American Revolution: Selections from Secondary School History Books of Other Nations

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zD 124 490 95 SO 009 240 AUTHOR Barendsen, Robert D., Comp.; And Others TITLE American Revolution: Selections from Secondary School History Books of Other Nations. INSTITUTION Office of Education (DREW), Washington, D.C. REPORT NO (0E)76-19124 PUB DATE 76 NOTE 97p. AVAILABLE FROMSuperintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 (Stock No. 017-080-01550-1, $2.25)

EDES PRICE MF-$0.83 HC-$4.67 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Colonial History (United States); Colonialism; *Comparative Analysis; Comparative Education; *Foreign Countries; Foreign Relations; Geography; *History Textbooks; International Education; Political Science; Religion; Revolution; *Revolutionary War (United States); Secondary Education; Social Studies; Textbook Bias; *Textbook Content; United States History ABSTRACT Selections from the recent history texts of 13 foreign countries are contained in this documentas an effort to gather the curricular perceptions of other countries about key events or periods in American history related to the U.S. Revolutionary War. American- -secon a ry Lea lier Ni, cottemporary source material not otherwise readily available for teaching about the American Revolution, especially during the period of the bicentennial celebration. The collection is useful to teachers interested in inquiry learning, a comparative approach to history,or international understanding. Each entry represents the treatment of the subject in the textbooks of-the country. Selectionsare from France, West Germany, Argentina, Mexico, Canada, Ghana, Egypt, Israel, Japan, People's Republic of China, India, Great Britan, and the U.S.S.R. Each selection is translated into English and id-atifies source and grade level it is written for. Compilers' interpretations of the selection are limited and factual errors are not corrected. (Author/ND)

*********************************************************************** Documents acquired by ERIC include many informal unpublished * materials not available from other sources. ERIC makesevery effort * * to obtain the best copy available. Nevertheless, items of marginal * * reproducibility are often encountered and this affect's the quality * * of the microfiche and hardcopy reproductions ERIC makes available * * via the ERIC Document Reproduction Service (EDES). EDRS is not ** * responsible for the quality of the original document. Reproductions * * supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original. * *********************************************************************** IlEit- PuNkaina IOL 76-19IZ4

U I.DE PARTMENT HEALTH. EDUCATION S. sYELFAR E NATIONAL 114 SMUT E OF EDUCATION INAS DOCUMENT :SAS SEEN REPRO- DUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE PERSON OR ORGAN:LAMM ORIGIN. +TING 17 POINTS OF %NEWoa ommoss STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY SEPTIC- * SENT OFF CIAL NATIONAL INSTITUT E OF AmericanRevolutionEDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY Selections From Secondary School History Books of Other Nations

Argentina Canada China. People's Republic of Egypt. Arab Republic of France Germany. Federal Republic of Ghana Great Britain India Israel Japan Mexico U.S.S.R.

Compilers Robert D. Barenesen Charles C. Mauch Seymour 31. Rosen Raymond E. Wanner 0 Bureau of Postsecondary Education

U.S. DEPARTMENT OFHEALTH, EDUCATION. ANDWELFARE David Mathews, Secretary Virginia Y. Trotter. Assistant Secretaryfor Education Office of Education H. Bell, Commissioner Robert Leestma, Associate Commissionerfor nstitntional relopott nt and International Education

2 The views expressed in the foreign texts included in this compilation are solely those of their respective authors, and should not be construed as representing the viewsor reflecting the opinions, position, or policyof the U.S. Government, nor should any official endorsement by the LIS Government he inferred_

GOVERNMF\T PRITIING OFFICE WASHINGTON: 1976

For sate by the Superintendent of Documents, 11.S_ Government Printing (Kee Wash:moon, D.C. 20102 Price ;2.23 Stock No.at7 -0M-01550-1

3 FOREWORD

The birth of the American Republic was indeeda -Ant heard round the world: Not only was it of major International significance at the time, but itremains an event of ,-orninuine interest and influence in the contemplator) world. Itis therefore not surprising that the American Revolution is included in the curriculum of the schoolsystems of most

This set of selections from the history texts of 13 of the.:.nttions is not the first nor will it be the last effort by educators to gather the curricularperceptions of other countries about key events or periods in American history. Indeed,as the appendix reveals, the Office of Education published its first reportmore than 80 years ago on how the American Revolutionary War was taught in the schools of othernations. The particular merit of the present compilation is thatit provides American teachers with valuable contemporary source material not otherwise readilyavailable for teaching about the American Revolution, especially during the period of theBicentennial Celebration. Teachers interested in inquiry learning, a comparative 2pprJaChto history. and/or international understanding can utilize the collection ina variety of ways to help students develop their analytical skills and broaden their understanding ofAmerican history and of factors which contribute to intercultural communication. No special effort was made to select entriesthat emphasized similarities or differences with prevailing American perspectiveson the Revolution. We simply sought selections representative of the treatment accorded the subjectin the textbooks of a-number-of Important nations around the world. While the variousaccounts reflect a range of views. It is interesting to note that taken as a whole thesimilarities far outweigh the differences when compared with American perceptions.This is probably because of the fairly widespread consensus among historianson many of the facts and interpretations concerning the American Revolution. Suchconvergences of opinion would seem less likely on various other events or periods. While the material has general interestvalue in itself, achievement of itsfull educational potential is dependent upon how teachersutilize the various selections not only to deepen students understandingof the American Revolution through the insights revealed by comparative perspectives, but alsoto develop their ability to think critically about history and communication, process and product. For example, teacherscan use some of the selections to introduce students to suchmatters as how ideology and nationalism can be involved in the treatment ofone country's history by the textbook writers of another. Other parts of the materialcan be used to help show how a country's own nationbuilding experience may wadi() shape its-perceptionsof the development of other countries. The material is also of valueto those interested in the images of America abroad and how the school systems of other countrieshelp shape those views. Such a collection as this naturally raisesa question about the other side of the coin how adequately do American textbooksand other educational materials represent key events or periods in the history of other nations?There is much fertile ground here for continuing collaboration betweeneducators and historians thatremains largely uncultivated.

iii To hell. explore need and stimulate interest in the study of how adequately Amerimn educational nnterrals currently in use represent other countries. the U.S. Office of Edm,ation has supported s=ame small but important demonstration projects in the past few years. (Inc is concerned with the nature and adequacy of the treatment of Japanand another of Egypt in American schoolbooks. primarily at the secondary level. The others are concerned with the films and filmstrips about Japan and aboutEgypt available for educational use in the United States. The two projects concerned with Japan art completed: those dealing with Egypt are in process. Clearly. much more needs to be done in developing educational materials which incorporate the important Juncos: viz inherent in the comparative approach.The basic importance of the task to the total educational entcrpnse is such that it merits ahigher priority on the Nation's, research and development agenda and should notbe dependent upon Facial funds. Mete is much ioom ft,' initiative here by enterprisingscholars and publishers.- There arz also needs and opportunities lot cooperation between and among nations on a bilateral. feg, ma I. or international basis. An excellentexample of a bilateral effort is the Joint project on mutual understanding between the United States and Japanwhich is being carried out under the auspices of CULCON. the special United States-Japan Joint' Committee on Cultural and Educational Cooperation. Under the sponsorship of CULCON. and with the cooperation of the Japanese Ministry of Education, the U.S Office of Education. and the East-West Center, a team of Japanese educators and scholars and a team of American educators and scholars are working separately andtogether to Increase mutual understanding between the UnitedStates and Japan through the improvement of curriculum materials and methods inelementary and secondary education in both countries. The chairman of the U.S. Education Sub-Committee is Dr. A. Craig Phillips. Superintendent of Public Instruction of the State of North Carolina. The chairman of the Japanese Education Sub-Committee is Dr. Isao Amagi, SpecialAdvisor to the Minister of Education of Japan. Examples of regional and international collaboration on related matterswould include the project of the Organization of American States entitled "CanMan Transcend His Culture?", the Associated Schools Project of UNESCO. and thedevelopment of the International Baccalaineate. A word about the origin and present scope of this volumeisgin order. A few years ago the international staff of the US. Office of Education lookedahead at various possibilities for program contributions to the Bicentennial Celebration. Dr.Robert Barendsen of the Comparative Education staff put forward the idea ofcompiling selections from the textbooks of other nations on the subject of theAmerican Revolution. Within the constraints of time and fund's available, Dr. Barendsen andhis colleagues listed on the title page made all the arrangements for gathering, selecting, and translating the current materials, These tasks were shepherded throughout by Dr. Barendsen and special credit is due him for his unflagging persistence in seeing this part of the work through to completion. iv 5 The very interesting material in the appendixwas brought to light at a later stage by the general editor of this compilation. Helen Whim&in the course of helping prepare another publication to be made availableduring the period of the Bicentennial Celebration. This volume will reproduce selectionsfrom the rich array of historical information on various facets of internationaleducation in the last third of the 19th century- from the founding of the U.S, Office of Education in 1867to 1900which are contained in the annual reports of the U.S. Ommissionersof Education during that period. The chapter printed in the appendix is drawn fromthe "Report of the Commissioner of Education for the Year 1894-95" andcontains extracts from 24 books of English history used at that time in the elementary schools of-other English-speaking peoples, especially in Great -Britain. Its inclusion in thisvolume in advance of the publication of the other pre-1900 material adds a dimension of special historical interest and valueto the comparative potential inherent in the initialundertaking. As the reader of the appendix will t1nd, the early consensus on fact and interpretation, the generalcongruence with most present-day perceptions, and the essentialfair-mindedness of the treatment all come through clearly. The brief comments on this material givenby Commissioner W.. T. Harris in the introduction to that Annual Report 80sears ago Is of sufficient interest foment quotation.

ENGLISH TEXT-BOOKS ON THE AMERICANREVOLUTION.

Chapter MAP of Part II deals with English methods of teaching the historyof the Araerie.ln Revolutionary war, and was prepared in accord withthe suggestions of the Hon. Samuel Plimsoll. late member of Parliament.... lie believes that much ill feeling toward England has been engendered by the teachings ofthe school histories of the Vititd States. Teachers of our national history inour schools will compare with interest the extracts from English text-books here given withthe corresponding passages M our own text-books.

The comparative approach recommended in the lastsentence remains valid today. Here, then, is a baker's dozen of examples of howetnrent textooks in other nations view the American Revolution, together with examplesfrom a related collection published by the Office of Educationa few years before the turn of the century. Making these international resources available to Americaneducators in this convenient and inexpensive form is a U.S. Office of Education contributionto the Bicentennial Celebration which the international program of USOE is pleasedto present.

Robert Leestma Associate Commissioner for Institutional Development and January 1976. International Education ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It would be impractical to name each person in the different countries who assisted us inidentifying. selecting, obtaining, and translating materials appropriate for this publication. But we would be seriously remiss if we failed to express our specific appreciation for the especially generous help we received from certain scholars and government officials. Without the aid of those individuals and organizations identified in the following paragraphs, the publication could not have been prepared in the short time period available for the purpose. The selection from France included in this volume was obtained through the good offices of ML Jean-Pierre Guerin. Cultural Attache of the French Embassy in the United States. Officials of the French School in Washington, D.C., were also helpful to us in the consideration of the French texts. In identifying an appropriate selection to represent the Federal Republic of Germany in this collection, we were fortunate to be able to draw upon the extensive knowledge of Dr. Herwig Buntz of the German School Society in Potomac, Md.In addition to providing expert consultative advice, Dr..Buntz was also able to procure for us a copy of the book in which the material originally appeared. With respect to the selection from the USS.R., we are indebted to the Publications Procurement Office of the US. Department of State and its field officers at the American Embassy in Moscow, who sent us the textbook from which it was taken. The Argentine selection was chosen from one of the textbooks forwarded by Mr. Rolando Costa Picazo, Executive Director of the Commission for Educational Exchange between the United States and Argentina, and the Office is most appreciative of his efforts. Miss Paula Durbin of the U.S. Embassy in Buenos Aires was also most helpful in facilitating procurement of the material. Concerning the selection from Mexico, we are most appreciative of the.cooperatioa of Dr. Josefina Wsquez de Knauth, Director of the Center for Historical Studies at the Colegio de Mexico, Mexico City, for her professional assistance in suggesting pertinent sections fr 3111 several Mexican texts for our consideration, and in providing guidance in choosing a selection for use in this volume. Mr. William N. Lindsey, Jr., and Mr. Michael D. Zimmerman, of the United States Inforthation Service, American Embassy, Mexico City, were ms st helpful in providing general assistance. For the Canadian selection, we are especially grateful to Prof. Reginald Edwards of McGill University, who gave generously of ,his own time to assist us in identifying an appropriate piece for inclusion in this collection. The excerpt from a Ghanaian history textbook that is included in this collection was supplied by Mr. S.K. Atakpa, on behalf of the Director of the Curriculum Research and Development Division of the Ghana Teaching Service. The good offices of Mr. Graham K. French, Cultural Affairs Officer of the American Embassy in Accra, were also very helpful in this matter. In connection with the selection from Egypt, we wish to express our deep appreciation to Prof. Kalil Gezi. Chairman of the Department of Behavioral Sciences in the School of Education at California State University, Sacramento, and his colleague Prof. Makram

vii 7 Samman. Professors Gezi and Samman not only assisted us immeasurably in identifying and obtaining the Egyptian selection, but also translated it from Arabic. With regard to the selection from Israel. we are grateful to Prof. Randolph Braham of the City University of New York and author of this Office's publication. "Israel. A Modern Education System" (1966). and to Dean Nathaniel Katzburg and Dr. Chaim Genizi of Bar Ilan University in Israel for identifying and procuring an appropriate text. Concerning the Japanese selection. we are particularly indebted to Mr. Isao Yamada and Mr. Seiichi Ogawa of the Japanese Embassy in Washington. D.C.. and to Mr. Shigeo Miyamoto of the Ministry of Education in Japan. We 2Iso wish to thank Mr. Key K. Kobayashi of the Japanese Section. Onentalia Division of the Library of Congress. for translating, the selection. With respect to the selection from the People's Republic of China. we are especially appreciative of the assistance provided by Mr. Ivan Izenberg, Public Affairs Officer at the American Consulate General in Hong Kong. who alerted us to the material and procured for us a copy of the book from which it is taken. In connection with the selection from India. we owe special thanks to Prof. Surgit Mansingh of the American University in Washington. D.C.. and to Mr. Inam Rahman. Minister for Education and Science at the Indian Embassy in Washington. In New Delhi we received generous help from Mr. P.D. Pop lai, Executive Secretary of the Educational Resources Center of the New York State Education Department, and the staff of the Ministry of.Education's National Council of Educational Research and Training. We are especially grateful to Mr. John Coope, As.istant Attache (education) of the British Embassy in Washington. D.C.. fur his good offices in facilitating our communication with British officials concerning an appropriate selection to represent Great Britain. we are also indebted to the British Council. which supplied us with the book filially chosen for our purpose. All translations not specifically mentioned were done by the U.S. Joint Publications Research Service. Arlington. Va.

Viii 8 PREFACE

For Americans reflecting Oft the significance of the American Revolutionduring the Bicentennial commemoration. it can be both interesting and instructive to considerhow the Revolution is viewed by other peoples, One profiting approach isto examine the way the Revolution is treated in history books in the secondary schools of othernations. Texts at the secondary rattler than the higher education levelwere chosen because secondary schools reach a much largerproportion of the population than do higher educational institutions. and because secondary schools within a givencountry usually present a more nearly standardized version of historical subject matter than is foundin the more sophisticated and disparate materials used in colleges and universities.While resources were not available to undertakea comprehensive survey of the relevant material used in secondary schools in all nations. selections were compiled from 13nations. Including at least one leading country from each of the principal regions ofthe world. These selections were taken from history books that are widely used in theircountries of origin. Each selection is identified as to source and grads level, and is rendered inEnglish translation when, as in most instances.the originalisin another language. The presentation format follows that of the originalas closely as feasible, with the pattern of headings and theoriginal paragraphing retained. Inthe few instances in which reproduction of illustrations, maps. and diagrams in the original selectionwas practical and the substance sufficiently important. such material has been reproduced, Allother graphics are represented in blue print, with the nature of the materialindicated in boldface, and the caption and any additional commentary accompanying the itemin the original rendered in italics. In order to preserve, insofar as practicable, not onlya selection's original format but also its style, the translated material has not beenpolished into smoother forms of expression in English. Also, so that the textsmay speak for themselves without undue interruption,compilers' notes and interpolations have been limited to the bare minimum necessary for clarity, and no attempt has been madeto point out or correct factualerrors in the selections. In translated selections, extensive quotations from an American document (e.g.,the Declarationof Independence)have been copieddirectly 'fromtheoriginal English-language document to avoid the altered wording that sometimes emerges whena historical document is translated intoa foreign language and then subsequently rendered back into the original language bya different translator. Most of the selections cover events outsidea narrowly defined time frame for the Revolutionary War (i.e., events that occurred beforeor after the period from the outset of the war in 1775 to the Peace Treaty of 1783). The reason for this is usuallyto be found in the original presentation from whichthe selection was drawn. Inmany instances, the section of the originalsource that was relevant for the purposes of this project covered not only the important events of the 1760's and early 1770's thatare essential to understanding the more immediate causes of the conflict, but alsosome background material summarizing thedevelopment of colonization in North America front the beginning of the 17thcentury. In addition, the relevant section usually carried

ix the narrative forward to cover the establishment of theFederal Government under the Constitution of 1787, and in a few cases encompassed some aspectsof the period up to and somewhat beyond 1800. Readers of this collection- particularly teachers and students mayfind it interesting to (1) compare the differing interpretationsof the significance of the events'described; (2) note aspects that are included or omitted, emphasized orplayed down; (3) detect factualinaccuracies, (4) identifytheparts of a selection that reflect the special perspectives of the country in which it is used; and(5) use the tutorial questions at the end of some selections to compare their knowledge of thisperiod of American history with that expected of foreign secondary school students. Finally, it should be noted that although the selection from each countryis believed to be representative of the approach to the AmericanRevolution inthat country's secondary school history books, the selections as a group cannotproperly be used in and of themselves as a basis for qualitative comparisons of secondarystudies in the countries represented in the collection.

x 10 CONTENTS

Page

Foreword <

Acknowledgments vii Preface ix I. France

2. Federal Republic of Germany 6 3. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics I0 4. Argentina 18 5. Mexico

6. Canada 31 7. Ghana r 37 8 Arab Republic of Egypt 39

9. Israel 44

Japan 56

I .People's RepubliC of China 59 12. India 75 13. Great Britain 79

Appendix: "English Methods of Teaching AmericanI listory," Chapter XLIV of Report of the Commissionerof Education for the Ye.ar. 1894-95 87

11 1. FRANCE

The Formation of the United States' duties svould bring in more money. It tht n levied a new tax. galled the stamp tax. whicli meant intro- ducing to America the use of stamped paper sold at a In/76thc English cohinists if America revolted, profit by the English treasury (1765). Thespecu- they n their indepordcrice with the help of Prance lators, the merchants who were prospering on die and prmed the Rcpub hi., of tlu, tinted States, the smuggling trade, the lawyers, and the printers duedly first free state in the New World. affected by the stamp tax stirred up violent riots, particularly in the colonies of Virginia, New York. The uprising of the 1..tighsh colonists. and Massachusetts. Frightened, the .English Govern- The French intervention. ment abolished the stamp tax and the agitation dicd down.

1. The Uprising of the English Ionists j Picture! '/!Anent' vrenirpi.1paper in lh,shal (August I. The Origins of the .Conflict 1765p Th Sump ittrradc tt mandini,ri- to rise ywial paper. Wampod paper. 4Pr 1c,affIX (/tax stamp In the aftermath of the Treaty of Pans (1763). the f .1;11.1 Lank 111 I11.41111:.;eigaln hail sat ii, an. EnglishGovernment took severalmeasuresthat hiv...:(41 lain,jr Pin 1 11111041111 1 greatly angered the American colonists. It forbade L1-4, 144, sp4.411i4a111144 iliiipop4.v.s. them, for fear of an Indian uprising, to settlein the '1i74 11.,1011, If 14/1411i OA, 4411) qI4 (mink r hoe tit country betWeen ,the Olug, the Great Lakes, and the Jar, in a vh t t h difring Oath he

Mississippi. This, decision caused Wen indignation nitric,' 11,1 Ioh it an t.1 all .Sins ;/ 1314 rty. 'The

among the speculators, whit) had hoped to get nth by r 1$ ildith.I/1 .IMOuz hireflit'

buying land at low prie6 and reselling it atvery high Sfr+rrl 1. I.11, .11%4.1bait 1We 'athm,Theprinters, firstofin!, tended to(.1111,11ththeir newspaper, When one Indiantriberevolted,the London itith.a! qalip. 1 Ico Olin' Sons of labartu Government decided to maintain a small Britisharmy 4-1.v1,a d eat's, olhet on a permanent footing in the 13 colonies. Also, the all,/ A .A1114)listrati,,,, linin. 4st loltiii Governors, viliose salaries had until that time been rMMerits ao1'1,,1in .fliont id I,45, rh, paid by the Assemkes of the several colonies,were 1,urfret)t.imp1 .1pap*. 1,Jin,,lishedirt bathtub: henceforth to-bespaid by the Treasurym London.so lord, r 4 '111 Mill etas r, -A dly to h. nisi. Hu as to make them more nulependent of the colonists, S1PrIP 01.1i44-004.14,400p1t14.1i iilis To find the necessary revenues for these additional the lieutenantj.itern441.14/th(aift expenses, theEnglish ministry decided to clamp down heavily on smuggling; ip that way, customs 2. The Conflict Mounts

'Compilers' NoteTranslated eromJeanMichaud's The agitation flared up again shortly after this, 1715.1870, La .Formation du Monde Modern. Collection Jules Ism. Pans; Classiques Hachette., 1966. Pp. 96-102. when new duties were placed on Americanimports of Reproituccd with permission from Classiques Hachette (pub- iron, paper, and tea bytile London Parliament. lishers) The material is designed far the 9th year of a 12year Several purely local incidents, the scope of whichwas primary-secondary school cycle. considerlbly exaggerated both in London and in

12 anerica aggravated the conflict. lust came what the of Virginiadeclareditself independent of King 4,01.,nists called the Boston M3S11le 070). some George III. A new Congress' on July 4.1776. adopted Inglis!' tildiei.. whct had been stoned in the streets. the,Decimation of Independence of the United fired on and killed tour of the protesters. Then came States. the Boston Tea Party 11'3) colonists disguised as From then on. the only way to settle the conflict Indians tossed into the harbor 34C cases of tea that Has by force. had just,:ritered the port. Furious. George Ill rescinded the charter of titt M:....34chuserts cL.F..rtv' and ordered post of Boston closed until the people had paid the value of the tea. Massachusetts then Pri.turl r; I Ile !1 a appealed to the other colonies. 1i r//' 1r7..:,7 7,1.:

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j:ro: Itel' ,1% .1,lit `.It 10,, PO ;01'01 I',If law .11:.(Prf tv1711 711,,(1, I (aro, I "f Ill%tiliWC( A.4)cl, .1 h 1, :Pia tit,i7 I Jit V; .161111 r 1, 1' I 1'iiI1 II 1r , 1 ;;!, t s, 11:,;:7 a 1 114,1,4111.11 iindtr 'i" t" -1 Lft /fitt/1, ;7,''II 1:W P)itddlIP,,I , sl 11.#' It ,fit 1/1/0iiit11 ',it hkai {Fr j1.1,111[0,1,,11 P.24,...',`;ttlf rh, lb' P., qt. -7 .4tilt r 717, .o.111.7 b h J;I h ;;,t ; nt, -141111 '1".. 'P.%,,t ithn'h ,,rr;, .1 1=1- 'L I it It Jois41, an! 'Aith 1 IT %! r :0 'H t 70t_7..21 101 7.,1,1,a7 rill ntnh1r:1+717111(rrhiN .1.niAter. if" ti". f 4t 1!:,lr r, 7 11" 1,1.71:to lilts: a, 1ill:1114r Inv(' ,,,+.111JI is p, 7;;4,1/ r afhr the ,i431111C: Irtair 01 1 ty-,a11(1.,1-nmhlin1,141.edIn n'11- Plan, l'il 11.,Irrfrin:7 the 1 II[, 1_,71I.,' 51tI,tr 117%, 3. The Break With England

A congress made up of delegates from colonies -exceptGeorgia- metatPhilad phiain 1774, in a Declaration of Rights, 1t affirmed the right 4. Beginnings of the War for Independence of every English citizen not to be taxed w thous his consent. At the ,sametime,the colonists were The war lasted almost 8 years. Each cif the adver- building up supplies of weapons everywhere. An saries tan into serious difficulties. The English troops, Luglrsh detachment that toed to teme one of these partly composed of Germa., mercenaries, were good depots clashednear Bustun with some American and numerous, but they wc.e fighting in an unknown militiamen and-lost about 254 men (1775). land,almostwithoutroads, and covered with That incident broughtthefinalbreak. While immense forests where it was often impossible. to get George III was making up his mind to reduce the supplies or engage the enemy. As for the Americans, colonies by force of arms. the Philadelphia Congress they were a long way from presenting a unite un t assumed sovereign authority, raised troops, and gave to the English_ Very jealous of sovereignty,h13 command of them to a Virginia planter named colonies refused to submit to a single go r tent, Washington. The following year, in 1776, the colony even for the duration of the war. Moreover, loyalists.

2 13 big planters. and wealthy merchants. who wantedto IL The French Intervention keep an understanding with the mothercountry. existed side by side with those who favored the breach with England, Tins lattergroup came mostly from the more modest levels of sooety. Finally. the 1 The French Alliance an dlciaory for the Insurgents American army lacked,anns and clothing; the whin- leers would leave the front as soon as then term of The American 'cause was very popularin France. enlistment had expired, the militia were reluctantto already a number of gentlemen. ing_luding theMarquis light far from their homes,. the generalswen: medi- de Ufa} etie. had gone to serve under Washingtonas ocre Washington himself was no tueat military leader. volunteer:. The [Frenlij Governmentbegan by pro- it was rather because of h:s moral qualities. Ins firm- %Ulm: for the insurgents thatis what she rebeling ness of spirit, his tenacity, and his selsaLrifice that colonists were called clothing andarms. then in he became the architect of victory. 117% it signed a treaty of alliance with theirrepresen- The first 2 years of the war were badones for the tative in France, Franklin. The followingyear. Spain coloniststhe cities of New York and Philadelphia joined with France, unplug toget Gibraltar and were occupied by the English. But, at the end o; Florida back from the English. 1777. an English army moving down from Canada The war went on for $ more years.in very differ- was encountered in the forest and foli.ed to surrender enttheaters. in America, where the strugglewas at SaratogaThis victory restored courage to the shifting to the South. General Rochambeau's French Americans and. most tmportant. it Av.% them Frame ..ores helped the rebels to blockade an Englisharmy as an ally. in the city of Yorktown. in Virginia. and to force it to surrender (October 1781). In Europe. the Franco- -Spanish fleets manned neither to effecta landing in England nor to -etake Gibraltar, In the Antilles.the French fleei.,afier initial victories, in 1782 suffereda severe defeat. Meanwhile. off the coast of India. (Admiral) Suffren several times defeated the English ,.\ fleet and -signed a treaty of alliance witha Ilinda . r P sovereign who was an implacable foe of the English. 4, At last. England gave in and signed the Treaty of "i :1,1, i," Versailles (Treaty of Parisi in 1783. Sherecognized the independence of the United States, and cededto lrI,' r',,irro. it all the land between the Allegheny Mountainsand ,." ro, ,b< I; ill, r the Mississippi: she returned to Spain the island of 11 rI, ft' ; I:.tI II' ,j Minorca and Florida; she restored to Franceone of //, r the Antilles and a few postson the Senegal coast Jr'Ir %, :1, '11' r.tilt which had been taken from her in 1763. andat long last recognized France's right to fortify Dunkirk. Out 7r, ,, III 1,t1-'1,I ? of this long war, which had cost herenormous sums. 1, , , (, Ir_.. France won only minimal advantages, but the Gov- ,IP", ,4 o° r i,117 lit, ernment was content to have restored French prestige iii I; VIFr,.t, JP,- rt ,rt., hi. and brought England low. r 107 14,, r, f IIII 'Yt Jailrcl,e.o.,{ , 11,,r1n% rn ,,,; iir 'tfit..!t I,!If,' 1,,;I', , jllf It, I r,I;,,,r I ;IT.( ,fl, r,rb,r1. %%Id, if Fll ,,1 I Il'!111111 WU, +0. ,if,4,114s. I Map! //r,111th '1 Shiro ,1.1111-710,1PII ',V, r:f Ir 1,,/ Alb t 1(,".111 o ,,,11hi,Pro ,of ,11111I4,7i3; 4,C(.11:dtr,1114: t Slaty \ h, P.Phrt, I, l fr, 1441, h ;);,11,i 1;if!1.,M Iir,1"'",; awl OW 1Citi3S11111:'I 111 ;10 'I'f5f, ,,1`,1,VI I. Ill %1111111 Arno

14 3 tollowed. The principles the French philosophes had arped and preached were the foundations of the Declaration of Rights in 1774 and again of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. The French had made those principles victorious in America; would they not make them prevail in France itself? Furthermore, the expenditures connected with the war had increased the financial difficulties; Louis XVI had to ag.ree to summon the Estates General into session in 17).49. And the cons-Lis:anon of the Estates General marked the begannine of the French Revolu- tion. 2. Organization of the United States

The American war had many conseqoences. The ;111.hr7: 1.0' ,[71,!,7,1 I most important was the creation of a new stale. the ,141%; 11% j,raP...lh, '11 ;Al% in United States. 11.e first free state ever founded by As, Ili(I 1117l .N;jr %, I7 _cill h..; I /rat j77,1 Europeans outside Europe. '1%1,I-. ,.):,1%,_fkr if a After a lot of difficulties a financial Crisis. politi- 1,1,. a my, cal and commercial squabbles between colonies, .1L 7 T 1, 4,7ct. I:cr tionl; social antagonism between rich and poor in , :! 11 t:!1..1 'kit 77% 1-7S7 the 13 States adopted a Constitution which. in !) ,, ,r7,/ its major outlines. is still in force today. Like the United Provinces). in Europe. the United States con- quilted a federal republic. Each State had its own institutions; but above those 13 State governments there was a federal government responsible for their Summary commim affairs.:war. diplomacy, currency. and In 1774, an American Congress published the commerce. The executive power was vested in a Declaration of Rights, and then, on July 4, 1776, president; the legislative power. in a Congress made another Congress proclaimed the independence of the up of two chambers a Senate, in which each State has two representatives, and a House of Represen- United States. The early years a the war were hard for the tatives. in which each State is represented by a num- Americans. But in 1777 they forced the surrender of ber of congressmen proportional to its population. Ejnally, there were the federal courts, the highest of an English army at Sara " -ga and that victory won them alliance with France. which is the Supreme Court. France, backed by Spain, declared war on ,England (1778). By the Treaty of Versailles (1783), 3. Repercussions in America and in France England recognized the independence of her13 American colonies and restored to France and Spain The example of the emancipation of the English some of their colonies. oloriles had piofound leperussions. As early as The The Republic of the United States gave itself a end of thePith entury, there were uprisings in federal Constitution (1787). Its example spurred the Spanish Ameik.a and, 40 yea's after the Tway of cmanopation of the Spanish colonies in America and Versailles. Mete was nothing left of the Spanish in France it hastened the how of the Revolutior.. empire on the American continent. In France, the example of the United States was even more swiftly The ConStillitiOn of the United States

Article I r bromptlets' Note. At the time of the American Revolu- * * * tion. the "'United Provinces- was a political emit} in the area Ever} Hill which shall have passed the House of Repre- now known as the Netherlands. sentatices and the Senate shall, before it becomes a Law. be

4 15 presented to the Pres:dent of the United States; If he lie shall have Power, by and with the approses. he shall situ ti. but if not. he shall Achim and Consent return it. nob of the Senate. to snake Trcatim provided s. -his Objectr Ans. to that House in which two-thirds of the st shall hoc onpnated. Senators present concur.. who 'Hull reconsider it-If Slier such Reconsideration two-thirds of the House shallagree to pass the Bill. it shall be sent to the other House. by %shirt it shaltlikewise be reconsidered. and if approved by we-thudsof that House, it shall become a law... This Article is very important. It is theSenate which. as the final authority, ii themaster of she Article II country's foreign policy. In 1919. theSenate was to refuse to ratify the treaties signed`byPresident Wilson The eccutive Poster shall be ve4tedin a Prendent df the at the dose of the First World War. Moreover,the United States *4 America. He shall holdhis Office during the Constitution grants very extensive Tenn of four Years. and, top:theeunit the Vice-President. powers to the chosen for the same Term, be elected.as follows: President. He governs with federalcabinet members Each State shall appoint, in sach Manneras the Legislature of ministerial rank whom henames and dismisses at thereof may direct, a Number of tkars.equal to the whole will. For 4 years he plays the simultaneousrole of a Number of Senators and-Representativestwhich the State Head of State and an irremovable may be entitled in the Corigre. prime minister. The United States does not, therefore.make use of the parliamentary system.

16 2. FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

slaves. Among the whites, about 1.7 million were of IT (tri7-.'irr, English origin. Agriculture was the most important f branch of the economy. In the South, there were big Vr-T! 17, sugar and tobacco plantations and later on mostly vast areas of cotton plantations. This is wheremost of the Negro slaves worked. The planters were the richestpeople in the colonies. followed by the merchants. But everybody was able to acquire prop- The Fight for Independence erty of his own, often through hard work at the very in the English Colonies of edge of the wildemess. North America' A French nobleman who visitedtheAmerican The English colonies in North America olornes in1759 wrote the following about the European immigrand and theirlife in America: A system of internal self-government had. developed in North America's 13 English colonies that Everything helps them in their regenerationnew laws, a new way of life, a new social order; this is wherethey their Governors had to respect. These were appointed become men..: The moment he (the immigrant) breathes by the King in seven colonies while they were elected the air, Ile makes new plans and starts out doing things he by the olonists in the remaining ones. Every citizen troutd neter hate dreamed of in his old home Lountry... who had a major piece of land and that was must of The laws of this land take him protectively'finder their wing them was entitled to vote. By the middle of the 18th Let everyone figure out for himself what kind of change must take place in the spirit and thoughts of this man. lie begins to century, most of the affairs of government were in forget his former servitudeand derndence.... the hands of thecolonists. The great distance between the colonies and London alone meant that conditions in America developed in their own way. Tax Fight The immigrants came from various European countries; religious belief and social position initially England's victory in the Seven Years War released differentiated them from each other. But the new the colonies from the French grasp.b No longer were home;and confronted all of then] with the same the English settlers threatened from Canada and dem:ads. Only the able ones could master the tough Louisiana. This is one reason why tics between the task of opening up the country. This is why ability colonies and the motherland became looser When and success became the decisiVe yardstick for the England wanted to collect taxes in the American position of the individual in society. colonies in1765,a dispute arose. The 13 New England -States bad about250,000 settlers living in them around1700; by 1775,there were 21/2 million, including about 400,000 Negro I Pict ore J711,onus Jefferson. 'Compilers' Notc.Translatcd from Erich Gocrlitz's Das WerdenderModernenWelt(1648.19001.Paderborn- Hannover:SchoinghSehrocdel, 1968. Pp. 63-67. Repro- ducedherewithpermission fromSchoingh- Schrocdcl, hCompilcrs' Note. The part of the Seven Years' Ykr (publishers,. The material is designed for the 9th year of a t1756-63) that took plate in Amcrita rs usually referred to in 13-year primary - secondary school cycle. 1.1,S. history as the 1- rench and Indian War (1754-63).

