of the rulers which were, as often as not, attended by larger or smaller battles. When exploring the warfare history of the medieval Lithuania, a rather dim image of a Lithuanian warrior often comes to mind. From sufficiently ample and detailed accounts of the Lithuanian historians one may form a perfect picture of what kind of enemy he had to face and the long-distance expeditions he had to endure. Amid intensive fighting with crusaders in the western part of the country and, at the same time, pursuing eastward expansion, the rulers of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and, in particular, their fighters had to cope with a paramount task. Keeping in mind the fact that on the western border military expeditions and incursions to Lithuania were usually prepared by some of the best European warriors, and in the East there was an enemy using a totally different combat tactics, which had been tested in successful battles, the image of a warrior of the Grand

2 Duchy of Lithuania poses a great deal of questions. Therefore, leaving the research of the patterns of military strategy and tactics to military historians, it is infinitely interesting to have a look at some items of material culture that show the quality and daily life of soldiers and, specifically, at the armour, one of the elements of military equipment. With the passage of time, the medieval warfare of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania is becom- ing more than an object of research involving historians and archaeologists only. Soldiers of the Guard of Honour Company of the Lithuanian Army proudly don the medieval weapons and armour. The today armed forces of Lithuania, being descendants and successors to the military tradi- tions of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, demonstrate the garments and arms, reminiscent of the pinnacle of Lithuanian might (the late 14 th century), to foreign visitors and the Lithuanian public. These trends induce searches for ever more archaeological finds and related scientific records reflecting the armour of the army of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. A great deal of armour artefacts have been collected over the last 25 years owing to the Lithuanian archaeologists. The larger part of the data has been acquired while intensively excavating the territory of the Lower Castle in Vilnius, and finds at the new archaeological sites had a lot of surprises in store. One may not discard the probability that a part of unidentified elements of the armour lies in the repositories of Lithuanian museums amidst a wealth of archaeological materials, which ought to be examined additionally. The available archaeological data must be re- corded, catalogued and studied systematically. Notwithstanding that but a few archaeological finds associated to the armour have been discovered over the same period in the remaining area of the Grand Duchy of Lithua- nia (including Belarus and Ukraine), the evidence from these countries should be newly reviewed in the light of the armour elements found in the present territory of Lithuania. The analysis of the armour elements provides a new insight into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania warfare history of the period in question, supplies additional information on the then prevalent trends in the armour development and the state of warfare. Examination of these materials gives an overall view of the army of Grand Duchy of Lithuania through

3 the prism of military techniques and affords the possibility of its comprehensive comparison in the general European context. Objective of this study is a systematic analysis of the armour of the mid-13 th – early 16 th century Grand Duchy of Lithuania on the ground of archaeological data with reference to the sources of allied sciences. No attempt has been made to collect the entire corpus of written and iconographic sources; they rather have been employed to supplement archaeological data. Having estimated archaeological data in the broad European context, attempt has been made to produce the study of the armour of the warriors of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and its development which heretofore has been poorly researched. Elements or fragments of the armour from the former territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania constitute the subject of this research , which will help to identify the types of the armour and their evolution in the state over the period under consideration. For the purpose of this research the chronologically evolving territory of the state has been selected which changed to a large extent from the mid-13 th century to the end of the period in question, and the territories, from time to time incorporated into the ever expanding state, might have as well influenced the older lands in differing ways. For example, the influence of the southern lands of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania on the north-western areas (or conversely) must have had substantially enhanced by the early 16 th century in comparison to the late 13 th century when they were not part of the same state. The tasks of the study are formulated as follows: • To identify elements of the armour in the materials of archaeology of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with the use of archaeological sources. • To provide description of the armour of the period from the mid-13 th century to the mid-16 th century, and to identify the main types of the armour and estimate their significance in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with reference to archaeological data and sources of allied sciences. • Based on analogies from adjacent countries and data of interdisciplinary research, to identify routes

4 of entry of certain types of the armour to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, to estimate distribution and differences of the armour elements in separate regions of the state. • To define chronological evolution of the armour in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and reveal its relation to the processes of change in weaponry, which were taking place in the rest of Europe. • To normalize the Lithuanian terminology related to the armour.

Methodology: analytical, synthetic, typological, systemic and comparative approaches and methods have been used in the research. The chronological framework has been chosen on the basis of the general stages of development of the European armour. The mid-13 th century is regarded as one of the time points in the evolution of the armour. The so-called golden age of chain mail terminates at this point in time. As a result of certain changes in battlefield tactics and weapons, armour began to be additionally reinforced with metal plates. The phase of prevalence of the coat of plates and the nascence of the plate armour be- gins which fairly well concurs with the establishment of the kingdom of Lithuania. The chronological framework of the research ends at the onset of still another stage in the development of the armour, the middle of the 16 th century. With small firearms gaining ground on the battlefield, fun- damental changes take place in the armour when the armour gradually loses its aesthetic qualities and certain elements as a result of additional reinforcement of the plate. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania entered a criti- cal turning period in its history in the mid-16 th century, more precisely, in the third quarter of the 16 th century. Failures in the wars with Muscovy forced Lithuanian nobility to seek allies in Poland. Following a series of negotiations, the union and alliance of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland came into existence, which resulted in the Polish- Lithuanian Commonwealth, a new huge power in Europe.

5 The novelty of the research: The interest in the evolution and development of the weaponry and armour of the Grand Duchy of Lithuanian has been on increase lately, the equipment of the medieval warriors has been recreated for the purpose of scientific research as well as the state representational purposes, while this sphere of the military history has received little attention thus far. This study explores elements of the armour, representing archaeological data, which as yet have not been treated in a comprehensive manner, by supplementing it with the iconographic and written records. The period under consideration, as mentioned above, encompasses an essential phase in the development of the European armour which, up to now, has been practically ignored in the works by the Lithuanian archaeologists. We have very scarce knowledge of the development of the armour in our state both at the point of its emergence and in its heyday. Neither data of historical records nor scanty iconographic material can give any accurate answers to this question, thereby drowning researchers in the quagmire of implausible interpretations. A more detailed investigation of the elements of the armour found in the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania would facilitate acquisition of a larger amount of data on the armour used in the mentioned territory and would introduce plentiful unpublished finds into scientific use. This would yield data for the use of both Lithuanian and foreign scholars who possess a very fragmentary and, in many cases, surprisingly erratic information about the armour used in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The questions on the armament of the soldiers of the erstwhile great power, which have not received answers as of today, is a matter of importance not only for a narrow community of scholars but also for the public at large, which latterly has shown a considerable interest in its history. Analysis of the work of the Lithuanian military historians shows the lack of interdisciplinary cooperation within the academic community. With the passage of time, the sources of visual arts related to military theme are increasingly supplementing the studies by military historians. Regretfully, the same cannot be said of archaeological data, which is mostly used as a mere supplement to illustrative material. In order to get a more comprehensive picture of the warfare history of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, in addition to the studies dedicated to isolated domains of re-

6 search, the cooperation between researchers in different fields is indispen- sable. The key propositions to be defended in the study: 1. The evolution of the armour in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania is closely linked with that in the neighbour- ing countries and reflects military, trade and cultural relations and contacts. 2. The change of the armour types and their amount in terms of quantity was determined by the enemy armour, weapons, battlefield tactics, and the character of armament in the incorporated lands. 3. The armour in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was adequately sophisticated and developing. 4. Anachronisms in the armour in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were the result of idiosyncratic developments in the tactics, not an evidence of backwardness. 5. Uniqueness of certain designs or subtypes of the armour may point to the local tradition of armour manu- facturing. 6. The diverse range of the armour in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was rather unique in the European context – representing combination of the warfare tradi- tions of the Western and Eastern Europe. 7. As of the mid-13 th century, the armour prevalent in the northeast Europe had gained a dominant position, while starting with the late 16 th century the influence of the Western and Central Europe progressively in- creased.

Helmets The evolution of helmets is a very complex process. Until now, discussions are going on concerning the problems of development of certain types; neither there is consensus over distribution or even the possibil-

7 ity of an actual existence. Divergent interpretation of an iconographic item and typologization leads towards the dating problems and, moreover, feeds speculations over the possibilities of influence of certain regions. Meagre archaeological, historical and graphic data has afforded to us a rather dim notion of the helmets used in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The oldest and closest to the period discussed in this study in terms of chronology are the conical helmets from the R ūsiai and Pakalniškiai burial grounds dating from the 12 th - early 13th centuries. The traditional view holds that they, due to their conical shape, might have been made by local artisans on the pattern of helmets from Ruthenia. The theories of the Scandinavian and general European origins of these helmets is not ex- cluded. Yet another conical helmet, dating back to the 13 th century, has been found in Grodno. The helmet is of Slavic origin according to the researchers who analyzed it. Even so, though this find, through analogies, bears resemblance to the protective head gears used in Ruthenia, we may not exclude the possibility that it could have been part of the equipment of a Lithuanian warrior acquired during successful expeditions to the Slavic lands. The Baltic or Lithuanian warriors wearing conical helmets can be found in the sources of the graphic and applied arts. The earliest one is a chess piece from Cracow. Another highly curious iconographic source is found in the so-called Apocalypse of the Teutonic Order . It is highly probable that the heathens in this illumination might have been depicted as the main adversaries of the Teutonic Order – Lithuanian warriors wearing ex- actly cone-shaped helmets. On the basis of dating of these iconographic sources, it may be argued that the dating of the conical helmets known from archaeology can be extended to the first half of the 14 th century, or at least to the beginning of that century. The more so, archaeological data hardly contradict such claim. The Slonim helmet is another subject of continuing discussions. Unfortunately, dissenting opinions of scholars as well as the circumstances of finding the helmet have not as yet produced any degree of convincing information. Judging by the design of this find, it could be incontrovertibly identified as a Baltic helmet from Lithuania, Latvia or East Prussia (now Kaliningrad Region). Yet, the nose guard may attest to the western origins of the helmet. Bearing in mind the plentiful iconographic materials depict-

