Project Education of Roma | Culture Roma Children Council Conseil of Europe de l´Europe in Europe A contemporary picture of Romani communities in Eastern Europa 1.2

Elena Marushiakova & Veselin Popov

Every nation around the world preserves its ethnographic and dialectal diversity as a valuable cultural heritage. This diversity is greater among the Roma due to historical events, the lack of a common territory, the dispersal of their communities in many different countries, life in different cultural environments, group endogamy, etc. At the same time, this diversity is better preserved than in other European nations, yet it is still insufficiently known and appreciated. The contemporary mosaic of Roma communities forms a significant part of the World Cultural Heritage of Mankind.

Ill. 1 ‘Le Rom le čače’ from Transcarpathia, Ukraine, Korolevo 2008 Ill. 2 Kortari, region of Krajova, Romnia, 2008; Ill. 3 Košničari, Lukovit, Bulgaria 1998 Ill. 4 Kelderari, Transylvania (Foto: Fabian Jacobs)

(unless otherwise stated, all photos: Archive Studii Romani) A contemporary picture of Romani communities in Eastern Europa

Ill. 5 Romanian speaking (Subgroup of Rudari) Ill. 6 Ukrainian speaking Roma with preferred Ukrainian identity, in Bulgaria 1998 from village Hlinicja, Ukraine, 2003

in the world) to have communities re- is hierarchically structured on different Ethnic Social Structure and ferred to as “Gypsies” by the surrounding taxonomical levels. A main scientific cat- Cultural Characteristics population, while having chosen an iden- egory, which is traditionally used by the of Romani Communities tity “other” than Romani for themselves: Romani studies’ scholars, is “The Roma They are bearers of the so-called phe- Group” (the notions “tribe”, “nation” or In order to be able to understand the eth- nomenon of “preferred ethnic identity”. even “caste” are also used). There are nic social structure and cultural character- This term describes a publicly declared or many excellent descriptions of separate istics of Romani communities in Eastern experienced, or nowadays even actively Roma groups and several attempts to draw Europe1, we have to take into considera- constructed, identity of communities of a more or less comprehensive picture of tion several important circumstances: “Gypsies” whose mother tongues are not the existing groups in various regions or 1. Across the whole region of only various dialects of Romani, but also countries in Europe. Less attention is paid Eastern Europe lives a clearly defined of Turkish, Tatar, Greek, Bulgarian, Ser- to the question “what is a Roma group” and distinctive ethnic community, simi- bian, Albanian, Romanian, Hungarian, (i.e. what is its essence, main characteris- larly referred to in various countries as Ukrainian, etc. On the basis of this, we tics, etc.), and on the processes of its his- Cigáni, Cikáni, Cyganie, Čigonai, Čigāni, will refer to “Roma” as not only members torical and/or contemporary development. Cigányok, Țigani, Çingeneler, Αθιγγανοι, of the communities which identify them- Based on materials mainly from Цигани, Цыгане, etc. Their ancestors mi- selves as such, but a much wider circle of Eastern Europe we have developed a grated from the Indian subcontinent to Eu- communities. general theoretical “ideal” model of the rope over a millennium ago. This external 2. Everywhere in the world Roma Roma group, with its main characteris- umbrella appellation is referred to by the have existed at least in “two dimensions”, tics and its key place in the whole inter- English term Gypsies. This community or in two coordinate planes - both as a nal hierarchy of the Romani community. can be considered (as any other nation in separate community and as a society (in We can purely schematically present the the region) as an “imagined community” particular as its ethnically-based integral following characteristics that make up the (according to the terminology of Ben- part within the respective nation-state). typical “ideal” Roma group: presence of edict Anderson), but unlike the rest of the The contemporary conditions of Romani group consciousness; only a person who nations, it has been “imagined” not by communities depend on the past centuries is born into the group can be a member its own members, but by the remaining of social, cultural and historical context in of it; strict observance of group endoga- part of the population that has been liv- which they lived, as well as on the con- my; use of a common language – either ing alongside them for centuries. Hence, temporary social, economic and political Romani or another language in communi- somewhat paradoxically, the boundaries situation in their different home countries. ties who have lost their mother tongue; a of this community are determined in fact 3. One of the key problems which common traditional lifestyle (sedentary or not by its members, but by the surround- Romani studies have always faced is the nomadic); common means of subsistence ing population regardless of the Roma’s question regarding the internal structure (group profession or traditional occupa- self-perception. It is not uncommon (not of the Roma community. Roma are an tions); existence of a potestary structure only in Eastern Europe but also elsewhere inhomogeneous socio-cultural unit that and internal self-government; strict ob-