6 17 electing its officers and lightingonly when and so long as it seemed absolutelynecessary. the American militia was at first rather unsuitedfor a long war. Washington persuaded Friedrich Be,ause the eolonies had also benefitedfrom the von Steuben, a English victory. the English Parliament former officer of Frederick the Great,to take over wanted to the Job of giving the have them help pay the Governmentdebts. The troops militarytraining. Although cooperation English settlers were of theopinion. however, that among the colonies was poor. although Congress had no only representatives elected by them hadthe right to power to implement tax them. But the settlers did notparticipate in the necessary measures. and although the number of elections for the English !louse of Commons.and st, volunteers remained small, Washingtonin the end overcame most of the difficulties. the English state could not taxav, ay a part of their possessions ("no taxation without representation"). Representatives of set eral colonies net for thefirst time in 1765 and addressed a petition to the Kingand Parliament. In 1766. the English Parliamenthad to drop its taxation plans becausetax collection had failed in the face of settlerresistance. This situation repeated itself during the comingyears. Finally. the English Parliament confineditself to a single,` small tax that concernedtea imports in order After the first militarysuccess. the representatives of the 13 colonies to preserve at least formally the pimple ofEnglish on July 4, 1776, declared these tax authority. Butitwas preciselythis taxing areas to be independent of England. Togetherthe 13 authoritythattheAmericans did not want to States formed the Republic of theUnited States of America recognize. The English Governor ofMassachusetts The Declaration of Independencewas wanted to force collection of thetea tax in Boston. essentially written by RepresentativeThomas Jeffer- Only after the cargo had beenunloaded and taxed son (1743-1826) front. Virginia. Thistrained lawyer could the ships leave-the portagain. During the night was guided by theideas of John Locke. The of December 16, 1773,Americans dressed up as separation of the States from Englandwas based on Indians threw the cargo ofa tea vessel into the water. rights that are inherent inevery person but that EnglishpunitivemeasuresagainstBoston only England would riot have given theAmericans. increased resistance in all of the 13colonies. Repre- The war lasted from 1775 until1783. Support of sentatives from all coloniesmet for the first time in the colonists by France.Holland. and Spain became Philadelphia in September 1774.They decided to :re decisive factor. Whenmore than 5,000 Englishmen terminate trade with England. Whena second Conti- capitulated in 1781. thewar was decided in military nental Congress was attendedby representatives of all terms. colonies in Philadelphia in 1775,there had already Peace was signed in 1783.For the first time. been warlike clashes between Englishtroops and the Man-soldiers hadwon a victory ever hiredmerce- American militia. naries. although only with powerful foreignaid. The independence of the United Stateswas recognized in the peace treaty. England retained Canada:the country west of the Mississippi fellto Spain, as did Fight for Independence Florida.

In the summer of 1775.the Second Continental Congress directedthe prosperous tobacco planter From the Americas Declarationof Independence of July 4, 1776: George Washington (1722.99) fromVirginia to establish an army. Washington.who had distinguished himself as an officer in thewar against the French We hold these truthsto be selfsvident, that all menare and the Indians. faceda very difficult task. Out of the created equal. that theyarc cndoivcd by their Creator wnh teitain unalienable Rights. that militia forces he was to shapean army that could among these are Lit-s, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. Thatto secure these rights. stand up to the English regulararmy. Accustomed to Governments arc instituted among Men.deriving their just

7 18 pursers from the...owl-it of the palmed_ That whenevet'et) thud authority here and it must see to it that all Turin of Government becomes destructive of these ends. it it measures of the Government agree with the Consti- the Right of the People to alter or. to abolish it. and to tution. To declare war, the President needs the institute new Government. laying its foundation on such principles and orpntzing its powers in such form. as to them approval of Congress: for treaties, Senate approval is shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happi- enough. ness... George Washington was elected first President of the United States in 1789. It was due to his efforts Vic, therctorc. the Reprcsentattscs of the united States of and achievements that the new state soon grew strong Aincrika. in Gencral Congress. Assembled. appealing to the Internallyin spite of considerabletensions. The Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our [French] Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of-the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare. That American Constitution became models for countries these tinned Colonies arc, and of Right ought to be f rec and that wanted to build up a liberal democratic system. independent States. The American Constitution of 1787, later provided with several amendments, is still in force today. The 3 million inhabitants were mostly farmers The United States Constitution who livid far away from each other. Philadelphia, the biggest city, had about 30,000 inhabitants. Society During the war, most of the individual states had here differed considerably from European society. adopted constitutions that gave only little authority to There were no privileged classes. America did not the Congress as the federal authority. This resulted in experience the burden of an outdated form of society considerable internal troubles aft,:r the war that could that made political life in Europe appear increasingly be overcome only through a Constitution for the questionable. Anybody who worked in America entire Union. That Constitution materialized in1787. could generally acquire property and thus also politi- fltiman rights, such as were found in the Declaration calrights. Thus, America became a model for of Independence and especially in the Constitution of dissatisfied Europeans. Out of the 30,000 German Virginia. became a part of the American Constitution. mercenaries whosold into English service by their Itimplemented the separation of powers into a princeshad fought against the Americans, 12,000 legislative, an executive, and a judicial branch. The remained in the country whose freedom and inde- state's mission was to secure- the liberty of the pendence they were supposed to have prevented. individual. Among the French, who fought on the side of the Americans, itwas especially the Marquis de La Fayette (1757-1834) who was a convinced supporter 1 . ; StJtC t C; of the new political ideas. Freedom, which had been , Eh.: .o.iitf Lkmciii, in lie implemented in America, was something that many

;ral and ilk. rciallon- citizens in Europe yearned for.

711 ,.utrent

t 1,11.1:rtoill IPicture JHessian mercenaries, whose services were s,44.1 Ingland In- their prince, are shown cmbarIchm The Constitution- left the ,individual Stites exten- ,fi or ,Iincrica. sive internal independence but strengthened federal authority to such an extent that a federal state capable of taking action did arise The President, who is elected for a 4-year term by the people, holds executive authority. The President and the government. wall is made up of men who enjoy his From theContract on SoldierService between confidence, thus do not depend on Parliament [Con- England and a German petty prince dated Apr. 20, gress I Legislativeauthorityis exercisedby 1776: CongressParliament. It consists of two shambers: the [louse of Representatives. the actual people's The soldiers arc completely at the disposal of the King of assembly. and the Senate. the body representing the Great Britain ... fur use in his servhc, in Europe and North individual federal State . The Supreme Court is the America....

8 19 8. Asa tectunine tee. His Ili,zhneis will be paid 3f1 Ta which was won as for every infantryman andes cry znnoneer..- . a result of foreign support, especially from France. The convictionthat inspired 9 Al usual, duce wounde.1ate s..,..unted ss one dead roan A the Americans was expressedmost strongly to the dms1 man will be raid lotin accordance with the restunum Declaration of Independence of July fee. _ 4, 1776. The Constitution of 1787 implemented theseparation of authority into three branches. 10. Thruukh gut the entuctime that this corps tin this ease Human rights were a 670 mem is in His M.siesty'sray. His litnannts. Majesty part of the Constitution. The individual'sfreedom grants the mos! Serene Prime.an annul subsidy of 25.050 was for the first time secured through Ta lets_ constitutionaL law. Events in America becamea model for the political hopes of many Europeans. Summary

A rather highly developedsystem of local administration by the colonists alreadyexisted in North New concept: human rights America's English colonies.Because they did not participate in elections to theEnglish Parliament, they rejected taxation byEngland. from this resis- Remember the following event: 1776, US.Declara- tion of Independence. tance grew the War for independence(1775.83)

9 3. UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS

The War for Independence The attempt- to introduce the stamp tax led to an uprising of the people of Boston and other cities of of the English Colonies in North the colonies. The officials collecting the taxes were America and Formation tarred and feathered, lashed to long rails, carried under the deafening clangor of pans and buckets, or of the United States a driven in wagons, and then the collectors were hanged in effigy from trees. Their household belongings were burned In bonfires. The resistance was so unanimous * % * that the English Government revoked the Stamp Act. Reasons for the Colonies Uprising Against England But soon Parliament imposed new taxes and sent armed forces to the American colonies. As it guarded the English bourgeoisie against rivals. The so- called Boston Massacre took ,place in this the English Parliament strove in every way to cramp .tense situation. It began when boys playing near the the develiipment of industry and trade in the Amen- customs house began to throw snowballs at the can colonies. Parliament prohibited construction of F-glislt, sentries: A crowd gatheredto watch the innunaking work in America and then the manufat.- spectacle. The English soldiers fired into it and killed ture of any sort of fabrics, and it prescribed that they several persons. be imported readymade from England. The poor farmers and workers were outraged is Llidlql 111N1,8 shr ri Pi'dr Plill11.11.14.711% 1763 when the English King forbade movement into I "70. the Western territories so that the settlers on the lands of the English aristocrats would pay quitrent. Butthecolonistsseizedtheland of the large landowners and repeatedly rebelled ,aga:nst the colo- In 1773 English merchants brought a large ship- nial authorities. ment of tea to Boston. At this time Parliament had The Stamp Act was enacted in 1765, It put a tax abolished the usual duty (customs) on tea imported on all trade transactions: there was even a high tax on into America, but at the same time imposed a shall every issue of a newspaper. The inhabitants of. the tax on it. Nevertheless, the inhabitants of the colonies colonies declared that the colonies were not repre- were unwilling to acknowledge Parliament's right to sented in the English Parliament and that therefore impose taxes on them. Dressed up likeIndians, Parliament had no right to impose taxes on them. inhabitants of Boston attacked the ships and hurled the cases of tea into the sea. Local inhabitants came tocallthisthe Boston Tea Party. By way of IPlklUICI ( %. rat.r,.ny I,.J,St punishment for this action the English Government proclaimed the port of Boston closed to trade, which caused an outbreak of resentment and was the proximate cause of the rebellion of the 13 English 'Compilers'NoteTranslated from A.V.Efimov's colonies in America. Nwaia tstoma.4./nisiI.trulichnik dra tos`mogo klassa In 1774 the Amerkan colonies sent their delegates., sredneishkol)(Modern History. pt.1. Textbook for the to al.congress in one of the largestcities in the limlith Grade of Secondary School). Moskva' 17.daterstvo coloniesPhiladelphia. This assembly sent the King a "Prosveshchenie" (Moscow: "Enlightenment" Publishers), 1970. Pp, 38-53. the material is designed for the 8th year of request that lie do away with the restrictions on trade a 10-year primary- secondary sultool sycle. and industry. The colonists also asked that taxes not

21,. be imposed on them without their coniInt.The King English oppression, to be commander-in-chief of the responded by declaring that a "revolt" had begun in armed forces of the rebellious colonies. Hewas the colonies; he sent armed forcesto suppress it, and known as an outstanding organizer and the only he demanded the complete submission ofthe colonies. important military specialist in the colonies. In response to the demands of the commercial and young industrial bourgeoisie, farmers, craftsmen, and workers, one after the other the colonies began [Picture] Pa RelliC, to declare their secession from England.

Commencement of Military Actions [Picture/ Golv( li'adwglort

Military engagements between the armed forces of Document the English King and the colonists began in thespring of 1775. This is theway it happened. The English sent from Boston two regiments of royal forcesto Excerpt From the Declaration of the Chiefs of seize rifles, wagon trains, gunpowder, bullets,and Indian Tribes to the English Authorities inthe flourin short,theentiresecretmilitary stores Colonies in 1768. created by the American Lolonists. A detachmentof Brothel, we and our families have recently been livingas if in hell, not knowing what to do. Wherever we look, English soldiers dressed in red uniforms marchedout of the city at a measured everywhere we sec our blood, and when ouryoung men want pace. But the soldiers to hunt game in our country, we come upon fences. Thcy guessed that someone had informed the population have become tired of climbing over them. about the military raid. And in fact Paul Revere,a They cannot- take deer for food and tree bark forpots, highly skillet! Mlvessmith.whowas intelligence chief since they are prevented frum hunting, =ma's, and thetrees of the Boston Revolutionary Committee, had ridden are being_cut down. ... The English. instead of protecting us, as we had his horse it top speed from Boston to raise the alarm. hoped, are taking advantage of the fact that they-ammore Alarm bells were rung and therewere shots along the cunning than we are, anti they have deceivedour people; they route of march of the English soldiers. Followinga have begun to sbughter our people in,,Pennsylvania.'11rginta, brief skirmish along the waya detachment of royal and throughout thecount*,and the merchants have begun forces scattered the Minutemenlocal to deceive us more and more. and now they care about inhabitants nothing and no one.... who were supposed to run with theirarms to a meeting place within a minute after the alarm.Thc-:. royal forces seized the cache ofarms, but on their return trip the farmers tired upon them ,from behind Pict lire trees and houses., The shooting -intensified, and the 77; ?IMP, it'll( I ..17 withdrawal of the English becamea disorderly flight. That is how the colonists began touse the tactics of extended order, the combat tactics ofan armed Declaration of the Independence of the Colonies populace in rebellion. There was little gunpowder and Wad; they used Under the pressure of the masses,on July 4, 1776, sheets of lead front roofs, later they evgi sawed up a theCongress adoptedtheDeclarationofInde- lead statue of the English King; they rationedout the pendence, i.e., the declaration of separation from lead in sparing portions, andevery soldier cast his England. own bullets according to the muzzle of his gun-. The author of this documentwas Thomas Jeffer- son (1743-1826), an advanced thinker for his time and an outstanding Picture II?, he'1!i tit 1,., /,slatt hurl stuttti4)1 - political figure. Elected a member 1kt trwksk of the Virginia Legislative Assembly, hestrove for the abolition of slavery. In England hewas sentenced to death for a pamphlet against the King. CongressnamedCol. GeorgeWashington TheDeclarationof Independencesaidthat (1732-9Q), a Virginia planter known to be a con- England was oppressing its coloniesin America and firmed advocate of the liberation of the coloniesfrom that the united colonies were seceding from England

22 and setting up an independent nation. All men arc courageouslyandvaliantly. One detachmentof created equal. theDecimationstated. They are Negroes died to the last man in putting up a defense entitled to life, freedom, and the pursu.. of happiness in the State of New York. A Negro woman named JS then Inalienable rights. Thedecimation ann-Junced Gannet from Massachusetts put on .ne.r's clothes and thatthe people itself had the right to establish fought heluicalb for 17 months in one of the regular authority and a government: i.e., it proclaimed the regiments. idea that the people itself is the wince of power the Rich landowners, sonic of the slaveuwi.ers, and the idea of popular sovereignty. The proposition that the loyal civil se, wilts opposed the colonists in their tight people itself can set up a government was aimed for independence. against die power of the King. against the monarchy. and it signified recognition of the republic. On the [Picture] Benfainin Franklin. other hand, this same idea was aimed against colonial oppression. The Declaration proclaimed the equality of man and nations. Thus, the founders of the The farmers and craftsmen were the principal American lepublic condemned colonial oppression strength of the colonists_ The revolutionary bour- and colonialism. geoisie led the struggle aeainst the royal forces and the aristocrats. In order to augment his armed forces the English (Map) Res,i/urronary Warin Vigil:AnicriLa. King- hired from the German princes about 30,000 1773-N3. (Map locales WWI American. English. and soldiers, whom he sent to America. He wanted to hire hunch military actin,.( from Catherine II in Russia another 20.000 soldiers, but in view of the strained relations between Russia !Picture Ifamoka.,16 arnksstinkruh and England and the recent peasant war led by tin trill Pugachev, the Empress refused to send the soldiers to America-.

But the bouigvisie used the.piug,ressive ideas of Taking advantage of the old enmity between the theDeclarationtoreinforce dm power of the two colonial states, England and France, the Ameri- w.althy, provided also that they were white. TN cans obtained a treaty of allianr.e and armed aid from Der.laiation di.r nvt abolish 31Jvciy and did not put an France. In order to obtain France's aid, the Congress aid to annihilation of the Indians and t'..en being of the United States sent as its ambassador to Fans driven from then land, and it preserve,; theexpluita Benjamin Franklin, an outstanding scientist, diplo- nun of lured workers. The funnel ...domes pro mat, and public aod political figur: who had partici- clauued to be States, arid they formed J pated in writing the Declaration of Independence. union the United States of America. Progressive socialcircles in France were ardently sympathetic with the struggle of the Americans to free themselves. Course of Military Operations Nap/ 71w United States in 1783. (Major map fea- The war continued until 1782. The English man- tures identify the 13 original States and the territory aged to take the capital of the seceding colonies, acquired under the peace treaty of 1783] Philadelphia. The American soldiers wintered in the open field in bitter cold weather,, They did not have enough aims, To- -y, fuotweal, ui clothing. Bloody Tie aristocrat Lafayette, for 'example, fitted out a footprints on the ice and snow indicated the paths warslup at his own expense, called it the Victoire taken by Washington's barefoot soldiers. It was nut (Vn..toiy) and sailed for America against the King's easy fur Washington to_ailueve discipline in JII army piohibition, and there Ire fought in the revolutionary - consisting of brave. but unclothed, farmers and forces. craftsmen. In 1781 the main forces of the English surrendered Several thousand Negro slaves fought against the to Washington at Yorktown. The peace was signed in highs!' in the ranks of the colonists. They fought 1783, The English recognized the independence of.

12 23 the colonies, 100.000 English aristocrats andmem- 1787 in order to strengthen their power; by and bers of their families were expelled from the United large it is still in force today. States, and their land was confiscated and putup for sale. That was the end of the war for independence The Law Setting Up the Governm.i thatLenin called the revolutionary war "of the The Constitution (front the Latin word American people against the plundering English, who consrirutio esta b lisl n t had oppressed America and helditincoliaial After independence was proclaimed,every State bondage."' be line a separate nation with its own armed forces, Thus, during the Revolutionary War, in thecourse fina ces, and customs boundartes. These almost of a fierce class struggle, power in the United States indep ndent States sent their representatives toa passed from one class to another front the aristo- Congre s that had little power. cratic landowners to the commercial and industrial Under the 1787 Constitution the centralpower bourgeoisie of the North, which ruled inai. .Iliance was strengthened. but the States retained consider- with the slaveowning plantirs of the South. able independence in local affairs. This signified that a bourgeois revolut.00 had taken place in the United States. A republic,was set up, the equality of all before the law was proclaimed, I PICIUN Pam, I Sinn c ?vb., ,n Thoirdr,a and slavery was gradually abolished in thenorthern f,,,ttrat s:hefob ,tnr-qttOhl/rile're1701% Cre.1 States.Butthe capitalists and slaveowners took Purrit ,rts, !Lirasis %laud:pr' the ,it p, advantage of the.people's victory to strengthen their akr,Prh, gain 1, prLicittrLiL! fin fit.1A, L nit the own domination. -

Shays' Rebellion (1786.87) finder this constitution a' President elected for4 years became the chief executive authority in the The war was devastating to many farmers. After the war there remained an enormous Government country. Be commanded the army and navy, ran the government, and apps takti officialsin short, he had debt. which the Government decided topass on to the fanners by raising taxes. The livestock, enormous authority, Washington was elected the first houses. - President. and land of the indebted farmers beganto be sold for back taxes. In response the fanners and city The American parliament -Congress -enacts laws, poor, which aresubject mainly craftsmen, in a number of northern States to approval by the President. Congress-.consists of two houses, Deputies are elected began an'ttprising that was headed by Daniel Shays, a to the lower housethe House of Representatives- participantinthe War for Independence. Rebels according to the number of inhabitants in each State. numbering some 12.000 to 15,000 men took up arms The upper house of Congressthe Senateconsists of in September 1786. They demanded that debts not representatives of the States (two from each). be collected from farmers and that their houses and The American Comt:tution reinforced the domina- livestock not be sold: The poor fanners andpoor tion of the large bourgeoisie and slaveholders. A people in the citiesfactory workers, day-laborers, number of the basic principles of the and craftsnien-- presented their own demands. Some new American Constitution and of the State constitutions were of the rebels demanded that themoney of the rich be manifestly aimed against the masses of people. In divided equally among the poor and that the richman he forced to work like the conunon people...) it almost all the States one had to have property land took or capital- in order to obtain the right to vote. the armed forces of the United States halfa year to suppress this rebellion. Unbeknownst to -the'people. Women, slaves, and Indians did not enjoy Suffrage. In the bourgeoisie of the North and the slaveowning 1791 theUnited States Constitution was supplemented by the Bill of Rights. This laW planters of the South worked outa constitution in recognized the righ's of citizens to freedom of assembly, freedom of speech, and freedom of conscience; i.e., the freedom to profess any religion or torenounce V' I LeninPantowbrantt t( ,Pmpletv religion altogether. Arbitrary arrests without court Wink.) Vo,1 37. p, 48 order were prohibited.

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14 25 I. Supreme Governmental Bodies in the United States Under the 1787 Constitution.

Appoints with consent of the Senate

Supreme Court (nine members appointed for life)

Congress

,-.

Senate

,House of Represdntatives Legislative Presidential houses of electors the State

.411p... Voters F I Did not obtain suffrage Did not have civil rights i- ,-- A0f% e.o&

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26 Theseliecdoms- west even now on paper. but .1.ot Je-spest to the opinions of mankind requires that they they are evastarilly sfolated. should &elate the causes which impel them to the separation. The Supreme Court. consistine of members We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men arc appointed for life. was insert laree authority. This awned equal. that they are endowed by their Creator with ...owl any law by delating it seitain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life. liberty utisonstrtution.d. ire United States Supreme (oust and the pursuit of Happiness. That to score these nghts. repeatedly supported the claveownersand_bourgeoisie Governmentsareinstituted among Men. deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. That whenever any in their struggle against the popular masses. With its I um of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is help the American capitalists succeeded on many the Right 01 the People to alter or to abolish it. and to 0..isioris in Laving uotkei strikes JeJated illegal. institute new Government.... Such has been the patient andtheydealtharshlywith the revolutionary sot-femme of these Colonies, and such is how the necessity workers. which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain The land that printously had belonged to the is a history of repeated injuries all having in dir ct object Indians was proclaimed the property of the new the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over th States. States and put up for sale. To prove this, let Facts be subnritted tea candid w Id. So-cal led howl:ems deineteraty was established in He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome North America un,ter the name "popular sover- and necessary for the public good. eignty- (democracybut it is actually the rule of the hourgtoiste. Ile has endeavored to prevent the population of these The fervent Russian revolutionary A. N. Radi- h- States, at:A welcomed the struggle of the Americans for s s out ...stride/lined the 4, Jpitalist system He has ... sent hither swarms of:Off:sem to harrass our in. the United StatesIn 1790 he wrote thatin People and eat out their substance. He has ... (given] America there were "100 proud citizens in luxury for his Assent to their acts of ... the thousands who had no reliable means of subsist- ence and no shelter of their own against the intense For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world: heat and cold.- For imposing taCS on us without our Consent: Nevertheless.the WarforIndependence did advance the development of the United States. The He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of tunnel English colonies became a republic. England his Protection and waging War against us. 1.11, 1011.4:!;1 !Kohl back the development of lie bas plundered our seas. ravaged out Coasts, burnt our American industry and trade. Customs were abolished towns. and destroyed the lives of our people. among the former colonies, which now had become States. and this accelerated the development of trade we. therefore, the Representatives of the united States of .elations.Butsm.!:slaveryhad beenpreserved America, in Genera: Congress ... in the Name, and by throughout the South, it subsequently. almost 100 Authority .f the ... Pezple of these Colonies ... declare. years later, brought the United States to a new That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all revolution. a civil war the war between the North Allegnnce totheBritish Crown, and thatallpolitical and the South. connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is , totally disolved....

Documents Questions on theitcunzent;I.What oppressions of the colonies by England arc noted in the Declaration? I. Lreerpt l-mm the Declaration of Independence Support these assertions with facts known to you. htthe 6,ntmental Congress on July 4, 2. What propositions in the Declaration have impor- 17710. tant and progressive signifiCance?

2. Washington on the Necessity of the Constitution, When inrise("ours,:01 human events.itbecomes riesessds tor one people to thwohe the political bonds which Which Would- Be a Means of Struggle Against Popular hays ,00ts anodise. and to asount, among the Movements(fromWashington's letter to aU.S. poo,crs earth. the separate and equal station.. a statesman in 1786).

16 27 2. Which classes were the driving force (revolutionary A letter %Bich I have just roc:eased from Gent Knox !Secretary of War) .b who had just returned frr.ir Massachu- classes) of the American bourgeois revolution? Which setts (whither he had teen sent by Congress consequent of class was the leader? What role was played by the the commotion in that Slats./is replete with melancholy masses of people-in the revolution? How was the information of the temper, and de%ims ofa considerable pan question of the people as the soul cc ofpower related of that people. Amode other things hesays. "there [sic' to the question of the right of the colonies to secede creed is. that -the property `of Ole United Stales,has been from England?3. What are the basic principles :4protceted from confiscation of Britain by the joint cxertains contained in the Declaration of Independence? 4. In of all. and therefore ought to be thecommon pnvcrty tit all. And he that attempts opposition to this creedis an enemy to what way was the Declaration of Independence equity and justics, and ought to be swept from off theface of progressive for its time, and in what way wasit the Earth. limited? 5. Show through the example of the Ameri- a can bourgeois revolution in the 18th century (War for "They are determined to andullate IsicJ all debts public Independence) why the bourgeoisie could not long and private... rally the masses of people around it and why the split occurred after the victory of the bourgeois revolution "The numbers-of these people amount in Massachusetts to between the bourgeoisie and the masses of people. about one fifth part of several populous Counties, and to 6. How were the supreme governmental authorities them may be collected, people of similar sciAlments Mom neighboring Stateslc , so as to constitute a body of twelve of theUnitedStates arranged under the1787 or fifteen thousand... ," Constitution? In what way was American democracy progressiveas comparedtothemonarchies in . Ill he consequences ofa lax. or inefficient govern- Europe? 7, In what way did the American Constitu- ment, are too obvious to be dwelton.... 1W1hereas apt tion insure the interests of the plantationowners and energetic Constitution.. might restore us to that degree of the bourteoisie and in what way did it restrict the respectability and consequence, to whichwe had a fair claim. ... rights of the people? 8. What similarities and differences arethere inthe causes of tilebourgeois revolutions in England and North America? Questions on the document:1. What is Washington referringtoas "disorders"?2. What werethe demands made by the rebellious farmers? 3. What Assignment for Independent was Washington's (and Gen. Knox's) attitude toward Work Related to (This! Chapter the rebels? 4.. What were they especially afraid of? 1. Run down the following terms and explain their meanings: Stamp Act. Declaration of Independence. Questions Constitution, United States Congress. House of Rep- resentatives. Senate. Supreme Court. and Western 1. Why was the war of the American coloniesat the territories 2 Compile a chronology of the principal same time a bourgeois revolution? What was the events of the War forIndependencein North principal peculiarity01 this bourgeon, revolution? America 3 Write the names of the leaders of the War for Independence and indicate the role played by each. 4. Indicate, the territory of the original 13 "Compiler's Note. -Bracketed phrase from the original States and the territory of the'United States accord- selection. ing to the 1783 peace treaty on an outlinemap cCompdcrs Note.Ibid. showing the present boundaries of the United States.

28 17 4. ARGENTINA

The Revolution of the inhabitants came from various countries in Europe, United States of Americaa attracted to America in large part by its religious toleration. in the mid-18th century, the colonies-proved their loyaltyto England by fightingagainst- France hi the mid 16th ..entuiy. there were 13 impoitant (1754-63). Nevertheless, shortly thereafter, the first lo.tdish colonies along the Nuith Anieman ....List. the diffii.ultie,seruptedbetweenEnglandandits population of which increased steadily, already American dependencies. exceeding a total.,1 2 million inhabitants. English A senesof navigation, trade, and industry acts that men. Fa Fiuguenois. Swisinen, hishmen, had been promulgated since the mid rth century and Geiriwus. Then industoes and trade Iluunshed ,_reserved to England the benefits of the colonial andrelations among then became evercloser. economy. These restrictions were resisted by the Although shoe was glen similarity between the Americans, although up to the mid 18th century they ulonies.1i was possible to distinguish three different had been enforced with great leniency. groups, ai.i.uiding to then location and way of life. The colonial wars had given the North Americans the ulunies of the Nuith. the Centel , and the South. arr awareness of their military strength, and the most The Lulunies vrt the Nuith were populated fui the eminent military leaders and most disciplined soldiers most part by Puritans, devuut believers who continued of the Revolution were trained in those wars. to observe the biblkal precepts strktly. Then indus- King George III _established customs duties on tiiousness was applied tosinall, wellkept (aims. They wine, silk, and coffee that the colonies imported from traded across the ocean with Africa and the West nun-English countries. Thus began the ill-feeling Indies. between England and its North American depen- In the colonies of the South. such as Georgia and dencies (1764). the Cal aims, a small group of landowners of the Since these measures did not have the hoped-for Anglican faith lived in !Lamy un then large planta- results, new taxes were established to be imposed on nun's, where thousands of wulkeis raised toba,.o, the inhabitants of the colonies. Some members of ..uttun, and u. e. That small number of privileged Pai liament opposed this, but the King, ontrolling the uwneis of great fui tunes had a large number of majority, had the Law of Stamped Paper (Stamp Act) labuiers, some free and villas slaves, but all tacking approved in 1765. This paper of nominal value was the most basic possessions. declared mandatory for allmatters of a juridical In the colonies of the Center, among which were nature. New York and Pennsylvania, them were Anglicans' The i.ulunies objected that the English Parliament and Puritans, who lived in the ..ountry and in the city did not have the right to impose, taxes on them and were engaged in industry and commerce. Their because they lacked representation in it. ResistancewasunanimousandParliament annulled the law in 1765. But in-1767 it approved customs duties on the importation of various articles, NottTi.trol.a..d from Os.,..11 1.11.1an's among them glass, paints, and tea, whatever the place L's Tionpos MoJcrnos j, Contemporancos (5th cd ) Buenos of their origin. Colonial resistance reawakened in the Acres. Argentina: EditorialKapelusz. 1969.Pp. 14048. form of speeches, publications, smuggling, the boy- Reproduced with permission from Editorial Kapelusz (publishers). The material is designed for the 9th year of a 12-year cott of British products, and the insulting of British primary-secondary school cycle. officials,

18 29 English forces and peaceful citizens dashed in legislature of Ins colony and in the Philadelphia Boston and several of the latter lost their lives. The Congress. He was a roan of singular Intellectual and Boston Massacre in 1770 intensified feelings against moral qualities. Courageous. industrious, prudent. "British tyrannyPar lianwnt abolished the disputed and firm. he quickly named great authority among his customs duties except that on tea. because King compatriots, who recognized him as the indisputable George canted to preserve the principle that Parlia- leader. First. his military actionas supreme com- ment had the right to impose duties on the colonies mander of the North Amencan armies, and later. his (1771). Thus the colonists triumphedonce again. political activity as. first President LA the United since in practice retention of the dutyon tea was States of Ameri=..enslirine hint as the founder of unimnortant because that product was importedas North American independence. Hewas, as one of his contraband from Holland. But shortly thereafter,a contemporaries said. "first in war, first inpeace. and monopoly for the sale of tea in the colonieswas first in the hearts of his countrymen." granted to the English East India Company and the smuggling of tea from Holland was curbed. Resistance [Picture] Geor,-e ltaskingt.,n. fr nt was reawakened in 1773. and in the port of_Bostona a GiTh.rt Stuart group of Americans disguised as Indians threw a cargo portrait keirt in the Built lbws.. war if Me tiiitt41 Slants orcnvnent, of English tea overboard. Parliament then voteda series of laws closing the port of Boston, bannine public meetings. and establishing severe penalties for The War for Independence anyone who used violence against English officials: and General Gage, commander of the Englishtroops The Se4.4.md Continental Congress declared thatit in Volt] America, was named Governor of c1fassachu- was making war on Great Britain to recover the rights setts The city of Boston as well as the colonists of that belonged to the Americansas British citizens. Massachusetts asked the other colonies for help. and thus proclaiming its loyalty to the mothercountry. all except Georgia named delegates toa Congress that But George 111 declared theinsurrectionists to be would advise what course to pursue. rebels and sent troops to subdue them. The attitude of George 111strengthened the advocates of independence, knownas "patriots :" who [Picture! 771, rp/74l,r.Jor% British clotziet in initially were aminority but eventually became .4- stir ,,bitcltd to o 1J41.111, a still-duty .117 lea. predominant. In a ;row, 4 dotgasa thris a The first armed actions between the British and chiptIR oil it sta. alio So.117114 ,,ff the Itidcpun- Americans in Boston and on the Canadian border clenc o: top Wit tit explain why, only 1 year after the opening of hostilities, a Third Continental Congressmeeting in Philadelphia would proclaim the independence of the AmongtheCongressdelegates were George United States of America. Washington. who was a member of the Virginia delegation, and John and Samuel Adams. members of the Massachusetts delegation, who had gained fame The Declaration of Independence of the United through their publications and speecheson behalf of States of America the "rights of the Americans." A month later the Second Continental Congress met. peacefulnegotia- This deLlaration was drafted-bya committee that tions had failed and George Washingtonwas named included Benjamin Franklin, famous for his activities commander-in-chief of the so-called Continental Army in the field of scienLe and for lus negotiationsas a that had just confronted the English, and-war was diplomat in Europe, and Thomas Jefferson, a famous declared against Great Britain in 1775. political writer, George Washington (1732 -99). He belonged toone of therichest and most prominentfamilies in (Pictured fgandurzi disgusts the Virginia. After studying land surveying he entered the the Declaration 4 Pd.pendeme with Pratildin and militia, distinguishing himself in the wars against the other !VIM Indians and the Fiend). lie also participated in the

19 30 The formal Declaration explained the reasons that United States of America, with which it signed a led the North American people to break away from treaty of ..ommer-e, friendship. and alliance. Shortly Lng land and enumerated in detail the aggiessive acts thereafter. Spain and Holland adhered, and the A George III. whom it termed -unfit to he the ruler Anglo-American conflict became a European one. of afree People.- "These United Colonies.-it The entrance of France into the war was decisive, concluded, -are, and of Right ought- to -bc Free and since French financial and naval support combined to Independent States; ... they are Absolved from all achieve the American victory. Allegiance to the British Crown, and ...all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved?' And in ll'Ictur<1 Va. r-, rt?c,,lurely. to, fulfillment of the resolutions, the members of the r,t If detiL r. %Mt t' StiVIC Congress declared that they pledged their 'lives, f.r,rnan,..1r. ouintinn fireir d,,,nnution r,rer the Wield Fortunes and .[their]. Honor." t"(IL InI 1;14: diricrkhrx Af 2 Lv-,. a r 1.tory in Sarar,,,za.The ..na.zrinz cl4 ,surroricr ,.J English General

114:11 Bur:, 9. nc rn ri Jiii 7PA rift: 3.1/7;1 The war lasted 5 more years because the English defended themselves_vigorously in the southern colonies. where the majority of the large landowners The Decimation, _which reverberated :Iiroughout sympathized with them. The conflict was decided the world, proclaimed three fundamental panciples. when the combined action of the French navy and an The lost states that all men are endowed by God with American army forced Yorktown, in Virginia, to certain natural lights, such as life, liberty, and the surrender in 1781. Negotiations culminated in the pursuit of happiness. These so-called natural- rights 'Peace of Versailles, signed in 1783. would later be embodied in the French Revolution's England recognized the independence of the Unit- Declaration of the Rights of Man and of Citizens. The ed States of America. second declared.that "Governments ... Idenvel their Tire Constitution of 1787. A Convention meeting just powers from the consent of the governed." in Philadelphia drafted the Constitution of 1787 Finally, it stated that it is legitimatC to overthrow a which, with some amendments, still governs the government by force of arms and establish another in United States of America. its place w'uen it dues not respect natural rights. The Convention named Washington President, and The Declaration of Independence lifted the spirits the latter's prudent action contributed to eliminating of the patriots, who had suffered several defeats. A theviolentopposition that appeared to impede year later, in 1777, they won their first major victory approval of a constitution. at Saratoga, forcing the surrender of an English army The Constitution of 1787 created a federal and coming from Canada. democratic republic, organizing, on the one hand, the France was eagerto avenge the Jefeats it had central government with Its legislative, executive, and suffered in Ameoca a shout time before at the hands judicial powers, and on the other, the relationships of England, and the cause of American independence among the States of the American union. had been well received there, to the point that some This Constitution, because of its democratic and, nobles, such as the Marquis de Lafayette, had enlisted icpublican nature and its structure, which for the first as volunteers in the ranks of the patriots. The victory time embodied the division of powers, influenced of Saratoga facilitated the diplomatic negotiations of Europe through the French Revolution, and the rest Benjamin Franklin inParis. In 1778 the French of America at the time when Latin American inde Government recognized the independence of the pendence was effected.