8 ing numerous warriors from the Western Europe wearing conical helmets, such version of the evolution of the Lithuanian helmets becomes quite plausible, too. Warriors of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania could encounter with the bascinet as early as during the initial stages of its development. Military and trading contacts with the western and northern neighbours must have made an undisputed influence on the development of the armour of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The cervelliere stored at the Vytautas the Great War Museum in Kaunas might reflect one of the initial stages of evolution of such helmets in the direction of the bascinet. Its shape, as such, is no longer archaic in comparison to the first specimens of this type and makes possible its dating to the late 13 th century – the third quarter of the 14 th century. It is rather difficult to determine to what degree the combat helmets of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were influenced by the eastern or western neighbours, their influence, however, is beyond doubt. It is obvious that, with the expansion of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, an increasing number of elements of the armour used in the eastern Slav territories entered the military circulation. This influence was slowly penetrating the lands of the Teutonic Order as well. Teutonic knights must have known properties of the armament not only of the local old Prussians or their principal enemies, Lithuanians, but also of the warriors of the East Slavic principalities. In the opinion of the Polish researcher, A. Nowakowski, specific types, partially resembling East Slavic helmets of convex cone shape and the bascinet prevalent in a major part of Europe, were known in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania since the second half of the 14 th century. Artefacts from Melno and Thorn are excellent specimens of such helmets. Helmets of this type are also reflected on the sphragistic items of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The earliest typical bascinet is represented on the head of a horseman on the seal of Skirgaila dated 1382. The helmet visor is raised and, because of its elongated shape, resembles the hounskull , or Hundsgugel , type bas- cinets. The same type of helmet is portrayed on the seal of the duke of Ker- nav ė, Vygantas, brother of Jogaila. The changing trends in the development of the bascinet are also reflected in the sphragistics of the Grand Duchy of

9 Lithuania. A good example is the seal of Skirgaila, dated 1394, showing the latest hounskull shape. One of the more popular types of the European helmet, the kettle hat , can be seen on the 1379 dated seal of K ęstutis. An analogous helmet is shown on the 1379 dated seal of his son, Vytautas. After the sallet, a new type of the helmet, had evolved in the mid- 15 th century, it was present in the former territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania as well. Two items of such type have been found on the river Vichra, Belarus. Sallets, which had been replaced gradually by the armet from the early 16 th century, can be seen in the iconographic records, heral- dic or even numismatic sources of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania dating from as late as the first half of the 16 th century.

The Chain Mail The armour made of iron rings originated later than certain types of the coats of plates. In Europe, the chain mail, as a distinct type or an acces- sory element of the armour, was of paramount importance in warfare at around 1500 1, therefore, this type of mail can be justly considered as one of the chief and popular type of the armour both in Europe and Asia. Flexibil- ity and elasticity of this type of armour made possible its wider use – as an additional protection or, for instance, as an aventail or camail of the armour. It can be said that such qualities, approximating those of fabric, per- mitted the development and advancement of other protective equipment as well. This tendency is observed not only during the early stage of the evolution of the mail armour but even in the 15 th century, when the Gothic plate armour evolved. Western European literature, as a rule, does not give much attention to the issues of the chainmail and a common term is used to denote this type of armour. Generally, only two subtypes of the chain mail are distinguished which are classified according to the pattern of mesh – riveted and butted links. In the sources of the Late Middle Ages, however, a

1 Taking into consideration the warfare history of Asia and some Eastern European countries, the role of the chainmail can be extended for at least 300 years.

10 greater variety of terminology applied to this type of armour is found which may testify to a larger range of the chain mail. The chainmail in the territory of Lithuanian must have been known before the time of emergence of the Lithuanian state. Remains of the chainmail dating back to the 12 th -13 th centuries have been found while exploring burial grounds of that period. The most impressive fragment of this type of armour is known from the archaeological excavations of the Obeliai burial mound. It is assumed that the fragment represents an extant section of a breast piece and almost an intact sleeve of a chain mail. At other burial sites, such as Pakalniškiai, Tolišiai, Ruseiniai, Paalksniai, much smaller fragments have been found or merely individual rings, as at Mažieji Žin ėnai, Bajorai and Bedugn ė. Fragments of the chainmail have also been found in the mounds of Bubiai and Kaukai, as well as in Kernav ė. Remnants of this type of armour, most probably dating to a later period, are known from the castles of Kaunas and Vilnius. Fragments of the chain mail or single pieces of rings have been also found in other countries, Belarus and Ukraine, which once were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

The Lamellar Armour The origin and evolution of the lamellar armour is extremely complex, just as its geographical coverage and typology. Due to different sizes and shapes of plates, or lamellae, and the quantity of holes, the problem of full typology remains unresolved today. Since geographical spread of the lamellar reaches Korea and partly Japan in the east, and Sweden in the northeast, and even Spain in the southwest, and it has manifold subtypes and variants, when some of them, being removed from one another thou- sands of kilometres, had not only retained a similar pattern of plate fastening, but sometimes are nearly identical. The chronological framework of this type of armour is enormous – the 1 st century AD through the 15 th century (according to the archaeological records of Europe and Asia). The lamellar armour could have entered the Baltic areas, likewise the Scandina- vian lands, from the East Slavic lands where it had been probably brought by the nomadic tribes of the steppes.

11 Archaeological data show that this type of armour was known in Lithuania in the 13 th , or even the 12 th , century. The earliest extant parts of the lamellar armour are found at burial sites, cremation graves. It will be noted that plates of this type of armour are found in the burial grounds of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania only in the former areas inhabited by the Baltic tribes. The first plates of lamellar to be found among burial artefacts of the Balts have been discovered in the Sarajai burial ground situated in the Curonian territory. Archaeological investigations of the last decade have brought good news of finds of this type plates. Though such plates have been discovered at two burial sites only, still this is a good result giv- ing hope of finding fragments of this type of armour in other burials as well. There were occurrences of incidental finds of plates of the lamellar armour during the exploration of the Paalksniai burial mound carried out in 1999. Another burial site was found containing fragments of the lamellar armour during exploratory archaeological investigations conducted in 2012. Exploring a hill in the village of Bedugn ė in the vicinity of Senieji Trakai with the use of metal detectors and investigating two test pits of the 13 th - 14 th century cremation graves yielded fragments of lamellar plates amidst the grave goods. Components of the armour, as a witness to military conflicts or existence of troops, are found at the key administrative or fortified sites. Fragments of the component parts of the lamellar armour have been also found in Kernav ė during investigation of the Mindaugo sosto mound and the ancient settlement, Lizdeikos kalnas , in the upper town of Kernav ė. These plates, stratigraphically and according to immediately adjacent finds, are dated to the late 13 th – early 14 th century. The territory of Vilnius castles boasts the largest amount of the elements of the lamellar and other types of armour where the first such plate was found during the archaeological excavations of the Upper Castle conducted in the interwar years (1940). Later, a greater amount of the armour plates was found during the investigation of the area adjacent to the southeast corner of the Palace of the Grand Dukes in Vilnius conducted in 1997. Unique designs of the lamellar plates were discovered in 2002. A fragment of an unfamiliar shape, resembling an unnaturally narrow and oblong edge plate, indeed had to be of a slightly different shape at some point in time. A little time later, when a similar, but almost intact, plate was

12 found nearby, it became apparent what kind of shape the first plate could have had. This is a plate in the shape of letter “L”, which has not been known to the scholarship before. The most impressive amount (fragments of 80 individual plates and 11 plates stuck together in two and more rows) of plates of the lamellar armour was found in 2006. It was the first time that such amount of the armour plates was found in Lithuania. These armour plates lay scattered on a single site, many of them were found stuck together as a result of corrosion. Some units of coupled plates make it possible to identify the initial arrangement of an armour suit. The lamellar elements in this excavation site are fairly manifold and several variants of the lamellar can be identified. Plates of one type are decorated, another – without decoration, still the third type has a rougher and simpler design, without any decoration. Analysis of the latter enables to identify at least four decorative patterns – three types of convex hemisphere ornament, and embossed in a row of points. Lamellar plates with a similar decorative pattern have also been found in Paalksniai. Among the lamellar plates found at the site of the Lower Castle of Vilnius two plates featuring a special metal composition should be mentioned. One of them, an ornamented outer piece, stands out by reason of having traces of gold coating. The other, an ordinary narrow lamellar plate, is completely made of copper alloy. The iconographic records of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from the period under consideration are very scant. This huge gap is, in some measure, filled in with the sphragistics data. The only source, where it is possible to identify outlines of the lamellar armour, is the seal of K ęstutis dating to 1379. Amid the iconographic items related to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania dating from the mid-16 th century seals of the dukes of Masovia, Siemowit II and Traidenis, are available. The lamellar armour was also known to the knights of the Teutonic Order in the 14 th century. According to the Polish researcher, Andrzej Nowakowski, this type of armour could have found the way into Prussia from the East Slavic lands through media- tion of the Balts.

13 Plates of the Scale Armour One of the types of the coat of plates, the scale armour, consists of small plates patterned on the principle of scales (otherwise – tiles) and riveted and/or sewn onto a backing of cloth or leather. Usually scales have a rectangular shape or a roofing tile shape, with a slightly rounded lower part. The ‘tile’ method of plate attachment had not changed until the termination of the use of the scale armour, the early 18 th century, when the corazzina used by the hussars of the Commonwealth began to lose its popularity. Scale armours were manufactured from iron or leather cured in a boiling wax whereby it would attain special hardiness and rigidity. Plates of the scale armour, as known in the iconography of the Western Europe and archaeological data from the East Slavic lands, in the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania have been found only on the site of Vilnius castles. Certainly, bearing in mind quite a large area of its spread, to claim that such type of armour was used by the troops of Vilnius castles only would be illogical. This is the second most common type of coat of plates in terms of occurrence in this territory. When conducting investigation on the smaller fence of the interior section of the northern defensive wall of the Lower Castle of Vilnius, 34 plates of the scale armour were found in addition to individual fragments. 28 of these making up a single set were discovered on the northwest side. Majority of the plates from the set were well-preserved and intact. Such quantity of elements of the scale armour making up a single suit of armour is found extremely rarely. Within the areal range of such type of armour a bigger quantity of plates has been found only at the so-called Dovmont Town in Pskov (120 items) and in Novgorod, at the estate of posadnik Ont- sifor Lukich (47 items). It should be noted that almost all the plates have an embossed bend in the centre. Only three narrower ones and two items of similar width with a clasp have a one-sided bend. It also should be added that majority of the plates have a slightly marked trapezoid shape when the top and bottom parts diverge from each other by three or four millimetres. The plates from this set can be grouped according to the number of rivets. The pattern of rivets on some of the plates is similar, while on others they are patterned differently and, at the first glance, chaotically. Such different patterns of riveting of the plates make it rather complicated to reconstruct

14 the armour. Because not all the plates of scale armour have been found, it is quite difficult to, at least, trace the pattern of their layout. It is unclear why the numbers of rivets on the plates are different, and it is unknown which plates had to close the edges and which ones to cover the centre or top of the armour. The most curious plates in this set are the two with the attached buckles each having two rivets. The curving of plates, as mentioned above, is one-sided which is quite logical if we assume that they could have been used to clasp the armour, and not as accessories for fastening (i.e. bases). Decorated and gilded plates, having no analogue among the elements of the scale armour, stand out from among the plates found on the site of Vilnius castles. The occurrence of such plates testifies to the fact that this type of armour was also used by noblemen and very wealthy persons. These two plates, found on the site of Vilnius castles and having no analogues, could be considered to have made part of a luxury suit of armour. A fine floral ornament embossed on these plates, together with other plates, must have made a highly ornate design of gold-plated armour. The plates of scale armour found on the site of Vilnius castles can be grouped into three subtypes according to the number of – each having 1, 2 or 3 rivets, into three variants according to the arrangement of rivets – “A”, “L” and “L” shaped. We can also note that some of the plates are totally flat, while others have a rounded edge. The plates with buckles and the decorated gilded plates stand out in the general context. The armour plates with a different number and pattern of rivets could have been attached to the same suit of armour. Therefore, a different number and pattern of rivets does not necessarily imply the existence of the same variety of armour subtypes.