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servance of group rules and norms; com- Roma), group identity is created. Group process of segmentation or consolidation mon life perceptions (including religion); identity is ultimately the essential expres- that leads to the creation and develop- common value and behavioural patterns, sion of the existence of a given group (a ment of new Roma groups (on the same common opinions and moral principles; Roma group cannot exist without group or higher taxonomical level). large and strong families regarded as the consciousness, which is different from Generally it can be said that Roma highest value; restriction of friendly con- e.g. a dialectal group). The construction of form a specific type of community,‘“the tacts outside the boundaries of the group; this ideal model is not an end in itself. It intergroup ethnic communit’” which is di- mutual solidarity and obligation to lend merely helps to obtain a sufficiently clear vided into a number of separate (and some- support; maintenance of group authentic- notion of what the Roma group is. Fol- times even opposed) endogamic groups, ity and isolation (the rule of non-interfer- lowing a thorough analysis that takes into subgroups and metagroup units with their ence in other groups’ affairs); observance account the presence or the absence of own ethnic and cultural features. On the of group prohibitions (e.g. mahrime, mag- certain elements of the ideal group model, basis of the‘“Roma grou’” it is possible to erdo, muxros, etc.). This list of the main we can gain some insight into the set-up of reveal the different levels of existence of characteristics of the “ideal” Roma group a contemporary Roma group. Using this the Romani community - group, subgroup is a theoretical construction which could model as a yardstick we can easily rec- divisions and metagroup units on different be extended or restructured. Either way, ognise and distinguish one Roma group levels. These communities are on different it is definitely needed for the characteri- from another. It should be noted that the hierarchical levels, and depending on var- sation of separate Roma groups and for presence or absence of certain elements of ious factors, one or another of these levels distinguishing one group from another. the ideal group model in separate Roma could be the main, leading or determining Based on these main characteristics, in groups does not mean that one group is factor of the identity of any given Roma the process of comparing and confront- more real than the other. It only signifies community, including the consciousness ing with the “others” (including “other” the change in group borders and flowing of affiliations to a civic nation-state

Ill. 7 Kurbeti, town of Voinka, Crimea, Ill. 8 Krimurja/Kırımlıtika Roma, Muslim Roma from Crimea, Ukraine, 2002 Crimea, Ukraine, city of Alušta 2002

we find a process of segmentation of the the Roma in the earlier historical periods The Mosaic of group into separate subgroup divisions as well. These processes explain even the Romani Communities formed according to family and/or territo- contemporary picture of the mosaic of the in Eastern Europe rial factors. On the other hand, the sepa- Roma groups in the world to a great extent rate subgroup divisions are consolidat- and predict that after some generations the The Roma groups are not static and un- ing gradually into one group, or separate general picture of the Romanies around changeable social and cultural units. Proc- groups are consolidating into one meta- the world will not be the same. esses in different directions, velocity and group community. In both cases, the newly Eastern Europe is the historical frequency that flow constantly among formed communities are gradually accept- region where the most numerous subdivi- them can be reduced to two main contra- ing the dimensions of a new, unique group. sion of the the Roma community, is con- dictory and correlated tendencies - seg- There are many reasons for these proc- centrated (other Roma communities living mentation and consolidation. On one hand esses to be considered characteristic for in different places all over the world are