31.

20 MEXICO

The Emancipation of the decisions of the English Government relativeto United States= navigation laws and the Law on Commercewere frequently violated by the colonists because of the . distance between.them and England and-the demo- I. Basic Causes of the Emancipation of the United cratic spirit fostered and developed by localauton- States -- omy. The principles-proclaimed by the English and 2 The Struggle for Independence in North America French philosophers, asserting that human beings 3. Results haiethe right to happiness, liberty, equality, and fraternity, were truths that were felt and embraced 1. Basic Causes of the Emancipation by the inhabitants of North America. of the United States The colonists proclaimed their rights whenever they-felt sufficiently strong to doso. Consciousness of their power and destiny continuedto develop The liberal ideas prevailing during the 16thcentury during the Seven Years War, in which they had found a particularly fertile field in whichto develbp participated successfully on the side of the English in the 13 English colonies of North America. troops, acquiring new experience in military tacticsin The colonists, particularly those in the centraland fighting against the Indians and Europeans. northern colonies, had tried to abolish pulitioland The English soldiers, considering themselvessupe- socialprivileges. They had established theirown' rior to the American volunteers, had frequently assemblies, elected democratically, tovote on taxes provoked 'the indignation of the uolunists, who had and local laws, though these hadto be approved by already demonstrated their eft1.3.tiveness and skill. the English Crown. Two colonies, Connecticutand The SevenYears'WarinNorth America Rhode Island, had obtained the privilege ofelecting 11756 -631. Canadaor New France, un the one hand, their own Governor, while the otherscontinued and Virginia, on the other, had ',acted foryears the under a Governor and a council imposed by England. Ohio Valley. 'The democratic ideas and the spirit of adventureof The French needed it to travel easily from Canada the colonists made them dream of havingrepresenta- to Louisiaha. Act.urdingly, they began the work of tion in Parliament, to be able to havea voice in the fortifying along the Ohio, wantingto preserve direct decisions regarding the needs of the colonies,both communications between their two colonies. The administrative and economic. The restrictionson colonists of Virginia and Pennsylvania watchedthe commerce and industry imposed on the colonies, and French advance with hatred,since they understood the taxes on foreign trade fixed by the mother that if it were permitted, it would be impossibleto country, were irritating to the colonists-whowere extend their own frontiers to the west. In addition. familiar with, not only the English tradition bf commerce in the interior of North America was freedom but the ideas prevalent in Europe. The carried out by river navigation,on the Mississippi and St.. Lawrence Rivers, both of whichwere controlled by France. The English colonistswere friendly with 'Compilers' Note.. Translatedfrom Ida Appendini and the Iroquois, owners of the territory of the SilhoZavalisIlistoria Afoderna y Coutemporanea Six Mexico Nations. In spite of this, the French advanced City. Editorial Porrua, 1974. Pp. 22948. Reproducedwith along permission from Editorial Porrua. The materialis designed the Ohio Valley and builta series of forts showing for the 10th year of an 1 i btJ 12-year primary-sei.ontlary. their desire to hold the land through whichthey school cycle. passed. After a series of clashes between the French

32 21 andEnglishcolonists,theformestookFort The discontent, as has been mentioned, was latent Duquesne. Geince WJNI-ungion. a colonist horn Vii - in a majority of the colonists, who proteited against gam. was sent to nepihne with thesoldiers of the the commercial. industrial, and economic monopoly tort. During the talks.J Free d& ufficei and nine of his exercised by the English. They resented the imposi- men were killed. it was newt known exactlywhat tion of Governors in almost all cases. They suspected happened during the encounter. The Fiend, declared that England would end by consolidating the 13 it was a surprise attack. and Washington asserted he colonies into a single viceroyalty and would impose had acted in self-defense. on them a governing authority and the Anglican The English hastened to construct run Necessity. religion. They objected to not being considered 50 kilometers from fur; Duquesne. In 1754. the Englishcitizens and not being allowed to send French attacked n. and its commaridei, Washington: representatives to Parliament. They resented the had to withdraw. prohibition against colonizing freely the lands snatch- The representatives of the colonies and the ed away from France. Iroquois held a meeting al Albany. Benjamin Frank- The Seven Years War had been very costly. lin. the Ameocan physicist. tried to 4.unime the George III sought to utilize the colonists by maintain- ciilinusis to unite and elect a council of defense to ing royal officials in the colonies, reorganizing the oppose the french tottlfiuditurs of the Ohio. but he customs to prevent contraband and to collect effec- did not aclinne. the desired objective. France and tivelythe duties, and establishing taxes for the England. fio then pail. ,odeted then colonists 10 maintenance of 10,000 soldiers assigned tp defend defend ilienMel% CS and sent n'.ops to winfince them. the frontiers against possible attack by the Indians In the war. the English colonists used the Iroquois. and perhaps the French. who were enemies of the Hurons aniltinclasaws. the, Poi years the colonists had suffered from the latte, being I:wildly toward Franc. At first the was English regulations that restricted the creation of went favinably fin -the French, who had General significant colonial industry, freetrade with the Municalm. Liter it went to faun of the English, led Antilles and the Spanish colonies, and the direct by General Wolfe. In succession Acadia, the Ohio importation of European products. They had been Valley, Quebec, and Montrealfell. Both of the forced to carry on contraband trade to save their opposing generals died at Quebec, economy. But the creation of the new customs duties The Treaty ut Paris in 17b3 ended the contest. and taxes to support military expenditures produced Canada and the rightto the lands cast of the open rebellion among diem. On the other hand, Mississippi. except, fin New Orleans. passed from Parliament, knowing the deficit in the English finan- France to England. Spam lust Florida to England, but cial situation, thought that if taxes were imposed on obtained from France the cession of New Orleans and the colonists, it would not be necessary to raise them rights to the lands west of the.Mississippi. in England. Accordingly, they accepted the sugges- The territory of the Allegheny Mountains. the tion of minister George Grenville and imposed new . Mississippi Valley. and the Great Likes were ieser sad duties on coffee, sugar, and molasses that came from for the Indians. the Antilles, and wine that came from Madeira. No white man could settle there. nor buy or sell, The Sugar Act affected only New England, but the without a special permit. The latter regulation caused Stamp Act of 1765 that applied to all the colonies discontent among thecolonists, who sawtheir provoked general discontent. future in the west. Accoiaing to the new law, stamped paper would Secure against the French danger, they turned be obligatory for all- legal documents and for news- their energy to winning. then ',lanai, ;Industrial, and papers, What was collected would serve to maintain cinnmercral freedom dining the reign of George the English soldiers stationed in America for terri- -toile! defense, A new law concerning the quartering of soldiers, issued in 1765, imposed on the colonists the obligation to provide lodging in their homes for Cohnual discontent in North America. George III, soldiers coming from England. with his personalist regime arid his dilitts..44l1L atti- Increasing discontent, The colonists refused to tude. caused the outtneak of hoslairs heiwecti the buy the stamped paper. In.13oston a stamp distributor American colonies and the mother count:), was burned in effigy. In many towns there were

33 meetings inthestreetsprotestingagainstthe But Parliament was unwilling, toagree to the with- employees of the English Government in charge of drawal of the English garrison soldiers. selling the paper. The local assemblies raiseda protest The conciliatory policy was not successful. to Parliament. William Pitt, in 1766, declared that The colonists wanted to achievea complete and while the English Crown was sovereign over the decisive victory. Accordingly. they opposed thisnew colonies in matters of legislation, imposingtaxes was arrangement. They stopped consuming tea and a function given to the House of Commons. The- prevented the unloading of tea in Philadelphiaand New Parliament could impose customs dutiesto regulate York. commerce. but it did not have the power to vote In 1773. three English ships arrived in Bostonwith tams fur their own sake Franklin appeared before 340 chests of tea. The colonists-refusedto allow the the House of Commons to explain the colonial point tea to he landed, but the Governor of Massachusetts of view. The Stamp Act was repealed. would not permit the ships to depart. Agroup of The period of contentment was short. Parliament colonists disguised as Indians boarded the ships and voted "customs duties" that had-to he paidon the threw the chests of tea into the water. England. following English manufactures dyes, iron,paper, offended. declared the port dosed andplaced it glass. hides, and tea, upon entry into-colonial ports. under military control. The King Imposeda council Customs administrative offices were created that to govern the colony. Public meetingswere not were charged with preventing contraband trade, permitted without permission of the Governor.Those which was very common in the colonies. The vio- responsible for the uprisingswere to be judged lators were to be tried not by popular courts. but by outside the colony. The port of Bostonwas not to be courts, of admiralty established for this purpose. reopened if the colonists would notpermit enforce. Contraband trade maintained the,colonial economy, ment of the laws. General Gage was appointed and the decision by Parlianient-was a disaster Tor local Governor of Massachusetts with orders to applythe prosperityIn addition. the royal customs officials above laws. which the people in the colonies called were authorized to enter private houses in search of the "lotolerable Acts." contraband, which was a violation of the sanctity of Benjamin Franklin appealed to the colonists to the home. - pay for the tea that had been thrown into the sea, but The colonist:. as a sign of protest, stopped buying the Massachusetts Assembly chose tocallfor a and consuming manufactures coming from England. meeting of delegates of all the colonies to be held in In 1768 the datums service officials confiscateda Philadelphia.tofix by common agreement the shipment of Madeira wine brought on the ship position to be taken towards the English Crown. "Liberty." property of the colonist John Hancock. The Firsr Congress of Philadelphia (1774).It was His fellow aims, who held him in highesteem. given the name Continental [Congress] becauseit was rebelled at this action. The customs officials asked for composed of delegates from 12 of the colonies. Only assistance from the English garrison. while the people Georgia-failed to send delegates. Among the delegates gathered in a public meeting_ The meeting demanded were George Washington, who had been trained expulsion of the soldiers and sent circulars to all the militarily and distinguished himselfin the Seven colonies urging thatthey organize in defense of Years' War, and John Samuel Adams. famous for his liberty. publications and speeches- in favor of "the rights of In 1770 a group of youths insulted a guardin Americans." The delegates did not showany Mien- Boston, a detachment assembled in defense, and in non of separating from-the mother country, But they the darkness a crowd attacked the soldiers with rocks put emphasis on human dignity and the rights ofman and snowballs. The soldiers ended by firing against and formed a vigilance committeein each city. thecivilians, Foul of them were killed and the charged with preventing anportation of Englishmer- unfortunate episode received the name of the Boston chandise into the colonies. The vigilancewas to Massacre The soldier- were tried and absolved bya extend owl all citizeis to stop anyone from buying court, and this accentaated colonial discontent. prohibited manufactures. The respectiveCommittees. The English Parliament. tired of the boycott and of Correspondence reviewed the books of themen- the colonial unrest, wanted to end the unfortunate Lhants in each colony and carried on communications state of affairs by permitting the free importation of with other committees, To achieve theirmafiose the products and manufactures, except for the tax on tea. colonisls a...owed arms and organized theirown

4 34 23 militias.It was natural that General Gage would In 1776, in spite of his limited forces, Washington intervene. He sent a Colonel Smith to seize a powder succeeded in forting Lord Howe out of Boston. depot at Concord, near Boston, and to take Samuel Meanwhile, two sides were forming among the Adams and John Hancock prisoners,. as they were colonists. The first favored the King, wanting to supposed to be in the region. remain united with England. The second, the Patriots, Some of the columstsleaned of the older. One of fought openly for a break with the mother country them, Ppl Revere, rude through the countryside and for national independence. Pamphlets, periodi- during the night, alerting the militia leaders tv attack cals, and orators promoted this idea. An English the English. writer residing in America, Thomas Paine, proclaimed The colonists decimated ternblythe army of independence in an inflammatory book, Common Colonel Smith, which had tried to retire in good Sense. There was civil strife 'and fighting in the order. streets. The colonial Whigs imposed severe reprisals The first important encounter had occurred. The against the Tories or Loyalists. war between the colonists and the mother country had now started.

2. The Struggle for Independence /Picture] George Waskingtox in iNorth America

The Second Congress of Philadelphia (177.5).- This second congress was named the Second Continental The Third Congress of Philadelphia and the Decla- Congress. It was composed of a select number of ration of Independence of theUnited States delegates distinguished fur their intelligence, enthusi- (1776). George III organized a new army, composed asm. and patriotism. Among them were Wasilington, inpartof mercenary troops, who were almost the Adanucs, the Lees. Hancock, Franklin. Jefferson. entirely German. Dickinson, and others. They asserted again that the The feelings of the colonists, as English subjects, colonies had no intention of separating from the were offended. They saw i new offensive by the English Crown. Rather they were interested in de- English Crown conducted with foreign troops sent "to fending their native land, natural rights, and liberty. fight against them. They felt relieved of all brotherly The hostile activitytoward the mother country union with England and repudiated its system and would cease when it would respect the colonists. government. . . Since armed clashes had begun, it was necessary to Washington openly declared himself in favor of ele.ct a commander- in-chief of the Continental Army. independence and in favor of a republic. The third George Washington was elected. congress in Philadelphia ,invited the colonists to form George Washington (1732-99), born in Virginia, a new government because inthe hearts of the majority was the idea that they must not recognize an was, a rich plantation owner belonging to one of the most distinguished families of the country. lie was authoritydependent on the English Court. The brave, haw-working, prudent, and intelligent. He had Loyalists or Tories, who favored the King, were siudied land surveying, and had served in Virginia as a disarmed, and the Governors were deprived of office. military officer and as a member of the legislature. Ile Each colony elected a group of individuals forming enjoyed an impeccable -reputation and great personal aconvention charged with drawing up its own popularity. His designation was applauded and sup- constitution. ported by the majority. He was to become the most Tlic colonies transformed themselves into rode distinguished of the founders of North American pendent states or republics (May 1776), indeiendence. Washington put all his energy into The Declaration of Rights or Constitution of organizing his Connoeinal Army. overcoming enor- Virginia was accepted by all the colonies and served mous difficulnes, becausethevolunteer soldiers later as the model for the Declaration of Rights of the frequently, die, a few months of .military training, french nation. In it were recognized the natural right returned to their personal pursuits. to life and liberty, the sovereignty of the people to

24 35 elect their leaders, who were charged with working Washington anticipated this maneuver and defend- for the common welfare and security of the nation, ed the Hudson River brilliantly. After 2years of and the separation of the three powers ofgovern- fighting, lie achieved the victory of Saratoga (1777) ment. over his enemy. In spite of the triumph, the'Amerlean 77re Declaration of I de'perttlencc of the United army was exhausted. Its soldiers lacked shoes, blan- StaraIt was drafted by the great Virginia writer, kets, and clothtng. Many militiamen deserted, taking Thomas Jefferson, and revised by men of culture and their guns with them. political ability. The Declaration, directed to the The French interrention in the Anglo-American entire world, was signed on July 4, 1776. conflict.France-hadnot forgiven England for having The Declaration is based on the principles of the wrestedaway its-colonies. great thinkers of the 18th century and affirms:

a. God has created all men equal and given them inalienable rights: life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. ll'ictureiMarquis de La Partite.adoienent b The sovereign people must elect their leaders, ,oho will protect the inalienable rights ofman. c. The government derives its just power from the consent of the governed, but it may be over- thrown and replaced by another when it does The American uprising awoke enthusiasm' in .e not respect natural rights. French, who saw in it a possibility for confronting and humiliating their enemy. Choiseul, minister of The Declaration of Independence cunJuded with Louis XVI, worked activelyfur 3years to reorganize an enumeration of grievances against the King and the army and the navy. The insurrection of the North Parliament and declared, as a consequence, the American colonies, who espoused the ideas of the freedom and independence of the 13 colonies. European philosophers, were commentedupon and The Congress ,had very limited powers. It lacked applauded, inspite of the fact that France still money for arms, munitions, and clothing fur the maintained an absolutist regime. The enthusiasm for volunteers, who also had to be paid. the American cause rose sharply with the arrival of To the 16,000 men it succeeded in recruiting, it three representatives A* the Congress seeking French promised land as a reward when the war was ended. support.Among them wasBenjaminFranklin The majority of the colonists continued cultivating (1706.90), a physicist of thefirst order and a their lands. Many turned to manufacturing. distinguished diplomat. His' presence was the best The Colonial Army.It was composed of volun- propaganda forthe cause of liberty. Many young leery with no militaryexperience. Washington himself noblemen went to assist the colonists. Among them asserted that being good shots, they would shout well was Joseph Paul de Saint Ruch, Marquis de La from behind a wall, but never attack in asopen field Fayette (1759-1834), who chartered a ship at hisown stand up to formal combat. Being familiar with expense to take a good many French volunteers to their own terrain, its plains, rivers, and woodi, they America. The colonist Silas Deane and the playwright carried on something more like a guerrilla struggle Beaumarchais establishedthebusinessconcern, against the enemy than a true war They distinguished llortalez and Company, to send munitions to Ameri- themselves by rapid assault maneuvers. ca. On February 6, 1778, sonic months after the The Fnglish Army.Itwas larger and better victory at Saratoga, the French Government signed a equipped It was composed of a naval fleet anda land treaty with the rebellious colonies and promised -not army. to abandon them.untiltheirindependence was It possessed experienced military leaders, which led recognized. This treaty of offensive and defensive to the belief that they would be able to put down the friendship also had commeicial clauses. France and insurrectionists quickly. the colonies also agreed that they would not signa First phase of the war (1776-77).-The English separate peace treaty. attacked the country from the north, the cast, and France immediately sent money, arms, clothing, thesouth, trying to use the rivers to establish and a small army under the command of Jean dominance. Baptiste Rochambeau.

25 33 The League of Neutralitj WSW. .C.Ithenne II of return Negapatam to the English and to permit them Russia formed with Denmark and Sweden a league of free navigation of the Indian Ocean. armed neutrality that maintained that the merchant Inspite of thefactthat England sought to ships of the non belligerent nations would continue guarantee to its loyal colonists then property rights, their commercial relations with the nations involved this attempt was not successful. in the war. Holland later joined them. Spain and the Anglo-American conflict.Spain, joined with France by a family alliance and because 3. Results of her enmity toward England. entered the war on the side of the eolonics. The independence of the United States had an ,Spain's fleet, well-equipped. left Ilavana and Dorn enormous effect in AmencLand.,in Europe. The road pied Florida. to achieving liberty and the natural rights of man had The second phase of the ton. (1 778-81). The been charted. The absolute monarchies and autocracy money. arms, and munitions from France gave new entered a period of decline. hopes to thecolonists. who resisted the English The colonies of Hispanic America watched with attack at various-points. interest the separation of the English colonies from In Virginia, the English entrenched themselves, then mother country. Creoles and-mestizos felt their protected by a majority of those colonists who were spirit of independence strengthen, but they were loyal to the British Crown. aware that it was not the opportune moment to rebel. The Frenchfleetblockaded Virginia. General England. The Tory Party and the ephemeral royal Rochambeau beseiged General Cornwallis, who had autocracy were replaced by the Whig Party and the concentrated his forces in Yorktown, triumph of Parliament. England, defeated overseas, WashirOon. after having attacked Gen. Henry was -soon able to -recover. It retained the colony of Clintoninthenorth, endedby uniting with Canada whew it accepted its colonists. In spite of the RochambeauYorktown capitulatedinOctober war, the commerce of the colonies had not been 1781. The English Government asked fur peace. completely interrupted and both England and the 13 The colonists, fearful that France would deitiand colonies promptly enjoyed its mutual benefits. foritself the Mississippi territory, began separate France. The expenses resulting from the war peace negotiations England. in 1782, recognized the ruined the financial position of Fiance, which found colonists as the independent United States and agreed itself in a deplorable condition. The monarchy, by to turn over all the lands of the Mississippi. supportingademocratic andliberalmovement, The Peace of Versailles (1783). The Europeans undermined its own principles of absolutism and the had dreamed of defeating England. When the 13 divine nght of kings. The French, soldiers returning colonies withdrewfrom the snuggle,itbecame from then expedition and some of the loyalists who necessaryto suspendhostilities. The Treatyof emigrated to France espoused the new republican Versailles of September 13.1783, recognized. ideas and proselytized among the rationalists. Spain,Charles III, in supporting the movement of a. The independence of the :English colonies of insurrection of the American colonists, cast the first North America and the Mississippi territory. stone of the future wars for the independence of his b. The return of Minorca and Florida to Spain. .colonies. His short-lived territorial victory was going c. The return to France of the five cities it had to cost the Spanish nation dearly. The [American] lostinIndia during the Seven Years War, colonists, who had viewed with bitterness the activi Tobago and Saint Lucia the Antilles, the tiesof France intheMississippi region, looked islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon. fishing unfavorably on the Spanish colonies to the west of rights in Newfoundland. the island of Gorea, the great river and the Spanish dominion in Florida. and Senegal in Africa. The United States. -The majority of the rich and powerful colonists, at the beginning of the contest, sympathized with the thinking of England. At the The greatest diplomatic triumph of France was to end of the contest. the winners refused to give erase from the Treaty of Utrecht the clause specifying clemencytothese Tories or Loyalists, and they that Dunkirk must be demolished. Holland agreed to emigrated to Canada and le Europe.

26 37 The economy kf the colonies was altered little nothing more than a Congre. s of delegates, who had during the war, since `the great majority lof the acted in- the name of everyone during the War for colonists' confirmed cultivating the land and dedi Independence. But this Congress, in tune of peace, eating themselves to small-industry and commerce. had no power to issue laws. declare war. coin money. Contraband trade continued on a large scale. Tobat. or impose taxes. They had committed themselves to co. among other' things, continued to reach the paying the volunteer militia and the debts of the 13 English shores. colonies, and they had no money to do so. In the Agricoloire received a new stimulus after thewar end. the soldiers noted. The Congress in 1783 had to from the ideas on cultivation that the French brought leave Philadelphia. George Wallington succeededin to the colonists. The confiscation of the large estates convincing the soldiers to accept credits instead of of the Loyalists. which were divided into small money.Iledismissed thetroops.resignedas parcels destined for those who had been volunteers, commander -m-chief m 1783, and returned to his farm marked a notable change in the agrarianeconomy of in Virginia. The Congress, without enough the country industry had to expand, since England representatives to dehbeiate. suspended its meetings sought to restrict the sending of manufacturesneces- in 1784. sary for daily life. Even the rich had to accept what Each State had an autonomous government, with the local factories of the country could provide them. its local laws and its own money. Each one began to In addition to civilian industries,a great stimulus print paper money, but to obtain Englishierchan- wan given to industry for military neces. since not all disc it had to pay:with metallic money, Sin the that the volunteers needed could be received from metallic money disappeared from the market and abroad. foreign merchants refused to carry on commercial Social changesDuring the colonial period, in transactions with the colonists. The debt contracted spite of the democratic tendencies prevailing insonic by the Congress was S42 -million. They paid no States, there were families like the Penns and the interest on it except to the foreign creditors, which Calverts that considered themselves infinitely superior outraged the creditors within the country. Industry to the rest The War for Independence destroyed, in and commerce suffered most, though atfirst, the part, these `prejudices of nobility and caste, bringing shortage of money was not felt. Later it was telt in all together "all the patriots committed toa common its gravity all across the countrygde. undertaking. The system of primogeniturewas The States began among themselves a fearsome definitively abolished in 1782. campaign of commercial boycotting and charging In 1775, a campaign against slavery was begun. customs duties. 4- The most important centers of the movement,at the In the North,very powerful commercial firms were time of independence, were Rhode Island and Penn- formed. In all areas discontent. fear, and hatred were sylvania. Butrealization'of its aims] would be felt. delayed for many years yet. In1786, the economic crisis extended to the TheProtestantsects cuttingtheirtieswith countryside of western Massachusetts when the farm- England. were transformed into Amnon churches. ers had no more livestock with which to pay their Nationalism thus entered all fields. debts. Yearsofindecision (1183-871 While democrat.) The English had not yet evacuated all of the Ohio was on the march, there remained serious problems to region. The farmers felt uneasy with -the British and be solved, among them the consolidation of indepen- Spanish presence interrupting their commerce on the dence by means of a system of government that 'Great] Lakes. the St. Lawrence, and the Mississippi. would defend the 13 colonies, leaving them at the The question arose of the division of the lands same tulle free and sovereign The colonies, unitedin located between the Allegheny Mountains and time the struggle for a common ideal. were 'Anyet at Mississippi. All the western States wanted to colonize peace The aristocratic and agricultural Stales of the these lauds, regaidless of whether they had any right South, the commercial interests of the Center and to them. 1787 the Ohio Company, established in North, and the democrats of the frontier had to Boston, obtained a concession front Congress to split overlook their own interests and join together in up the region tufo mums territories that would each works of common defense. be administered by a Governor as long as it remained The States. confederated since 1781, officially had sparsely populated. Upon attaining 50,000 nth:1hp

27 38 tants. a territory would be hal:sr.-Niled lido a State 4 years and he may be reelected. He has the power to and enter the Union. appoint and remove his cabinet secretaries. In case of resignation, death, or removal of the President, the Vice President succeeds to the reins of:government. The legislative power.-Itis represented by the I Pict tire j ticoroIllashington and the just cabinet Senate, composed of two members for each State members of the I wed States. Thomas Jejferson. occupying their seats for 6 years, and by the House ot Alexander Hamilton. Henry lop cr. and Lilmund Representatives, elected in proportion to the number of inhabitants, and their term of office is for only 41,11. 2 years. The two chambers constitute the Congress, and it is its duty to make the laws referring to the army, the navy, foreign relations, the national debt, Creation.4' the Federal sernment.Geotge taxes, image of money, commerce, mail, customs WaJiiiigton, of whom it was jai II he vba5 "lust iii 'regulations, weights and measures, naturalization of war, firstin peda, and firstn the hearts of his fuleigners, revision of boundaries among the States, countly men,- Alexanderiiulton, and Benjamin and the annexation of new States to the national nankin* undertook enormous task of uniting the teintory. The originalStates, numbeiing 13, are 13 colonies, divided among themselves. into a single represented by stripes of the national flag, and the flailtni. Seven yea's had been ample to .demonttiate piescnt number of States arc represented by the 49 the inadequacies of a. C011federation that -was, from stars adorning it. the political and juridical point of view, merely the Thejudicial power.Itis composed of a Supreme hunted lepicsentative of all association of mdepen- Court and such secondary courts as Congress may - dent States. In 1787 the colonies agreed to the deem it necessary to establish, election), of a Constitutional Convention that was Thethreepoieerc-dreindependent and their drarged with drafting the Constitution -of the 13 responsibilities are not overlapping. States. The convention met in Philadelphia. Thyprendrnents. The members of the Constitu- The Constitution of 1787.Washington was elect- tional Assembly- understood that it was necessary to ed piesident of the,ConventiOn. lhs patriotism. his lia.ve-a certain flexibility in the Constitution so that it wisdom, and his equanimity were the best guaiatitee could be adapted to the needs of the future. This led of the outcome of thd undertaking. to the procedure of amendments, mentioned in one The agreements reached in 1787 still exist:aside of its chapters. This permits additions, deletions, and Chum some ieloints, even in um time, in spite of the modifications when Congress, representing the sove- economic and social changes the nation has experi- reign will of the people, considers it necessary'. enced. The States of the federation commit themselves A federal goveinnient was dialed to. lidnsfolin the mutually to respect each other, to recor.ite the same 13 colomet, into one nation with respect to foicign rights for the citizens of all States, and to preserve countries. forever the republican form of government. The laws issued by the Federal Government apply Laws onrights and guarantees. -Theselaws in matte's of war. peace, the army, the navy, money, appear as the first amendments to-the Constitution, 1.onimera,weights and measures, the mad, and at the request of Massachusetts. They declare the customs controls. riklit to freedom- of thought, press, belief, assembly, The federal and democratic 'republic has on the and the right of petition before competent authority. onehanda antral government with legislative, The Constitutionof 1787,democratic inits executive, and Judicial powers. On the othei hand, it principles, elaborated along the ideas of the natural respects the local government in each State, and it rights of man, served as a model, for the future establishes the 'relations that should exist among the republican constitutions of the European and Ameri- States. can continents. It is the most typical example of the Theexecutive power. -Thisis represented by a concepts of the liberals of the 18th century. President. selected byindirectvote of as many The first President of the American union was electors from each State as the Representatives and George Washington. Senators sentto Congress. Ilis teem of officeis The United States, upon creation in 1800 of the

28 3 federal District of Columbia.gave the 'lame of its our connections and sorN.,pondence. They too have been liberator to the official capital of the American deaf to the voice of justice and of conrigutnity.We must, union. therefore. acquiesce in the necessity. which denouncesour Separation, and hold then. as we hold the rest ofmankind. Enemies in War, to Peace friends. Conclusions We, therefore. the Representatives of the UnitedStates of .America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealingto the Supreme Judge of the World for the rectitudeof our intentions, do. in the Name, and by Authority of the 1.The Independence of the English colonies of North good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and America resulted from economic and cultural declare, That these United Colonies arc, and of Right oughtto be Free and factors. Independent States: that they are Absolved fromall Allegi- 2_ The colonists used the "natural nghts of manto ance 'o the British Crown, and that all pohtisnl connection formulate a list of grievances against the British betwe-n them and the State of Great Britoil, is andought to Crown. be totally dissolved; and that as Free and IndependentStates, they have full Power to levy War, concludePeace, contract 3_ The first and second congresses at Philadelphia Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all otherActs and opposed royal autocracy. Only the thirddeclared filings which Independent Statesmay of right do. And for the separation of the ..olunies from the British the support of this Declaration, witha firm reliance on the nation. Protection of Disine Providence, we mutually pledgeto each 4.The Governments of France and Spain supported other our Lives.our Fortunes and our sacred Honor. the insurrectionists because of their rivalrywith England. (Thomas Jefferson. Ben;amin Franklin, John Adams) 5. Many French liberals supported therevolutionary ideas of the insurrectionists. enlisting-in their ranks and providing them with money,arms, and muni- 2. Good Government tions. 6. The recognition of the Atherican union byFrance and Spain influenced the French Revolution and a wise and frugal Government, Which shall restrain the independence of the Hispanic American colo- men from injuring one another, shall leave them otherwise nies_ free to regulate their own pursuits of industry and improve- '. The first years after the v ar brought the coloniesa ment, and shall not take from the mouth of labor the breadit has earned This is the sum of good series of difficulties that wereeconomic, social. government, and this is necessary to close the circle of our felicities.... and political in nature. 8. The Declaration of the Rights of Man, of the State I from J Jefferson's Inauguml Address11 801 j of Virginia, and the Constitution of 1787ex- pressed the liberal philosophical ideas of the 18th century. 3. International Justice

* Readings Observe good faith and justicetowardallnations. Cultivate peace and harmony with all. Religion and morality enjoin this conduct, and can it be that good policydoes not I. Declarationof Independence of the UnitedStates equally enjoin it? It will be worthy ofa free, enlightened, and, at no distant period, a neat nation, to giveto mankind * the magnanimous and too novel example ofa people always guided by an exalted justice and benevolence. Not lose We been wanting in attention isour British Who can doubt that, in the course of time and things,the brethren. We have warned them from timeto time of fruits of such a plan would richly repay attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable any temporary advantages that might be lost by a steady adherence jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circum- to it? Canitbe,thatPkwidence has not connected the stances of our ,emigration and settlement here. We have permanent felicity of a tuition with its virtue? appealed to their native Justice and magnanimity, and we The experiment, atleast,is recommended by every have conjured them by the tics of ourcommon kindred to sentiment which ennobles human nature. disavow these usurpation- which, would inevitably interrupt I from Washington's Farewell Address I I 796j

'29 40 Suggested Exercises 5. Biographies: Washington, Franklin. Brief summary of the ideas of Jefferson. 6. List the principal points of agreement reached by the first, second, and third congresses at Phila- 1. Map of Canada and the United States indicating delphia. lite...Ohio Valley, 7. List the repercussions that resulted in France 2. List the principal factors that caused the emano- from the monarchy's support of the American . pation of the United States. union. 3. Give a brief t.11)1c of the pnnt.ipal dnelopments 8. Reading of excerpts from the Constitution of the of the War for independence of the United United States. States. 9. Factors causing the creation of the American 4. Factors that mottrated France and Spain to federal government. provide support to the insurgent colonists. 10. Map of the United States in 1787.

30 6. CANADA

A British North America Survives now recognize that he British colonies were the the American Revoiutiona freest in the world, and that their people had rights,, and liberties, such as elected assemblies and trial by jury, which were enjoyed in no other empire. But if In December. 1773, just a few months before the the British govermnent was not guilty of Quebec Actb was passed, a strange tyranny, it event took place' was guilty, as we shall see, of a failure to understand which was.to have an anexpected effect in Canadian the real difficulties of the situation. Unfortunately, history. Three -ships loaded with tea were lying in the Boston harbour whet, a party dressed 1760's were a decade of weak and divided as Indians leadership in England, and the government showed boarded them and threw-the cargoes overboard. a This bungling. was the famous Boston Tea Party, and it started ;tupidity which invited disaster no less a surely than tyranny would have done. crisis which ended in the American Revolution and In 1763, the Empire had justcome through the created the United States as ;al independent country. most costly and dangerous struggle in its history, and But if the American Revolution created the United in spite of victory there had been serious weaknesses. States,it was scarcely less of a turning-point in The laws of Parliament regulating trade had been Canadian history. for Quebec. Nova Scotia,and broken in the colonies even by trading with the Newfoundland refused to join the Revolution,and enemy, and the burden of defence had been very following it they received from the ThirteenColonies unequally shared: some colonies had givengenerous a new migration of Loyalists who left most important assistance, while in others the assemblies-had done effects in Canada's development. little if anything. To cure these defects itseemed reasonable, even to many people in the colonies, The Causes of the American Revolution that sotnereorganization should takeplace. Unfortu- nately. however, the British government did What then were the causes of the American not work outitsplans carefully or make them clearto Revolution? It used to be argued that-the Revolution American leaders with the result that misunderstand- was caused by the tyranny of the British government ing and resentment arose. in the years following the Seven Years' War. This The 5:,,--rnment's first step was the Proclamation simple explanation is no longer acceptable. Historians of 1763. Pontiac's rising had just sweptover the West, and the plan of forbidding settlersto go beyond the Allcghanies [sic) seemed wise at the moment. Never- theless, many important colonial landholders like aCompiters' Nore.--1 tom George W. Brown'sBuilding 77ic Canadian Nation trek. cd.). Toronto. J.M. Dent &Sons George Washington were seriously disturbed by the (Canada) Limited1958 Fp184-93, 195-96, and 202-03. Proclamation Line whit.h hemmed the Thirteen Colo- Reproducedwith permission from J.M. Dent & Sons nies in. and threatened to block their growth. -(Canada) Limited. The material is designed for the 10th year The British government followed the Proclamation of a 12- or 13-year primary-secondary school cycle,but is used at other grade levels as well. (Original in English.) by two other steps which broughta serious crisis. The first was the decision to enforce the laws of Parlia- t'Compilcrs' NomThe Quebec Act ofthe British Parlia- ment controllingedit ment expanded the territory of Quebec to include thearea trade of the Empire, the between the Ohio and Mississippi Risers,. most of winchwas Navigation Acts as they were called. Smuggling had claimed by 'oval of the then English I.LIIUnICS alongthe been rampant, but to enfurt.e the laws withoutgiving Atlantic seaboard(Seep 32for accompanying map, the colonies more freedom in their trade wouldbe a "Province of rhicbec, 1774:1 severe blow to their prosperity and was bound to

3! 42 A British North America Survives

British Possessions 62/76S Pr ociainaliono1/763

NOVA SCOTI A

SPANISH "%wok .-71RR/TORY Province ofOtte4ec,i774The Pesce 'Mealy of /713 Within twenty years, 17634763, there were crowded four boundary settlements which have an important plcce in Canadian history.The first and fourth were caused by wars, the Seven Years' War (Map 1) and the American Revo- lution (Map 4). The other two resulted from attempts made by the British government to solve the difficult problems of Canada and the control of the western country.