The Brigandine The main distinctive feature of the brigandine marking it apart from other types of the coat of plates is that the plates were riveted inside the supporting cloth garment. Rivet heads on this type of armour therefore are usually more protruding on the convex part. Plates of the brigandine were commonly overlapping in a similar manner as those on the armour types described above. In most cases, the brigandine plates overlapped each other on two edges (the bottom and one of the lateral edges). The projecting rivet heads on the outside of the fabric (or leather) were sometimes deco-

15 rated – plated with gold or silver, embossed with ornaments, alloy decora- tions added, etc. In the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania brigandine plates have been found in the castles of Vilnius, Drutsk, Grodno and at the site of Zeliona Lipa. Archaeological finds of plates of this type of armour are rather rare not only in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, but also in the Western Europe, i.e. where their occurrence ought to be relatively plentiful. The brigandine plates are usually found during archaeological investigations of castle sites. Normally, finds include individual items, though there are fortunate occurrences when a fragment of armour, whether larger or smaller, is discovered. The quantity of the brigandine plates found on the site of Vilnius castle is the least in comparison to the elements of other types of the coat of plates. This fact, however, must not necessarily imply that this type of armour was the least popular among the garrison of the castle. The very design of the brigandine suggests a lesser likelihood of an accidental loss of a plate. The plates of this type of armour represent the smallest amount among the elements of the three types of the coat of plates found in the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, though, the inci- dence is only slightly less than that of the pieces of the scale armour. The brigandine plates found in the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania can be roughly divided into two groups in chronological terms. The plates in the first group date from the second half of the 14 th century – early 15 th century, those in the second group – the late 15 th – early 16 th century. The group including earlier plates is much more abundant and might have been associated with military conflicts or large-scale troop movements, and more intensive activities of the castle garrisons. The plates belonging to the second group have been found on the site of the Lower Castle in Vilnius only, and cannot be related either to any larger warfare activities or to the increase in the garrison population. In all probability, they represent fragments of armour lost by the guard of the castle or the townspeople.

The Plate Armour Elements of the plate armour found during archaeological investigation in the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania are very few. The reason must be not only the high cost of this type of armour, but also the

16 size and integration of its individual elements. This work does not purport to analyze plate armours displayed in museum exhibitions and stored in repositories. When gathering information on the plate armours from various museums, it has been noticed that majority of the artefacts stored there are in fact replicas from the 19 th century, the so-called historicism. Such suits of the plate armour were commonly produced for interior decoration at the commission of local landlords. Part of the exhibits, unfortunately, has lost their history of origin completely. Thus, in view of such situation, analysis of the armour stored in museums (excluding those from archaeological investigations) was abandoned. Furthermore, the suits of authentic armour stored in museums, as often as not, date back to the second half of the 16 th century – 17 th century (even as late as the 18 th century), thereby falling out of the chronological framework defined for this research. Fragments of the plate armour dating back to the earliest period which have been found in the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania represent parts of fingers of gauntlets from the site of the Lower Castle of Vilnius. These plates of copper alloy can be attributed to the elements of gauntlets 2 known from the mid-14 th to the second quarter of the 15 th century. One of its pieces must have covered a finger knuckle, the other a thumb tip. The fact that these plates were made of copper alloy shows that the gauntlets had to belong to a higher-rank warrior of a higher rank. In the Western Europe, elements of the plate armour decorated with non-ferrous metal were regarded as an item of luxury. A left-hand gauntlet of this type decorated with non-ferrous metal is kept in the collection of the armoury of Churburg Castle (Switzerland). It is dated to ca. 1390 and is considered a work of the Milanese craftsmen. Soldiers, wearing manifestly evident Hourglass gauntlets, can be seen in the sphragistics sources from the late 14 th century, namely on the seal of Jogaila, dated 1382, and the seal of Vy- gantas, duke of Kernav ė, dated 1388.

2 The type of gauntlet widely used in that period, known as Hourglass gauntlet because of its shape. A specimen of this type of gauntlets, now a reference sample, is depicted on the tombstone of the Prince of Wales Edward, the Black Prince, situated in the crypt of Canterbury Cathedral.

17 A breastplate of the shape typical of the armours manufactured in southern Germany in the 16 th century was found at the same site in 1993. A projection in the shape of a low ridge had appeared on the middle part of the breastplate from 1530 in Germany which, starting with 1540, evolved into two distinct forms. The first line of its development reminded that of Italian – the breastplate began to acquire a prolonged, but flatter, appear- ance, and its profile represents a curved line extending from the neck to the waist, sometimes with a small angle protruding at the bottom of a cuirass. The other line of development, being purely German, had the ridge embossed at a slightly lower level and still more projecting forwards, until it reached its maximum measurements in the 1550s or 1560s. Consequently, the origin of this breastplate can be considered to be German (based on the style reminiscent of works of the Gratz craftsmen) manufactured at around 1550-1560. A couter was found during investigations carried on in the same year. This couter features fairly graceful forms and a line of plaiting on the fringes. These features show that couters of a similar design should be dated to the end of the 16 th century at the latest. Almost analogous couters can be seen together with Italian made armours dated to ca. 1550- 1560. Couters of such type were manufactured in rather large quantities and fitted for plainer as well as more expensive suits of armour. Scarcity of elements of the plate armour in archaeology is far from suggesting a low popularity of such type of armour in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Quite logically, though, we may claim that it did not represent the principal type of armour in the state because in the larger part of East Europe this type had not attained such prevalence as it did in the West. Still, warriors of higher ranks, let alone members of aristocracy, had to prise highly and use the plate armour (or its parts). The use of this type of armour is corroborated by iconographic and written sources. The earliest portrayal of the plate armour in sphragistic sources of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania appeared on the seals of Jogaila, Kaributas, and Skirgaila dating back to 1382. The horsemen, pictured on these seals, are clad in the white armour popular at that time in Western Europe. Researchers of the weaponry obtain the bulk of information about them from extant copies stored in well-known collections as well as from plentiful iconographic and even

18 written records. Although the Grand Duchy of Lithuania did not bequeath such wealth of iconographic materials, nevertheless, the available records suggest that the plate armour was known and used there. Regretfully, it is almost impossible to determine its quantitative relationship to the other types of armour. Only one thing is beyond doubt that as early as in the second half of the 14 th century a certain part of the then elite of the state must have worn this type of armour. Eventually, the plate armour gained an increasing popularity and in the late 15 th – early 16 th century it might have been used by the far greater number of warriors.

The Splint Armour The splint armour is a type of armour designed for limb protection consisting of strips of metal (splints), which are attached to a solid leather backing or leather straps. A splint, as an element of the armour, is known not only from the period in consideration, and as an element for protection of limbs had been in use since the Early Middle Ages. Based on the data of iconography, the splint armour was reintroduced from the third quarter of the 14 th century. As a matter of fact, bearing in mind the simplicity of the design of splints, there exists a high probability that the use of such armour had not ceased and successfully persisted up to the mentioned point in time. The emergence of the later splint armour might be associated with the use of cuir bouilli 3 armour, which can often be seen on the images of the medieval visual arts. Unfortunately, merely three elements of such armour have survived physically and have been identified – two vambraces found in Tartu and a decorated cuir bouilli rerebrace held in the British Museum. The area of spread of the splint armour was fairly vast. This is additionally corroborated by extant specimens of the visual arts in the present Germany, England, Holland, and Italy. Fragments of a leather item, which, after being glued together, at- tracted attention for the extraordinary shape, have been found on the inside of the defensive wall of the Lower Castle of Vilnius on top of the peat

3 Leather boiled in water (sometimes, with addition of wax or oil) which, after boiling, is easily moulded and, when dried, though being somewhat brittle acquires enough hardiness suitable even for production of armour.

19 layer, which was formed in the second half of the 14 th century. Besides, the item differed from other leather pieces found in the layer by its pressed contours and rows of holes. The leather thickness was also unusual – approx. 3 mm. Based on these properties it has been identified as a rerebrace, part of the splint armour. Taking into account the available interdisciplinary data, the splint limb protections, based on their design elements, can be reasonably divided into three variants. The first variant would include iron splints attached to leather backing, without rows of decorative rivets. A second variant is characterized by splints riveted in the rows of prominent rivets. The last variant, a third one, features rows of rivets in between splints. The latter variant might encompass the element of the splint armour found on the site of the Lower Castle of Vilnius. The earliest samples of the analogous limb protections can be seen on the tombstone of the already mentioned emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, Günther von Schwarzburg, dated to the year 1349. It is likely that similar items are depicted on the tombstones of Lorenzo Acciaiuoli, deceased in 1350, and Johann von Brandscheit. The dating of the item as well as of the layer where this find was discovered perfectly concurs with the period of use of this type of armour in Europe. This splint rerebrace is a highly valuable and rare find, however, even after it has supplemented a meagre collection of the European splint armour, it is still very difficult to speak of any possible proportion of prevalence of this type of armour in the medieval Europe. Notwithstanding that, it is safe to claim that the splint armour was indeed known to the warriors of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and even might have been in use.

Conclusions 1. We have attained identification of 7 different main types of the armour, dating to the period extending from mid-13 th to mid-17 th centuries, in the Lithuanian archaeological data falling into 4 groups, namely: the chain mail, the coat of plates (the lamellar armour, the brigandine and the scale armour), the plate armour (the white armour and the later types from the mid-16 th century), and the cuir bouilli /boiled leather/ armour.