43 cause trouble. The second step vois the proposal ofa new plan for defence by winch largegarrisons would I PicturePre B, sr, of Parry. be stationed in America to i.entrol theIndians and the West. Britain was to pay two-thirds ofthe cost. the colonies only one-third. Toraise the necessary .In the years following the Stamp Acta small money the famous Stamp Act of 1765was passed. minority of radicals begal to work for independence. and by it for the thst time a directtax was levied on They watched for every.opportunity ofstirring up trouble, and their great chance the colonies by Parliament. The Act broughta storm came in 1773. In that of argument and rioting. The colonistsprotested year the British government gave the East India Gampaoy a monopoly of exporting ainst the "rights of Enehshmen" beingtaken from tea to America. Tea. because it had been taxed, them. and raised the cryso familiar in English was a delicate subject in the Colonies and this action history. "No taxation without representation."Pitt. was widely resented, especially by .the Colonial merchants, sillose genius had saved the Empirein the Seven many of whom now lost their trade in tea. The radicals immediately Years' War, warned Parliament in themost solemn terms against threatening the liberty of the colonies. seized the opportunity of makinga crisis, and in "I rejoice," he declared, "that America has Boston it was this group who stagedthe Boston Tea resisted." Tarty. The British government bowedto the storm and the Stamp Act was repealed aftera year, but it was The Boston Tea Party wasa lawless act, but now, if ever. was the time for followed by taxes on tea, glass, and painters'colours. a careful and wise policy. Instead, the British govirnment closed These too aroused opposition and thenlike the Boston harbour until the tea should be paid for. Stamp Act were repealed in 1770.except for the tax and took other on tea which was foolishly kept in order to show that repressive measures.' A flame of oppositionspread from one end of the Thirteen Colonies Parliament had the right to levy suchtaxes. Thus the to the other. British government in its attemptsto reorganize the Men were already arming, and early in1775 the first Empire had succeeded by 1770 onlyin creating shots were fired at Lexington andConcord near ill-will and a fear that colonial libertiesand rights of Boston when a force of British redcoats,sent to look self-government were in danger. for hidden arms. was attacked. SoonGeneral Gage and his British army were hemmed in Two WU Ne'SoftheRevolutionhavebeen at Boston, and in June a battle in which Gage suggested the difficulty ofreorganizing a yam and was defeated was fought at Bunker Hill. Even yet there complex empire after the Seven Years'War and the was time for mistakes in judgment to the Britishgovernment. A compromise. but tempers were hot and neither side would go far enough to win third must be added, the feelings ofstrength and- a peaceful settlement. A Continental Congress with representatives sturdy independence which had resultedfrom over a from all the colonies had already been called century of growth. The. Thirteen Colonieswere no together at Philadelphia. and during the autumn and longet in their iiilaney. Their peoplenumbered over winter of 1775-76 extreme opinions rapidly two million and many of them hadnever seen gained ground in it.Finally, on July 4, 1776, the Declaration England. The colonies were Americanin their spirit of and in their ways of living. Moreover.the French Independence was issued. The breachwas complete. menace was removed after 1763 and the coloniesno longer felt ,Dependent on England's aid.This did nut Quebec, Nova Scotia, and NewfoundlandRefuse To mean,that they wished for independence. Thegreat Join the Revolution naitirol of the colonists were loyal.even after the Stamp Act. They were proud of the'Empireand its Nowhere was the Revolution watched liberties but to destroy those liberties more anx- was to invite iously than in the provinces north ofthe Thirteen disaster. Edmund Burke. the great Member ofParlia- Colonies. Would they joinin it or would they remain ment. understood this. but fewin England were loyal to the Empire? Newfoundlandwas the furthest willing to listen to him. "Slavery theycan have anywhere. But freedom." lie declared, "theycan have 'These acts were called from none but you, Deny them this freedomand you in the Thirteen Colonies the "Intolerable Acts." The Quebec Act. being passedat the break that sole bond whichmust preserve the army of the Empire. same time. thus eot into had company and was denouncedas violently as the rot.

44 away, and its people had always been attached to the skirmishes at Lexington and Concord, a small Britain. They had no love for the New England group of Americans took Ticonderoga which was fishermen who came to their shores, and in 1:76 garrisoned by tinly a few sleepy British soldiers. The when Quebec was invaded it was the tamely awval of Lake Champlain route .was thus left unguarded, and a corps of Newfoundland volunteers that helped to soon an American army was moving on Montreal. saveihe day. Carleton rushed up from Quebec but saw than In Nina Scotia the situation was very different. Montreal was too weak to be defended, and only Hoe a large majunty of the settlers were from New escaped being captured himself by going down the St. England. and naturally many of .them sympathized Lawrence again in a rowboat with muffled oars. By with the Revolution. The feeling was, however. never the autumn of 1775 only Quebec itself was left to strong enough to cause an open outbreak. The offer resistance to the American invaders. settlements were scattered, and most of the people probably wished to be left alone, like those of [Picture]. Governor Carleton reyiemni his troops in Yarmouth who made the following statement: "We the Place erslroles at Montreal in 1775: do all of us profess to be true Friends and Loyal Subjects to George our King. We were almost all of us ;'urn in New England, we have Fathers, Brothers and Their task was, however, not easy, and they did Sisters inthat Country. Divided between natural not get the help which they expected in the colony. attectum to our neatest relations, and good Faith and The merchants, even though they disliked the Quebec Friendship to our King and Country, we wilt to Act, did not want to throw away their market for know. if it may be permitted at this time to live in a fursin England, __andthe habitants, while they peaceable state, as we look on that to be the only disappointed Carleton, did not rush to support the situation in which we with our wives and children, invaders. Bishop Briand staunchly supported Carle- can be in any tolerable degree safe." In Ilalifax ton. "The singular kindness," he told his fellow 'feeling was overwhelmingly against the Revolution. French Canadians, "and the gentleness with which we Halifax was a naval and militarybase, and it have been governed on the part of His Most Gracious prospered by the money which the British govern- Majesty King George Ill; the recent favours which he ment spent there. The merchants felt they would be has bestowed upon us in permitting us the usage of injured, not benefited, if their trade with Britain was our laws, thefree exercise of our religion, and broken off. allowing us to participate in all the privileges and Britain and the British West Indies were by far advantages of British subjects, are sufficient without their greatest markets. Moreover, the rebelling colo- doubt to arouse your zeal to support the crown of nies could not send an army to Nova Scotia. The Great Britain." The Americans also hurt their cause British navy controlled the sea. and although Ameri- by offering paper money, which the French Cana- can privateers made some surprise attacks along the dians believedworthless,or by seizing supplies coast, the Thirteen Colonies lacked a navy and had without paying for them at all. The small American neither men nut arms to spare. A number of reasons armywhich, after taking Montreal, marched on combined therefore to keep Nova Scotia from joining Quebec in the autumn of 1775 was therefore in a the Revolution. mostdifficultsituation, even though Carleton's In the province of Quebec there was still another garrison was desperately weak. On the night of situation. The leaders in the Thirteen Colonies feared December 31 in a blinding snow storm the Americans an attack hum Quebec. They were, theicfore,.most made their one hard assault. When this failed, it is a inxtous to win it over as the fourteenth colony, and yonder that the siege continued. Short of supplies there seemed to be a good chance of their doing so. and with smallpox raging in their ranks, the invaders Governor Carleton had only about 800 regular under General Arnold hung on till spring. When a troops scattered in small garrisons from Quebec to British fleet sailed up the river in May, they could do Michilimackinac. Moreover. his support in the colony nothing but retreat. was very uncertain. The merchants were displeased by the Quebec Act except for the clause which had extended the boundary, and the habitants" were very c(ompilers' Note.- The min "habitants refers to the doubtful. In the spring Or 1775, immediately after f rench agricultural settlers in Quebec.

34 45 * * * 'Picture]General Arn,ld's 114..adqiiarters, 1775-71k The Loyalists Seek New Homes

No other invasion was attempted bythe Ameri- One of the greatest effects of the American cans. In 1777 the British took the offensive. An army Revolution on Canada has not been mentioned. This under General Burgoyne was sent from Quebec by is the Loyalist migration which broughtmany thou- the Lake Champlain route. Another British army was sands of new settlers from the United Statesto to move north from New York, but when it failed to provinces still remaining under the British flag. In the do so, Burgoyne was forced to surrenderat Saratoga. Thirteen Colonies -the Revolution had really beena Saratoga was a turning-point in the Revolution. It civil war in which the whole populationwas torn with encouraged France to declare war on Britain. and so conflicting loyalties. John Adams,one of the Ameri- brought Americans help v:hen they most needed it. can leaderi. later said that in 1776 probably not more But by this time the chance of winning Quebec had than one-third of the people favouredwar against passed. England, that another thirdopposedit, and-that the So the failure of the American invasion. British sea remainder were uncertain. With opinionso divided. power. Carleton's leadership. the attitude of the the harshest measures were used against thosewho merchants and French Canadians. all played a part in remained loyal to Britain. Thousands, especiallyin keeping Quebec from becoming the fourteenth NewEngland, New York. and Pennsylvaniawere colony. Most important of allwas the fact that persecuted and stripped of their property, Noless Quebec's interests were really different from those of than eighty to one hundred thousand fled,or were the Thirteen' Colonies. 11cr French-Canadianpeople driven and exiled_ from their homes. They did not want to merge with the were English-speaking scattered on both sides_ of the Atlantic inmany colonies. The centre of their life was the St. Lawrence places, but mostly in the British Isles, the British West as it had always been, and through the St. Lawrence Indies, Nova Scotia, and the Province of Quebec.The Quebec's trade and defence were tied to Britain much Loyalists who settled in Nova Scotia aid Quebec more than to her neighbors on the Atlantic coast. came mostly fromthe northern coloniesfrom Boston where the Revolthion began, from New York which was held throughout the-war by the British The End of the Revolution and the Making ofPeace army. and from Pennsylvania where Loyalist sentiment was strong and widespread. Such.a migration of III1781thedefeat of theBritish army at thousands of new settlers was foreseen by Yorktownendedthe campaigns of the Revolution. no one at the beginning of the Revolution. It isnot too much By this time Britain had almostevery country in to say that it changed the course of Canadian history. Europe against her, and only the navy's commandof the sea prevented complete disaster. Thenews of Yorktown brought als.)achange in the British (Picture]United .1:mpire Lot alists. Landing4,11 the government. The friends of the Thirteen Colonies site of Saint Jam, V.11., Ma", 1783. the firstparty of gained control and insisted-onpeace. The result was settlers faces new life in the wilderness ofrot As and the Treaty of Versailles of 1783 which recognizedthe trees. new United States of America, gave it the western country from the Alleghanies 1sicj to the Mississippi. * * and drew the boundary line from the Atlanticcoast to Lake of the Woods, which has remained with few The Loyalist Influence changes to the present day, To some these boundaries seemed needlessly generous. The Frenchgovernment For many reasons, the coming of theLoyalists was was astonished, and not very well pleased that the an event of great significance in the history of British United States received so much, but the British. North America. Merely by addingto the population it government was determinedthat friendship and caused changes all the way from Halifaxto Niagara. good-will should be restored. It was no fault of the New settlements sprang quicklyinto t: iistence, not Treaty that these generous intentions were later often least among them the strong settlementswest of forgotten. Montreal on lands which hadnever previously been

46 35 ck.i.upied ex..ept by Indians Two trek; ph.loh.cs weie them were humble and ubs.ure people. many were ..mated. and after therm were foot eleeted from well edukated anti pronunent families. Among assemblies where beloit diem Li bees one. But them were soldiers and army officers, who brought a the effeu of the Loyalist iminvation went Cu SOISe of disupline and organization. Others were men beyond these thins whidi tart easily be file3$4,11Cis. and women of forte and expetienke whose influence The Loyalists Nought with them qualities and ideas 4virld be seen cerywheie in the life of their pioneer which wereroughened by Lod e.:kpeneri,e. No Many of then descendants have shown ,ountry ould hake asked lot pioneeis mote likely to the same high qualities of leadership, and it is no s.u..eeed. They bad a strong ILIA() to the Bntmsb flag. wondes that the Loyalist tradition has left in Canada and at the same time a determination to enjoy the an indelible impression. liberties and rights of self-government to which they had been accustomed. The kurieiy of people among them is one of the things which interests us most [Picture( Pe,kraciNtamp /Wit,/ lu irzarA are one English. Scottish. Irish. and German families. repre- Jora, fir arintrawv t, ontn..; the senting districts in the Thirteen Colonies all the way 1.,rafist. hum Nev. England to Aestetn Pentisylkania. Most of

36 47 7. GHANA

The American Revalutiona through English ports for taxation. OnlyBritish ships, and British colonial ships agreeingto certain rules, fSjoon after the discovery of theNew World. could be used. This increased theprice of goods. many Europeans left their own countriesto find For some time the colonistsin America evaded homes in the West Indies and inAmernm. These sonic of theSe laws. But during the second half ofthe people were called 'colonists. Some left Europe eighteenth century. Britain levied severalnew taxes because of thereligious troubles. ...Others left which the colonists felt they couldnot accept. They because they disagreed with thegovernment of their refused to obey these laws; becausenobody from own countries. Many of thesemen crossed the America had taken part in making theselaws. `flow Atlantic to search for silver and goldor to start can we be askedto pay taxes by the British cotton and tobacco plantations. parliament in which we haveno representative 6h From about 1607. thousands ofBritish people speak for us?' they said. settled in the eastern and southernparts of the But George Ill, King of Britain, andsome of his present-day United States of America. (Lookat the advisers insisted that they did have theright to tax map (below].) the Americans. Naturally, theAmericans, who had left their homeland in search of freedom,refused to (Until17r, TnerN., 11( ,1 bc, Jptic rhr pay the taxes. They pleaded unsuccessfully withthe British government to stop these !hirr, cot r rIn. S tfaltr map taxes. ft:jruri:S In 1775, the situation exploded 14;:ISV the 13 (:iituruk:and 23 into a war, which onr. qtaot 4,01(._. Its e.pa,:inr Airwrica,1 lasted for eight years. At first, theBritish proved stronger than the Americans. But the Americanshad an able leader in George Washington, andas the war continued, they gained the As time went on, these colonistsbecame more upper hand, In 1778 France entered the war, and French prosperous.. Each British colony had itsown govern- troops came to the aid of the Americans_ Another ment, but at this time. the Europeangovernments advantage for the Americans was the great distance from insisted on their right to pass laws fortheir colonies. Britain. It was difficult for the British During the seventeenthcentury III England, the government to transport, and supply troops. government passed three Navigation Acts, which - Matters grew worse for the British, made certain rules about the colonial trade.Sonic of when other Europeannations, the goods produced by the colonieswere to be France, Spain andIlolland, attacked the British navy at exported only to Britain or other Britishcolonies. sea. Britain, fighting on several fronts at once, found it and other good intended for the colonieshad to pass even more difficult to send troops to America. The war ended in 1783 in defeat forJ3ritain; with a the signing of the Treaty of Paris, Britainrecognized Compilers' NoteProm K Buales "4 NewIlistorj America as an independent country. (In jar Schools and the course of Colleges." Book 2 (2d ed.). London. the war, on the fourth' of July, 1776, Macmillan London Ltd.. 1970. Pp. 71-74. the Americans Reproduced with had declared their country independent pernus4on from Macmillan London and Basingstoke.The of 'Britain. material is designed for the earlypusiprimary years of a This date, rather thana date in 1783, has since been primary secondary cycle that may vary from 12to 17 years. celebrated by America as Independence Day..) (Original to English.) To sum up, the American victorywas the result of

48 37 good leadership, a better knowledge of the geography rejected foreign rule and formed a nation of its own. of the country, and help from France and other Britain learned an important lesson from this. From European countries. Britain's defeat was caused not thattime onwards, Britain had a ne%Q attitude only by the great distance between the battlefield and towards some of her colonies, such as Canada and, the home country, but also by poor leadership and later. Australia, where her own people had settled_ In the difficulty of fighting on several fronts at once. their other colonies. however, the British repeated the The American colonies successful struggle for mistake of keeping colonial rule for too long a time independence was a revolution. It uas the first time This led to another revolution- the emergence of in modern times that a Luluny ruled from outsidehad self-rule for the former Asian and African colonies_

38 49 8. ARABREPUBLIC OFEGYPT

The AmericanRevolution' Causes of the Revolution

The main reasons for theAmerican revolution against British colonialismare as follows: Revolution Against Colonialism

We have already discussedhow the English cola- 1. British Tyranical Rule in America nists landed on the easterncoast-of North America. how they established 13 colonies there during the Ineach American colony therewas a Governor 16th and 17th centuries, and how they constituteda representing the King of England, part of the British Empire. with as well as two their population in legislative bodies, one of which 1;760 totaling nearly was elected by the one-thirdthat of England people while the other . herself. was appointed by the Gover- nor. But the British Parliament held the The Americans took highest part in all the wars that authority above those twobodies. The British Parlia- Britain wasted against France during a large part of ment was really the body thatactually formulated the 18t1icentury. participating with their forces, their the laws for the coloniesand decreed the lives,their taxes material sacrifices, and theirleaders. imposed on them. Therewas a considerable conflict famous among whom was Geiirge Washington. who between the elected legislaturesof the colonies and fought on the side of the the appointed Governors, English against Francein who were actingon behalf the Seven Years War in Canada(1756.63). of the Parliament andthe King of England. The Furthermore, the American coloniessuffered what frequency of this conflictresulted in increasing the England had succumbed to, in terms of the absolute awarenels of the Americans of theconflict of interest authority of its kings during the17th century. between the American peopleand the British. But while the British Isleswere able, under the After the Seven Years'War, the Americans felt leadership of Parliament, inure to restrict this [royal] resentmenttoward England, becausethey authority through the 1688revolt, England, under expected England to rewardthe American-colonies the auspices of this same Parliament. refused to allow by granting them greater freedomin managing their the American colonies to enjoy the freedom and the own affairs as a result of the staunchsupport the constitutionalreformit _enjoyed. Therefore, the colonies gave England inthis war. But [instead" American Revolution wasnot only a revolt against England began administrativeand economic reorgani- blind British imperialism. but also a revolt.tosecure zation of the colonies in orderto increase its control constitutional freedom and aemocraticprinciples. civet them.

2.Thrgland's Trade and Ecommicitfonopoly

Behiad this political disenchantment, 'Compilers' Note.-Translated therewas from A. Rudwan, M. AK discontent with the monopolistic And M. El-Glianam'sOjisool Itialam Madill: policies of England Afuntha in America. Ironically. while Iambi& Iflonzpla llata Waktallaklhathertioundations of the British middle class the Modern World From the European Renaissanceto acquired their freedom andsupported the authority Modern Times). Cairo GovernmentPress, 1974. Pp. 78-89. of the Parliament against The material the tyranny of the Kingsof designed for the 10thyear of a 12-year England, the same class primary-secondary school cycle. supported the tyranny of the English Government and itsmonopolistic policies in

39 50 thecolonies. explounri: Alfred aI1resourcesfor played a strong part in shaping public opinion, and British interests. led America's boycott of England materially and Examples ale.(1) the Americans were forbidden morally. Thus in 1765 the merchants boycotted lo tianspoit then trade in any ships except Butts!) English imports, leading to a business slowdown for a vessels. (2) theAnielicans were prohibited from period of time and to a significant decrease in the manufacturing what they could buy from England: trade with England. (3) the Americans were restncted inpurchasing No taxation without representation. At that time, certain commodities except through England. the Americans began to adopt the important principle The American colonies felt the !linden of these of -.no taxation without repre:entation:' and they controls and made it known to the British. but the beltesed that imposing taxes without consultation British always iu-titied the contiols mulct the guise of with them or with their representatives was a threat protecting the colonies from the French in Canada. to their freedom. Ironically again. these controls were tightened as The 1765 Nets' York Conrcntion.In October- of England emerged hum the Seven Years' Wm bin- 1765. a convention took place in New York that dened by a heavy debt (5700 million). and demanded included 27 distinguished and able men representing from the colonies a gleatei . shale in paying_ these nine colonies. This was the first convention to unite debts and in supporting the ever - increasing costs the' colonies in their struggle for freedom. This involved in England's imperialist expansion. convention issued several proclamations asserting that The 131itish Parliament began incleasing the taxes there should be no taxation in the colonies except on the colonies. such as those on sugar, wine, silk. that-adopted by their own legislatures. and coffee, without their consultation, England continued its policy of imposing taxes. - Then the Bluish issued new diiectives 'resuming Facingthisstrong opposition, England retreated the trade of the AitiCilalls and Wattling them against initially by repealing the Stamp Act. This eased the exports to. and unpins flow'. any othei country. opposition to a certain extent. But in 1767 the Initheimote. the Pathament took away the right of British Government reimposed taxes on paper, glass, any Lolont to Issue Its own tallictmy andrifiatklal lead, and tea imported into the colonies from Britain. paper. This rekindled the anger and the indignation of the .England issued the Stamp Act. which colonists. leading the merchants and others again to btought about oil:tainted 13 thorn the Amer-- depend more upon themselves, utilize their own vans. This JO imposed special taxes on newspapers. resources. and boycott English trade. So the people tickets,licenses,rental contracts. financial &hal- beganto use locallymanufactured clothing and 'limns. and tram legal agieements intended foi the paper, and restricted their use of tea and paint for protection. defense. and maintenance of the colonies. their homes. The Boston Massacre of 1770.--In Boston, where trade interests were highly affected by the TIritish The Struggle for Freedom From British Colonialism meddling. the: Bostonians revolted against the new tax regulations. They 'attacked customs officials who The orgamied American opposition to colonialism insisted on collecting taxes. When the British authori- and English oppression began in 1765 a!id took the ties sent two ,regiments, to protect these officials, following forms:(1) popular resistance. indicating soldiers opened fire, killing and wounding civilians --an widespread anger with British policies: (2) consoli- act that outraged public opinion and intensified the dating efforts and unifying ranks under wise leader- opposition. ship. (3) open armet1 warfare against British colo- England insisted on its right to impose taxes.In nialism, 1770, the British Parliament recognized the intensity of the opposition, retreated, and cancelled all taxes 1. Popular Resistance except the tea tax, which was maintained due to the King's insistence that there should be at least one tax Atter the issuance of tin: Stamp Act. the Arnett imposed in order to preserve his right to tax the cans openlyexpressedthenangel.whichwas colonies. As a result, tension decreased for 3 consecu- reflectedbythennewspapers, lawyers. ieligions tive years, but the storm of opposition began again leaders, merchants, and busiiressmen. These groups when SOM Americans called attention to the tea tax,

40 51 which gave theBritishParliament the rightto of the British army fought continue to impose taxes on the colonies a crowd of people at the without village of Lexington and killed eight of representation. them. The news of the Britishatrocities against the people of Lexington passed likean electric current to Resistance to imposedtaxes and monopolistic the other colonies. It was clearto all that England policies.---A popular front ofcitizens was immediately had begun the use of force thatwould lead to open organized in Boston, called the"Committee of Corre- warfare. This news spread all spondence." fhe main task of this over the colonies. committee was to unifying them intoa single clarify the rights of the colonies, nationalfront and their complaints, spreading a national spirit fromone corner of the and the unfair practices of thecolonial power, and to colonies to the other. correspond with other cities regardingthese issues. The idea became widespread. andsimilar committees The beginning of the war and theDeclaration of were established in every city. Thesecommittees were Independence.As a the nucleus of active revolutionary result of all these events,a organizations. Second Continental Congresswas held in Philadelphia The struggle became quiteevident and strong in May 1775, in which the participants, when the Americans insisted under the that tea should not be leadership of wisemen such as Ben Franklin and permittedtoenter the colonies. Thisteawas Thomas Jefferson, issued monopolized by the East India Company a "declaration setting forth under an the causes and necessity of theirtaking up arms." It agreement with the English Government. Onthe said in part: evening of December 16. 1773, thisstruggle reached its climax in Boston whensome American youths. Our cause is just. Our union isperfect. Our inicrn41 disguised as Indians, went aboardEnglish ships and resources arc great, and if necessary foreignassistance is threw their load of tea overboard. undoubtedly attainable.... Thearms we have been This constituted ascrim's problem for Britain. So compelled by our enemies toassume, we will employ the British Government decidedto punish the revolu- for the preservation of our liberties,being with one mind resolved to die free men father than live tionaries. It issued sonic decrees, suchas those closing lash slaves. theport of Boston, forbidding public meetings 77wunityunderWashington'sleadership. without the Governor's permission, and requiring the Immediately. the people were unitedand volunteer local authorities to house ilte British soldiers. The soldiers, were organized in each colony. Themembers American people considered thesedecrees grossly of tlietongress and the people reached unfair. a consensus to appoint Col. George Washington commander-in- chief of the American forces. The 2. Consolidating LflOrts and people chose" Unifying Ranks Under Washington because of his moral Wise Leadership courage and his Military competence, which he haddemonstrated during the Seven Years' War betweenEngland and The American people refusedto yield to the France. lie was very popular with British decrees. The people's representatives all the people decided because of his excellent leadership ability, to take unified steps against this oppressive his wise policy. In counsel, and his wide kndwledge.When he was September 1774. 55 representativesmet in the First convinced of the righteousness ofa certain issue, he Continental Congress of the colonies.They declared would defendit with all his might. lid didnot public resistance against Britishpolicies in the colo concede defeat. One of his famousstatements was nies and established an "association"that organized "Defeat stimulates greater determinationand we shall trade boycotts, encouraged thepopular (resistance/ succeed the second time." movement, instigated public opinionagainst England, The Declaration of lndependence.The and decided to meet force with force. King of England declared that the colonies This new associationwas a new step in the were in a state of rebellion and that it wasnecessary to punish them. As American struggle against England. When the English soon as the Congress received this notice, it hadno general received the news that theAntericau.sitizens alternative except the Declaration ofIndependence. were collecting ammunition andweapons, he ordered A committee of five representativeswas assigned to that these materials be confiscatedand that their prepare the formal independence. document.This leaders he sent to be tried in England,A contingent committee was headed by Thomas Jefferson,who

41 52 famous for his was in his early thirties and was (slap] The Amerrea States duringdu'. War .Thr enthusiasm and his principles. One of his famous Indqemience. I773.s3. INluitm map features indicate principles was: -The tree of liberty must be refreshed the total area In North Americaencompassed by the from time to time with the blood of patriots and 13 original colonies, and name and locate 4cities and tyrants." towns New York. Boston. Sarato4a.-andYorktown.] On July 4. 1776, the document was completed and the Declaration of Independence was read to the people. It said in part: Europe's stand regarding the American Revolu- don. -This victory had a great impact uponraising the spirits of the- Americans, and upon thestand lAill men are created equal.thatthey are endowed by their Cantor with ecrnan unalienable Rights. European countries took toward the American Revo- Out among these are Lae. Liberty and the pursuit of lution and toward England. France sided withthe Happiness. That to seeore these rights. Governments are Americans, not bel.ause it favored freedom, as France Instituted ainonet Sten. deriving then just powers from the was itself an imperialistic country,but because it consent of the governed. That whenever any Form of wanted to take revenge upon England, which had Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to usurped from it a large part of North America. France institute new Government. laying its foundation on such sent the Americans a fleet andarmed forces that principles and (3:gain/mg its powers in such form, as to Joined Washington's army. them shall seem most likely to effect their Safely and Happiness, ... [Map] Fun pe and itsstand regarding England during the American Reiolati,i. jlajor map featines With this document. a new historical page began indicate the 1-uropean countries that were -against for the United States of America. This declaration England." and thosethat "declared armed neu- represented the free political ideas that were preva- trality."' lent at that time, such as those of John LockeIt stemmed from the public awareness that the government should exist for the people; and not the people km the government. The declaration kindled the Spain entered the war against Britain in order to enthusiasm of the American populace, heightened recapture Gibraltar from it. their feeling of importance, and inspired them to Sweden, Denmark. and Russia organized them- t,ontinue their struggle to protect their independence selves into "armed neutrals" and declared thatthey The Dedaiation of independence made the American had the right to deal with the Americans,thereby question .m %wild om.eni.,S0 the Europe.n countries challenging England. wind' dammed to itself theright began to define then stand toward England and to search neutral ships in order to preventthem from toward the new American nation. helping the Americans. When Holland helped the "armed neutrals," Eng- land declared war against her. Thus Britain could not 3. The it'ar To Protect Independence find any allies, and the American colonies were able to complete their victory over Britain. The American Revolution continued for more Thigland's defeat and the end of the war. -The than 6 consecutive years. during winch 12 important unification of the Americans under the leadership-of inditaly battles were knight and the war spread to Washington, andthecoalitionof the European every colony. In the period after the declaration of countriesagainstEngland, "forecastthe expected independence (in the winter of 1777-78) Washington American victory. While the French fleet was able to suffered a great deal. But by the spring, Washington .surround the American coast, Washington advanced was able to foil the plans of the English general, along with the French troops and encircled the Howe, who captured New York in order to separate English army at Yorktown until it was forced to the northern colonies from the southern colonies. surrender in October 1781, ending the efforts of Washington defeated the English army that Lame England to suppress the American Revolution. from Canada to support llowe, and forced him to Nothing was left for England except to recognize surrender at Saratoga in October 1777.1 the independence of the American States. Hence, 42 53 negotiations based on the independence ofthe establishing their state on the basis of the republian, colonies began between them and Englandleading to democratic system. They became the first people to a peace pact in September 1783. adopt this system in modern times, a system based.on The American Republic. The firststep after the a wriv constitution stemming from the following success of the American Revolution against English principles: imperialism was to laythefoundation for the -The people are the source of all powers and have governance of the United States. In September 1787, the right to amend the Constitution. the representatives of the States gatheredfor a Towerisdistributedbetweenthe -Federal conference at Independence Hall in Philadelphiain Government and the State governments( orderto establish a constitution for the whole The [Federal) Government's poweris divided country At that jime each State-had ratified itsown into major branches. the legislative (the Congress), constitution. the executive (the President and his ministers), and According to this American-Constitution,a united the judicial ((lie courts). federal republic was established without deempha- --The C-nitgress has tit. authority to make laws, the ciiing importance of each State and its freedom Presieent has the authority to execute them, and the tolay downits own speciallaws. Among the courts uphold the law and the Constitution. important functions of the Federal Governmentwere Officials are to be accountable and the rights of the right to issue currency, regulate trade, declare individuals are to be protected. war. and make peace Each State government had the Consensus on George Washolgtonas President. light to maintain its own police, to regulate itsown After drawing up the Constitution, the Congress, (a factories and work agencies, to establish its civiland nante that the .onference fat Philadelphia in 1787) criminal codes, and to be responsible forthe educa- has retained ever since) began necessary proceduresto tion, health. and welfare of its citizensas well as for elect a President. Thew was but one man whowas other matters related to its internal well-being. invariably viewed by the delegates as being worthy of The lhdted States under the Constitution. Asa the presidency. This man was George Washington, result of their revolution, the ?tmericans succeededin and he was elected Presuleitynammously.

54 43 9. ISRAEL

The War of Liberation of the the British GoVernment in Eagland. This prohibition North American Colonies and was a heavy blow for the settlers and created much the Establishment of the United States 2 bitterness among them, since they saw it as the brutality of a distant power that deprived them of the spoils of war.

The British Government's Demands for Participation The Situation in the North American Colonies After of the Colonies in Defraying the Costs of the War the Seven Years" War This was not the only reason for the tension that The l.tiiIVNUelit.C.N of the Seven Years W.11 had arose after the Seven Years' War between the settlers awakened many hopesinthe Noah Amcucan and the British Government. That war had cost the sutlers. The lingers from the french and [heti allies British Exchequer large sums of money and had the Indians had passed. and a stretch of teintory significantly increased the English national debt. The between the AppalachianMountainsandthe shapers of English policy were of the opinion that, Mississippi Rive' had been added to the areas undo same the war had been ..undu,ted for the most part Blitish rule. The glowing population in the colonies in older to protect the culiMists, it would. beon11% had alleady begun to fed a lack of land, and they propel if they helped defriy itsiexpenses. The British 'mike,' with any ro the broad and fertile stretches of GUIefinlenL was convinced that the colonists alone terrain beyond the Appalachians, which only fear of would not be able to protect themselves and the new the french had kept them Flom availing in large latitudes that had been added, and therefore it mambos. The 4. oln nista hoped that from now on they decided to maintain a 10.000-man standing army in would have an opportunity of settling there, and the "North America inthe future and to. obligate the trading companies were &ham' by the opportunity of colonists to provide a large part of the necessary good landtransactions. Ti' be sure, the British funds. Fur that purpose die.Goveinment imposed (fioveinment. whichleafedthatcunfiuntatiuns -taxes and: additional payments and gave instructions between the colonists and the Indians woe likely to fur closet observance of regulations concerning the cunflagiate into &mewl wai (especially since in 1763 various duties (on merchandise) than had been in astrsere Indian uplisIng had broken out in the North), effect until then. These steps caused opposition and wii....uuelested fn adoly distribution and settlentimt intensified the controversy that existed between the of the new terlittny. In 1763 it therefore issued a colonists and the Cetitral Government and, in the last proelamdtion. deetnding to Mini) it W45 forbidden to analysis, Were responsible for the severe friction cross the Appalachians, and, winchtransferred the during the sixties and seventies of the cfltury. ,authority to ratify the sale of land in those areas to

The Eciinomic Policy of the Crown in Its Attitude 3Compilers' NoteTranslate:I from Michael Ziv and .Toward the Colonies Slimed Ettinger's Dirrey hayernin, Kercch Gimel. 110101,---sh. 1.lrcic,4 Akf Mudcrn pi In conformity with mercanttlist conceptions, the O. HaifaYovel Publishers, Ltd.. 1960. Pp. 106.28 Repro- ,BritishGovernment saw the main purpose of the duced with permission from clitzvel Publishers..Ltd:The colonies as their usefulness to the lithneland: This material is designed mainly(orthe11thyear of a 12-year prim ary-wcondary school cycle. conception found expression in the navigation laws,

44 5 ;3 ultich 'Acre issued during t1tc.si orid half of the l7th respect between the inhabitants of the colonies and century. in combination with a series of rules that those of any district in England. These differences of were intended to subjugate the colonial economy to opinion iegarding piinciple became sharper as a result the needs of the homeland. Thus they imposed a of changes that took place in the colonial policy of prohibition on the transport of merchandise (tom the. English Government. Up to that time the Govern- England to the cols:flies. and from the 4.,:lonks to ment had not insulted itself in colonial affairs very England or other countries. m any but English ships much and its ties with the colonies were quite weak. or ships of the countries in which the merchandise The war th:Sesen Years %Vat) had revealed the originated. The cvlIonies sere obligated to sell certain weaknesses of this attitude and a need for changes types of merchandise such as tobacco, rice. iron. was felt. The English Government's tendency to woods. fors. etc.. only to England. To be sure. the strengthen its rule in the colonies was intertwined colonies also profited from this regime. sineIt with the personal ambitions of King George III secured the English market to them. But in the lone 0760182(J) to repossess the prerogatives that the run. it harmed their economic life. They were foiced English King had lost during the time of his predeces- to accept for their meich.indtse a pike set by the sors of the house of Hamner. The King's partisans English merchants. even though they could receive J among the Tones supported hint in this desire. In better price fortheir wares elsewhere. Also. the contrast'. the Seven Years War had Increased the colonies were forced to pay higher prices for English colonists'faithintheir own strength and their industrial products. In order to present competition inclinationtowardindependence. Many of them with English industry. the Government piohibited the became conscious in then hearts that they had the exercise of certain trades and induFtries within the power to stand up for themselves without further colonies. The colonists put up wills these limitations need of protection from Great Britain. The remosal beeaase they needed English assistance and protec- of the French horn North America had furthered tion. and especially because for Ore most part the their recognition -of this fact. trade regulations were not enforced. The colonies conducted extensive smuggling. and itis estimated that about 50 percent of the merchandise passing through Boston harbor during those days moved The Grenville Laws dieeally In 1764. Grenville. head of the (British] Govern- ment. proclaimed the Sugar Law, according to which a tax was imposed on the sugar harvest. types of The Constitutional Controversy wine. silk. and other merchandise from non- British colonies, and strict rules on taxation and smuggling Conflicting opinions ...1 ofairiest were issued. This law and the manner in winch it was KliAeCli the -CskACtililiClit .,nu the colonists IIIthe implemented struck a heavy blow at the New England JIC,1,,,AribibejWiththeconstitutional and middle colonies. :hare It was customary to buy dispute concerning. the limitations on the prerogatives sugar and sugar byprodi _is cheaply from the .slands or Isseal gosernment in the colonms and the degree of of the [`remit %Vest Indies for purposes ofrum their dependence on the homeland. Tim colonists distillation. That same year. -a Mint,. Law was also behesed that the decisions of the London Parliamer;t proclaimed that had as its puipuse to eliminate J did not obligate them. because then icimescritatives colonial etistorieof using promissory notes of credit as did not participate -a that body. That meant that the ...mime). This custom enabledthe coloniststo London Parliament had no poser to impose taxes on overcome difficulties resulting hum a lack of hard them since -no taxation without representation- was currency and enabled debturs,,mostly farmers, to the mule. They 4.omplurel denied that the Parliament take care of their debts. The strongest opposition was in London Urals: might to make laws that were produced by the Stamp Act of I 765, which required, binding on the colonies Ss, similaily. the colonial the affixation of stamps to esanous types of docu- Parliament had to) right to set laws that woe binding ments, newspapers. pamphlets, calendars, etc. This for England. In contrast. the Lngli,hpailiamentanalis law affected in particularilawyers,joulnalists. and the claimed that they is presc.,tcd all aleas of the English entire community of the intellectual professions that Empire and that there was no difference in this shaped public opinion in the colonies.

45 56 Reaction of the Colonists. taxes, except for the tea tax, since it intended to stress its privilege in principle to impose taxes on the These laws affected all layers .af the population in colonies. The extremists among the colonists were all parts of the country In various places societies of not content with even this remnant of the Town- the Sons of Liberty began to organize, committed to shend Laws, since they, too, gave paramount impor- active opposition to their implementation. Calls fur a tance to the pimple involved. Associations of Sons boycott of English merchandise and use of the stamps of Freedom and also Conspiracy Societies were were heard Disorders, demonstrations, and acts of formed in many colonies. They called thcatselves. terror against the King's officials took place. At a Patriots. They Insisted that the spirit of to meeting of 'eprcsentatives from nine colonies that the Government should not be forgotten, and they took placeattheinvitation. of Liepeople of demanded continuation of the boycott on tea. They Massachusetts. it was decided to turn to tEe British prevented the discharge of cargoes of tea from ships, Parliament with a request that the above-meotioned and in 1773 even boarded a ship with a cargo of tea laws be voided and to threaten & boycott. This in Boston at the initiative of Samuel Adams, one of reaction on the pan of the colonists and pressure the extremist leaders of the movement, and threw the fr.Int groups in English commerce that began to feel boxes of merchandise into the sea. TheBritishre- the results of the boycott moved the Parliamentin acted vigorously in the spirit of statements by King London to invalidate the stamp tax law, but at the George HI that the colonies should either surrender same time it decided anew to stress the principle of or triumph. And in order to deter the colonists from its unlimited right to issue laws that obligatei! the committing new deeds of violence five "laws of colonies. coercion" were proclaimed, according to which most of the freedom's of Massachusetts were voided and the competencies of the King's officials were broadened. Intensification of the Struggle They were given the power to transfer those accused of rebellion to another colony, orto England,so that This partial retreat of the Parliament brought only their actions might be adjudged outside their home a short lull in the struggle. In order to achieve the colony. Finally, Boston harbor was closed and the aims of the Central Gov.ernment, the Chancellor of town's inhabitants were forced to accommodate the Exchequer, Townshend, imposed a tax on lead, British soldiers billeted in their homes until damages glass, paper, paints, and tea sent from England to the for the destroyed merchandise had been paid. During colonies. And in order to achieve close Implementa- the same period the Quebec Law was proclaimed; tion of Hie law, authorization was given to conduct Which extended the boundaries of that district and searches in- private homes and stores for selected gave freedom of worship to the Catholics in Canada. types.zof merchandise. The revenues derived from the Even though this law was not enacted in reaction to tax were ,to defray the salaries of the Governor_ nd 'the 'Boston Tea Party, the colonists, especially the his officials and to pay for maintenance of the New England settlers, regarded it as diminishing their standing British wily in the colonies. At a later date privileges, In addition, a large British military force certain privileges were extended to the British India was sent to Massachusetts and a general was ap- Company to facilitate its tea trade in the colonies, pointed as the colony's Governor. These steps were enabling it to sell tea in the colonies at a price even 1, intended as an explicit warning to the colonists that lower thanthatof smuggledtea. A storm of the Government had made up its mind to apply all opposition broke out once- more with new force. power at its disposal in order to impose its will, and Demonstrations and violence became frequent, and that what had happened in Boston would also happen the boycott was strengthened. The Government to other places that would dare to follow its lead. broke up local legislative ,assemblies that had convened to decide on opposition to the new laws.At a clash that took place in Boston in 1770 between a The First Continental Congress (1774) mob and the British army, five citizens were killed. The news of the Boston Massacre quickly spread The colonists were not idle either. In accord with a throughout the land, and the Parliament in Englanc ploposal by people hum Massachusetts. representa- retreated once more and voided the Townshen tives of the Conspiracy Societies met in Philadelphia 46 .. 57 1-"-74 11.q. flIc4,11. /1 the stio-el.. confiscate the weapons 'Jut had been collected, to with In:land should Ixcoriductcd in common arrest the leaders of the rebellion. and to bung them accord. In this First Cortinental Con:ziess. of the to England. On the wayit. the little town of most piorninem ...oinal !cadet-S. ie pit 54.1jtatig Concoid, not fat from the village of Lexington. a 311 of arc paiticipatcd, rot the in.' t clash took place between British soldiers and the these were people of influence and honoled rebels and there were victims. On their way back to standine who belonged to sircics with consciatic then bases the Bo tish soldiers sere attacked all along eii7its. and were .:dreful not to come t.;.t break with the way by the local people, and on both sides many the homeland. To be sari:_ ainor.:, themetc jlsk were killed and wounded. To be sure. before the start soIni V.1111 More 4:Xlieirts; Mc torpc..s of these hostile acts. and even after the shots "whose reps:at.:dly proclaimed the tight of the ..ol,anos echo was heard around the world: there were still "their 110.7doln Jlia: 11021. prop:1kt:- 111C11 people who wanted, and believed in the possibility of. to make then own 1.1w, It tamed to the people .it reconciliation. The Second Continental Congress. and are ...doilies with its pH:lances. and which met as arranged in May 1775. decided once establislicda "league- of ..)lornes for the purpose of more to turn to the King stressing its loyalty to him .onalua.tinilia. economic stiuggls. with Ingland and and calling lot peace. but at th same time it decided 13.p sing a b..) cou ot. Li ginir products until the laws to mobilize financial resources for the struggle and to involved Iti the cordlict were corded_ The Congjess organize an army, which would he commanded by also decided to meet once more in .pint1775 m George Washington as supreme commander. George 1.4.1iscass the mitt$11.n. 111c4nwildeatt.:tension Ill rejected the proffered peace and proclaimed the to the colonies incteased and J re:voltam:my spirit colonies to be in a state of rebellion. The position developed. Local activist councils welt: esiablished. adopted by the King eased the work of those among weapons were 4,05e4. led. analmilitaryunits were the American leaders who from the start had striven and trained in the rise JIM!, to achieve complete separation of the colonies from Great Britain and who on principle were opposed to monarchial rule. To be sure, these amimonarchial The English Reaction tendencies were not the opinion held by the tnajority. and many among the settlers were not ready as yet Irafirglisli public opinion. and also for eXifeilliSi action. These antimonarclual tendencies views wet, held with legardkVthe ...domes. were strengthened and spread in very broad circles The Whig Patty. at that tout to opposoion. lutlucicaf with the publication of the pamphlet C.nnnt,n, Sense, men like Milian' Pitt the elder. the knew n writer from the pen of the Quaker Thomas Paine.an Unhand Woke. and a,tlicis wino saw the (poem- emigrant of humble origin who had reached America merit's actions as evoressions of GeoigeIlIs.ihsolu. only 2 years before and had publisheda periodical IttdinJ11010- list11""11111.11 of the colonies to there Paine strongly and ably negated the monarchial 111%.".e Jatoil". was. lo 'hot opinion. J continuation or principle courageously attacked the personality of. the stia4gle of the Le=igh people for then righ.. George III. and called on the colonies to separate They demanded accominolion with the colonies. from England and proclaim their full independence. which in loin sh.aallat iliotlif), souk of then demands. The pamphlet was spread quickly in tliounds of The King andhis adherents wets 'rigorously opposed. copies all over North America and helped greatly to sintatrice lelaided the cniist," demands- and theta consolidate the idea of independence. Richard Lee .11114,1i as rebellion and IleJsoll and believed that the from Virginia gave expression to this change in the mill, way ion( was to 0601.0111C theiehelhiill with mood in his proposal that Congress proclaim "that Mute force. Military commando, in America received the colonies represent an independent state andate nistriii. In ins tothus spurt and were sent reinforce. obligated to form one... they are tint dependent on ments the English Crown and all tics between them and Britain should he totally voided:II' A committee under the chairmanship of Thomas Jefferson. another Proclamation of Independence by the Colonies

In the early spring month; of 1775 the British commanding officer In Aineu.,a instructed In, men 1.1 Fry°MOIL o: 01111,417, Alt in site Iletrieu onemil

58 47 . Virginian. was requested to formulate the ploclanti- strength. his strong faith in the justice of the cause he t. 4 independence of the North American colonies served, his ability in coriunand, and his Influence over and this proclamation was ratified by the Congresson hisuburdinates, he was able to turn this undisci- July 4. l'16. This document stresses, in the spirit of plined popular militia Into a unified army filled with political views held by the philosophers of that faith in its strength and the will to light and win. generation in France and England, that humanbeincs Washington himself was convincedand so convinced are equal and possess natural rights that cannot be his army that victory in this struggle of the few abrogated. These are the rights to life, to liberty, and against the many lay in the mural strength of the to happiness The proclamation also determines that army and of the people behind it, and to that he governments draw justification for their existence devoted his chief attention. It should be stressed that from their protection of these principles and privi- it had fallen to Washington to overcome not only the leges. and that the source of their rule is the will and lack of military equipment and financial resources, consent of those subject to their authority. And it is butalsothe lack of mutual trust between the the privilege of the latter to reject a government that individualcolonies,thesuspicionsandsmall- has denied these principles and rights and to appoint mindedness, the attempts of quite a few to enrich another government in its place. In its second part, themselves at the expense of a people engaged in a the declaration lists the tyrannical acts of George III shuggle, and also the economic difficulties such as and his government constituting evidence that they rising paces, a lack of confidence in the.currency, and deniedthe above principles, thus justifying the other related matters. Washington, with the aid of his rebellion. and it proclaims the independence of the supporters, overcame all these problems and during colonies. the course of the war rose to the level-of a national leader, a hero beloved by all and a personality of Washington's personality. Relative Power unshaken moral authority.

The war for liberation of the North American colonies that came in the wake of the Declaration of The Course of the War and the Consequences of the Independence lasted for over 6 years. The forces in Peace of Versailles this contest were unequally matched. The British had attheirdisposal an organized army, trained and At first the colonists suffered heavy defeats. Many cqoipped mid mach Liget than the ...01VTI/SiS. JIM}, areas and impul tant cities, among them the centers of but it consisted mostly of mercenaries, largely from American life inifitise years such as New Ytntt. and Geinians, who did not fight for a ...Joe deal to them. Philadelphia, were conquered by the., enemy. The The British also had at their disposal large financial rebels were forced to retreat westwards and many of imam and nary that tkas able to supply them them were close to despair. But an important change with all their uceds and to interrupt traffic between in the situation took place after their great victory in the colonies and the countries of Europe, or at least the Battle of Saratoga.m 1777, when a large British to hamper it signifi.antly. In addition, the British re army of 5,000 men surrendered to the insurgents lied on the help, and eren the active support, of all withits commanders. This battle had not only those who had kept aloof from the rebellion and had military significanceactually it was not sufficiently remained loyal to the King. In contrast, the colonists importanttodecidethe warbut alsopolitical suffered from a lack of arms, equipment, and money. meaning. The colonists' struggle had awakened many To be sure. they fought on known terrain and ,almost echoes in European countries and had engaged the every man among them knew how to use arms sympathies of freedom fighters among different Nevertheless; they were not an organized, disciplined peoples, including England's enemies. The representa- army and at times showed anarchical tendencies. tives of the rebels were energetically active in the During thestruggle there were periods in which capitals of Europe in order to gain moral support and Washington hadathisdisposalmerely several financial and military aid. Many Europeans regarded thousand hungry, ragged soldiers who were bitter and it as then duty to participate actively in the colonists' close to despair. It should be noted in Washington's war for freedom. Thus the rebel army was joined by fasor that thank-to his organizational gifts, his Lafayettethe Frenchman, Kosciuszko the Pole, upright character. his personal charm, his great moral Steuben the German, and others. The French Gov-

5D ernment saw in the rebellion an oppcntunity to try to recognition of the colon.al States indepeodence, the invalidate the results of its defeat in the Seven Years latter faced the difficult problem of going new form 'War, but from the outse: of the war it limited its help to their common political life. In spite of the Union's to the supply of arms and the extension of credit establishment simultaneously with the declaration of only The battle of Saratoga freed the colonies from independence, the colonies were actually independent theirmilitary isolation. France decbreci war on States with governments of their own. Differences in England and a short while later was joined by Holland economic interests, differences in tradition and in the and also by Spain, which hoped to recapture Gibral- social structure that existed among several of them, tar and Florida This fact fundamentally changed the and anxieties and suspicions contributed to feelings relative strength between the warring parties', espe- of mutual distrust. In the first years after the daily at sea. England was forced to fight on several granting of independence there was much tension fronts and encountered difficulties in maintaining the between the States. This was a period of confusion blockade of the colonies. The effort to maintain this and severe political and social crisis. The States blockadeunderallcircumstances moved other establishedtheir own customs tariffs, a fact that countries to enter the W3r to protect the freedom of caused much friction among them. Even the currency trade by sea_Russia. Denmark, and Sweden de- was not uniform, and several States issued their own clared "armed neutrality:* thus expressing to some bank notes, thinking only of their own narrow degree their readiness to oppose by force any effort interests. The value of the currency, already low in to search their ships. As a result of this change in the any case, fell tremendously. There also was friction international situation England's position became between the States with regard to the boundaries of more criticalCritical statements increased in Parlia- their jurisdiction, and especially concerning the ivies- ment in London and in expressions of public opinion, !ion of what form of government should apply to the especially after a second heavy defeat that England areas that were turned over under the Treaty of suffered in 1781 when the main British army under Versailles, and how to organize them. The difficulties Lord Cornwallis surrendered to the rebels at York- that had moved the British Government in 1763 to town This surrender actually put an end to England's forbid the move-westward reappeared. The economic effort to subdue the rebellion by force and decided life of the States was shaken to its foundations. the outcome of the war. A new Whig government in Debtors among the farmers even tried to cancel their England opened peace negotiations with the colonies debts by use of force, The danger of asocial and their allies. Washington. who knew that the revolution threatened. A state of anarchism arose Americans had reached the end of their strength, also that brought about complete political and economic wanted peace. In 1783 peace treaties were signed zt chaos. The promises to satisfy the claims of the Versailles, in which the sovereignty of the North English creditors were not fulfilled, and the property American colonies was recognized and they were of the Loyalists was also not returned. As,a result, given the territory hetivecri the Appalachians and the England did not withdraw its army from its strong. Mississippi River in the North a border was fixed that holds and there were fears that the war might be was almost identical with that of today. In the South, renewed. There was no central government capable of theFloridapeninsula was givento Spain. The functioning in North America, since Washington had privilege of the colonials to fish in the waters off taken his leave immediately after the end of hostili- Newfoundland and Nova Scotia was assured. France ties and had returned to his estate. To be sure. the received back several of her territories in the West Continental Congress continued to meet and theore- Indies and in Africa. The colonies a"-ligated ilea* it was the supreme government of the States, selves to return the properties that had been confis- but in actuality it was nothing but a type of council cated during the war from those who remained loyal of representatives of the sow:reign States in which to the king (the-loyalists"), most of whom emi- every State, small or large, had one vote and in which grated to Canada. They also obligated themselves to every decision needed at least nine affirmative votes. pay the colonist? debt ,to English merchants. The Congress had no authority to impose or collect taxes and duties and, during certain periods, did not The Economic Crisis After the War even hold its meetings, since its members did not attend and it had no mechanism of enforcement at its With the signing of the peace treaty and the disposal. The decision of 1787 concerning the North-

49 60 west Territories was made with only 18 of the 91 the A.A.- institution of the Union. The convention met an members of the Congress present. The states of spring 1787 in Philadelphia. In it participated repre- Furope were skeptical of the new nation's ability to sentatives of 12 States, including, among others, the survive and did not send representatives there. old and experienced leaders of the generation, Franklin and Washington, and also the younger ones, Hamilton and Madison. The representatives, whose number reached 55, were subsequently called the The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 Fathers of the Constitution to honor them. Among the leaders known from the time of the struggle for The leaders of the [American] States saw this liberation who were absent from the corivention were development with concern, since it was bound to lead Jefferson, who was then in France, Thomas Paine, and to political disintegration, and t' ly reached a con- also several others who were opposed to the establish- sensus that the States would have to be unified into ment of a strong central government. one political body that would be subordinated to one national government. A first and important step in the direction of unification was taken with the adoption of a decision concerning the fate of the The Dispute on the Principles of the Constitution Northwest Territories. During the war and immediately after its termination thousands of settlers had During the discussions on the contents of the burst into the new areas. Certain States demanded Constitution, several central problems crystallized, that they govern these areas by themselves, and other and fundamental differences of opinion-arose among States claimed that the areas belonged in common to the participants concerning desirable approaches to the States and that new States should be established their solution. It became clear very quickly that a there. Finally the latter position was accepted, and in new formulation of the Constitution would not be the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 it was determined satisfactory,as was atfirstbelieved. The small that a Governor appointed by the Congress should colonies feared that they would lose their independ- rule in the new areas. When the number of settlers ence to the large ones and demand equal rights in within the boundaries of a certain Territory reached decisionmaking. No less important was the question 5,000, it would be granted independence within of the central government's authority in relation to certain limits, such as the right to establish a local that of_the -local governments. Several of the par- legislative assembly similar to those in the other ticipants demanded establishment of a strong central States. A representative of the Territory could partici- government with broad authority,others were opposed pate in the sessions of Congress but would have no to this in principle. This led to the question of-the vote. When the number of free settlers reached method that would determine the composition of the 60,000. the Territory could be admitted into the individual States delegations to the central'governmg Union with rights equal to those of the other member Lodieswhether according to the principle of equal- States.In the three to five States that would be ity or according to the size of their populations. It established in the new area, freedom of speech, press, was unclear how the black slaves should be counted, and religion would be maintained, and slavery would how the Piesident would be elected, and what his not be introduced. The Ordinance of 1787 deter- authority should be. In the answers that were offered mined the future road of development of the United to these questions, conflicts due to-economic inter- States and the methods of its colonization in North ests were also reflected, especkilly conflicts between America throughout its extension to the shores of the theindustrial-mercantileNorthandagricultural Pacific Ocean. The States that were established during South. These conflicts found their expression also in the 19th century became a part of the United States the attitude of the participants toward slavery. There in accord with the principles of this Ordinance. Mean- also were diffelences of opinion between those who while the movement for unification grew. The fol- tended toward an aristocratic form of government lowers of the young and able politician Alexander and several of these did not eliminate from considera- Hamilton and the man of science lames Madison tion the possibility of establishing a monarchyand brought up a proposal to convene a convention of the advocates of a fullrealization of democratic States representatives to discuss means of improving principles of equality.

50 61 The Compromise decided at the same meeting thatit would take effect after ratification byat least 9 States. During the These problems and the strong differences of struggle for ratification, whichwas not an easy matter opinion connected with them could have precluded in severai of the States, itbecame clear that them any possibility of agreement. The fact that George was a need to make certain changes inthe Constitution, Washington, who did not lean toany party, was but by the summer of 1788 elected president of the convention, that the discus- it received the necessary ratification. Within 2years the ratification was sions were held behind closed doors, and that the confirmed by all 13 States. In convention agreed in one of its first sessions to decide 1789 Washington was elected the first President ofthe United States of questions by simple majorityall these developments America. smoothed the way to the success of the convention and its redefinition of the'governmental institutions of the United States.Itssessionscontinuedfor about 5 months and all the variods problems in the The Constitution of the United States conflict were settled by compromise. Thus, for instance, a compromise was offered concerning the As has been mentioned, the Congress represents question of determining States' representation in-the the legislatiw. institution of the state. The President organs of the central government, according to whiLl has veto power over the decisions of the Congress, the legislative organ, the Congress,was to be cum- but his opposition will not prevail if a decisionis pbsed of two houses the Senate and the House of reconfirmed by alwo-thirds maturity in both Houses. Representatives. To the first, each State, whether In affairs relating to foreign policy, war, the military.- small or large, would send two representatives,and to and export-import matters, the Congress decides. the second houseitwould senda number of According to the original Constitution, the members representatives proportionate to the size of itspopu- of the Senate are chosen by the legislatures of the lation. The second compromise concerned the slaves, States, but since 1913 they, too, are elected by direct who were essentially concentrated in the South.In vote. Eve', 2 years one-third of the Senate members order to determine the size of the representation of leave, and in their place new ones are elected. The States in the House of Representatives only three- members of the House of Representatives are elected fifths of.the slaves would be taken into consideration. every 2 years. Concerning demands for the abolition of slavery,in The executive power is placed in the hands of the accordance with the principles tf equality and the President and his ministers (Secretaries), whom lie basic rights of man, it was agreed that for 20years nominates and whose appointment is ratified by the the Congress would not involve itself in the question Senate. The competencies of the President, who is of the importation of slaves and wouldnot impose simultaneously the head of state and head of govern. any duty on them above a fixed suni, and itwas ment, are very broad. He is the supreme commander decided that there would be an obligationto turn of the army and navy, he concludes international over escaped slaves to their owners. Concerning the treaties and forms alliances with the Senate's ratifica- democratic principle,itwas determined that the tion. He appoints high officials and judges. The members of the House of Representatives would be President and his Vice President are electedevery 4 elected by direct vote, and that members of the years. The Vice President presides as chairman over Senate would be nominated by the legislative body of the Senate, and takes the President's place after his each State. Also, the President would be elected by death for the duration of his unexpired term. indirect vote. The Constitution defines the authority of the' central government, but that of the different state governments is defined negativelythat is, all prerogatives that are not explicitly assigned to the central Ratification of the Constitution government are reserved to them. They are mostly concerned with local matters: education, traffic, The new Constitution was accepted by a majority police, hospitals, etc. The States are headed bya of 39 votes out of 55, but among those who voted for Governor who is elected every 2 or 4, years. A it were representatives from all the States. itwas legislative body is active by his side, it consists of two

62 51 houses, which are also elected. The judiciaryauthor years ago for a nation of about3 million people that ity is placed in the hands of a Supreme Courtwhich occupied aterritory incomparably smaller than that has very broad prerogatives. The judges of the of today. Since that time the economic, social, azd Supreme Court are appointed for life by thePresi- demographicrealitiesofthestate have totally dent They are authorized to decide controversies changed, as has its international position, yet the thatarise between thelegislative and executive' Constitution, apart from a few added changes, re- authorities In addition, it is their duty to decide if mains valid. It did not interfere in the development of the laws and their implementation bygovernment theAmericannation, andexcept for the war conform to the Constitution. between the North and the South during the second The authors of the Constitution wanted toassure hall of the 19th centurythat nation had ncvneed for its solidity, but at the sante time to provide the the use of force in order to adapt itsConstitution to possibility of effecting changes in it whennecessary. the changes thattookplace in society, The founda- In accord with this aim it was decided that proposals tions of the Constitution gave it sufficient solidity, as to change the Constitution would have to be ratified well as elasticity, to meet its needs. by a majority of two-thirds in the two Houses of Congress and also by three-quarters of the local legislatures. Since 1789 about 2,000 proposals for changes in the Constitution have been made, but only Selections From Sources 21 have been ratified. Ten of these were adopted during the first years after the Constitution took The Declaration of Independence of the United force, and they include The ratification of the basic States (July 4, 1776). rights of man and citizens and represent the Bill of Wilco in du. Cu urst.(human esents, it btcoines necessary Rights of the American people.(1791). for one people to dissulsc the political bands which have connected theni with another. and to assume among the The Constitution of the United States isthefirst Powers of the earth. the separate and equal station to which written-republican constitution of modern times. For the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, the first time the basic rights of man and citizens are &con respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they explicitly rioted and hited rights and freedoms that, slu &star, du. causes which impel them to the separa- subsequently, through various channels, became the tion, We hold these truths to be self-evident,"that all men arc foundations of democratic society in the 19th and created equal. that they arc endowed by their Creator with 20th centuriesThe authors of the Constitution certain unalienable Rights.,that among these arc Life, Liberty consistently implemented the principle of thesepara- and thc pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, tion of powers, and each of the three authorities Gosanments are instituted among Men, &rising their just serves as restraint to the others. The task of each powers from the consent of the governed. That whenever any is defined: the Congress determines the law, the Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to President implements it, and the Court explains it. To institute new Government, laying its foundation on such be sure, the President has the opportunity to in- principlcs and organizing its powers in such form, as to them fluence the lawmaking process by means of his right shall scem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. to veto, but the Congress on the other hand can Prudence. indeed. will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes: influence the implementatton of the law thanks to its and accordingly all experience bath shown, that mankind are right to confirm certain of the President's decisions more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to and its right to judge the President legally under theniselbes by abolishing the forms to which they are certain conditions. The Supreme Court, on its part, is ascustomcd Hut. whenalung, train of abuses and usurpa- authorized to set a specific law aside or to void a tions. pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to specific decision of the executive power if it reduce them tinder absolute Despotism, itistheir right, it is is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide satisfied that this decision is contrary to the Constitu- new Guards for their future security. '-Such has been the tion. To be sure, this mutual interdependence of the patient sufferance of these Colonies, and such 's now the authorities islikelyto complicate thelegislative riscessity which constiams them to alter their former Systems process and also to hamper the methods of imple- ofGovernment Thehistory of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repealed injuries and usurpations, all mentation but, atthe same time, itserves as a having in direct object the establishment of an absolute guarantee for the preservation of democracy, Tyranny over these States, To prove this. let Nets be The American Constitution was formulated 170 submitted to a candid world.

52 6.3 the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands_ He has dissolved Representative Houses repeated!). lot l le has excited domestic insurrections amongst us. and has opposing with marls firmness Iris invaso ns on the riz.lits of endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers. the the people_ merciless Indian Savages. whose known rule of warfare. is an undistinguished destruction of all ages. sexes and conditions. In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for, Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions lie bas endeavoured t , present the jx,pulation of these have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince. ss hose States. fur that purpose obstructing the Lan: for character is thus marked by every act which may define a non of foreigners. refusing to pass others to encourage their Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free People. migration hither, and raisin,: the condittons of new A ppropii- Nor have We been wanting in attention to our British awns of Land, brZthren, We have warned them from time.o time of lk has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by attempts bytheir legislature to extend an unwarrantable refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Putters. jurisdiction over us. We have reminded mem of the circum- Inc has made Judges dependent on his Will alone. tor the stances of our emigration and settlement here. We have tenure of their offices. and the amount and Panient of their appealed to their native justice and nugnaninnty, and we salaries. have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to - lie has erected a multitude of \IC% Oltic4s, and sent hither disavow these usurpations. which. would inevitably interrupt im,3rIlls of Officers to harass our People. and eat out their our connections and correspondence. They too-have been substance deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must. lie has kept among us. in times of p.a.,. Standing .rrincs therefore. acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our without the Consent of our legislature.. Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind. lie has affected to render the Military independent of and Enemies in War. in Peace Friends. superior to the Civil Power. We. therefore, the Representatives of the united States of lie has combined with others to ...Aiwa us toa Juris- Amenea. in General Congress. Assembled. appealing. to the diction torcign to our sunsIttutwn, and unacknowledged by Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our our laws. isiny...his Assaf'to then ruts 01 pretended intentions, do. in the Name, and by Authority of the good legpali oft: People of these Cojimies. solemnly publish and declare, That I or quartering large hods,. 01 alined troopsamong us. these United Currnies are, and of Right ought to be I-ree and For protecting. them. by J nock Trial. from Punishatem Independent States, that they are Absolved from all Allege' for an Murders which the) should commit on the Inhabi- ance to the British Cross it, and that all political connection tants of these States' between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought ro For Lulling off out Track with all parts of ths. world. be totally dissolsed. and that as free-and Independent States. For imption_ taxes on us without our Consent. they hate full Power to levy War, conclude Peace. contract I or deposing us in many .a.A.N..01 the benefris 01 Trial Alliance, establish Commerce. and do all other Acts and Jury. Things which Independent States may of right do. And for for trairsikirtin; us beyond Seas to Itc toed lot pretended the support of this Declaration. with a firm reliance on the offences: Protection of Disine Providence. we mutually pledge to each for J1)1111,11111g the free Sy stem of English Laws in other our Lives, our I whines and our sacred Donor. neighboringNome-I:. establishingtherein an Arbitrary government. and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and hi instrument for intioducing the same Thomas Paine (1737-1809 on the English absolute rule into these Colonies.' Co n st t or taknie away our Charters. abolishing our 'Most salts- from Common Sense, first pub- able Laws, and altering fundamentally the boons of our lished in Philadelphia in January 17761. Governments for suspending our own Legislature. and declaring them- seises invested with Moser to legislate -for us in all eases Society in every state is a blessing, but government, even whatsoever in its test state, is but a necessary evil; in its worst state an lle has abdicated Gosernment here, by declaring us out of intolerable one. for when we suffer, or arc exposed to the his Protection and waging War against us. same miseries by a government. which we might 'expect in a fie has plundered sun seas, usagesi out Coasts, burnt out counts) .millout govantnent, our calamity is heightened by towns. and destroyed the Imo of our people. reflecting that we furnish the means by which we suffer. lleis at tins tune transporting large armies of foreign Government, like dress. Is the badge of lost innocence, the mercenaries to complcat the works of death. desolation and Palaces of kings are built upon the ruins of the bowers of tyranny. already begun with eiretunstances of Cruelty & paradise. For were the impulses of conoaence clear. uniform perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous .11.1;) and and irreststibly obeyed, nun would need no other fanner. totally unworthy the Dead of a eivihred nation. but that not being the case, lie finds it necessary to surrender Ile has constrained our fellow Citliens taken Captive on up a part of Ills property to furnish means for the protection the high Seas to bear Arms against their ("twin*, to become of the rest, and this he is induced to du by the same prudence

53 '64 Vouch in esery other ..7ase adsises him out oftwo callsto There ts something exceedingly ridiculous in the composi- choose the tract Wherefore. security being the true elcsip tion of monarch!, it first excludes a nun from the means of and end of government.itunanswerablyfollows that information, yet empowers him to3CIin cases where the whatever form thereof appears most likely to ensure. it to us, highest judgment is required. The state of a king shuts him with the leas' espence and greatest benefit. is preferable to from the world, yet the business of 2 king rectums hina,to all others. ... know itthoroughly; wherefore the different parts, by I draw my idea of thc form of government foam a unnatural!) opposing and destroying each other. prove the principle in nature, which -no art can overturn. siz. that the :Iole character to be absurd and useless.... more simple anything is. the less.liable n is to be disordered; and the easier repaired when dbordered: and with this maxim in view. -I offer a few remarks on the so much boasted constitution of England. That it was noble fur the dark and The Virginia Statute of January 16, 1786 on the stasis!i times in which it was erected, is granted. When the Freedom of Religion world was overrun with tyranny the least remove therefrom was a glorious rescue But that it is imperfect, subject to I. WhereasAlmighty God has created the mind free, so cnsulsions, and incapable of producing what it seems to that all attempts to influence it by temporal punishments or promise is easily i;ononstrated.. , . burdens, or civil incapacitation, tend only to beget habits I know it is difficult to get over local or long standing of hypocrisy and meanness, and arc3departure from the prejudices, set if we will suffer ourselves to examine the plan of the Holy Author o: our religion, who. being Lord component parts of the English constitution. we shall find both of body and mind, yet chose not to propagate it by them to be the base remains of two ancient tyrannies. coercion% on either, as was in His almighty power to do: that ,ompoundial with some new republican materials the impious presumption of legislators and rulers, civil as well as ecclesiastical, who, being themselves but fallible and uninspired men. have assumed dominion over the faith of others. setting up their own opinions and modes of thinking skip/ I h,star 1,,r I IN `1,,orth :Inuit- as the only true and infallible, and as such endeavoring to . 'ores 111,q m:fis icaInteN 1.1,J1c 1111. 13 Impose them on others, has established and maintained false ir,A.111 o!,..1, J...1 1. religions over the greatest part of .the world, and through all mip..r Lint 1Ztwluri.,11.1 time. that to compel a man to furnish contributions of money for the propagation of opinions which he disbelieves issinful and tyrannical....that our civil rights have no dependence on our religious opinions, any more than our opinions in physics or geometry; that, therefore, thc pro- first. TI. morLochial tyranny in the person scribing[of iitizcn as unworthy (of] the public con- kit the Wu. fidence by laying upon him an incapacity of being called Secondly. Thc icfnains of aostocratical tyranny in the to.affices of trust and emolument unless he profess or re- persons of the peers. nounce this or that religious opinion is depriving him in- Thirdly. The mu republican inatcrials, in the persons of juriously of those privileges and advantages to which in the commons. on whistvirtue depends the freedom of common isith his fellow citizens he has a natural right.... England. II.Be it enacted by the General Assemblythat no man Thc two lust. by being hereditary, arc indepcniient set the shall be eoinpellcd to frequent or support any religious ;Kook, wherci4ic in J ..uns titut funJI sets. they Luntribute worship, place, or ministry whatsoever; nor shall be enforced. nothing towards the freedom ui the state. restrained, molested, or burdened in his body or goods, nor To say,that Hu. constitution of England is J union 01 shall otherwise suffer on account of his religious opinions or three potscis, reoprocally checking cash other, is farcical. belief, but that all men shall be free to profess, and by calm the words !Lon. no meaning. oi they are flat contradic- argument to maintain, their opinionin matters of religion, tions, and that the same shall in no wise diminish, enlarge, or affect To say that the commons is a check upon the King. their civil capacities. presupposes two things. III. And though we well know thatthis Assembly, (-list. That the king is nut to be trusted without bong clectNI by the people for the ordinary purposes of legislation looked after, or in other words, that a thirst for absolute only, have no power to restrain the acts of succeeding power. is the natural disease of monarchy. assemblies, constituted with Powers equal to our own, and Secondly.' That the commons by bong appointed tor that therefore to declare this act to be irrevocable would be that purpose. arc (Alm wiser or more worthy of sunfidence of no effect in law, yet we we are free to declare, and do than the crown. declare, that the rights hereby asserted are of the natural But as the same constitution which gives the commons a rights of mankind, and that if any act shall hereafter be power to check the king by withholding, the supplies, gives passed to repeal the present, set to norow its operation, such afterwards the king a power to check the commons, by act will be an infringement of natural fight. einpowering him to reject their other bills; it again supposes thatthe .king is wiser than those whom ithas already supposed to beWIWIthan him. A mere absurdity!