20 2. The greatest amount of armour elements is represented by the lamellar plates, whilst the finds of the scale armour and brigandine elements, as well as the chain mail fragments, are much scarcer. Only 5 elements of the plate armour have been discovered archeologically of which only 3 items can be dated to the late 14 th – early 15 th century, while the remaining two items reflect the late stage of the evolution of the plate armour and are dated to the mid-16 th century. One element of the splint armour, the rerebrace from boiled leather dating back to the late 14 th century, can be attributed to extremely rare and unique finds. 3. Due to commonly high corrosion rate of link locks of the chain mail, it is very difficult to determine the precise type of the chain mail. It appears that most of the links can be classified as the later variant (referred to as pancir in the Russian literature). 4. Plates of the lamellar armour make up the bulk of finds, of which the earliest have been discovered at three burial grounds. A huge amount and manifold variants have been found at the site of the Lower Castle of Vilnius. Much fewer quantities have been found in other localities – the castles of Kernav ė, Smolensk, Grodno, and Drutsk. It would appear that this type of the coat of plates had been known to the Balts already before the time of emergence of the Lithua- nian state, and used in conjunction with the chain mail or in the capac- ity of a complementary protection. 5. The growth in popularity of the lamellar armour is associated with the gradually increasing expansion of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into the lands of East Slavs. This type of armour must have been worn by both Lithuanian and Slavic warriors, as well as those of the Teutonic Order. Plentiful and manifold lamellar plates can be divided into subtypes, groups and variants. The plates found in the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania are similar, and, sometimes, they have direct analogues with the armour plates discovered in the East Slavic lands. The research of the lamellar plates in the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania has shown that: a. Lamellar plates can be divided into 3 subtypes – lateral, central and “ordinary”.

21 b. Lateral plates are divided into 4 variants according to shape – having a rounded edge, L shaped, rectangular, and narrow rectangular. Four variants are also distinguished according to decoration – “heart” shaped, triangular, convex hemisphere and crescent shaped. c. Only two items of central plates, which are identical, have been found – octagonal with an ornament of eight convex crescents. d. “Ordinary” elements of this type of armour can be classified into 5 variants according to shape – decorated broad with an indented edge, decorated me- dium-width with an indented edge, narrow and narrow with an indented edge, and rectangular. Two variants are distinguished according decoration – convex 8 small and 8 big crescents. e. The use of the lamellar armour in the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania can be dated back to the 13 th century – early 15 th century. f. Uniqueness of some armour plates suggests existence of the lamellar variants of the local manufacture.

6. The scale armour was not widely used in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Their finds occur only on the site of Vilnius castles, however, judging by the amount and variety of plates of this type of armour, we may claim that the warriors of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were familiar with this type of armour. Discussions still are going on concerning the origins, routes of spread and areas of use of this type of armour. The plates with a single or two rivets, which have been known before, owing to the materials obtained from the castles of Vilnius have been supplemented with the plates containing two different 3 rivet patterns, elements with buckles, and completely unique decorated and gilded plates.

22 7. Notwithstanding regional scarcity of the elements of scale armour in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the analysis of the plates of scale armour found on the site of the Lower Castle of Vilnius suggests that: a. It was one of the prevailing types of the armour in the territory of Vilnius castles in the late 14 th – early 15 th centuries. An ample quantity of this armour can be associated with the frequent sieges of Vilnius castles and, as a result, enhanced troops of the garrison at that time. b. Since some of the plates of this type armour have direct analogues in the East Slavic lands, it can be assumed that this type of armour appeared at Vilnius castles as a result of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania expansion to the Russian lands. c. It is hard to ascertain whether the version of the scale armour with three rivets was adopted directly from the eastern regions of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, or had followed in the steps of foreign troops and remained unchanged, however, it is probable that it acquired peculiar qualities in Lithuania thanks to local craftsmen. d. It seems that certain subtypes of the scale armour found in Vilnius were also known in the Western Europe, as the existence of this type westwards from Lithuania is corroborated by abundant iconographic records. e. The existence of decorated and gilded plates shows that this type of armour was known not only to the rank and file, but could have been worn by nobles and wealthy warriors as well.

8. The quantity of the brigandine plates found in the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania is rather large bearing in mind the likelihood of an accidental loss of such plates, and the area of preva-

23 lence of this type suggests the possibility that this type of armour might have been more popular that the scale armour. Majority of the brigandine plates date back to the late14th – early 15 th centuries. This trend is undoubtedly linked to the tumultuous period in the history of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and an increasing westernization of the troops. 9. The use of the plate armour in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania is reflected least of all in terms of archaeology. Such situation is further related to the fact that elements of this type of armour are found very occasionally during archaeological investigations. And yet, sources of the related sciences evidence that this type of armour must have been favoured by the military elite of the state, while certain elements of the plate armour were increasingly in use by rank-and-file warriors starting with the late 14 th century. 10. The diversity and evolution of the types of armour went hand-in-hand with incessant military conflicts, changes in the battlefield tactics and augmentation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania at the expense of the lands of the East Slavs. A successfully expanding state is hardly thinkable without a sophisticated army meeting the standards of the time, which gains combat experience in heavy fighting with enemy and by adopting the most efficient armour and weaponry in use at that time. The lamellar armour, introduced to the weaponry in the mid-13 th – mid-14 th century, reflects the main direction of a military and political expansion of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania – the East Slavic lands. The rise in diversity of the types of weaponry and armour, seen from the middle/last quarter of the 14 th century, is associated with the political situation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, developments of the weaponry in the Western Europe, and the westernization of the armour used in the state. 11. The distribution of the armour elements in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania is highly uneven. The reason for this is a difference in the levels of investigation of the former territory of the state, methodology of archaeological investigations, and different priorities of the nations in respect of the history of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In addition to these factors, the regional differences are amplified by the religious differences in the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania – the

24 heathen faith, which had persisted in the areas of ethnical Lithuanians, gave rise to different funerary customs and rites in the Baltic and Slavic areas of the state. Therefore, burial sites of the 13 th -14 th centuries of the Baltic area of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania yield parts or fragments of the armour alongside other funerary items. The largest amount of the armour elements has been found at the sites of castles with the capital of the state, the Vilnius Castle Complex, standing out sharply. 12. The distribution of the types of armour elements cannot suggest rates of popularity of one or another type in precise percent- age terms for the reason of uneven count of plates in a suit of armours, specific conditions of manufacture resulting in varying probability of an accidental loss, and by reason of dissimilar circumstances of their discovery.

25 DAKTARO DISERTACIJOS REZIUM Ė LIETUVI Ų KALBA

Karai ir konfliktai per visus amžius vaidino vien ą iš pagrindini ų vaidmen ų pasaulio ir atskir ų taut ų istorijoje. Nuo pat savo istorijos pradžios žmonija nuolat įsiveldavo į įvairiausius konfliktus, kurie dažnai išsivystydavo į nemažai auk ų pareikalavusius karus. Didesniems ar mažesniems konfliktams laim ėti reik ėjo ne tik tam tikr ų karybos įgūdži ų, bet ir vis tobulesni ų ginkl ų bei apsaugos priemoni ų nuo j ų. Kintant ir tobul ėjant karo taktikai ir ginkluotei, taip pat vystydavosi ir šarvai. Taigi ginkluot ė ir šarvai yra labai glaudžiai tarpusavyje susij ę su karo strategija ir taktika. Vakar ų Europoje, jau XIX a. pabaigoje užgimus ginkl ų ir šarv ų tyrimo mokykloms, karo istorija vis labiau papildoma materiali ąją karo kult ūrą atsispindin čiais šaltiniais. Išsami ginkl ų ir šarvuot ės analiz ė pad ėjo atsakyti į daugel į iki tol neaiški ų ne tik karybos, bet ir bendrosios istorijos klausim ų. XIII a. vidurys – svarbus momentas Lietuvos istorijoje. Šiuo laikotarpiu įsitvirtina vienas valdovas, kurio pastangomis susikuria ir Europoje pripaž įstama valstyb ė. Be to, Lietuva tampa karalyste, turin čia visavert į karali ų – Mindaug ą. Valstyb ės k ūrimasis neabejotinai susij ęs su vieno valdovo karin ės galios iškilimu, profesionalios kariaunos formavimusi. Deja, Lietuvos Karalyst ė egzistavo labai trumpai. Su Mindaugo nužudymu baig ėsi ir trumpas naujos oficialios valstybin ės religijos vystymosi laikotarpis Lietuvoje. Krikš čionyb ė per kelerius metus nesp ėjo įleisti gilesni ų šakn ų ne tik tarp paprast ų žmoni ų, bet netgi valdančiajame elite. Archeologiniai duomenys joki ų poky čių nei laidojimo paminkluose, nei gyvenvie čių kult ūriniuose sluoksniuose nerodo. Pagonišk ų laidojimo papro čių išlikimas viduramži ų valstyb ėje yra labai naudingas dalykas archeologijai, padedantis geriau atskleisti gyventoj ų materialin ės kult ūros bruožus ir socialin į susiskirstym ą. Naujoms krikš čioni ų bendruomen ėms, atverstoms į religij ą valstyb ės pastangomis, neb ūdingas greitas sen ųjų papro čių atsisakymas. Taigi, netgi nuo 1387 m., jau nykstant mirusi ųjų deginimo tradicijai, dar ilgok ą laik ą mirusysis į amžin ąjį gyvenim ą išlydimas su nekukliomis įkap ėmis. Tokia situacija leidžia tik ėtis užfiksuoti ir karinei bendruomenei priklausiusių asmen ų kapus, kuriuose galb ūt pasitaikyt ų ir šarv ų detali ų ar fragment ų. Deja,

26 mirusi ųjų deginimo paprotys ši ą tikimyb ę šiek tiek sumažina. Gr įžtant prie laikotarpio specifikos, b ūtina pabr ėžti, kad maždaug nuo XIII a. vidurio iki tol vyravusius grandinius šarvus palaipsniui ima keisti (arba papildyti) plokšteliniai šarvai. Tod ėl nuo maždaug XIII a. vidurio did ėja ir tikimyb ė plokštelinius šarvus užfiksuoti archeologiškai. Darbo aktualumas . Lietuvos valstybei s ėkmingai žengiant atsikurtos nepriklausomyb ės tre čiuoju dešimtme čiu, nat ūraliai kyla visuomen ės dom ėjimasis savo šalies praeitimi, kuri ne įsivaizduojama be ilgus amžius trukusi ų kov ų ar kar ų. Lietuvos valstyb ės k ūrimasis glaudžiai susij ęs su didel ės karin ės gr ėsm ės atsiradimu, taip pat savos karin ės diduomen ės iškilimu, kariniais ir pl ėšikiškais žygiais į kaimyn ų žemes. Visa tolimesn ė LDK istorija ne įsivaizduojama be nuolatini ų kov ų su priešiškai nusiteikusiais kaimynais ar be valdov ų ekspansini ų žygi ų, kuriuos neretai vainikuodavo didesni ar mažesni m ūšiai. Besidomint viduramži ų Lietuvos karybos istorija dažnai prieš akis iškyla ir gan ėtinai miglotas lietuvio kario vaizdinys. Iš gana išsami ų Lietuvos istorik ų darb ų galime puikiai susidaryti vaizd ą, su kokiu priešu jam reik ėjo susidurti ir kokius tolimus žygius įveikti. Intensyviai kovojant su kryžiuo čiais šalies vakaruose bei tęsiant ekspansij ą į rytus, LDK valdovams, o ypa č j ų kariams, teko nelengvas uždavinys. Įvertinus tai, kad vakaruose į Lietuv ą dažnai karinius žygius ir reidus vykd ė vieni geriausi ų Europos kari ų, o rytuose teko susidurti su visai kitoki ą, s ėkmingais žygiais patikrint ą kovos taktik ą naudojan čiu priešu, LDK kario vaizdinys kelia daug klausim ų. Tod ėl, palikus karo istorikams tirti valstyb ės karin ės strategijos ir taktikos bruožus, be galo įdomu pažvelgti į kai kuriuos kario kokyb ę ir kasdienyb ę išreiškian čius materialiosios kult ūros dalykus, o b ūtent, vien ą iš karin ės ekipuot ės element ų – šarvus. LDK viduramži ų karyba laikui b ėgant tampa ne tik istorik ų ar archeolog ų dom ėjimosi objektu. Viduramži ų ginklais bei šarvais spindi ir Lietuvos kariuomen ės Garb ės sargybos kuopos kariai. Ši ų dien ų Lietuvos kariuomen ė, b ūdama LDK karybos tradicij ų t ęsėja, užsienio sve čiams bei Lietuvos visuomenei demonstruoja Lietuvos galyb ės laikus (XIV a. pabaig ą) menan čią kari ų aprang ą bei ginkluot ę. Šios tendencijos skatina ieškoti vis daugiau LDK kariaunos šarvuot ę atspindin čių archeologini ų radini ų bei gretutini ų moksl ų šaltini ų.

27 Per paskutiniuosius 25 metus Lietuvos archeolog ų d ėka sukauptas nemažas šarvuot ės artefakt ų kiekis. Daugiausia duomen ų gauta intensyviai tiriant Vilniaus Žemutin ės pilies teritorij ą. Naujieji archeologijos objekt ų radiniai nustebino. Negalima atmesti tikimyb ės, kad dalis neatpažint ų šarvuot ės detali ų guli Lietuvos muziej ų fonduose tarp gausyb ės archeologin ės medžiagos, kuri ą der ėtų papildomai patikrinti. Turimus archeologinius duomenis b ūtina suregistruoti, sudaryti katalog ą ir sistemiškai ištirti. Nors likusioje LDK teritorijoje (Baltarusijoje ir Ukrainoje) nauj ų, su šarvuote siejam ų, archeologini ų radini ų per t ą pat į laikotarp į aptikta nedaug, ši ų šali ų medžiag ą der ėtų peržvelgti iš naujo, siejant su dabartin ės Lietuvos teritorijoje aptiktos šarvuot ės elementais. Šarvuot ės element ų analiz ė leidžia naujai pažvelgti į aptariamojo laikotarpio LDK karybos istorij ą, suteikia papildomos informacijos apie tuo metu vyravusias šarvuot ės tendencijas, karybos išsivystymo lyg į. Nagrin ėjant ši ą medžiag ą įmanoma per karo technologij ų prizm ę susidaryti bendr ą LDK kariuomenes vaizd ą bei visavertiškai įvertinti bendrame Europiniame kontekste. Šio darbo tikslas – sistemin ė XIII a. vidurio–XVI a. pirmosios pus ės LDK šarvuot ės analiz ė remiantis archeologijos duomenimis, pasitelkiant gretutini ų moksl ų šaltinius. Nesiekiama surinkti vis ų rašytini ų ar ikonografijos šaltini ų, o tik jais naudotis papildant archeologijos duomenis. Įvertinus archeologin ę medžiag ą bendrame Europos kontekste siekiama pateikti menkai tyrin ėtos LDK kari ų šarvuot ės ir jos raidos studij ą. Šarv ų detal ės ar j ų fragmentai iš tuometin ės LDK teritorijos ir yra šio darbo tyrimo objektas , pad ėsiantis nustatyti nagrin ėjamojo laikotarpio šarvuot ės tipus ir j ų kitim ą valstyb ėje. Tyrimui pasirinkta chronologiškai kintanti valstyb ės teritorija, kuri nuo XIII a. vidurio iki analizuojamo laikotarpio pabaigos gerokai kei čiasi, o teritorijos, kuriam laikui tampan čios vis did ėjan čios valstyb ės dalimis, gali jau kiek kitaip veikti ir sen ąsias žemes. Pavyzdžiui, XVI a. pradžios pietini ų LDK žemi ų įtaka šiaur ės vakarin ėms (arba atvirkš čiai) tur ėjo gerokai padid ėti nei XIII a. pabaigoje, kai jos nebuvo vienos valstyb ės dalimis. Darbe keliami uždaviniai : • Išskirti šarvuot ės elementus LDK archeologijos medžiagoje.

28 • Remiantis archeologiniais duomenimis ir gretutini ų moksl ų šaltiniais apib ūdinti XIII a. vidurio–XVI a. vidurio šarvuot ę, nustatyti pagrindinius šarvuot ės tipus ir įvertinti jų reikšm ę LDK. • Remiantis kaimynini ų šali ų analogijomis bei tarpdisciplinini ų tyrim ų duomenimis nustatyti tam tikr ų šarv ų tip ų kelius į LDK, įvertinti šarv ų detali ų paplitim ą bei skirtumus atskiruose valstyb ės regionuose. • Atskleisti chronologin ę šarvuot ės kait ą LDK ir jos ryš į su Europoje vykusiais ginkluot ės kitimo procesais. • Sutvarkyti lietuviškus šarvuot ės terminius.

Metodika: darbe taikomi analiz ės, sintez ės, tipologinis, sisteminis ir lyginamasis tyrimo metodai. Darbo chronologija pasirinkta vadovaujantis bendraisiais Europos šarvuot ės raidos etapais. XIII a. vidurys yra laikomas vienu iš šarvuot ės kitimo tašk ų. Šiuo laikotarpiu baigiasi vadinamasis grandini ų šarv ų „aukso amžius“. D ėl tam tikr ų m ūšio taktikos ir ginkluot ės poky čių šarvai papildomai stiprinami metalin ėmis plokštel ėmis. Prasideda plokštelini ų šarv ų įsigal ėjimo ir plokštini ų šarv ų užgimimo etapas, kuris gražiai sutampa ir su Lietuvos karalyst ės susik ūrimu. Darbo chronologin ės ribos baigiasi ties dar viena šarv ų raidos etapo pradžia – XVI a. viduriu. Mūši ų laukuose vis labiau įsigalint šaunamajam parakiniam ginklui, pastebimi ir kardinal ūs poky čiai šarvuot ėje, kai d ėl papildomo plokšt ės storinimo šarvai palaipsniui praranda estetin į vaizd ą ir kai kuriuos elementus. XVI a. viduryje, o tiksliau – tre čiajame ketvirtyje, LDK išgyvena labai svarb ų l ūžio period ą. Nes ėkm ės karuose su Maskva vert ė Lietuvos bajorus ieškoti s ąjunginink ų Lenkijoje. Ir po ne kart ą vykusi ų deryb ų Liubline 1569 m. buvo sudaryta LDK ir Lenkijos unija, kurios rezultatas – nauja didžiul ė valstyb ė Europoje, t. y. Abiej ų Taut ų Respublika.

29 Darbo naujumas . LDK ginkl ų ir šarv ų raidos istorija pastaruoju metu vis labiau domimasi, viduramži ų kari ų ginkluot ė atkuriama ne tik mokslo, bet ir valstyb ės reprezentaciniais tikslais, o ši karo istorijos sfera ištirta vis dar labai menkai. Darbe nagrin ėjama iki šiol išsamiau netyrin ėta archeologin ė medžiaga – šarv ų detal ės, papildant j ą ikonografijos ir rašytiniais šaltiniais. Nagrin ėjamasis laikotarpis, kaip jau min ėta, apima labai svarb ų Europos šarv ų vystymosi etap ą, kuris iki šiol beveik netyrin ėtas Lietuvos archeolog ų darbuose. Beveik nieko nežinoma apie šarv ų raid ą m ūsų valstyb ėje tiek jos k ūrimosi, tiek ir klest ėjimo metu. Istorini ų šaltini ų duomenys ir skurdi ikonografin ė medžiaga nesuteikia aiškesnio atsakymo į š į klausim ą, tik paskandina tyr ėjus keis čiausi ų interpretacij ų li ūne. Išsamesnis LDK teritorijoje aptikt ų šarv ų detali ų tyrimas pad ėtų gauti daugiau duomen ų apie čia naudotus šarvus, į mokslin ę apyvart ą įtraukt ų gausyb ę nepublikuot ų radini ų. Vis ą tai suteikt ų duomen ų ne tik Lietuvos, bet ir užsienio šali ų tyr ėjams, kuri ų informacija apie LDK kari ų šarvus yra labai fragmentiška ir kartais itin klaidinga. Iki šiol neatsakyti klausimai apie kadaise didžiul ės valstyb ės kari ų ginkluotę yra svarb ūs ne tik nedideliam mokslinink ų ratui, bet ir pla čiajai visuomenei, kurios dom ėjimasis savo istorija pastaruoju metu yra gana nemažas. Analizuojant Lietuvos karo istorik ų darbus pastebimas tarpdisciplininio tyr ėjų bendradarbiavimo tr ūkumas. Laikui b ėgant su karyba susij ę vaizduojamosios dail ės šaltiniai vis dažniau papildo karo istorik ų darbus. Deja, to paties beveik negalima pasakyti apie archeologin ę medžiag ą, kuri dažniausiai naudojama tik kaip iliustracijas papildanti medžiaga. Norint susidaryti išsamesn į LDK karybos istorijos vaizd ą b ūtini ne tik pavieniams tyrimams skirti mokslo darbai, bet ir įvairi ų sri čių tyr ėjų tarpusavio bendravimas. Pagrindiniai darbe ginami teiginiai : 1. LDK šarvuot ės raida glaudžiai susijusi su kaimynin ėmis šalimis ir atspindi karinius, prekybinius bei kult ūrinius tarpusavio ryšius. 2. Šarv ų tip ų kait ą bei gausum ą s ąlygojo prieš ų šarvai, ginkluot ė, m ūšio taktika bei prijungt ų žemi ų ginkluot ės ypatumai.