54 65 Dates methods of government and the social order. Is this view correct? Givereasons for your 1763--End of the Seven Years' War. Interdiction to opinion. move Wes:. 6.Describe:(1) Theinfluence 1764 -Sugar Law of political events in Europe. especially the intellectual 1765 -Stamp tax viewscurrent _duringthat 1770 -Boston Massacre generation in Europe, on tire chain of events inNorth 1774- first Continental Congress in Philadelphia America and (2) the influence and results 1776The Declaration of Independenceof the North that American colonies the war for liberation of the North American colonies had for the 1777Battle of Saratoga course of political and social events in Europe. 1783 Peace of Versailles 7. What difficulties, by type, faced the 1787 Northwest Ordinance colonies at the end of the war for liberation? 1789 Washington -President of the UnitedStates 8. What was the content and whatwasthe importance of the Northwest Ordinance of 1787? 9. How did the Constitution solve Questions the question of slavery? Does this solution appealto you? 10. What were the main differencesof opinion I.Describe the causes of the conflictbetween during the deliberations on thecontent of the the North American colonies andEngland Constitution of the United States? Were these according to their different types. 2. Why did this conflict intensify differences of opinion settled? In what fash to the point ion? separation in the sixties and seventies of tit 11. Do you find that the Constitution ofthe 18th century? Do you believe that itwould United States expresses the politicalviews of have been possible to prevent this split? the period of the Enlightment? Towhat 3.Write a charge sheet from the perspective of extent? Do you also find contraryviews to an English patrioton English policy toward these in it? Give reasons foryour opinion. the colonies during the crisis years. I/. Compare methods of government and 4.Describe the stages in the developing authori- political zation customary in the contemporary United ambitions for independence of the Wirth States to those customary in England, American colonies. especially with regard to (1) position. election,and 5. The war of liberation of the NorthAmerican prerogatives of the legislative body withre- colonies is sometimes regarded as not onlyan gard to its two Houses and (2) authority of external war for political independence, but the English King on one hand and the also as an internal struggle for change Presi- in the dent of the United Stateson the other.

55 10. JAPAN

The American Independence Revolutiona INIap I Northeastern America duang the colonial period 07601.[Major map features identify the 13 English Colonial Policy original colonies and several important cities: also delineate French and Spanish territory.) The 13 English zolonles on the American conti nent were the result of the efforts of the Puritans,' who were seeking ffeedola of religion in the New The French ducat, however, disappeared with the oild, and of people interested in trade and develop- termination of the wag, and England made substantial ing new lands. Although under the Lonnyl of the teifitolialgains in AmeriLa: Adopting a stronger motiler wuntry, the Loloinsts were strongly imbued melLantile poky to meet the expenditures incurred with the spnit of freedom and independenw, and timing the wag and to ensure the security pf the vast they developed demoLfatic autonomy through then AniefiLan territory, England then levied taxes on the respective Lo Ionia! assemblies. In the Noah. %Aim- whittles, thereby increasing colonial discontent. The !nem and industry tinned along with agfiLultufe by Stamp Act of 1765, in particular, was opposed by landowning faffnefs, while in the South, tobaLLo and nearly all colonists. Meetings of colonial representa Lytton plantations flourished through use of black lives were held and took the position that,sinceno slaves. colonists were members of the English Parliament, llowevel, England, the inutile! wuntry, .limited Parliament could not vote taxes on them. Even in the the growth of Lornmettx and industry in the Amen- home wuntry, there was support for:the proposition Lan whims by iiieans of a meiLantile FoliLy of using that taxation and the right to representation were the colonies as a soulLc of gaw materials and at the inseparable principles, and in 1766 the Government same time as a market for English produi.ts.2 Fog this rescinded the Stamp Act. Nevertheless, other taxes reason, the whiffles became more and more dis- continued to be levied on the colonies. In 1773, Lontented with Lngland, but during the Seven Years' opposition to the Tea Tax led to the Boston Tea Wag [1756-631 !bele was nu outbreak of disputes Party.1 From then on, the resistance movement grew Oecause the support of the home Lountfy was needed. more intense, but the home government's response was only to apply stronger tactics.

'Compilers' NoteTranslated from Kentaro Murakawa, [Picture) A part of the ti,un 8,,ston in Namio Egami, Tatsuro Yamamoto, and Kentaro Hayashi's higland and British ships cif war landing their Shosetsu Sekat Slit (Detailed World History). (New cd.) tratips7( Tokyo: Yamakawa Shuppan Sha, 1973. Pp 21821 Repro- duced with permission from Yamakawa Shuppan Sha. The material is designed for the 10th, Ilth, or 12th year of a 12 -year primary-sceondary school cycle.

3To saie the East India Company from financial ruin, 11n 1620, the Puritans (also known as the Pilgrim England gave a special dispensation by waiving customs Fathers) landed on the new continent from the Mayflower duties on the company's tea exported to America, thereby and founded Plymouth Colony, from which the New England inhibitingthe profitable smuggling trade of the colonial colonies got their start. merchants. The Boston Tea. Party refers to the incident in ZF,ramjlles ofthis Lonnyl a the Sugar ALL which which these merchants and radical anti-Britisheis joined torbade rim 1111(7371 of .sugar hum non-Inglidi ,olunic., and together and, disguised as Indians, boarded the East India the Iron Ai.t. MHO banned the manufacture of nun. Company ships and dumped their tea cargo into the harbor

56 67 The War for Independencyafid Its Effects While mitiallyinadequately prepared andlacking weapons and food supplies, the independence army In 1774. iliae colonies held a Continental Congress continued to fight under adverse conditions. It fought- to prote4-4amst the mother country, but the King well under Washington's,leaderslup and. withthe help and ,,the-Governmen t- refused to change their position, of aid from France and Spam and the armedneutral- and' in 1775 armed fightingbrokeout at Lexington. ity assumed bythe northern European countries. /The colonies unitedtotightunder Washington gradually supremacy over the enemy. The (1732-99) as the c,%rnmander-in-chief.4 On July 4, independence army gained the support of the Euro- 1776, the delegates from i 3 coloniesmet in Phila- pean countries because these countries were colonial delphia and adopted Ilse Declaration ofIndepen- rivals of England and because the spirit of the- dence. This Declaration ol'Indcpendence. draftedby Declaration of Independencewas in line with the Thomas Jefferson (17-13-1820. together with the Ideas of the Enlightenment of that period. Further-- later Deetzgation of the Rights of Man of theFrench more, support was gained by the elequent'and persua- Revolution, forms the basic principles ofmodern politics. sive arguments of Franklin (1766-90) in Europe. Iii the end. England, defeated at the Battle of Yorktown ( 17g IL recognized the independence of the United States with the signing 01 the T.0aty of Paris in I7)-:a The Declaration of Independence( Excerpts) and relinquished to the new nation Lou,iana east of the Mississippi River. * * * * * The independence of the United Statescontri- Be hold these truths to be sell-esident, that all melt are buted to the cause of the French Road-Ilion iiitwo created equal. that they are endowed by Mei creator with certain unalienable Rights. that anion,: these are tile. Ebert) significant ways by aggravating the financial plight and the pursuit of Happiness. that tosecure these rights. of the French Government. whicr:came to the aid (of Goscrnments are in:Muted among Men. deism;; theirJust the Americans), and by seeingas an inspiration to pouers irons the consent of the governed. That wheneverany the French people's hopes for freedom. Also greatly I min of Gosernment become`) tr:s-tructise of these end,.11 I% influenced were the independence movements the Ri:lit of the People-to alter or to abolish in the it. and to Latin American countries in the early 19th institute new Govetnment, laying its foundationon such century. principles and organizing Its powers in such blow.as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safely and Happiness. Adoption of the Constitution and Establishment of Prudence, indeed. will dictate that Governments longestab- lished should not be changed for light and transientCauses. the United States and accordingly all everienee bath shown, that mankindire more disposed to suffer. while evils arc sufferable, than to After the United States beLame independent,the right themselves by abololung the forms to which they ate 13 States were loosely bound by theArticles of accustomed But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, Confederation, and politicalandeconomic distress. pursuing insariab!yilk: same °bled evincesadesign to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their 101,it is continued because the central governmentwas weak. their duly:to throw oft such Goserninenl. andto provide Therefore a movement to forma stronger central new Guards for tliOr tuturc security. Such has been the government began to grow, and in 1787a C onsfitu- patient sulferance of these Colonies, and suchisnow the tional Convention was held in Philadelphiaand drew necessity which constrains thetn to alter their former System, up the Constitutton of the United States. This Consti- of Government The history of the present King of Great tutic Britain is a history, oh repeated Injuries and unsurpations. all recognized the broad autonomy of therespec- hiving indirect object the etilrblistinient of an absolute tive Statesandprovided for the separation of the Tyranny over these States. To pone ibis, letI actsbe three powers lot-government) by establishing:inoffice Nubibitteti to J candid world, of the President to execute the affairs ofthe United * * States, a legislature consisting ofa Senate for State representation and a !louse of Representatives for representation of the people, and a judicial authority consisting of the Supreme Court. Thena struggle 41t cannot he said that the colonistswere completely began between the Federalists, who supportedthe united. because ,..oscrnilicni officials. Ian. !Judos%nem and Constitution, and the Anti-Federalists, who critkized wcalth) merchants rcin.noccl loyal to the King. while then it, thereby treating the basis for political parties. were many others who remained neutral In this way, the foundation of the United Slates

57 68 1800). After that, the United States excite,' efforts to recto-et fiom the Ad: and to expand her !mum}, was /aid Joss n. and In l'89 Washington hecame the selcomed many immigrants as setilers from Lutope, firstPresident(17,89-9'). Moreoset. the-it)of and endeavored to promote the erosstli of her com- Washington vas cleated and lyecame the capital tin merce and industry.

5a 6 11. PEOPLE'S REPUBLICOF CHINA

Social Conditions in Britain's practiced bourgeoi, representative government byset- North American Colonies' ting up their own local legislatures. As electoral rights were restricted in many ways in every colony. those elected to the colonial legislatureswere mostly landlords. gentry. and agents of the bourgeoisie. without any representation whatsoever from the working During the period of over 120 years front 1607to people. There were struggles between the Governors 1732. British colonists had successively established 13 and the legislatures. These struggles reflected the colonies along the eastern coast of NorthAmerica: contradictions (i.e., conflicts, problems) between the. Virginia. Massachusetts, Maryland. RhodeIsland. Connecticut. colonies and their suzerain state. Delaware.NorthCarolina.South During the middle of the Carolina. New York. New Jersey. New Hampshire. 18th century. the economy of the 13 colonies Was basically still agri- Pennsylvania. and Georgia. Later these coloniesbe- came the original I? States of the United States of cultural. Generally speaking. 90 percent of thepopu- America. lation were farmers, However, in New Engiandtex- tile, logging, mining. ironsmelting, shipbuilding. In the beginning. the 13 colonies administered and other industries began to flourish, and handicraft their affairs under British rule without mutual con- factories of all types and variety increased rapidly. sultation. and there was little political link between Furthermore, they were substantial them. Moveover. their relations with the in size. thus suzerain leading to the emergence of a bourgeois class of state were not all the same. On the eve of the War for immense wealth. On the eve of the War for Indepen- Independence, 8 of the 13 colonies were colonies of dence, the annual exports from the colonies had the Crown, with Governors directly appbinted by the already reached a value of S20 million (American). King to administer them: three were proprietary Capitalism had already begun to emerge. end the colonies whose Governors were nominated by the colonial people wanted to develop independeolly. proprietors with the King's approval: and two were But the British administration of the coloniesm self-governme colonies whose Governors were elected North America was completely in the interests ofthe from 31/1011g, the. people of the propertied class. bourgeoisie in Britain. Pursuant to the Navigation subject to the King's approval. The Governors of the Acts and other enactments restricting the trade ofthe 13 colonies were largely members of the Brnish colonies during the period of the Cromwelladmini- nobility or military officials, and they.held military. stration (1599-1058), the British Governmentpre- political. financial. and judicial powers with which scribed that farm products produced in the colonies. they could directly suppress the colonial people in such as tobacco. indigo, and cotton,must first be the interests of the British ruling clique. shipped to Britain to be sold there, while industrial As a result of the ceaseless.struggle of the colonial goods needed by the colonial peoplemust be import- peoplefortheirpoliticalrights, the 13 colonies ed solely from Britain. Moreover, the BritishGovern- ment dispatched naval ships to patrol theseas in a aComptlers' NoteTranslatedfrom Ituo Shag-ming. stringent search for smuggled goods. The British Afri.kuo fih Chan.cheng (The War for American Mdepend colonialrule encej Pckin4: Commetual Press. 1973. Pp. 6-48 and 58-60 thus impeded development of the The rnateritl is designed for the upper years ofa primary- national economy in North America. It forcedcertain seLondary skhoolyle that may vary from 9 to 12years in local industries and businesses into bankruptcy,put duration, and for use in adult tbsses ata tomparable workers out of their jobs, and caused farmersto educational lord suffer losses front the verynarrow market for their

10 59 AZ;

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The 13North American Stal-, at the time ofttwDeLlaration of Independence (Map features identify the 13 Stales. 6 cities 4 rivers Canaria Spanish territory west of the Mossissipp: Florida and the adjacent se&- )

60 71 products. As a consequence. contradictions became clique. and to break loose from thefetters of their increasingly acute between the ruling cliquein Britain suzerainstate. This desire inevitably led to the and the rising bourgeoisie and broadmasses of the outbreak of the War for Independence. people in the colonies. In addition to numerous restraintson industry and commerce. the British Government also restricted The Outbreak of the War for migration of the calomel people to the freelends" Independence of the west. With a view topreserving its right of Washington .1 disposition of these lands. to protectingthe "trade' Jefferson. and others made the of British merchants in their plundering resolution against Britain because ofBritish oppres- purchase of sion and exploitation of the Americans."2 furs from theIndians. and to assisting inthe This instruction of Chairman Mao best explains exploitation of tenant farmers by their landlords.the the causes of the war for American independence. British Government in1763 prescribed that the After the conclusion of the Seven colonial people were only permittedto reside in Years War.3 contradictions between the cokinies in regions east of the Appalachian Mountain:and;, aed North Amer- were forbidden to move to the western lands. This ica and their suzerain state becamerapidly aggravated Heretofore, during the Seven injunction aroused strong opposition from thecoloni- Years' War, the colonial people had actively organized al people of ail-levels,since regardless of whether they their own were plantation ewers or land speculators, farmers armed forces and fought heroicallywith their blood and sacrifice. in concert with the or artisans. they all wanted to get landin tie: west. British troops. to defeat the French, thereby expelling Since the early part of the 18thcentury'. the completely the economy of the 13 British colonies in North influence of French colonists fromthe North Anieri- Araenca can continent. had developed rapidly. Economiccontatas netween However, the colonial people in North the colonies became increasingly frecuent.Industrial America suffered even heavier exploitation and goods from the New England colonieswere shipped oppression to be sold in the South. while the southern colonies after the Seven Years War. Theimmense military expenditures of that war resulted in supplied the North with foodstuffs andraw materials. a huge financial deficit of £140 million. The British Thus a unified domestic market had begunto take Government sought to pass this debt on to-the shape. By the middle of the 18thcentury, a rather colonial people by comprehensive postal system was also established levying a variety of revenue taxes in Nriith,Anierica. in In 1763. the British Government the 13 colonies, so that letters and publicationscould enforce:al the Sugar Act in the colonies in North be delivered to various points bymeans as rapid as America. Stigar any available in that era. On the eve of the War for Independence.the total population of the 13 colonieswas nearly three mullion, of which about 600,000were Negroes. Notwithstanding the factf.hat these culonies,were IGeo4:e Washington 31732-99).big plantation owner in like Virginia. bourgeois statesman, commander-in-chief 13 separate small states:their people because of the they Continental Army during the War for Independence.and shared a common language.common territory, and Liter Lhosen as the first President of theUnited States. common culture. and bet.ause of their internally Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826). bourgeon democrat.drafter developing economic tiesgradually formedthem- of the Declaration of Independence. and laterchosen as the seises into a new nation. third President of the United States. In sum. during the middle of the 18th century, the ""The Bankrupcy of the Idealist mode of capitalist productioninthe Conception of History;' 13 British Selected Worhs of Mao Tsc:zotg.one %ohmic edition. p. colonies in North America had attained considerable 1399. development. the Inhabitants there had formedthem- seises into a new nation. and they wantedto develop 3Thc war fought in 1756.63by Britain and Prussia apinst their own national eonorny. But si6.11development Nance. Spain. Austria. and wag %aged in hirope. was impeded by the policies of British colonial rule. America. India. and an the high seas forsuture or 4. ohmic, The people in the 13.coltenes wanted and for the !wenn)* of Central Europe. Britainnon the to smash the nat. with the result that it took Canada and the territory cast shackles placed upon them by the British ruling of the Mississippi River trim Nance. and Hondatrom Spain.

72 61 Ad was but J name...is the act actually coveted a hug pent up, feelings of anger against Britain of the v.1 alitt.ICSit provided that sup', syiup. colonial people erupted suddenly, like a volcano. linen. and otlici goods wet,: all subject to heavy duty Meeting., were held by peuple everywhere, protesting If they%vele mpited born counnies collet that against the oppression and exploitation of the British Bills This adversely affected industiy and coin Government. They solemnly and righteously declared mere iii tliC colonies. so the hoiden of these taxv that since the British Parliament had no representa was agam shined to the people. Meanwlule, the Iron from the colonial people in North America, it Blttislt Government reiterated the injunctions of the had no light to enact any bill levying taxes on them. At.b by inoviding that Ian matenals The Botish Government was levying taxes without produced inthe colonies and needed by British the :onsent of the people. This was tyranny: they manutactuern could only be expLoved to Britain. the loudly died.We want liberty. We don't want the colonial people were loibulden to manufacture nom stamp taxr In Boston, New York. Philadelphia. and these matenals for themselves. This type of Loloni elsewhere. they- proposed the boycott or British slit levcoue and wade policies setiously undeimmed goods as a Londete action against the Stamp Act. colonialindustries and coinmeice anw advelsely This appeal evolved an immediate response from the aftected the livelihood Lit db. broad masses of the people, and a raging mass movement to hoy con retorie. British goods unfolded. SubvNtien111. in Match 1765. the British Govern By the summer of 1765, the popular struggle of mutt ,vent 11.411 bat: t. course by annovaicing the the colonial people against Bntain had been extended eilli,cmunt titthe Stamp Ad in the colaes. II to all places. From Massachusetts-in the North to oiLvdthevi that .2:1 document.. -.mil acts. agi cements, Georgia in the South, the torches of revolution were liconses.diplomas.wills.ne spapets. magazines. lit everywhere. The masses of the people displayed books. advt., osements. aid Invokes had to be affixed high 'evolutionary enthusiasm and initiative. In order with revenue stamps below etc}%vetevalid or to Larryout the struggle effectively, they formed nei:otiable. Then: was 11.114, a piece of papa which their own fighting body under the name Sons of was not to table in the colonies al the time. The scope Liberty. The bask elements of this revolutionary of the stamp tax was very bload. it Was eStilllated massorganizationconsistedof handicraftsmen, 111.1i the Bonsh Government could Lolled nom it a fanners. small shopowners. seamen. and fishermen. revenue of £60,000 per year. MIS new pu'aLy of While bourgeois politicians were noisily debating in exploitation posed a dlICLA threat to IIIC L...1111Utid of the colonial legislatures, the fighterl of the Sons of a great majority t4 the people in the colonies. Libertyhadalreadytakenrevolutionary action The Bmish Government had anticipated that the againstBritish colonial rule. They arrested British Stamp Ad would inovukcthe iesiktance of the officials selling revenue stamps, smearing their bodies Lolonial people. Si iimoLdiatcly alto its announce with asphalt oil, sticking them with leathern, then moo. ilk Covvonindit also atiliouricc.d enactment of dragging them to the streets fur public parade, and the.Quartering Ad. This at provided that Bnosh finallyburning allunsold stamps to ashes. The Government and colonial tfUtffipt, VitetC permitted, if fighters of the Suns of Liberty In New York smashed then bartack, were inadequate.to, occupy public the Governor's official residence in that city. Such homes and the innate home, of the cohnlial people, revolutionarydeeds unnerved the big and siaall and thc laud .ciL obliged to furnish the troops with lackeys of the British. _Government stationed in the food. drink. and household supplies. The malicious colonies and drove them into panic. intenttitthe Botish Goldninent was to insole Broad masses of women also took an active part in ottoiLLIneitiof ilic Stamp Ad and suppress the the snuggle against Britain. They organized their own 1C4ISIJIICC of the people. Lighting unit called the Daughters of Liberty, fighting As always. things turned out contraryto the side by side with the Sons of Liberty. They had a expedations the icactionary ruleis. The poomulga loftyslogan. We'd Whet wear native homemade tom of the Stamp At and the Qua, tering Ad ignited garments than lose um liberty!" They spun cotton the Cuss: that spiked the beginning of the War los and wove cloth to replace British textiles. They Independence by the colonial peopl.: Noah Anita playeda largeroleinthe mass movement for ica. boycotting British goods. With the announcement t the Stamp Act. the Although the 13 British colonies were politically

62 7 3 separate from each other, they were nevertheless 4mily felt a sense of strong united in their struggle against the British resentment against the authorities British Government, but also lookedupon it with and in resisting the stamptax. In October 1765. ore the initiative of the people of the extreme contempt. Titus, when.11.0111troops wearing Mastachusetts red coats appeared on the colony. 9 of the 13 colonies streets in Boston, they sent delegates to New were ridiculed by the Bostonians. who York City to convene an "Anti-Stamp sneeringly Tax Congrez." called them lobster soldiers." At this Co`ngress,Cluistopher Gadsden.a delegate from the colony of North Carolina.loudly cried: "On this continent there shouldn't be any more distinc- 'Picture) Brain!'tr,,,psfirrngup, or:twined tion between New Englanders and NewYorkers. We cal-dims in B,)rron. are all Americans!" The people-of the 13colonies were united by their common interests. The Anti- The contradictions between the colonial Stamp Tax Congress was the firstmass meeting called people and the British ruling clique became by the North American coloniesin their united ever more acute as time went on. On March 5. 1770. British opposition to British tyrano. Aftermore than 10 troops days of deliberations. the delegates stationed in Boston savagely firedupon unarmed unanimously civilians, killing instantly five passed a resolutionagainstthe Stamp Act and persons and wounding demanded that the British Government six, thereby creating the famousBoston Massacre grant then, incident. democratic rights. The people in NewYork and The Boston Massacreincident arousedthe extreme elsewhere signed a pledge: As longas the Stamp Act is not repealed by the-British indignation of the colonial people in NorthAmerica. Government. we will Front New Hampshire and Massachusetts not buy British goods. in the north to South Carolina and Georgia in thesouth. people The boycott of Britishgoods by the colonial people dealt everywhere held .-ablic meetingscondemning the an effective blow to industry and reactionary British authorities for their commerce in Britain. Seeing that stagnant violence. The markets for disposition for struggle was particularly their domestic goods and strong anion suspension of ship sailings the Bostonians. They conducted were forcing many industries and public burial Cot' businesses to the their martyrs, turning the burial rites brink of bankruptcy, the British into a parading ruling clique, ever demonstration against relying on exploitation for their Britain and demanding the enrichment, was withdrawal of troops by the British obliged to repeal the Stamp Act in reactionary March 1766. At authorities. the sante time it madea public announcement that Heretofore, the struggle of the colonialpeople in the British Parliament had the rightto enact legisla- North America had been scatteredand regional. In tion on behalf of the colonies. Thiswould pave the the course of the struggle, however,they summed up way for creating public opinion favoring thelevying their experience and came tofeelthat of taxes on the colonial peopleat a subsequent date. it was In truth, only 1 year later the British necessary for them to stand together forunited Government action. Thus in November 1772.a announced another series of town meeting held revenue acts (they were in Boston adopted a proposal made by called the Townshend Acts because Samuel Adams the then Chancel- (. /22-1803) to create a Committee of Correspond- lor of the Exchequerwas Tnwnshend) levying taxes on paper, glass. red lead. dyestuffs, ence to exchange information with otherareas, act in tea, and other unison, formulate a program and goods exported to the colonies by other policy, and propa- countries. It gaterevolutionary was also provided that in order to stop smuggling, ideas. The emergence of the Boston Committee of Correspondence British revenue agents were permitted immediately to conduct led the people of other searches aboard ships and at stores, areas to emulate it. Inles warehouses. and than 2 months, a Committee of private homes. These reactionary Correspondence was measures-were met formed by more than 80 citiesand towns in the with strong opposition from thepeople of the colony of Massachusetts. By 1773 suchcommittees colonies, and they brought about anotherround of had been set up in the colonies of broad mass boycotting of British Virginia. Rhode goods. The British Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire. Government then pursued and South a high-handed policy by Carolina. They played a large role dispatching a contingent of troops in promoting the to suppress the development of the revolutionarycause. They greatly opposition. At this juncture the colonial people not strengthened the political links betweenthe people of

63 74 sailoLIN areas, and later became the wpm, of resolu helping to present Oa westward migration of the tionary power. people in the 13 colonies. To insure the enforcement Following the modem of the Boston Mas..sat.le. the of the fise acts, the British Government appointed British ruling clique was tuned by moving pressure General Gage. commander-in-chief of the British Isom the Colonial people to repeal all revenue at-IN slimy in the colonies. to be Governor of Massachu- setts. and steav:ily sent reinforcements to strengthen el-11014.rd in the colonies with the exception of the - Tea Act. which was retained to demonstrate the their military suppression there. posse' of the British Geseinment to lesy taxes on the Howesel, the colonial people in North America colonial people. This act was le:poled by the colo- were not to be intimidated by the reactionary British nists as a symbol of the tyranny of the British authorities. instead, they rose to take up a deter- Cuneinmeni. So on a cold night in December 1773,a mined struggle against them. At that time people group of resolutionalyBostoniansdisguisedas eserywhere in the North and the South held big Indians rushed aboard social British ships ancloged protest meetings, went on stroces, and closed up in the harbor and emptied all the tea cdigoes of the shops in defiance of the reactionary British rule. In 1-4.4 India (mpany into the sea, in protest against tlus round of their struggle their resistance against the t.. fanny o: the British Gosernment. Britain assumed a national scope. During the period when the port of Boston was closed and food supplies were stopped at their source, the people in the 13 PiCVIrldi 1, ,I1 Lir; . In, Le. sir_ colonies regarded the hardships of the Bostonians as their own, and vied with each other in sending them The embaria_Ameirtotthe Boston Tea Party food supplies. Workers in Boston refused to build modem done the British oiline clique into .unites barracksfortheBritishtroops. This forced the lial:oir.In iesponse. II announced that die most authorities to recruit workers in New York. but the severe ineasules nook'. he adopted to deal with the New York workers also failedto respond. The people in the colonies. massive struggle against Britain thus bound together Begiiir..: m Maid' 1774. the 1311lish Gusernment the people of the 13 colonies in North America. plo11414;Jied a of Ilse duel enactments known While the British Gosemment sent more troops to tallielikAn III:slut) as the'rise Intolerable Ac_',.s". carry out suppression. the colonial people gave them t I ) The pint ofBoston was ordered closed and to for tat by organizing their own militia contingents. absolutely toibidden to trade with the outside world. Before this time, there had been militia in all of the This was meant to were the people into surrender 13 colonies, but their officers were all appointed by by starsation. Also. compensation was demanded fur the Governors. Now, under new revolutionary condi- the losses sustained by the Last India Company. tions, the militia of all areas were reorganized, with t.21 The charter ohthe Nlassachusetts colony was ofilars elected from among their ranks. Moreover, resoked by placing the whin} under the complete many working people and revolutionary enthusiasts poisdietion oh the King's Cove/rim, without whose joined the militia, thus enabling it to improve its approval no public meetings were to be held. (3)Ii quality and later to become the armed force of the was prescribed that when British ',nil and military people. The ranks of the reorganized militia came to personnel col1111111ted any ;Anne. they must be sent be known as the Minutemen, meaning that in case of hack to Britain for trial and must nut he subjected to emergency they could be called together within a per ...oes under local laws. (4) The prosisiont of the minute's time to perform theirtask's. Meanwhile, Quartering Ao. whereby the colonial people were revolutionary bodies in various places collected guns required to furnish the British troops sent there to and ammunition to get ready for the attack of the suppress them with food, drink, and housing accont British troops. modations. were reaffirmed. (5) The Quebec Acts On September 5. 1774. as a result of repeated were announced. placing huge tracts oh land from the consultations andpreparations. the13 colonies newly acquired territory north of the Ohio Roes (except Georgia) sent delegates to a meeting in urnrerthe inindiction of the Canadian ['online of Philadelphiatodiscuss a common front against Quebec, Moscow,, the acts took a tolerant position Britain. This was the first Continental Congress. It towards the ( Aortic Church in Canada, in order to was attended by 55 delegates, all of whom were cajoletheI lend, t Aortic immigrants there into distinguished representatites of the bourgeoisie in the colonies. In general. their political inclinations may that "the Americans are determined notto surrender be divided into three factions the first were the in the face of tyranny": (2) under thename of the radicals, represented by Samuel Adams; the second Continental Association, Itformulated a serves of were the moderates, represented by George Washing- orders that prescribed enforcement of "threeinjunc- ton and John Adams; and the third were conserva- tions" against Britain namely. prohibiting theimport tives. represented by John Jay (1745 -1X29) and John of any merchandise from Britain. theexport of any Dickinson (17:2-1804 At the beginning of the merchandise to Britain. and the purchase ofany Congress_ the conservatives vehemently advocated merchandise from Britain -and stated thatany vio- compromise with the British ruling clique and angrils lator would be punished as an "enemy ofAmerican voted against independence. Later. this adversesitua- liberty." tion was retrieved by the revolutionary movement of The injunctions announced in thename of the the popular masses. Continental Association by theFirst Continental Durthe the session of the First Continental Con- Congress had a significant meaning inAmerican gress. the people in Massachusetts held many county history. Before this. the 13 coloniesnever had had and town meetings at which resolutions were passed any common legislative and executiveorgan, and the to express their views on the prevailing state of Continental Congress at first was onlya consultative affairs. Among them the most exemplary was the body. Now, under the strong propelling force ofthe Suffolk Resolution. which reflected the views of the revolutionary people. it enacted mandatorydecrees Bostonians who then stood at the forefront of the that were to be universally enforced throughout the struggle.4 The Suffolk Resolution called upon the colonies. thereby turning a consultative bodyinto a people inthe 13 colonies to oppose the "Five supreme organ of political power, At the same time Intolerable Acts. urged them to use force in resisting people everywhere. vigorous!) respondingto the call British oppression. appealed to themto unite in order of the Continental Congress. formeda Committee of to form their own government, to thoroughly boy- Safety at county.-eity. and town levels, chargedwith cott British goods. and to sever all commercial lies the responsibility for boycotting British goods.In the with Britain. On September If% 1774. theI I th day wake of the rapid development of therevolutionary after the opening of the First ContinentalCongress. situation, these committees became increasinglymore the people of Massachusetts forwarded the Suffolk powerful. In combination with the localCommittees Resolution to the Congress by special messenger. of Correspondence, they madeup the local organs of thereby greatly'strengthening the will of the radicals revolutionary political power. and undermining the prestige of the conservatives.As Thus a situation of struggle was created with the a result, the Congress was obliged to announce that it emergence of two political regimes of opposing would carry on the work in accordance with the power. On the one hand. there was the reactionary demands of the Suffolk Resolution. regime of the British colonial authorities, including On October 26. 1774, theFirstContinental the Nosh troops. Governors appointed by the King Congress was adjourned after more than 55 days of or the proprietors, big and small officials. judges. and intense deliberations_ The Congress demonstrated the polite, all representing the interests of theBrutish compromising nature of the bourgeoisie. It indkated ruling Liwpie in exploiting andsuppressing the people that the colonies ust North America Were still loyalto in the colonies, On the other hand, therewas the Britain. and refer:led to the King as a "most benign people's revolutionaryregime of the colonies In Sovereign However,propelled by the popular North America. Its bash. organswere the Committees masses, it accomphsheil two great things (I) It nude of Safety and the Committees of Correspondencein public a Declaration of Rights, affirming thatthe the various counties, cities, and towns. Itsinter- colonial people in North America were entitledto mediate organs were the local legislatures. either enjoy the rights of "life, liberty, and property," newly elected or reorganwed in thecourse of the condemning the British Government for its numerous revolutionary skirl)). And its supreme organ was the aces of tyranny, and demanding the repeal of the Continental Congress. The colonial people had their "Five Intolerable Acts". it also explicitly declared own armed forces, which were derived from the militia, either newly formed or reorgallited during the revolutionary storm. fixzept for the pro-British loyal- ip.o.,u u.o..1p.ui of Sutba county isisthe Majority of Wlioni were officials appointed

16 65 bythe King. big _merchants. noble landlords. and militia them. As the British could not maintain their priests of the Anglican (all enjoying special foothold, they withdiew from Concord and returned ptivilegesi.oi reactional) intellectuals attached to the to Boston the same day, with the militia sniping at privileged classthe people of ramous stiata rimmed a them all the way. In this battle of Lexington, there bit,,,& united heel against the British colonial IA were about 300 Bluish !loops killed, wounded, and and in favoi of itidependenc. They included fanners. taken prisunei, while the militia suffered casualties of workers. handicialtsmen. Negio slaves and white onlysocial scores of men. The shuts tiredat mdentuted the boulgeolsie and intellectuals Lexington shocked the 13 colonies in North America of the hi:tuft:cols class. and even the overwhelming like a clap of thunder in the spring. Thus the curtain majority Of plantation owners. AJI of these elements of the War for Independence was raised. were called Patriots. Despite the fact that people of all classes in the patriotic camp were opposed to the British colonial rule and wanted independence, their class interests fPieturelIlk_ .1; and political demands were not identical: in some instances they were even fundamentally opposite. Under the general objective of striving for national independence. Negro slaves and white indentuted The news of victory in the battle of Lexington servants wanted to abolish the system of semiotie evoked the patriotic enthusiasm of the people in the and fight 'of then personal ficedum. failaels wanted colonies. in a high fighting spirit directed aeainst a to do away with the feudal land tenancy and strive to common enemy, people everywhere came to the get then land. workers and handailsnien wanted to support of the Bostonians by bringing their own resist exploitation and struggle for their democratic weapons and rations. forming ranks. raising banners, rights. and industnal capitalists and plantationowners and beating their war drums. Within a few days more wattled to west nom the British colonial authorities than 20.000 men were mustered into the ranks of the the power toexploit and rule over thenative militia in the outskirts of Boston. workmg people. It was during these stirring days that the Second The war tot Amencan independence was a 'evolu- Continental Congress was convened in Philadelphia tionary war ot the colonial people in Ninth America on May 10. 1775. Now that the war had begun, the to ineithlow British colonial rule bythe Use of sole task of the Congress was to get the people violent force. organized to fight it effectively.. Under the strong The first shot of the War fur Independence was propelling force of the revolutionary people. the hired at Lexington in the vicinity, of Boston. On the Second Continental Congress became the supreme night of Apo! Its, 1775, the Gol.einoi of Nlassauliti- organ of revolutionary power. It ordered the recruit- witN. General Gage. dispatched a contingent of b00 ment of volunteers, the printing of paper currency, !loops to Concold. :7 miles from Boston. to search the purchase of munitions from abroad. It reorga- lot ammunition stoned by the local militia and to nized the militia contingents mustered around time apprehend the prominent leaden", of the Patriots. But %,icmity of Boston into the Continental Army and thePatinas;;atthe news ahead of (line. One appointed Washington as commander-in-chief. Wash- musselige, of the Sons of Liberty named Paul Revere, ington had sonic militaryexperience, as he had and awalker,%Main ELVIS. RAC together in t11,; participated in the %,11 of the colonies against France dark of the night. hastening everywhere to sound the during the Seven Years' War. alzit. This enabled the militia inthe suburbs of After the battle of I.exingtun. the militia on the Boston to mustel swiftly and he in ambush on Jodi out skit iS of Boston clic!' bled the British !loops in the sides of the road to Concord. At dawn of April 19, city. On June 16. 1775. a militia contingent of 3,000 whenthe Bia troops approachedLexington. men occupied the summit of Bunke' ninth of the suddenly gun shuts were heard as the militia attacked harbor and from thew kept a watch on the British them. The British were barely able to leach Concuid. !loops below. The next day the British deployed over where they discovered that the ammunition stored by 2.000 men to fight fur this high point. and a bloody the militia bad been moved elsewhere. furtlielmore, battle between the two sides ensued. In this battle of they were met whim eLell Mule fierce teNISiallue by the BunkerDill. these hastily organized militia ranks

66 77 demonstrated an astonishing fightingability and ca. No evil deeds were left undone by the British heroic spirit. In spite of their inferior weapons and troops along the coast. where they burned, limited ammunition, they displayed killed. marvelous brav- pillaged. and looted at will. Theyset tire to the ports ery. each vying with the other to forge ahead, and of Falmouth (now Portland, Me.)and Norfolk in repelledrepeated attacks by theBrills!' troops. Virginia. turning theseprosperous cities into sham- Finally, because of a lack of ammunitionthey were bled ruins. In January 1776. the British forced to retire from their battle Government position. but they concluded agreements with the feudalrulers of had already killed and woundedmore than half of the several small German principalities whereby20.000 enemy troops. thus destroying the myth ofthe German mercenaries were recruited andbig guns were inability of the militia to fight againstthe forces of a bought in order to suppress the regular army. In the eyes of the independence-Mole- people in the ment of the North American colonies. Allthese colonies, the battle of Bunker Hill was regarded as a actions served only to intensify thehatred of the brilliant victory. colonial people for the British ruling clique. On July 3. 1775. Waslungton assumedthe duties During the period of the SecondContinental of Commander-in-Chief of the ContinentalArmy at Congress, farmers. workers. handicraftsmen.Negroes, Cambridge. near Boston. At first, hesitantand irreso- fishermen. soldiers. the bourgeoisie and lute, he did not initiate their intel- any attacks against the British lectuals, and even plantationowners in the North troops.Later, pushed by the popular masses, he American -colonies were all ardentlylonging for deployed a major force to encircle Boston. cutting off independence. The question of independence its land supply line and turning it into was a dead port. discussed everywhere, infarmers log cabins, in On March 17. 1776. the BritishCommander Howe handicraftsmen's workshops, at firesides insoldiers'- (who had succeeded Gage) was forced to withdraw barracks. at schools and town meetings.and in State front Boston and to retreat with histroops to Halifax. legislatures. Committees of Safety, andCommittees Thus Bos63h. one of the biggest basesof the British of Correspondence. "Independence"became the cry army in the colonies of North America.came into the of the time, the common demand et hands of the American people. the people in North America. Yet the ContinentalCongress dared Because of the strategic necessity ofpreventing not then declare its-independence. British troops rrom using Canadaas a huge base for Under these historical conditions, thereemerged a conducting counteroffensives. the ContinentalCon- political writer. Thomas Paine (1737-1809). gress decided to attack Canada. It dispatched Born in two England and a bourgeois radical contingents to attack Canada from the democrat, Paine east and the migrated to North America in 1774 west. One contingent. led by Richard Montgomery. and became a magazine editor in Philadelphia. In January 1776he was to march forward along the Hudson River valley wrote with a fiery pen z: pamphlet entitledCommun and Lake Champlain. The other.commanded by Sense in which he fervently advocatedthat the Benedict Arnold. was tocross the wastelands of colonial people in North America shouldsever their Maine and make a frontal attackon Quebec, In ties with Britain by declaring theirindependence. Ills November 1775. Montgomery'stroops capture.d the basic arguments were that all kingswere cruel rulers important Canadian city of Montreal. Buton Decem- and enemigs of the people: that absolute ber 31 a the same year. Montgomery monarchy was killed in was in itself the fountain of evil: that the the battle of Quebec. and his attacking British force had colonial rule in North Americawas completely based to be withdrawn. Arnold. being isolated andwithout on selfishinterests; thatif the people in North support. was also forced to leave Canada. America thought they could obtainany concessions After the colonial people in North America took from the King, this was only daydreaming;and that up armed struggle. the cold features of the British only by armed struggle anda declaration of indepen- ruling clique were even more glaringly revealed, In dence could the people in the 13colonies be united August 1775, King Geoige 111 declared the colonies in to strive for the rights they were entitledto enjoy. North America to be loa state of ..febelltom.. of Common Sense reflected in concentratedform the which the ringleaders" must be seserely punished. demands of the people at the time. Forthis reason its Following this, the British Government issued decrees publication immediately attractedsuch a large num- cut tine oft all trade with the colonies. and used naval ber of readers that in 3 monthsmore than 100.000 ships to blockade the colonial portsin North Amen- copies were printed. Paine's work playeda great role

67 7 8 in mobilizing public opinion in favor of the indepen- [Picture]Tin: *aim Irhe Narration ,t1 Indepen- dence of the colonies. On April f 3. 1776, a formal resolution was passed by the State legislature of North Carolina conferring fullauthority on its delegate to the Continental The Declaration of Independence was an inipor- Congress to join with-the delegates of other colonies doeument of theperiod of the to &elate then independence. Shoal) tlicieaftei, the bouigeois resolution.It was a declaration against State legislatoies of Massachusetts and Rhode Island colonial oppression and feudal oppression. Politically. made the same decision. On May 15% 1776, the State it played a peat mobilizing role at the time and later leEaslatine of instiucted its delegate to the. becanie the model foi the Declaration cif the Rights Continental Ce.ngiess to submit a lemma' iesolution of Man published duiing the period of the french 101 independence. On June 7.. Richard !ferny Lee, bouigeois 'evolution. Therefore. Mao, referred to the delegate hom proposed the following iesolu Declaration of Independence as "the first deelaiation thin: "These united colonies should as a matter of of the rights of man."5 course bet-0111C a freeand independentunited The Declaration of Independence was a declara- nation. I loweseisoi'ie bouigeois delegates at the tion of the bourgeois 'curio-ion. It was the declara- Congress weie afraid to sole for this resolution, so tion of the bourgeoisie inthe North American theynominatedJeffeison.Benjaminlianklin colonies deniandingto take osei political power from (170( -90), and otheis to Lim a five-man committee the Biatisli colonial autholitie... The political princi- 1i:spoil-able fin dating a declaiatton explaining to pies enunciated in it were alined at protecting the the whole %solid the leasons fen tied demand of system of capitalist exploitation. theieby independence. On July 2, undo Along piessuic hom the Interests of the bourgesnale. In practice. the the papilla' masses.. the Congress adopted a iesolution -people ieleired to in the Declaration of Indepen- endoising the Declaration of Independence, dence only meant the bourgeoisie, and the "right of On July 4. 1776, the Second Continental Congress the pursuit of happiness" was deduced from the adopted the Declaration of Independence. This docu light of pope' ty* and intended to stamp the mark meat eviessed hi' the fist time in outline loon the of legitimacy on the system of bourgeois exploita- demands of the bourgeoisie. We hold these tion. The Declaration ul Independence was signed by hull's to be selresident, that all den are created 5o 'matins, of whom 28 were bourgeois lawyers. 13 equal, tlo they ale endowed by then Creatoi with weie big ineichants, 8 were plantation slaveowners, eel nun unalienable Rights. that among these ate Life, and 7 welt members of the free pi o;essions. but there Libertyandthepursuitof Happiness...."It was not one representative of the working people. enumerated thevisions actsof tyrannyof the The adoption and publication the Declaration (Awl's!' King and concluded by deelaiing before the of Independence nuked the birth of America. The ,whole world "That these United Colonies are, and of original 13 colonies in North Anier.ea now became Right ought to be Flee and Independent States, that the test 13 States in the United States of America. they ,tie Absolved limn all Allegiance to the British Lateithe day of July 4 was designated as the Crown, and that allpolitical connection between National Day of the United States. them and the State of Great Britain. is and ought to be totally dissolved." Afterwards, the people in New Yolk City smashed a tit owe statue of-King GeorgeIII TheCourseof the War for Independence and cast its broken pieces into bullets. The polito-al principles enunciated in the Declara- The war for American independence began with tion of Independence were generally deduced from the battle of Lexington on April 19.1775, and ended the writings of the 17th century English bourgeois with the surrender of British General Cornwallis at politieal theorist Locke (1632.1704) and the 18th Yorktown on October 19, 1781. It lasted 61 years. centuryFrenchbourgeoisphilosopherRousseau (1712-78). llowever, this was the first (line that the demands of the bouigeois revoiution were presented 5."Letter to American President Abraham 1.1m.oln," com- in the folio of a deelai ahem. It beu.1111c, d.c bail/ICIof p/etc Works of Marx and Lngels. People's Publishing House, the war for American independence. 1964 ed. Vol. 16, p. 20.

68 7 9 The course of the war was marked by twists and In September 1777, the British. relyingon their turns, but may generally be divided into two stages; naval strength. sent troops bysea to attack Phila- the first was from the outbreak of the war to the delphia. the site of the Continental Congressand the surrender of British General Burgoyne at Saratoga in biggest city in America at the tame. Whenthe British October 1777, during which period the main battle- occupied Philadelphia. theywere very overbearing fields were in the North: the second was from the and swaggered like conquering heroes.Washington led entry of France into the war in February 1778 to the his troops to engage them in the outskirtsof the city. end of the war, during which period the war was but after repeated defeats he was obligedto retreat to expanded into an international war, with its main Valley Forge to spend the cold winter.At Valley battlefields in the South. Forge the situation_ of the ContinentalArmy was In March 1776, British General Howeretreated extremely hard. Washington mote: "Thesesoldiers, from Boston to Halifax. where heregrouped his army without enough clothing during the day andblankets to wait for reinforcements and a chance tocounter- to cover them at night, have to march barefoot attack. In July 1776. when America had justdeclared because they have no shoes: theycan be traced by the its independence. Howe. in coordinationwith the marks of blood left by their feet: andthey are British navy from which he had receivedsubstantial without food almost all the But. all this aid, led an army of 35,000men to come back to was but a temporary hardship. Despite the loss of attack New York. Washing,ton was ordered to defend Philadelphia,the armed forces of the American the city. At that time the ContinentalArmy under.his people had won a great victory in battleat Saratoga. command had only18,000 men, without heavy In June 1777, British General Burgoyne ledan artillery or a navy, so it was difficult forhim to hold army of 8.000 :nen from Canada ona march New York. which was surrounded bywater on three southward along the Hudson River valleyto meet sides. Washington fought the Britishtroops in the with the British troops occupying NewYork in a outskirts of New York for several months,but after a pincers attack. trying to cut off the linkbetw6en the few fierce battles with heavy casualtieshe had- to States of New England and the otherStates. How- withdraw from New York andretreat to New Jersey. ever, as soon as Burgoyne's men enteredupon On December 8. when histroops were ferried across American soil. they were quickly trappedby the the Delaware River to retreat westward,the remnant encirclement of the American people. Firstthey met of his army numbered only 5.000men. However. the attacks by the New England militiacontingents who firm resolve of the American people forindependence blocked their way. The militiacut roads and de- enabledWashingtontofighton. At Christmas stroyed bridges, making it impossible (December 25) 1776. Washington caught the for the British enemy to 'advance a single step. Burgoyne unprepared when he launched his counterattack. was hit from all directions and could not get military supplies, Aided by the local fishermen, his so he troops crossed the was forced to retreat to Saratoga. an important city icy waters of the Delaware River on a coldwinter in northern New York. At thatmoment militia night, and with a move as swiftas a clap of thunder contingents from various areas and the Continental leaving no time to cover theears. they captured Army took advantage of their victories bypursuing Trenton. an important city in New Jersey.and took the enemy and encircling histroops in Saratoga from prisoner 1,000 German mercenaries in theBritish all sides. On October 17, 1777. army. FollOwing this, on January 3. 1777. Washing- Burgoyne. having exhausted his supplies of food andammunition. ton, again using the tactic of a surprise attackat surrendered with the remnant of histroops, number- night. defeated the army of General Cornwallisat ing 5,600 men. The great victoryat Saratoga was Princeton. The victories at Trenton andPrinceton mainly a victory for the militia. It fullydemonstrated greatly heartened the morale of the peopleand the strength of the American people. turned the tide of the war. greatly height. enedtheirconfidenceininevitable victory, and reversed the situation of the entirewar. 11131)1 SilliviJilmap !Car btr intuncan The victory at Saratoga marked the endof the first 1Pircribknie 13,1,11,p1 n,rf, teonic, mules not stage of the war for American independence. There- fumn ,,,OnP.Itens Mid after. the war was to be expandedinto an. inter- ,r),10,1 Mk,I national war. Am.lal0* The American people fervently hopedto receive

80 69 aid tom] the 401.11111 IC'S of Lowrie..1s call', a_ Mani" connection, Lenin pointed out. "When the American 1770. the ( ottioicittal ( witness kid dispatche., Silas iteople %%aged their great oat of libeiation against the Deane to Pails plomme then cause. Aftzt the British oppressois. they had also against them the decimation 'al iiiiiepeitd,tice. hatiklut oas appointed Fictich and Spanish oppressors olio owned a part of by the ( 'animas .15 clIW), to Pans. to engage Ill MIA is now the L'inted States t,. NOIIII America. In diplomat', vvit k along .'.all Deane. At that lime. [lieu aidovnis %vat fur freedom. the Ann:tic-an people Jeep ci.otiacit,trons existed betocen the commies of Lain:ledinto'agteenient;with some oppressors curlllllellIdI1.010pc. 111 pat ti,ulat bet o cell l'iati,e and against- od ic's. forthe !impose of weakening. the titeat DiiLiUr. 13e,aus, ul k..41.1Ion.ut 11111J1I. oppicssots JIld strengthening those who 551.11: righting dit.11 ...At/U u> dulllitt th, Si acid YcJils' W41. III 'evolutional) 'tunnel against oppiession atio-lot ilia Ftcuch btaUgl11.111.111u11,LACII JII oppoitunity to purpose seiving the interests of the oppressed reenteraikuld Ilom Biltani. Fiend' King Louis XVI people. The AIM:Mill people took advantage of the openly stated. -We MC ptomaine out oon objective. stifle between theFrench, the and the 111111W11..A. %Sill 11, vveakcilcd hy the indepo, Minsk sometimes they even funght side by side with den,: of tts rialLe was not the finces of the liencli and Spanish oppressors son. .4 die ...I do. :Sat, It I..1,illatcd a 1. inst. Jg..1111Si the British oppressors. lust they defeated the and only J,,Ided to vain...teat- who' it Laid 1111101, JIld 111.:11 they freed themselves (partly by news iii the gicat %loot> id tilt. A1111:11..J11 toices ransom) lion] the French and the Spanish."6 Satanic.'litI ebtualy 177s. I :mice formally tecog More tinpoitant. the American people obtained tored ltic UltfrpcnJcllccitilia tinted StatCS. .111.1 J the vigoious support of the revolutionary democratic

of 1111111.114 .1111.11me41111It%S.IN signed. TIIIS people in Luiopean ,comitries. Atte' the outbreak of

111.11I 1.111C. wolJ.1 SUppoit the Oil the War fin Independence. French bourgeois states- 101 itidepelld11C wnh land and naval man Lafayette (1757-1834), born of nobility but briar, .iswell .h 111111e the United States with demociati, inclinations. and Frenchnihilist iold .1,,oidI IdIIa,c"itiost-tavoledatalunttreat- socialist Saint :Simon (1760-1825). as well as Polish ment-- in ichnins and %%mild also aid revolutionaries Pulaski (1748?-79) and Kosciusiko 1 tain.e iii delciiiin4. its colonies in the West Indies. Ill (1746-1817), crossed the ocean to serve as volunteers Jaiiac 1770. SpJIII Jim/ 101101 Flame 01 the %vat in the revolutionary anny commanded by Washington again,' Milani. with a view to ic,oveling Gibraltai. and fought for the cause of justice. During the entire %latot,aI,Llllil. andI looda. Its colonyin Ninth war period. 7,000 people came from vanous countries of Mita kid been sewed inim Spam by of Lurope to take partinthe oar, and many Britain. sacrificed their precious lives for the sake of Ameri- Atthattime. in.n.hlitiontofighting on the Lail independence. At the same time. the British AIIICII...111',Willi-Ia. I 1,-11.11.111t1 S11.1111:41 Web also people, in then struggle against the 13ritali ruling ,ii,aced the 131ilisli navy. w the Admin._ As Britain. cliquein liarticulai the struggle of the Irish people ',lying on its naval sopctioi to.. behaved le,11;:ssly by 13111.IIII also vigorously supported the move stopping. seatching, and firing on neutral merchant anent fin Amer:can utdependeme. dims on the. high seas. Russia, m concert with Prussia. Alm the f Iench participation in the wat began, Holland.DC6111.111%. Sweden, and other countnes, thewarIiiAmerican independence entetedits formedIn1780 an Aimed NeutralityLeague to second stage. In June 1778, the French fleet came to piote,l the navigation of neutral ships The League the AllItIrltAll shines, tototig the British to withdraw batik.,theBiltishsea blockade againstAmerica, limn Philadelphia. hi July 1780. the film contingent 'hereby benefiting the Ainelicans. In December 1780, of the French atm). numbeling 0,000 men under the llolland. whose ..onimercial interests had been under command of General Rochambeau, armed at Ness. mined by Britain, also entered the war on the side of Port. R.I. France and Spain against13ritain. Thus the British During the second stage of the war, Its centei were encircled by enemies on all sides shifted to the South, The !Wish army wanted to -HieAnti:manpeople took advantage of the conlilitlictIons between131113111 and the buropean countries and 'inbred them in their strategy to gain 6"I inter to American orker+,-Sekerd Works of Lenin. victory in the war for Ametican Intlependent.e. In this rtmplcs Pubh,hual Mom 1972 ed. Vol 3. pp. 591 92

70 81 utilw: the consersaine influence inthe southern '-course of the war. the American people had overcome areas to [mese their untayorable situation. so they all kinds of hardships and obstacles, And hadfought took- the ottensise in the South. In December 1778. valiantly and persistentlyto wintheirultimate they captured the important port of Savannah. Ga.. brilliant victory. The victory of the war for.American and used it as a Sed2e to go on into the interior 01 independence eloquentlyproved:the destiny of the South. In May 178(I. British troops went allout history is decided by the porular masses. for reprd- on the offensive and took the important port of less of how retrograde and rampant -thereactionaries Charleston, S.C.. and from there they marched north may be for a tune. they Will movably be ground to m an attempt to restore their colonial rule na the dust by the wheels of history in the end. whole of the South. At this runcture the forces of the Continental arm). sent south by the Continental Congress to resist Me 1319ish. were badly defeatedin , the Battle of Camden. However. the people of the South rose to defend themselves by formingguerilla bands and using mobile and flemble warfare toenga!e During the Julie of the %WE. Ailleflea began ,its the enemyin October1780. the militia gueoll: westward I:mansion on a large scale. 1'10111 the first. hands .9 the south annihilated one major whimot the colonies in North America had been ,foundedon the British ante in the Battle of King's Mountain. the corpses of the Indians. The Britisharmy. taking This %idol y changed the situation of the ssar,an. the athantage of the ..ontradictions between. the Ameri- American forces immediately turned to the tufensiye. cans and the Indians, enticed the latter to right on -General (ulltwaihs became unable to hold his ground then side, Following then victoryin the war. the ul the South. as his lowes were steadily tediked hs Amei ican oilers took the opportunity of sewing lands attritionIn the end lie was compelled to retreat to lions the Indians. From 1778 to 1779. George Clark. the port 4.-11,of Yorktown. Va.. Where In. waited tor heading an armed band organwed by land seekers the British fleet to come to his rescue Iron Virginia. crossed the Ohio River in a %Sestward Rythis time the situatioa had undergone a thrust and captured Vincennes, thuspaving the way tt.ndamental change, with the British army firmly forfarther American expansion into the west. In from a superior to an inferiorposition and the 1779 tVashington sent John Sullivan witha force of American Ikon an inferior to a superior poilion. The soldiers to "annihilate he Iroqums Indian tribe then tune for &Ie.:base battle had !Many come settled in northern New YorkAn his instructions to Following the retreat of COI111,1(a1111. forces 111.0 Sullivan. Washington wrote: "The present ampis to Yorktown. the southern militia guerilla bands and the completely smash and flatten their settlement, takeas Fren.hfleetcame hal d on their heels. In early manyprisoners as possible. the More the better. September 1781. a French 11mA squadron of 36 ships whether they are men or women, old oryoung... led by Admiral de Grasse defeated the British navy You must not only tikop up their settlement, but mina& the port in Yorktown. cutting oft completely destroy Thus at the time 01 its founding. America the supply Imes from the sea Washington was then had already nakedly exposed its aggressive character. quartering his troops in the vicinity of New York. On September 3.1783. Britain and /merica signed When he heard the news, he immediately combined the Tarts Peace Treaty. This treaty provided for Ins lures', with those of the French led by General recognition by The British Crown of the United States Rochambeau. as well as those under Lafay ette, and (the original 13 British colonies in North America) as rushed south to encircle the British at Yorktown. .1 free. sell-go erning.. and independent nation. and Alter smuggling doggedly' for a while. Cornwallis, for the Arillisition by the United States of the vast having eshausted Its strength and energyled his territories west _of {he Appalachian Nlountam range army of 3.000 to surrender on October 19,1781. As and east of the Mississippi River. The 'newly defined the British troops in their 1E1111 hiliform., stepped in boundary or the 'tinned Stales of Aniericawas: on front of the shabbily clad American forces to lay the north, Canada and the Great Likes region:on the down then arms, the American army band played the east, the Atlantic Oc:an. on the south.,Fhinda: and trine "Clue World Turned Upside Dow n." on the west. the eastern bank of the Mis'iassi pin River. After the Battle of Yorktown, the war for Amer! 1 hus the land area of America heroine twice whoit van uutependence had essentially been won. In the was at the time of die deLhuatum of independence,

71 82 almost encircled by the enemy on all sides. As a /17:_ It'. jj7r,r comparatnely developed capitalist country, Britain .1 P,rr; fr,-a,1 I had greater cconormc strength. while the American Tn1;) ',:47!n; " 1.:111ttql 1;. I_ erred economy at the time was still 'riot of a backward \,1:111 colony. However. all these [factors] were superficial. t! 1.1nC`I relative, and temporary. The balance sheet of forces is not confined to a comparison of economic and Tfic Pails Kau: Titai 1S.IN concluded accoidiug militm), strength. Mow important is the balance sheet tie pioposed di litoftic American delegates. li with wt.:aid to manpower and spirit. As to the nature satisiied ilic ot die Alnico...an bouigeoisie. of this war. it was an unjust and aggressne war on the But it.11N., comp.omising asps. ts. becausc it British side. and .1 just war of national Fbetation on pi.wided that cieditois welt entitled to collect the .1111111..J11 side. lie who upholds justice gets help. then debts I-1.0111 A1li%:11..J111:111.11:. Ili 11.11J ultcns4 he who forsakes justice does not. At that time Britain art.! that 110: Cnigics, should iccommend was isolated and helpless. Mule Ameoca recemil tl. the carioro States adopt 1114JSUICS I;JI tenoning wide sympathy and aid abroad. Among the conti,,.ated plopcity of Bluish subjects and loyalist Hoops that Britain used to suppress the people In clement,* to thedit (111105. 1.1113%e two prost tiurthAmeoca were many mercenaries hued from sums. howec NS:14. Hitt Sti11.14 ualtitt:t1 IAA be..actsc small pinup:1111,es in Germany. so their morale was they were opposed by the Anieircan people. low., On the other hand, the American troops were an At the time of the signing of tlo peace Ile.11141Agh aim} of the people. They were unafraid of violence BI11.1111 als,. concluded peace with Fiance and brace in battle. These differences in character and Sp.11.1. lilts(ALA!, of pioidcd to, Spanish enabled the Amenc.in people gradually to turn an occopation ofthelc, west of tlic interim situation into a supericp one, thereby defeat- Rtvi. and tot Spam% le-gaming rlon.la and also ing B111 .1111and ultimatelysecuring their indepen- Nlajorca Island in the westein Mediterranean.wluch dence. ben lostto Boum in the past. But Britain The war lot American independence was a war of iciained the 'input tam base of Gibraltai at the masses. In the .olonics of North America work- the soutlizin lip of Spain. Fiance it:01mA 1,,:bago in ers. fainters. handicraftsmen. seamen, fishermen, and ter.. West. Indies and took &mg:al on the West Anican the like were the main forces in this retolutiunary BLit B111.1111 still possessed the cast teintory ul war. Theytook anactive pat tinthe war by Canada This et JC 11..1I1 coulcJ rile partition of urn.niting militia contingents to attack British troops 'dowries andcolonialmicizst. amongBritain. Indy w here_ "until?, the war the broad masses and the France. and Spain. soldiers braved cold and hunger. o%ercoming all kinds The :ta 10i t1HIt 11W11 indePtitidefi,e %%a,* a ISJI of ,r1 hardships and perSisting, in carrying the resolution- 11.111.$11.1! Ilbel.111011. fought by the American people to aty war through to its victorious conclusion. break away from the oppression tit Bi Gish colonial Dining the war patriotic women also played a big luteAt that woe mimat Biltain was a hist-late role. They warn)ls supported the War for Indepen- world power v oh .1 population of 30 million. whereas dence and freedom in all ways. While men went to Anienca had a population of only 3 Britain the limit. they took the tasks of production in had a lionwric.11y supeoot army with 111.1111 e:pen- the fear. They tilled fields ,,nd cloth. and sent enced military commander. and ecellent weapons. food. gal ments. and other .:ocles to suppiat the wink the slittiCd 5tietiglit of the American people was font. When Washington was in a precarious situation basically composed of a militia w1:11 little inilitaiy retreating with his Continental Army into Penn- naming and lit/or weapons and supplies. At the time sy barna. the women of Philadelphia raised a huge Botain trosscssel the stiongest na%), which land of almost L300.000 to procure winter clothes for could he used to tianspoit hoops and supplies and the molutionaiy J1111). This etent deeply mined the effecti%ely blockade .11ticiican polls. while Anicoca fighters. Cndei file on the battlefields, women risked no mit> to speak of. Botain was an impenal 'lieu lives for the Continental Aim} to bung ammuni- countiy %%fro sast colonies_ In Ntii li Anicoca it held tion. Ilan-sant intelligence. and fescue the wounded. Honda, and the West Indies. and could use Some even set %IN! as .11iiiloy gunners and performed thew bases to attack America. whereas Anienca was glorious war deeds. The V101111inthe war for

72 83 Anki lean independence was inseparable fromthe the rebel, were not well-df died. they could still tire elitists of patriotic women. effectively from then nituleloadmgguns: they Mere Duringthe warfor Americanindependence _fighting for their ownteil inteleSla. so they could Negroes also made great cortributions. in Anieric-a at not nee from battle bk.! the mercenaries; they did not that tints; there were tr00.000 Negroes. making up fight as the Britishhal. one-fifth of the total population. This anticipated. in fixed line was quite .1 formation on the plains, but rather usedtheir swift, large lore. 13ecause the plantationowners and the mobile dispersed groups hiddenintimeforest to bourgeoisie stubbornly maintained the cutsystem net ambush the littlish Iry ops. Under these conditions Negro slavery. 550.000 of the 1)01.1.000Negroes were site fixed hue formation was useless, andso the enslaved like beasts. devoid ot any personal freedom. British were beaten by anenemy who could not be After the outbreak of the %Jr. Americanot only seen or confronted. Titus they hue Amencansj failed to!rrearri7e the Negroes but guardedthem even invented the dispersed formation in warfarea new mole closely, thus intensifying their opnression. This form of warfare produced by a changein the seriously unpeded then participationIn the war.Ii vompostium of the lighting forces: ,7 was also one of the important reason. WI* thetsar tot Amenvan -independence w-as slow inachieving victors. Be that as it flay. the Negroes still playeda great role in the war. Dunn' the war, at least 5.000 Neeroes fought in the American resolutionaryaimy. InI 778, the batallions of Vashingion'Continental The Historical Significance of the War for American Independence Army had an average of 54 Negroesea..n. There were Negroes fighting in every Important battle;they The war lair fought bravely and well and repeatedlyestablished Americanindependence was a bourgeois resolution aralti.1 colonial world, of distinction. In the snuggletom American oppression and independence, blood was shed in common by Negroes feudal oppiesstonItwas thefirst revolution in and whiles alike. American history. Since the war for American independenceseas a The victory in the War ror Independenceenabled the 13 States in Nr.-rtli America war of national hbeiation a war to themasses, so in to cast off the bonds the course ot it the Americanal ny made new aid of British colonialism and Becomean independent important cleanse Lontilbutioris intactics. Taw and selgoverning bourgeois democraticrepublic. All played a definitetolein enabling the American the injunctions promulgated by theBritish Govern- people to win sidory, the Dith century. European r ent in the past were burned to ashesin the angry amine.. %Cee .111.1tedIII11edInle 101111:Itli111.lin- lire set by the revolutionary people Theeconomic 4)6 the plain.... but the revolutionary tinny led structure and the social complexion of the Lolonial by Washington wa, the first to adopt mobileand period were subjected to vast changes.and certain flex hie tormanons nu disposed V.attale..13eremsehis vestiges 01 letidalisni were swept away. The 13 Slates men knew what they were fighting for. their morale werepoliticallyunited into one entity. thereby was ludo because they were lightingon then own promoting the development of 4 nationalet_onomy. sod, they were familiar with vonr:itions.and because In Das 'Capital, Marx pointedout. "The wea for they were operationallymobile and flexible. they American independence in the Dithvelum) sounded could twill in dispersed foam-awns thatMonied time an alarm for the bourgeoisie of Lurope."8 Thewar fullest scope for then heirting ability. Whetherthey for American independence awakenedLurope and hastened conducted surprise raids by special columns.encircle- the outbreak of the Frenchbourgeois ment by heavy concentrations, or attacks in heavy revolut Ion, fog. r: u, or ,now.a.id especially whenthey fought a: night air in dose quarters. they were ableto boat the enemy. making low di//y and exhausted fromrun. 7Intifhihrozc Pcople's PublshumeHouse. 1971i IA!Pp rime. With respect lo this kind of innovation instar 165-66 lad ies,hrieels pointed out-Orione are war tor 8IJas hapttalVol Ai:ierie.ni unlependenve, tiler:wrot:rents of tire rebels f, Pretihe to the Past Ldittort. Complete Works of .HarrPcopls:\ PubliAnri 972 !ought against Intlestirle line fruniations.Alibiing!) eel Vol 21.11 II

84 73 The was to: AILCINall Indcpcnacmc poitriled mdependerke had a great progressive significance in suo.-e.stori port.edent tot the colonial indepen&th.c Anteman history but at the same time it also had the anti national hbeiation most:mem. tit the oppiessed limitations of a bouigcois resolution. A bourgeois people-. Lndel its in the trail) pall ot the roolution isreallyOnly one exploiting group re- .entuly the people Lit Latin Amema sut.t.essite plai.ing anodic' m seizing and holding power_ The ly bundled iesolutionaly stiuggics against Spanish th.toly in the V6.11 for Ametkan independence only and Portuguese colonial rule and established. one enabled the bouigeiaisie and the plantation slave after another, more than 20 independent nations. owners to grasp political power. while the broad. In his tenet to %II:email workers in 191N. Lenin 111.iNses a the people were still relegated to an Ai iltinidall:historicalmeaning of the war for exploiteu and oppressed status. Anietkan intlepoideme in this eta} The MA'AM) 01 The popular masses are the mashers of history. modern. eorlized ivigan with one of thow Eluting the war fot American independence. workers. great. reallyliberating. reallyrevolutionary wars. handicraftsmen. farmers, and Negroes made up the . that was the war the American people waged vast majority of the working people in the popula- against the British robbers who oppressed America tion. They nut only opposed the British colonial rule. and held her in colonial stacery.-4 but they also wanted to push the revolution to a still nom-gems revolution against colonial tipples. higher stage. +1n and 1,41111 oppie,ion. Illy%%al COT American The AII7eficai) people are a great people. They hate a revolutionary tradition. At present. they are in a state of new awakening. We believethatthe

,1I , 17100 Pollishim: 11,0j," American people will make still greater contributions

IF-1" %.,I. r. 5st. to the cause of human progress in the future.