30 3. LDK šarvuot ė buvo gan ėtinai moderni, besikei čianti. 4. Anachronizmai LDK šarvuot ėje susij ę ne su atsilikimu, o rodo savitas taktikos tendencijas. 5. Kai kuri ų šarv ų variant ų ar potipi ų unikalumas gali rodyti ir vietin ę šarv ų gamybos tradicij ą. 6. LDK šarvuot ės įvairov ė buvo gan ėtinai unikali Europos kontekste – suderinanti Vakar ų ir Ryt ų Europos karybos tradicijas. 7. Nuo XIII a. vidurio LDK teritorijoje dominuoja Šiaur ės/Ryt ų Europai b ūdinga šarvuot ė, o nuo XIV a. pabaigos Vakar ų ir Centrin ės Europos įtaka palaipsniui stipr ėja.

Archeologin ė medžiaga iš LDK teritorijos suteikia nemažai duomen ų apie kari ų šarvuot ę. Vaizdas dar šiek tiek paaišk ėja papildžius juos kai kuriais gretutini ų moksl ų šaltiniais. Naudojantis šiais duomenimis gana aiškiai atsekama ir LDK naudot ų šalm ų raida. Panašu, kad XIII a. viduryje–XIV a. pradžioje vis dar naudoti pagrindiniai senieji šalm ų tipai, turintys analog ų kaimynin ėse šalyse ar tolimesniuose Europos regionuose, – kūginiai ir kupoliniai šalmai. Tokia situacija jokiu b ūdu nereiškia valstyb ės atsilikimo, o atspindi regionin į savitum ą. Šiuo laikotarpiu šie šalm ų tipai žinomi beveik visoje Europoje, tik kai kur ima įgauti savotišk ų bruož ų. Ne išimtis ir LDK, kur galime pasteb ėti susid ūrusi ų Vakar ų ir Ryt ų kult ūrų bruož ų čia naudojam ų šalm ų gamybos technologij ų vystymosi tendencijose. Su XIV a. pradžia Vakar ų Europoje išsiskiria naujas šalmo tipas, užgim ęs dar XIII a. viduryje ir atneš ęs nauj ą šalm ų raidos etap ą vis sunk ėjan čiai kavalerijai. Tai – seveljeras, su kurio LDK kariai neabejotinai buvo susipažin ę ir galb ūt patys naudojo. Šis šalmo tipas XIV a. ketvirtajame dešimtmetyje „pagimdo“ vien ą iš populiariausi ų viduramži ų riterijos šalm ų – bacinetus, kurie nuo XIV a. paskutiniojo ketvir čio naudojami ir LDK. Tai, kad bacinetus naudojo ne tik karinis elitas, rodo ir vietinio tipo išsivystymas. XV a. viduryje Europoje populiar ėjantys salado tipo šalmai susilaukia populiarumo ir LDK, kur

31 jie naudojami beveik 90 met ų, kol juos vis dažniau ima keisti modernesni armetai. Analizuojant ši ų šalm ų raid ą valstyb ėje nereikia pamiršti, kad vakarietiškos tendencijos daugiausia plito vakarin ėje LDK dalyje. Įvertinant valstyb ės dyd į ir didžiul ę slav ų gyvenam ą teritorij ą rytuose, negalima šios situacijos pritaikyti visai kunigaikštystei. Be to, vakarietišk ų šalm ų populiarumo šiame regione nerodo nei archeologiniai, nei kiti gretutini ų moksl ų šaltiniai. XIII a. viduryje Europoje įvyk ęs savotiškas perversmas šarvuot ėje neaplenk ė ir Lietuvos. Šalia iki tol naudot ų grandini ų šarv ų detali ų atsiranda ir plokštelini ų šarv ų detali ų – lameliaro plokšteli ų. Itin įdomi situacija atsiskleidžia b ūtent to laikotarpio laidojimo paminkluose. Nors kai kurie radiniai d ėl nepakankamai aiškios radimviet ės aplinkos (atsitiktiniai ar iš suardyt ų kap ų) nebegali suteikti visavert ės informacijos, vis tiek galime pasteb ėti kai kuri ų tendencij ų. Panašu, kad laidojimo paminkluose aptiktos pavien ės grandel ės ar lameliaro plokštel ės yra labiau simbolinio pob ūdžio ir rodo, kad to meto visuomen ės dvasinio gyvenimo suvokimas nebuvo primityvus ir leido kai k ą interpretuoti simboli ų kalba. Grandini ų šarv ų detali ų ir lameliaro plokšteli ų kapuose datavimas kol kas negali b ūti labai tikslus – kai kuriais atvejais apima kelet ą šimtme čių. Deja, griežtai pasitik ėti užsienio tyr ėjų pasi ūlyta XIII a. vidurio riba, susijusia su plokštelinių šarv ų įsigal ėjimo pradžia, negalime. Žinoma, reik ėtų atkreipti d ėmes į į regiono tradicijas, kaimynini ų šali ų šarvuot ės tendencijas ir tik tada bandyti suprasti sav ąsias. Nors nuo XIII a. vidurio didesni ar mažesni poky čiai tikrai pastebimi, negalime šios ribos aklai taikyti visiems šarv ų tipams ar variantams, kurie gal ėjo atsirasti gerokai anks čiau. Ypa č sud ėtingas yra lameliaro paplitimo klausimas. Balt ų ir ryt ų slav ų žem ėse aptinkam ų surišam ų šarv ų plokšteli ų atsiradimas ir raida iki šiol kelia daugyb ę problem ų, kurios gali b ūti išspr ęstos tik ši ų šarv ų tyr ėjų bendromis pastangomis ir turint nauj ų archeologini ų radini ų. Daugiausia informacijos apie LDK kari ų šarvus dav ė VŽP tyrimai. Šioje teritorijoje aptikti visi LDK žinomi plokštelini ų šarv ų tipai, tarp kuri ų pasitaiko ir labai ret ų ar iki tol visiškai nežinom ų potipi ų ar variant ų. Be abejo, toks didžiulis šarv ų detali ų margumynas sąlygotas įsp ūdingo kult ūrinio sluoksnio, kuris susiformavo per gana

32 ilg ą ir intensyv ų pilies ir Valdov ų r ūmų egzistavimo laikotarp į. Gan ėtinai aiški šios teritorijos stratigrafija leidžia gana tiksliai datuoti šarv ų detales ir padeda atsakyti į probleminius kai kuri ų šarv ų tip ų vystymosi klausimus. Gausus lameliaro plokšteli ų kiekis ir įvairov ė rodo ilgesn į, nei įprasta manyti, šio tipo egzistavimo laikotarp į Europoje. Tvirtai galime teigti, kad lameliaro šarvai gana pla čiai buvo naudojami ir XIV a. antroje pus ėje ar netgi XV a. pradžioje. Lameliaras, Lietuvos teritorijoje naudotas nuo XIII a., neabejotinai čia pateko kar ų ir kontakt ų su ryt ų slavais metu. Laikui bėgant šis plokštelini ų šarv ų tipas vis populiar ėjo net tik rytin ėse LDK teritorijose, bet ir etnin ėje Lietuvoje. Šis procesas vis spart ėjo LDK riboms ple čiantis į rytus ar pietry čius. VŽP teritorijos radiniai liudija ir tam tikr ą lameliaro savotiškum ą, kuris gali b ūti susij ęs su vietini ų meistr ų patobulinimu, o tai rodyt ų, kad šis šarv ų tipas buvo gaminamas vietoje, pasitelkus šarvininkus iš ryt ų ar net vietinius meistrus. Žvynini ų šarv ų plokštel ės, žinomos Vakar ų Europos ikonografijoje ir ryt ų slav ų žemi ų archeologin ėje medžiagoje, LDK teritorijoje aptiktos tik Vilniaus pilyse. Be abejo, įvertinus gana didel į jų paplitimo areal ą, teigti, kad tokio tipo šarvai LDK buvo naudojami tik Vilniaus pili ų įgulos, b ūtų nelogiška. Šioje teritorijoje tai antras pagal gausum ą plokštelini ų šarv ų tipas. Kaip ir lameliaro atveju, turime vien ą atskirai aptikt ą šio tipo plokšteli ų komplekt ą, ta čiau ir pavieni ų plokšteli ų skai čius taip pat yra nemažas. Išskirtini analogij ų neturintys žvynini ų šarv ų plokšteli ų variantai. LDK archeologijos duomenys suteikia informacijos ir apie Vakar ų Europai b ūdingus šarv ų tipus – brigantinas, įtvarinius bei plokštinius šarvus. Skirstant vakarietiškus artefaktus pagal tipus, j ų skai čius pasirod ė es ąs gana nevienodas. Kiek didesniu kiekiu išsiskiria brigantin ų plokštel ės, kuri ų keliasdešimt rasta Vilniaus pili ų teritorijoje, taip pat keletas Gardino Pilyje ir Zeliona Lipa vietov ėje. Vertinant šiuos proporcij ų skirtumus reik ėtų atkreipti d ėmes į į kelet ą svarbi ų dalyk ų. Pirmiausia, archeologiškai aptikt ų brigantin ų plokšteli ų ir plokštini ų šarv ų skirtumas pastebimas ir Vakar ų Europoje, nors ir ne toks ryškus. Gausesnis brigantin ų detali ų skai čius gali b ūti paaiškinamas ne tik didesniu ši ų šarv ų populiarumu tam tikru