74 8 ,3 12. .INDIA

The American Revolution' colonists found the lays which the English GAu foment imposed upon them more and more oh:jet:lion- lYfnicNtfah favhstimen wc. bottling .1111,11111. able_ The idea of being an independent thrilorl guess 1111p1inentelitb of Parliament Jrki rch,inis In ieligion. and deYe_lopect Into the leyralutionory Wai in which .1liter% were athentuting ocioss the Atlantic to estab-_ the colonists gained then fidependence. listi colonies and trade in the Americas.... Early in theI 'th anion) 1:u 1opcon commies begon to Wile Causes of American War of hidependence tIiidernellis there. In Noith Anienca....loines wen: The colonial policyof Lngland in economic established by home. I tollona. and Sporn as well .1. matte's was the Fulmar) cause of SeUalifItelt In the by EnglandIn:h.: ISM century. England done American colonies.... [II n Eulope at this tune. the Franc out ot the eastein part this continent ond theories of mercantilism dommated the policies of all (atoll She had token New Ncilmiloricts lion. the governments. England's application of mercantilism DUlt II eJf her sITJIrerne its 11..1111e 11 tcfaith. meant that the /IDIOM-JD colonies could not dcyelop all el.:Ono/11y of their/owl. The British Poiliament had The English Colonies in America forbidden them to use non-Biltish ships in then node. By the middle ot the 1,011 colony thine we)c 11 C et IJin products such a tohjci.o. cotton mid sugai c..hirties to Noith Anienc.1 Jittill; the Atlantic could be exported only to EnglandHeavy/ duties roost_ Landless peosonts. pcopte sccking. 'doors, cycle imposed on the mutton of gootis in the ,0101110, needom. trackts. and plonk:els had settled then:. aunt other places, The colonies were also forbidden The hulk of thepulaiwn ,..rist.ied 01 independent to suit certain industries. to, example. Imp suck. tanners.11- fainindustries hod deYelpcin such and lext&%. The) weir bilked Ito uniow I these goods pioduJs as wo411.113. and leathei. In the omit' thins: from Loglond. Thus, in eve!ypossible way. the were tislitne and ship soih, ta.. growth of industry and node of the colonies was plantanim, like teudal nuinus had gains!! where impeded. 14 ,haco an] .114in two_ esowfi Mal .1.1% e 13110ifiels The thins!' JIM) angered the colonists by 'smutty! a hr,,n5In twin Trade between the colonists ond 11104.1.1:11.1110n lit present theist rant mining west min hail 1,,,,,uste 11.24 oi.d plspeoms, new lands. English aristocrats had bought lands m 1-ach colonyhad Jbk.!l assembly elected by America and gut lents loon the formers They wanted qualltied Yolers. These assemblies enacted law, oil to keep the colonists .entors. But many colonists eetrang bleat matte's. toted 1J V .1114.1 (toloped skill rebelled againstthe authorities. moved into the trisell.goyegnmer I.1 bmcccr.they were undcitint wilderness and occupied land by hook or by crook rule of the moilici email iy By the 18th centnly. 111c As a result of continuous wars in Europe the Ransil Government was burdened with debt.It needed money. In 1765. the British Parliament passed I pr. k.StJlnik.tt II.1)Jw. Iin,, the Stamp Act which imposed stamp taxes on all IthIpos. If 1 S1,.11(.3.Q Z.11411. business transactions with the American colonies, V4Irobtsof.Jrul1T1411i ta! 5ubir, -I Act/we-Pkhis ReYenne stamps up to 20 shillings were to he affixed Set owlos Si 11.4(4,,%IA. IIrv.ed to newspapers. legal documents and Hahn papers ( rump .,!I du, .01In AndI r.uniruy IVIKI I. This U=.1 aroused violent 1001111eili among all sec 17 4Pp 181-0 Kvpr4y-ltu g:t1 with Nurn,son `,(t 1:1. Dcasr.hot.,Inc r,Jircallis.31:writ:At4,1 hulls of the eolosts and kd them to boycott (finish in10111 s..li -hi11 1..111.1111110 goods_ Thcte wet., uprisings in many towns and tac, it irvin-,1In 11011%It collectors were killed. The colonists claimed that

75 86 "idle the British Parliament had no representative [Name! nom the colonies. It had nu right to levy taxes 011 tr art Slarrir De/1011Sfral1M5 tirr them. The revenue from these taxes. they. said. was otIonio tjlc dii USA (Ka III the interests of the colorties but for the stani Act alto tife4.1.71w zlIzismaiiin empire. .it,ni,N in the sinetr.

The Boston Tea Party ra,;.I' The tax on tea led to trouble. In 1773. several 147 rJr'.r Ur! .stri!',e. puNi;,e j t'1`1.1t (1 colonies refused to unload the tea coming in English ,1, "7;/-Ile r, ships. In Boston. when the governor ordered a ship to e MA! !I.t 7:;,! pt be unloaded, a group of citizens. dressed as American r. -.J' 1. jar: I t 'r 11;!, rr. Indians. boarded the ship and dumped the crates of Jr. ,r1;.'. ,r7111 '0.41 et 7"1 airy tea into the water. Historians have called this 'the Boston Tea Party'. The -British Government then Thj.,1tci ic.olotroilailes were tropucct by the closed the pint of Boston to all trade and precipitated ideas of Impish plulosophers of the 17th century. the uprising of the colonies. Thesephilosophers Loeke.Harrington.Milton helteved that nien had certain fundamental rights which no government had the right to infringe. ionei ican thinker s. e,pecially Thomas Jelft,tssit. Vti). The Philadelphia Congress and the Declaration of al:01 31,pned by what French philosophers were Independence satin_! and 'Amin; at that time. Jetterson assel ie..' the The representativesofthethirteen Aniencan colonists' nein and en...our:Ted then cohatet. met as a group in what IN called the First iii.:.easing desire mdependence. Suppint fol inde- Continental Congress at Philadelphia Ift 1774. This pendence was torictully expressed by Thomas Paine. congress appealed to the British King to remove who detested tit, inequalities of English society, and restrictions on industries and trade and not to impose had ..rne to ViiericaIn a pamphlet called Cchilli 'II any taxes %willow their consent. The king declared ill}t; "It was teptignantto reason to their action a mutiny and ordered troops to be sent -appose that flip, Continent can long, iemain subiect to supplessir. The colonies then planned tor military 410 estlelimi posse; flick is mmicillinit absurd in defense with local troops or militia. In 1775. the first 'surposinz a ('Ailment tt. ht pvipctually governed by battle of the Revolution was fought when a thousand an 1,1311,1.," British soldiers met the colonialilitia in Lexington. Massachusetts. The Nfassachusetts Assembly On July 4.1776. the Second Continental Congress If ) Leader% IlililtMaN5,1*-111.01.1i% .Jjkorqcalled adopted the Dalarati(ni of Independence. It cont.on- iv:presentatives tout' otlici colonies lu onside/ ed truly 'evolutionary ideas. The Declaration asserted then oinnion piblems, They agiced and deviated "thatallmen ate created equal. thatthey are that tit !finish Nil/anion had lit) iight to levytaxes encklued by their Creator with certain unalienable on them "'No taxation without wino:saltation was 'iglus. that among these rights are life. libel ty and the the slog ,r y adopted. And they tlileatcned to stop pursuit of happiness. The Declaration advanced the the import of goods. The threat led [Joint] to ininciple that the people are the source of authority repeal the Stamp Act, but Parliament still insisted and affirmed the people's right to set up their own dui it had the light to levy taxes. Then Palliament government. The Declaration also stated that the imposed a11.1 )11...t4"IsttltielLrrutls 011111y, into the American colonies had been oppressed oy the British colonies such as paper. glass. tea, and paint. Again the Government and that "these United Colonies are, and colonies obit:A:kJ saying that only then own assem- of tight ought to be. free and independent states." Up blies had the right to raise money through taxes. In to thus time the colonist. had been lighting for their protest. the olonies cat doW111 tot British impoli4by rights as Lngitsbnien. Alter the Declaration in 1776. one half The British withdrew the plan. leaving only they knight tor their rigin, to be an independent the tas, on tea 14;..1s44:11 then fight to le%) taxes nation,

7(1 87 of goveinment rt a time whenstates in other parts of the world were grave ned bymonarchies. The Amen- can Constitution set up a federal system under which The War of Independence powers were disided betweena central or federal George Washington was putm command of the gosernment and the state governments. American forces He hadexperience m lighting the French in America. The lust battletook place in and around Boston. Then Britainsent a force to Canada (Picture) SI2411,7::q 7k

77 j.11itik I itis. 11. In 1inr..1,4 %%as the establishment ot a republh.. The republic. was atidutstd,LIU!. 1k, theI I.:11%1Icineial +4, not duly demolatk. The right to %kite was limited. 1,W:411 ontau.1,1, Agf (6 it6an IL whitiollath.s. Neil . *e+.still mole MA Ames it.an Indians. and women 110.... .Ills.El tnuil R;%.1U11.J11. had no cote. Heaton isms in all states lawred men of 111,11114% a kind art uit in4lhntal 14:w1Utlow!). plopeityformanyyears.But progress towards paith.tpatt.d m the IZetouttori. By its dentooay began. In some states. state religion ua, eiasligh 111411:, abolished. along withtellotts quallikations fot It L..1,4111.tle. In holding path, of flues. The foundations of attstouaq, 1.0%1 Ul !ht. welt: atta t.ked. by aboltsbmg sm.!' prnileges as quit- Pt.1 I in Cunial and South Ain,ua was and titles. But to, slasely.ompared With other an1 rain thole nidependen.e. goi,,ittnients at that hint. the Anterion republic uas The nits :Niue:mem of the It nieitcan Itetlution wry' denuteratie.

8.i 13. GREAT BRITAIN

The End ofan Empire, 1775-1783a British gotciriment dming the last twelve)eats had plovoked opposing definitions in America. and it was- dear that only on a basis of total legislative independ- By the beginning. of 1775 the stands respectively ence in domestic matters would the relationship with taken by the British government and by the colonial Oft:at-Britain now be tolerable. leaders pointed inexorably to armed conflict. OM} a On the other hand. by the end id 1774. the British substantial surrender by one side of the other could government was obdurately convinc.ed of and C0111- avert it. Neither W.E. Inclined to such a step. In the nutted to the view. that a dominant 'wood() in the eyes rrt the colonists. to give way to acis of power colonies was aiming at independence. and that elate' would be an abdication of their statusas tree men. In British authority must be reasseited in the colonies a !cite' Of October 1774. which doubtless reflected (at this stage. inure particularly in Massachusetts).of the vast weeks of eat test. passionatealseussion at else the whole tabric of empire would dissolve and Williamsburg and Philadelphia, Washington rebuked Britain sink back into the role of a ninon power. an old military associate. now likely soon to he tumid raced with such an apparent catastiophe theywere 141 the 11polmile Prepared to risk caul war within the Emphe would

You reasril irom s-ftcos. not 4.-4I1%{:%,111111:r41,1:3411 Indeed have alreadyrun the risk and reaped its old 11,71V6.114.3.1,a111:4411%, :511.1arc/31:0day consequences had these been sufficient (loops in n..11 inn ;rest' provis %)%1C111.01,. ,PACF11041 An Boston lot Gage to attempt to lollow his instructions, arbio sr), pu.cr. plzvply planned 110 oserturn Ilia laws Early in 1775. as soon as Parliament met. and 1.0[1,1110111M of their country. and to slidare the extra essamal and 1.11414111e rt;Iir,s or mankind. beirtz troops and 'natal furces weie soled, and reinforce irriraiza and loth dltfl.ults r. suJlnrd Korn jk I% 111 the ments were dispatched to Boston. The New England 1'rd 011 riul inrkinpkiaitss Itis nor the provinces werepioclannedto beIIIa stateof wish .T Mircro/ ,./ 111,0 151.1ssashorscos" rebellion. and an Act was passed iestraming them I'sany,pilisr um) tins common. sepnalely PP1 horn all trade and from participation in the New- tolletrisely. /PP %sr up :or independency ; bur this you may at ills same rime rely on. that none oi them will foundland fisheries until submission was Made. As coa submir to 11is ol rhos,: %Awl& mins and one province alter anodic' made known its sympathy prisilcees stht.b arc oss,r01.11 1., lb, happiness for cloy for New England. these restraints weresoon after- ire,: State. and %Whom Ouch and prpsi- wards extended to most of the oilier colonies. In the ry.114'1011d0Nd 101414'meow debates which accompanied these measures. ministers Not even a return to the idatively harnionums rested their ease almost exclusively on the need to working system of the Walpolean era would now secure a dear admission of subordnutimi trom the satisfy the colonists. The &Immo!' of claims by the colonies. They blushed aside oppositionwarnings. that the colonists. in resisting parliamentary taxation. were wined on firm constitutional ground. and that .3CompPLIP,' Noe l'opm i. R ( rots uJ I nipm, to exact submission by military force Was imprac- GreatBritain and thelineman (cdunirsI 754 1 783 noble. In their eyes the willingness expressed by the I lonidilaiv, 1,r 111.;(1ern lhaory SCriv,borition Conimental Congress to abide by the commercial Arnold rPublisliersi lid_ 191A, Pp. 94-107 Iteruoiluseil with restraints in existence befoie 170 was insufficient. 'permission .1 Ilk Company'. IncNvss York I be material is uscP1 in the 12111 su13ili ;vas or .1I tear 110101-0 CCIICUSSIOLISt1.010111;1(10,Parliament's primary sIi.p.1 s Os rOminal in 1.41:1111 1 authoritymustbe acknowledged and therelief efainied by the colonies soughtas a matte' of grace. I/hp ,1 (iifirqi Wish:nom. cd, John ( 1.11,- not as a matter of right, II this ;nuclide' 'were made pains Is.19 !rpm, 1931-44r. III. pp 385 114 thew would. ministers hinted. he generous treatment

90 79 gttet,21,4:%. itt.ladttig the JhJildnment Jilting the century awl which they now correctly menu* taxation. Lally _in Februaryul a general regaded as one essenlial feature of a free political debate .11 the ,luerican situation. \.M, debated. society. The provincial executives would be left free He did not mean to tax Ammo if they would to act as the agents of the imperial government. stud heat,1,, .11).ills,11.stitutior,a1 light central control would increase and local autonomy be suptentacy. . 1h. sprawl would be at an III the oded. And the concession of 'no taxation C.,111110flis 11.01144.N PlICIi0111C1141 1.1) CigiliCcillit 4.01- without representation' was quite Illusory. The colo- .iiystandard, uppo,..,1 nuiristcr; poii tit. nists wculd tax themselves under threat and without ...scrottoent otto appioaching.ccasion.dly being left any discretion. As one paihamentary critic .100. i.tll osci halt the total mcmberslop pointed out. the proposals amounted to the threat. *it the I louse. 'Oise me as much as I wish, till I say enough. or I will toilinfrirt 1.11..1 ..otta"s I inesentcdconciliatory take it foam you.''( All the signs pointed to a demand pia,p..sition,' t.. th. (ominous. and lie tcsealed the tot :Beater exactions than had been attempted by the limit .21 ....ori,,,v)ron o..11111 the linnistei oeie retention of the tea duty in 1770. In America the psepaiLJ t.. wake (mill alici they had exputrienced implications were fully Jr:allied. The Viignua House military defeat, The substance of these proposals was of Burgesses commented. that. pitAtiled the cArmisis %%mild make sufficient and petinalient printsion tor the support of their civil The British government 11.1% no right to intermeddle swills the support tot civil government in the colonies. ,foteilimetrt and the administration 01 Justice. and for I or us. not for them. hat government been instituted detense, and in time tit war contribute extraordinary here.... 1,ekannoi concene that any other legislature supplies in aleasor.ablc ploprot lion to what was raised has a ruin to prescribe either the number or pecuniary III (great 13otain. then tor so long and no longer appointment of our officers. ... We have a right to thete would be no Iestirt to pa rhameniary teotion. else our mono as the Parliament does theirs. csiliout coercion.. Parka:nen v..41,1 still exercise the power 01 control- It ,s not merely the mode of raising. but the Iteedom of gramine out money rot which we have Inn i! trade. but the y of any taxation Incidental to ,,untended. unhout %Inch ste possess no check on the 1,--pslatton should he paid into the treasury 01 the royal prerogatne.5 colony oils-aired. and any repo:sent:mon from any proposme changes.in the commercial regatta. North's propositions were a MailoCtife. not a tions would he given full consideration. Action would concession: and as a manoeuvre they failed. They he taken to put the propositions Imo et feet as O011 as conceded none of the substance demanded by colo- acceptable proposals were recosed from- any colony .1 nial opinion and they tailed entirely to drive a wedge \\. , Norm's proposition had the apparent merit of between New England and the other colonies. Only in placing the colonist, in a position of taxing them. Parliament did the government gain. Sonic of the -.elites it they accepted the accompanying conditions. independents were satisfied that a gesture of concilia- The ptmciple in *no taxation without It:presentation' tion had been made: and a number of members, by wortild thus seem to he ciuteeded. Some of the more sehemently 4-mouncing the numsters for yielding too tonsetsatio: ciiioiiial leaders here inclined to beliese much. colfirmed the acceptability of a firm policy that this concession was all that was necessary and towards the colonies wished to explore the possibilities of conciliation oil In the early months ofI 775 Chatham and Burke this poundBut at bottom the proposals were both offered proposals forconciliationwith the illtact.eptable to American opinion, In reality colonies. they represented much less of a concession than the Chatham's Conciliation Bill started front a premise legislation of 17(16 for it the colonies were to make which by now had been overtaken by events, It ample, permanent provisirm forall governmental recited that the colonies 'have been. are, and of right seisices, they would lose that financial control' user ought to be dependent upon the imperial crown of the 00:cilitt e Windt Hwy had g,aduallybuilt up

1/1,1,1, 11)1 150 hirltanlintari 4014 264-4 ('tied. 1 J.ertenbalser. rrn me tilwrts-flit stritzgk v.22 iorcelf-tyisernimill in Virginia (Phil. I9581.

9 1 GreatBritain, and subordinateunto the 3ritish achieve compromises acceptablein practice to all the Parliament'. It affirmed Parliament'sright to control parties concerned and to avoidinsistence on ques- trade and the Crown's rightto make troop disposi- tions of right. The real issue. Burke declaredwas. 'not tions in the colonies atits discretion. Chatham whether you have a rightto render your people offered a number of spec!! isconcessions which would miserable: but whethei it is notyour interest to make have met certain particular colonialgrievances: recog- them happy. It is not whata lawyer tells me I may nition of and negotiation throughcongress, and its do: but what humanity, reason, andjustice tell me I erection-into a permanent imperialinstitution; renun- ought to do.' lie rightly insisted, thatthe ordinary ciation of any use of the militaryagainst the liberties of the Americans: commercial intercourse between Britainand the statutory abandonment ofany claim to taxing power: colonies fostered by self-interestwas worth far more assurances of the inviolability to Britain than any advantage :fiat might of colonial charters and be grudg- constitutions save in case of ingly obtained by the assertion of legal forfeiture: abrogation of all supreme authority. Acts which inter- Any financial contribution to imperial fered with trial by jury inthe colonies and the expenditure should be obtained on a voluntarybasis as before appointment of judges 'during good behaviour',as in 1763. Questions of right should beburied in oblivion. Britain: and suspension of allother statutes passed In this spirit he proposed the resolution;'That it bath since 1764 against which therewas complaint, to be been found by experience. thatthe manner of followed by their repeal whencongress had made granting the said supplies and aids, by formal recognition of thesupremacy of Parliament, the said general But although Chatham stressed assemblies, bath been more agreeableto the inhabi- the theoretical sole tants of the said colonies, and power of the,colonial assemblies more beneficial rand to impose taxation conductive to the public service, than upon the colonists, no more than the the mode of ministers was he giving and granting aids and subsidies prepared to capitulate completelyon the financial in parliament to be raised and paid in the said colonies;With that rare issue. and his plan envisageda grant of a permanent imaginative grasp which. thoughnot in itself alone ::venue by the colonists which wouldbe atthe constituting high statesmanship, isyet an essential disposal not their own assemblies but of Parlia- partofit.he drew forthforhis hearers the ment!' In thetense atmosphere of 1775 therewas little chance of the colonists impalpable essence of interimperial co-operation: complying with this `theclose aiccction which grows from condition: iii any case, majority opinion common in Parliament names. from kindred blood. from sinnlar privileges. was dead against concession. and equal protection... ties which though light as air Burke's proposals, offeredin the Commons a less are as strong as links of iron'. Asan essential weeks later, camenewer to providing ground for preliminary to reconciliation Burke, likeChatham. conciliation. bin by 1775 theywere probably unac- advoated the repeal of all legislationpassed since ceptable to the colonists,as they certainly were to 1763 which was disagreeable to thecolonists. themajorityin Parhameni.7Believingthatthe Burke's plan conceded virtually everything government should come to de- :ems with realities and manded by the first Continental Congress. auknowledge both the material It did not power and the intel- merely put the clock hack to 1763: lectual piemises 01 the colonists. it allowed also Burke argued that for the dynamic growth inherentin any healthy an empire was an aggregate of many states under one political system. Evena drift from dependence to common head. in which the subordinateparts had voluntarypartnershipwascompatible extensive local privileges and immunities, withits The line terms an outcome Burketinmsell in 1775 between these privileges and the was pre- supreme authority pared to 'contemplate, though he did might he impossible to draw. and not think it IrequentE, theme Imminent; Such a vision was far above the would he disputesas to when: it lay. But in such heads of the generality of British politicians.After 1773 the instances 1,1-adspeeitscallyin the case of tasation greater part of the British political nation hadbecome their at issuethe only satisfactory solutionwas to convinced that a breach within the empirewas likely. thatit was consciously intended byan aggressive. dominant minority of colonialleadeis. that only through the use of force mightit still he prevented, t'fhe Ilirlfarrrentari Iliglort 148-204 and that [allure to prevent it would spellthe end oh 478-51K British prosperity and greatness.

ft I 92 [lie hitter fruits 01 these convictions were soon to Crcatol with certain unalienable n2;lits, that among be reaped. Within a month the revolutionary war had these are life, liberty. and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure these rights. governments are instituted begun in :Massachusetts. In mid-April Governor Gage among men. deriving their Just powers from the at Boston received specific instructions to put down consent of the governed. That %silent:se( any form of the rebellion in the colony. The essential stroke mein:nail becomes destructive of these ends. it h. arrest of the leaders of the provincial congress 5545 the right of the people to alter or abolish it. and to beyond his resources, but he leaded to seize the institute new government. laying its foundation on main dump of rebel supplies in the village ofConcord such principles and organizing its passers in such form. as 10 them 'lull seem most likely to effect their safely some sixteen miles away. On the outward march the and happiness. ifiltish tali ps came Into conflict urtli a small party of"._ American militia at Lexington. Which side tired firgt In twenty-seven brief and cogent sentences the is not certain. but the affair set Massachusetts aflame Declaration listed the 'injuries and usurpations' in- The Britisli column Carried outits operations at flicted upon Americans by the British Crown since (ont,Orti, lintit was severely harassed and suffered the accession of George 111. from the Revenue Act of heavy losses on its homeward march: and nith:di- 1764 to the recent coercive measures, and rolled awl!, an army" of Massachusetts militia swarmed to towards its momentous conclusion: the siege of Boston. The response trout leaders in other colonies V.35 ',wit. Three weeks later, on May 10. 1775. in We. therefore. the Representatives of the United States of Anzrica. in General congress assembled. accordance with arrangements made the previous appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the year. the second Continental Congressassembled at rectitude to our :mentions. do. in the name, and by Philadelphia. In ace of the outbreak ol hostilities in authorityof the goad people of these colonies. Massachusetts.itsiuickltassumed therole of a solemnlypublish and declare.that these, United revolutionary government bent on preparations for Colonies are. and of right ought to be Free and Independent States: that they are absolved from all war. These were pressed forward with vigour in all the allegiance to the British Crown. and that all political colonies. By early March 1776 the Americans were connection bemeen them and the State of .Great able to force a Bonsh withdrawal from Boston and Britain is and ought to be totally slissolsed.... And - had undertaken a partially successful invasion of for the support of ibis declaration. with a Finn reliance on the protection of Divine Providence. we mutually Canada which gave them possession for some time of pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our Montreal. Meanwhile British preparations for large- sacred honour. scale eat were pushed forward strenuously during the winter of 1775-76. large numbers of troops were recruited, and others were obtained bysubsidy For some atleast cf the men who made the treaties waft sal tuns West G0111.111 prances. decision, it is no easy one. Only after prolonged As a wag Mii146011 leVCIttped, colonial sentiment bit ter disappointment, grief, and agony of spirit, did moved in layout of independence. By the stannic' of they feel compelled, in face of British obstinacy, to fi 776 ilittisfr Min:mist' Atoll had eseit where bet.. secede from the Brutish community. of which they replaced by ad hoc pi ovincial governments. In April telt themselves in many ways so much a part, In Congress declared AIM:Mar. ports open to all coon October 1775 John Adams wrote to his wife: tries except Britain and advised the separate provinces to maintain or set up governments independent of I saw from Bic beginning that the controversy was imperial authority. On 4th July, it adopted the of such a nature that it never would he settled.... momentous resolution, -that the ,Oloniza he declared thus has been the source of all the disquietude of my independent" In measured languageThomas Ids.... The thought that we might be driven to the Jefferson. the chief draftsman of the Declaration. sad n e ^ «ity of breaking our connection witlf Great tjestruction, restatcil the Locloan theory oh political association. Britain, inclusive of the carnage ant which it was easy to see must attend th6 separation, the philosophical ground on which the Americans always gave me a great deal of grief. rested their case

We hold these truths to be sell evident. thatall Much of what had made life worth living he would min arc created eApiai, that they arc 'maimed by their cheerfully give tip to obtain pc "e and liberty: 'But

82 93 allthese must go and my life too, before Ican Continental my commanded by Washington nil& surrendta the right of my country toa free constitu- well have been drawn into a pitched battlein which tion:8 In similar vein Thomas Jefferson wrote: its inferiority in numbers.aims. and training, and the lack of expertise of its officers from thecommander I am mticetel) one of those. too. who mouldrather Downwards might have proved fatal. A coordihated be in dettendenee on Great Britain, proper!) limited. push anti!: hardly have failed to winthe Hudson than on any other nationon earth. or than on no nation. But I am one of those, too. who, rather than heights and draw amilitar)cordon round New submit to the rights ot legislating forus, assumed by higland. But the need for close Loordinationwas not the British parliament. and wind' laicesoimenee has realized 11) any of the British ministersor command- shown they will so cruelly escruse. %woldlend my rig generals. The resistance Burgoynewas likely to hand to sink the whole Island in the scary encounter was grossly underestimated: it was thought he could reach and hold Albany without assistance. Only the briefest accountcan here be given of the Howe at New York thereforesaw no reason to defer war, atthe end of which the intentions ofthe his own pet scheme for the occupation ofPhiladel- Declaration of Indenendencewere in fact secured. phia. and made mattersworse by abandoning plans The first .crious British effort to recover control for a direct thrust through New Jerseyin favour of a of the :oloine, thd nut take. effect till mid-1776. At seaborne expedition which kept his the saute lime army inoperative isCongress as moving towards at sea and then isolated in southern Pennsylvania for acceptance of the Declaration. sabstanna: British many critical weeks. hi consequence. although during knees Is.:re on their way acioss the Mantle. and the 1777 the British secured control of Philadelphia first major blow was an and occupatton of New York in Darts of New Jersey. Pennsylvania and Delaware. they July by forces which before long totalled over 30.000 suffered crushing loss by the destruction of men. The securing of this great port and centre of Burgoyne's army atthe hands of a numerically loyalism was intended lo be the prelude to the superiorforceof Continental troops and New rethiction of the New Imgland provinces. but paling England militia.") further was accomplished this year except the occu- Saratoga drove the ministry into offering real pation of Rhode Wand A small detachmentfound it impossible to false effective loyalist concessions. Lila kind which, four years earlier.might support in the have avertedrebellion. The Tea Act and the southern colonies. An attemptedinvasion of New Massachusetts Charter Actwererepealed; lingland from Canada also cameto a halt. . by a declaratory Act Parliailient renounced the 1777 was a yeas of decision. for use of its it ended in a great pcwer to tax the colonies; a peace commission American victory at Saratoga. the effects of was which appointed and a contingent repeal of the were in the long term conclusive. The Brill Prohibitory plan was Act was enacted. The commissioners for a snbstanhal force to strike south were empowered from Canada to offer if necessary all, and more than all. under General Burgoyne, that had inorder, by securing been demanded by the first Continental Albany in upper New Yolk. to Congress, prepare the way for provided the Americans wouldreturn to their alle- severing,,eornmunications between NewEngland and giance and accept parliamentary control of imperial the other colonies. Ilad thisoperation been coordi- trade. They were instructed to salvage whatelements nated with a thrust up the Hudsonby the army under aphis!' authority they could. butany terms short General Howe at New York. the chances of a decisive of independence might he accepted. British success would have been great. Forthe Thus oiler came too late. Congress insisted Americans control of the Ihulson upon heights south of independence tor by their victory they had Albany was crucial. To defend this secured a position their French alliance. Since 1763 theattention of French

1°Importznt contributionsto .1 reassessment of the r.msons and responsibility (or this British disasterarc con- 81amilror I titers of John !darns and hiswife dares tained in G.S. Brown. thC 9merican Seartarr 11w Colonial the Reiolutton. ed. Charls's 1.,aneis Adams Y 18761, p Lard George Germain. 1775-1778 (Ann Arbor. 11 Nhch 1%31. Piers Maekesy. 11 War for America, "Maw imisib.111, Jt-fferldni.tile Road to Glory, 1713 1775 1783 (1964). and W Ii Willem,. 1 77/, (NY .1943). pp 271.12 Portrait id a General Sir Henry Chinon in the IVar 01 independente 19641.

83 94 statesmen hadicestic used upon oppoitunities to Bluish goseinment &elated vial on a set of trumped- lestme hen, liplestila.and topull down Cleat up eliaiges against the United Provinees. All these Britain from the positron of aseendancy site had won developments meant that, from 1778 onwards, for at the Peace of Pails. They slimed the Brush view. .sued petiods. theBritishlost naval control in that the lossif the colonies would 111J(ellally 'educe wateis, in the end with decisive effects. British !towel. and 55111,thus puipose in view. staitini..; Dining 1776 and 1779 both Bittain and France early in I776. 111 inere.asing nicastue of vscie eoneerned mainly with the campaigns in the aril iluw.d aeon.. tin. Atlas t,. Spam. allied to I tan..,. West Indies. Although the pressure on the Americans bytheI auntyCompact. followedsuit.F tenet' was relieved. they received little direct support from supplies t J1Ills JIld gempowdei were a ~licit factor Ili their Fieneli allies. But to the British the West Indies stistaining ArICI SalattIga t lame was merely a disersion. and as soon as possible they duos off the mask, enteied into Beaty ichatiuns with tedueeted then efforts to the American continent. In the United States. and accepted oval with Britain as 1780 the vial of Independence momentarily took a tin. inevitable consequenee. .\ veal later the Spamsli. new turn with the Brush capture of Chaileston and too.enteredtheconflict. withthereeoseryof the apparent subjugation of most of South Carolina Gibraltar as filch 111.1:1(11 alien. No diploniatie eounter as well as Georgia.Itwas a deceptive triumph. choke was open to the British government. Mitts!) However, fop Ameilean gueulla operations were sus- diplomat', isolation was J natuial and inescapable tained by help hum the north, and the general left in situation in theI 7"Os. Stlong as rralh.c w.ls nut eominand, Lail Cornwallis. found it impossible to upon the LowCUtIIIIIICS arid ease the situation by any effective blow to the Biltain had no nattnal allies on the Continent. Fiance nothward. In 1781 he attempted to secure control of was iii J peitect position tot one,. with no enemy on North Camino alld Virginia. At the eritical moment a theRhine.Itwas a position which liefn11111slo 1. French fleet moved into the Chesapeake Lulling his Vergennes. wasealefultomaintain.Ileevaded eommunieations with New York. At Yorktown his ettirentCLIIIIJII entanilemellis. and lie sought to troops were hemmed in against the York River by J make itplant. that r1.111, had 110 tleSlle to destroy superien French and Amenean force under Washing- British possZii ettinpletely and face Ltilope with J new ton without hope of leinforeement or relief, and by 13outbou ascendancy. the balance of gusset In f mope Iris capitulation the lastBritish army available for was not to be alteted. but 13iitam was to has,. het ottensise operations in America was lust. The blow wings clipped by the loss of her colonies. was decisive. Within J few months a majority of 'flit. immediate (ht. 1-1e11,11 tnembeis of padiament had become convinced that alliane, was the ice, sexy td Philadelphia and 121aide the ie.,overy of the colonies by filet: was impossible, Islandthe 13iitisl, witlidicvs boat both in vide' to theKing. despiteIns stubborn resolution against fine: troops to ...mullet the l level] ducat in the West yielding. had to give way, and a new ministry JIld Asti 1.11111,11,d a pi obe into Getup., which composed of leaders of the opposition to the war actin:sed eenisidelable success. The long tel gam lay took ()like. pledged to scenic peace. if necessary by indo, eventual military stippoit, which moved in the leeogint on of Anuniean independence.-Peace on 1780. and in the str.rui placed on the 131itisli 11.1%). this basis was negotiated during the autumn of 1782, BritvIi nasal sucligtli +Sas stietelicd still twilit:1 when catty in the next yeal hostilities were suspended by a a thud niaittwi. posse' was IOU lire alliance geneial ainustiee, and on 3rd September 1783 were -against'tel. sital Bluish ',O41lt.111 was the inter signed the definitive treaties which formally signal. o! Baltic naval s1.014-S and other wai supplies Iced the separation of the independent United States shipped to her enemies in neutral bottoms. Most of from the 13ritish Empire. this neilital carry is,'tads was tit Dutch hands. In The British had lost. But competent historians 1780 theI mptess Catherine of Russia formed an have expressed the view that in the early stages at aso,,IJII011 of Ralik, gussets. known as the 'Armed least they might have won." hi 1775 there was still a Neutrality'. to piotect neutral shipping rights. The merchant fleets of its members Weft' of little unpin. fate:. I3ut if the 1,hitch secured its prof et:nov.136mb III Sec PiersMackcsy, pp sin seq.. antl the very lull pressure on he' foes would he seriously eheeked.and arirtysis inI Robson.The American Roolution.I 763- at the end ut the year. to forestall this event, the I 75..1119.5D. Chapter V. VIInd

84 9 5 great fund of loyal feeling in the colonies. In America 'minders were not the men to respond. In fighting the war of independence was a real civilwar. many spun they were fat infeout to the American officers thousands of loyalists served George Illin militia who opposed them. The consequences of mismanage- units, provincial regiments, or as recruits in the ment were fatal. British and loyalist morale gradually regular army. and fought with a fratricidal fury rarely fell while that of the rebels rose. Failure to control a shown by theBritish and Germ-an regulars. The large enough area from which food and other seiiure of New York in 1776 gave the British the essential requnements could he obtained meant that important strategic advantage of interimlines of emu mous ettoit had to be discoed into supplying the communication. byland or by sea, all round the British !mix, from Lngland and heland, and by 1782 crucial are between Boston and the Virginia tide- the war must base pound to a halt in any esent. for waterDuring the next eighteen monthserrors of thecountry's shipping resources were stretched execution rather than an utter kick resources for beyond the WO 2 the task were the main reasons for defeat. two Lven had the British won the war in America the most fatal were, first, the failure to pursue a sound political inoblem would have remained acute A and vigorous strategy which would force Washington settlement on Roush terms would h.ae lett unsatis- and the Continental army into pitched battleon fied deep-seated American aspirations. further sharp. unfavourable terms in wind' they would be destroyed cried as thews: would base been by the snuggle. And orelse be reducedto complete impotence. and esen ifthe situation could base been kept under second. the failure to take only ground that could he control for the nme being. for how long would this held andtohold ground oncetaken,forthe have been possible? The population of the colonies consequence was the sacrifice of the loyalists in one was doubling itself about esery thirty years a far province after another to rebel vengeance. the de- higherrate of Increase than thatin the mother struction of their power such as it was (it was never country. There were no population,tatisoes m the so meat as the government believed), and. more eighteenth cen'ury. but the general trend was clearly important. the demonstration to the wavering. Lincoln- lecognued. The sigilificance of this dynamic aspect of inn led section of the population that it was better to the colonial problem appears entirely to have escaped go along with the rebels.Ilad military skill, and the attention of the ministers. Tune and again they boldness gamed man)) successes quickly in the middle said in effect'We must assert British authority now. colonies. wlierc loyalists were numerous, it is possible or itwill be 'oo late.' But they faded to lace the that the heart might have gone out of the rebellion problem, how this authority was. to be mamtamed unless this happened_ there was little chance ofany untie' foreseeable !mule conditions. The obiect lor regular army the British could produce overcoming which they led theu country into war was. in the long the leree en masse which would otherwise haw met it run, incapable of fultdment. Ilerem lay an ultimate in New England. But the possibility was never tested. proof of (lien lack of statesmanship. The 'ministers home failedto understand the Urgency. mainly because they consistently under- estiniated the extent of rebel sentiment and over- 21 his Iasi point emerges dead) !win estimated the strength of the loyalists. And even had a study ot %Wpm! problem by Mr I)Syreit. io whom I am ymiclul they graspedit.the senior British military com- for this iinatimition,

9 6

85 APPENDIX .

"English Methods of Teaching American History," Chapter XLIV-of Report of the Commissioner of Education _tor the Year 1894-95

Removed by ERIC due to poor legibility. .N, , . .

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