33 laikotarpiu, bet ir didesne j ų praradimo galimybe. Paprastai plokštiniai šarvai sudaryti iš gerokai didesni ų geležies detali ų ir, atsitiktinai pametus vien ą iš j ų, tikimyb ė j ą atrasti ir dar kart ą panaudoti yra gerokai didesn ė. Be to, plokštiniai šarvai, palyginti su brigantinomis, buvo brangesni, o tai dar kart ą paaiškina mažesn į j ų detali ų skai čių archeologijoje. Dauguma Europos muziejuose ar ginklin ėse saugom ų plokštini ų šarv ų ar j ų element ų n ėra archeologini ų tyrim ų medžiaga. XVI a. antrojoje pus ėje at ėjus šarv ų kolekcionavimo madai, amžiams bėgant buvo išsaugota nemažai graži ų plokštini ų šarv ų ar net brigantin ų. Taigi, iki šiol labai sunku nustatyti plokštini ų ir plokštelini ų šarv ų naudojimo proporcijas Europoje, nors d ėl dažnesnio brigantin ų (ar kit ų coat of plates ) naudojimo abejoni ų n ėra. Didesn ė problema – įtvariniai šarvai, nes be keleto archeologini ų artefakt ų, daugiau informacijos apie j ų panaudojim ą ir populiarum ą suteikia tik ikonografija, kurios taip pat n ėra daug. Taigi, radinys iš VŽP teritorijos yra be galo vertingas. Deja, net ir jam papuošus skurdži ą Europos įtvarini ų šarv ų kolekcij ą, kalb ėti apie šio tipo proporcijas viduramži ų Europoje yra gana sud ėtinga. Nepaisant to, galima dr ąsiai teigti, kad įtvariniai šarvai LDK kariams buvo tikrai žinomi ir galb ūt pa čių j ų naudojami. Įvertin ę LDK teritorijoje aptikt ą bendr ą vakarietišk ų šarv ų detali ų skai čių, galime teigti, kad mados tendencijos iš Vakar ų Europos čia nebuvo retos „viešnios“. Tai ryškiai matosi analizuojant nemaž ą brigantin ų plokšteli ų skai čių ir įvairov ę VŽP teritorijoje bei įvertinant daug mažesn ę j ų detali ų atsitiktinio praradimo tikimyb ę (palyginti su kitais plokšteliniais šarvais). Analizuodami archeologiškai aptiktas šarv ų detales LDK teritorijoje, galime pasteb ėti kai kurias tendencijas, b ūdingas tam tikram laikotarpiui. XIII a. antrojoje pus ėje–XIV a. viduryje dominuoja grandini ų šarv ų ir lameliaro fragmentai. Atsižvelg ę į regiono ypatumus, kaimynini ų valstybi ų medžiag ą bei šarvuot ės raid ą šiuo laikotarpiu, matome, kad LDK kari ų naudojama apsauga nenusileido kaimynini ų šali ų kariaunos šarvuotei, o kai kuriais atvejais (Livonijos balt ų ir fin ų atžvilgiu) juos netgi lenk ė. Nors jau, kaip min ėta, XIII a. vidurys yra sąlygin ė grandini ų šarv ų „aukso amžiaus“ pabaiga, žiedmaršk ė dar mažiausiai 200 met ų gana intensyviai naudojama kaip antraeiliai, o kai

34 kada ir kaip pagrindiniai šarvai. Lameliaras iki pat XV a. d ėvimas rytini ų slav ų. Jis Teuton ų ordino kari ų buvo naudojamas ir laikomas gana vertingais šarvais. Šio šarv ų tipo ilgalaikis populiarumas LDK liudija ir apie kiek kitoki ą taktik ą nei Vakar ų Europoje. Lameliaras, nors ir puikiai gali b ūti naudojamas p ėstinink ų, užgim ė stepi ų klajokli ų teritorijoje ir geriausiai savo savybes atskleid ė b ūtent kaip lengvosios kavalerijos šarvai. Vakar ų Europoje, laipsniškai įsigalint sunkiajai riteriškajai kavalerijai, kei čiasi ir šarvai, kurie laikui b ėgant gaminami iš vis didesni ų plokš čių, kad apsaugot ų raitel į nuo galing ų priešininko kavalerijos sm ūgi ų. Lietuvoje tokie Eurazijos stepi ų šarvai d ėl kiek skirtingos taktikos (kuri neabejotinai tur ėjo skirtis nuo įprastos klajokliškos), s ąlygotos vietinio landšafto ir kit ų gamtini ų s ąlyg ų, sėkmingai prigijo ir s ėkmingai buvo naudojami gana ilg ą laikotarp į. Be abejo, negalima atmesti ir prielaidos, kad vakarietiški šarv ų elementai (pavyzdžiui, protobrigantinos) buvo žinomi ir čia. Deja, duomen ų apie tai n ėra. Kit ą vertus, rimtesni poky čiai Vakar ų Europos šarvuot ėje pastebimi tik nuo XIV a. antrojo dešimtme čio, kai vaizduojamosios dail ės šaltiniuose vis dažniau galime pamatyti plokštinių šarv ų element ų, beje, dažniausiai pasitaikan čių ant kilming ųjų asmen ų antkapini ų plokš čių, tod ėl šis faktas nerodo masinio ši ų šarv ų element ų naudojimo tarp kari ų. Įvertindami analogišk ų šaltini ų LDK nebuvim ą, vis d ėlto negalime visiškai atmesti šio laikotarpio vakarietišk ų šarvuot ės tradicij ų egzistavimo galimyb ės ir tarp m ūsų kilming ųjų. Nuo XIV a. antrosios pus ės archeologin ė medžiaga liudija apie šarv ų tip ų gaus ėjim ą LDK teritorijoje. Naudojamos brigantinos ir žvyniniai šarvai. Brigantin ų atsiradim ą LDK neabejotinai galima sieti su tiesioginiais prekybiniais ir kariniais kontaktais su Vakar ų ar Centrine Europa ir jos kariais. Iš šiuo laikotarpiu datuojam ų brigantin ų plokšteli ų LDK teritorijoje ryškiai išsiskiria rastosios Vilniaus pili ų teritorijoje. Svarbu atkreipti d ėmes į ne tiek į brigantin ų plokšteli ų gaus ą, kiek į j ų įvairov ę, liudijan čią gana intensyv ų šio šarv ų tipo naudojim ą tarp įgulos. Dažnai manoma, kad LDK d ėvėti vakarietiško tipo šarvus daugiau buvo link ę kilmingesni ar turtingesni kariai. Vis

35 dėlto archeologin ėje medžiagoje prabangesni ų brigantin ų plokšteli ų4 nepastebima. Tai rodo, kad šiuo atveju šis šarv ų tipas buvo naudojamas ir paprast ų kari ų. Deja, kol kas sunku pasakyti, kokios įgulos. Šalia brigantin ų plokšteli ų aptinkamos žvynini ų šarv ų detal ės. Ši ų šarv ų kelias į LDK taip pat gana neaiškus. Nors šio tipo plokštelės archeologiškai užfiksuotos tik ryt ų slav ų žem ėse, ikonografiniai duomenys rodo, kad jie buvo neprastai žinomi ir visoje Europoje. Ankstyviausios analogiškos archeologiškai aptiktos žvynin ės plokštel ės žinomos iš Pskovo ir tradiciškai datuojamos XIII a. pabaiga–XIV a. pirm ąja puse. Vis d ėlto d ėl ši ų plokšteli ų datavimo tarp pa čių rus ų tyr ėjų iki šiol nerimsta gin čai ir vis daugiau linkstama prie kiek vėlyvesn ės j ų atsiradimo datos. Ankstyv ųjų plokštini ų šarv ų naudojimas LDK archeologijoje atsispindi mažiausiai. Tokia situacija anaiptol nenušvie čia tikrosios pad ėties. Pirmieji plokštiniai, o v ėliau – baltieji, gotikiniai ir Maksimiliano tip ų šarvai archeologini ų tyrim ų metu itin retai aptinkami ir kitose Europos šalyse. Daugiausia informacijos apie juos šarvuot ės tyr ėjai gauna iš iki šiol gerai išlikusi ų, garsiose kolekcijose saugom ų egzempliori ų, gausi ų ikonografijos ar net rašytini ų šaltini ų. Nors LDK nepaliko tokios gausyb ės ikonografin ės medžiagos, vis d ėlto ir iš turim ų duomen ų galima susidaryti nuomon ę, kad plokštiniai šarvai čia buvo žinomi ir nešiojami. Deja, koks buvo j ų kiekio santykis su kit ų tip ų šarvais, pasakyti beveik ne įmanoma. Neabejotina tik, kad dar XIV a. antrojoje pus ėje juos tur ėjo d ėvėti dalis valstyb ės elitui priklausiusi ų asmen ų. Laikui b ėgant plokštiniai šarvai populiar ėjo ir XV a. pabaigoje–XVI a. pirmojoje pus ėje gal ėjo b ūti naudojami kur kas gausesnio kiekio kari ų.

Išvados: 1. Lietuvos archeologin ėje medžiagoje pavyko išskirti 7 skirtingus XIII a. viduriu–XVII a. viduriu datuojamus šarvuot ės tipus, skirstytinus į 4 grupes: 1) grandiniai, 2) plokšteliniai (lameliaras,

4 Išsiskirian čių dekoruotomis knied ėmis.

36 brigantinos ir žvyniniai šarvai), 3) plokštiniai (baltieji ir v ėlyvieji, t. y. XVI a. vidurio, šarvai) bei 4) virtos odos šarvai. 2. Didžiausi ą kiek į šarvuot ės element ų sudaro lameliaro plokštel ės, gan ėtinai mažiau aptikta žvynini ų šarv ų ir brigantin ų detali ų bei grandini ų šarv ų fragment ų. Archeologiškai aptikti tik 5 plokštini ų šarv ų elementai, iš kuri ų tik tris detales galima datuoti XIV a. pabaiga– XV a. pradžia, likusios dvi atspindi v ėlyv ąjį plokštini ų šarv ų raidos etap ą ir datuojamos XVI a. viduriu. Prie labai ret ų ir unikali ų radini ų galima priskirti vien ą įtvarini ų šarv ų detal ę – virtos odos antžast į, datuojam ą XIV a. pabaiga. 3. D ėl tradiciškai didel ės grandini ų šarv ų grandeli ų užrakto korozijos tiksliai nustatyti grandini ų šarv ų tip ą yra labai sunku. Panašu, kad dauguma grandeli ų galima priskirti v ėlyvesniajam (rusiškoje literat ūroje žinomam pancir pavadinimu) variantui. Grandeli ų dydis ir skerspj ūvis įvairuoja. Išskirti 3 žiedeli ų variantai – 1) kniedytieji viena kniede, 2) vientisieji ir 3) nesutvirtintieji. 4. LDK teritorijoje lameliaro plokšteli ų aptikta tik 3 laidojimo paminkluose. Visi jie – balt ų gyventame areale. Didžiausias lameliaro plokšteli ų kiekis ir variant ų skai čius rastas Vilniaus Žemutin ės pilies teritorijoje. Gerokai mažiau j ų aptikta kitose vietov ėse – Kernav ėje, Smolenske, Gardino ir Drucko pilyse. Panašu, kad šis plokštelini ų šarv ų tipas baltams gal ėjo b ūti žinomas ir prieš Lietuvos valstyb ės susik ūrim ą bei naudojamas šalia grandini ų šarv ų arba kaip j ų papildoma apsauga. 5. Lameliaro šarv ų populiarumo augimas sietinas su palaipsniui did ėjan čia LDK ekspansija į rytų slav ų žemes. Šio tipo šarvus gal ėjo d ėvėti tiek lietuvi ų, tiek slav ų, o kai kuriais atvejais ir Teuton ų ordino kariai. Gausyb ę skirting ų lameliar ų plokšteli ų galima suskirstyti į potipius, grupes ir variantus. LDK teritorijoje rastosios plokštel ės tarpusavyje panašios ir kai kurios yra analogiškos ryt ų slav ų žem ėse aptiktoms šarv ų plokštel ėms. Lameliaro plokšteli ų tyrimai iš LDK teritorijos parod ė, kad: 1) lameliaro detales galima suskirstyti į 3 potipius – kraštines, centrines ir eilines;

37 2) kraštines plokšteles galima suskirstyti į 4 variantus pagal form ą – užapvalintu kraštu, „L“ formos, sta čiakampes ir siaur ąsias sta čiakampes; taip pat galimi 4 variantai pagal ornament ą – „širdel ės“ pavidalo, trikampio, iškili ų pusrutuli ų bei pusm ėnuli ų form ų; 3) centrin ės plokštel ės aptiktos tik dvi ir yra vienodos – aštuoniakamp ės su aštuoni ų iškili ų pusrutuli ų ornamentu; 4) eilines plokšteles galima suskaidyti į 5 variantus pagal form ą – ornamentuotas pla čiąsias karpytu kraštu, ornamentuotas vidutinio plo čio karpytu kraštu, siaur ąsias ir siaur ąsias karpytu kraštu bei sta čiakampes; 2 variantai skirtini pagal ornament ą – iškili ų 8 maž ų ir 8 dideli ų pusrutuli ų; 5) lameliaro naudojim ą LDK teritorijoje galima datuoti XIII a.–XV a. pradžia; 6) kai kuri ų šarv ų plokšteli ų unikalumas leidžia manyti, kad egzistavo ir vietin ės gamybos lameliaro variant ų. 6. Žvyniniai šarvai nebuvo gausiai paplit ę LDK. J ų aptikta tiktai Vilniaus pili ų teritorijoje, bet įvertinus šio šarv ų tipo plokšteli ų kiek į ir įvairov ę galima teigti, kad jie buvo gana gerai žinomi LDK kari ų. D ėl ši ų šarv ų atsiradimo, plitimo kryp čių ir naudojimo arealo vis dar diskutuojama. Anks čiau žinotos plokštel ės su viena ir dviem knied ėmis. Vilniaus pili ų medžiaga papild ė radinius plokštel ėmis su dviem skirtingomis 3 kniedži ų kombinacijomis, detal ėmis su sagtel ėmis bei visiškai unikaliomis – ornamentuotomis paauksuotomis plokštel ėmis. 7. Nepaisant žvynini ų šarv ų detali ų menko regioninio paplitimo LDK, išanalizavus Vilniaus Žemutin ėje pilyje aptiktas žvynini ų šarv ų plokšteles galima teigti, kad: 1) tai buvo vienas iš populiariausi ų šarv ų tip ų XIV a. pabaigoje–XV a. pradžioje Vilniaus pili ų

38 teritorijoje; didel į j ų kiek į galima sieti anuo laikotarpiu vykdytomis Vilniaus pili ų apgultimis ir d ėl to padid ėjusiu įgulos skai čiumi; 2) kadangi kai kurios šarv ų plokštel ės turi tiesiogini ų analog ų ryt ų slav ų žem ėse, tod ėl gali būti, kad šis šarv ų tipas Vilniaus pilyse gal ėjo atsirasti d ėl LDK ekspansijos į rusišk ąsias žemes; 3) sunku nustatyti, ar žvynini ų šarv ų su trimis knied ėmis variantas buvo perimtas tiesiogiai iš LDK rytini ų žemi ų, t. y. at ėjęs kartu su kitataute įgula ir nepakit ęs, ar gali b ūti, kad Lietuvoje vietini ų meistr ų d ėka įgavo savotišk ų bruož ų; 4) kai kurie žvynini ų šarv ų potipiai, aptikti Vilniuje, panašu, buvo žinomi ir Vakar ų Europoje, nes šio tipo egzistavim ą į vakarus nuo Lietuvos liudija gan ėtinai gausi ikonografin ė medžiaga; 5) ornamentuot ų ir paauksuot ų plokšteli ų egzistavimas rodo, kad š į šarv ų tip ą d ėvėjo ne tik paprasti, bet ir kilmingi bei itin turtingi kariai. 8. LDK teritorijoje rast ų brigantin ų plokšteli ų skai čius n ėra mažas, įvertinant ši ų plokšteli ų atsitiktinio praradimo tikimyb ę, o atsižvelgiant ir į jo paplitimo areal ą, panašu, kad šis šarv ų tipas gal ėjo būti populiaresnis ir už žvyninius šarvus. Dauguma brigantin ų plokšteli ų datuojamos XIV a. pabaiga–XV a. pradžia. Ši tendencija neabejotinai susijusi su neramiu laikotarpiu LDK bei palaipsniui did ėjan čia kariuomen ės vesternizacija. 9. Plokštini ų šarv ų naudojimas LDK archeologiškai atspind ėtas mažiausiai. Tokia situacija susijusi dar ir su tuo, kad šio tipo šarv ų detal ės archeologini ų tyrim ų metu aptinkamos itin retai. Vis d ėlto gretutini ų moksl ų šaltiniai liudija, kad š į šarv ų tip ą tikrai m ėgo valstyb ės karinio elito atstovai, o nuo XIV a. pabaigos kai kuriuos plokštini ų šarv ų elementus ima vis dažniau naudoti ir paprasti kariai

39 10. Šarvuot ės tip ų įvairov ė ir kaita s ąlygota nuolatini ų karini ų susid ūrim ų, m ūšio taktikos poky čių ir LDK augimo ryt ų slav ų žemi ų sąskaita. S ėkmingai besiple čianti valstyb ė ne įsivaizduojama be modernios, tam tikr ą laikotarp į atitinkan čios kariuomen ės, kuri kovin ę patirt į įgyja intensyvi ų susid ūrim ų su priešais metu, kartu perimdama efektyviausi ą šarvuot ę ir ginklus. XIII a. viduryje–-XIV a. viduryje šarvuot ėje imtas naudoti lameliaras atspindi pagrindin ę LDK karin ės ir politin ės ekspansijos krypt į – į ryt ų slav ų žemes. Nuo XIV a. vidurio/paskutiniojo ketvir čio pastebimas šarvuot ės tip ų įvairov ės augimas, susij ęs su politine LDK situacija, poky čiais Europos ginkluot ėje bei šarvuot ės vesternizacija valstyb ėje. 11. Šarv ų detali ų pasiskirstymas LDK yra labai nevienodas. Tam įtakos turi skirtingas buvusios valstyb ės teritorijos ištirtumo lygis, archeologini ų tyrim ų metodika bei skirtingi valstybi ų prioritetai LDK istorijos atžvilgiu. Be ši ų faktori ų, regioninius skirtumus didina ir LDK religiniai skirtumai – etnin ės Lietuvos teritorijoje ilgai išsilaikiusi pagonyb ė l ėmė skirtingas laidojimo tradicijas baltiškajame ir slaviškajame valstybes arealuose. D ėl to LDK baltiškojo arealo XIII a.– XIV a. laidojimo paminkluose šalia kit ų įkapi ų galima aptikti ir šarv ų detali ų ar j ų fragment ų. Daugiausia šarvuot ės element ų aptikta pilyse, iš kuri ų ryškiai išsiskiria valstyb ės sostin ė – Vilniaus pili ų kompleksas. 12. Šarv ų detali ų tip ų kiekio pasiskirstymas negali rodyti tikslaus procentinio vieno ar kito šarv ų tipo populiarumo d ėl nevienodo plokšteli ų kiekio šarvuose, j ų gamybos specifikos ir tuo nulemtos atsitiktin ės plokšteli ų praradimo tikimyb ės bei skirting ų j ų radimo aplinkybi ų.

40 List of scientific publications on the topic of dissertation / Mokslini ų straipsni ų disertacijos tema s ąrašas

Bugys, P., 2011. Žvynini ų šarv ų plokštel ės Vilniaus pili ų teritorijoje. Lietuvos archeologija , 37, 207-216. Bugys, P., 2011. Šarv ų detali ų komplektas iš Vilniaus Žemutin ės pilies teritorijos. Chronicon Palatii Magnorum Ducum Lithuaniae, 1, 169-177. Bugys, P., Blaževi čius, P., 2013. Reikšmingas XIV a. pab. įtvarini ų šarv ų detal ės radinys Vilniaus Žemutin ėje pilyje. Lietuvos archeologija , 39, 41-52. Bugys, P., 2013. Viduramži ų ir Renesanso karybos terminija ir jos problematika: šarvuot ės ir jos dali ų pavadinimai. Karo archyvas , XXVIII, p. 52-68.

41 About Author

Name, Surname Paulius Bugys

Date of birth 27-01-1977

Place of birth Telšiai

Education 1997-2001 Bachelor studies at Vilnius University, bachelor degree in Archaeology 2006-2008 Master studies at Vilnius University, Master degree in Archaeology 2009-2013 Doctoral Studies at Klaip ėda University

Employer Since 2011 – The General Jonas Žemaitis Military Academy of Lithuania. Junior scientific worker.

Professional experience 2007-2010 Castle Research Center „Lietuvos pilys “. Laboratory assistant. 2010-2012 National Museum the Palace of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania. Senior museologist -archaeologist.

E-mail [email protected]

42 Apie autori ų

Vardas, pavard ė Paulius Bugys

Gimimo data 1977-01-27

Gimimo vieta Telšiai

Išsilavinimas 1997-2001 Bakalauro studijos Vilniaus Universitete. Archeologijos bakalauro kvalifikacinis laipsnis. 2006-2008 Magistro studijos Vilniaus Universitete. Archeologijos magistro kvalifikacinis laipsnis. 2009-2014 Doktorant ūros studijos Klaip ėdos Universitete

Darboviet ė Nuo 2009 m. – Generolo Jono Žemai čio Lietuvos karo akademija. Jaunesnysis mokslo darbuotojas.

Specialybin ė darbo patirtis 2007-2010 Pili ų tyrimo centras „Lietuvos pilys“. Laborantas. 2010-2012 Nacionalinis muziejus LDK Valdov ų r ūmai. Vyresn. muziejininkas-archeologas.

El. paštas [email protected]