3 A contemporary picture of Romani communities in Eastern Europa

Ill. 9 Sepedži, Izmir, Istanbul, Turkey 2006 Ill. 10 Mečkari, Baltëz, 1999

contemporary migrants or descendants ten characterised by a high degree of syn- are not always clearly defined and often of the migrants who left this region from cretism. The most general distinction be- given group names which arose as profes- about 150 years ago). in this region tween these communities is the distinction sionyms (e.g. Kalajdži, Košničari, etc.) are too few in number, as they comprise between (Xoroxan/, Xoraxane or refer to two or more very different groups only a few families in the Russian Fed- Khorane Roma) and Orthodox Christians (in one or more countries). The processes eration, , Hungary, the Czech Re- (Dasikane Roma), who are divided into of‘“preferred ethnic identit’” are strongly public, Slovakia and Slovenia which are more or less autonomous groups within expressed mainly among the Muslim nowadays mostly mixed with Roma. From each community. The groups are differ- Roma in the Balkans. A significant number the point of view of borders of the Roma entiated at various hierarchical levels (i.e. of them are Turkish-speaking (or have subdivision presence, the territory of con- the lead in Roma identity structure can be Turkish and Romani as mother tongues) temporary Turkey has a unique place in on the level of the two major subdivisions and often prefer to declare (or perceive) the world. It is the current location of the or on the level of separate groups, or on the themselves as Turks. This is the case most heirs of the three big waves, into which level of subgroups and/or regional subdi- often in Bulgaria, Eastern Macedonia and the Romani migration was divided during visions) examples of such internal sub- Aegean Thrace (Greece). In other cases, their long journey from to Europe divisions of the main metagroup com- the preferred community is Albanian. (the division “Rom / Lom / Dom”). munities are groups belonging to the Bal- The processes of adopting the identity of Roma have been settled in the Bal- kan dialectal community: Arlia, Kovači the surrounding population, such as in the kans for centuries (at least since the 11th (Bugurdži, Arabadži), etc. in the countries groups of the so-called Džorevci in Bul- to 12th century and, according to some au- of the former Yugoslavia; Erlii, Burgudži, garia or Gjorgjovci in , are similar thors, even from as early as the 9th century). Futadži, Fičiri, Drindari, Kalajdži, in content. A relatively small number of The first Romani settlers in the Balkans Košničari, Demirdži, etc. in Bulgaria; Roma belong to the groups who settled in were the Roma communities who spoke Arlia, Mečkara, Sepetdži in Albania; Ar- this region during the large Roma migra- the Romani dialects of the Balkan dialect lija, Sevljarja in Greece; Erlides, Sepedži, tions in the second half of the 19th century group. Subsequently, they were joined by Kalajdži, Boxčadžı in Turkey. The Vlax and the beginning of the 20th century and Romanies who spoke the dialects of the I dialectal community comprises for in- who belong to the Vlax II dialectal group. southern Vlax dialectal group, and who stance the , Džambazi,‘“Bosnia’” In the countries of the former Yugosla- are the descendants of a big wave of mi- Čergarja,‘“Montenegria’” Čergarja, via (mostly in Serbia) they are known by gration from Wallachia and Moldova who Kaloperi, etc. in the countries of the the general umbrella term Laješi and in scattered en masse all over the Balkan Pe- former Yugoslavia; Vlaxoria (Vlaxički, Bulgaria Kardaraši / Kaldaraši, in some ninsula in the 17th and 18th centuries. The Laxo),‘“Thracia’” Kalajdži, Džambazi, places also as Laješi or Katunari (i.e. Balkans have a relatively well-preserved Pârčori, etc. in Bulgaria; Kaburdži, Kur- Nomads). In Bulgaria their popular self- variety of the different groups and meta- tofi, Čergara in Albania; Kalpazaja, appellation is Rom Ciganjak ‘“true Gyp- group communities who practice Islam Xandurja, Filipidži in Greece; Vlaxos sie’”). There are several subgroup subdivi- or Christianity. Some of them converted (Laxoja) in Turkey. This list of Romani sions within this group, according to fam- from one religion to the other in different groups in the Balkans is by no means ex- ily or regional lines (such as the Zlatari, periods of history and their beliefs are of- haustive as the boundaries of the groups Niculeš, Tasmanari, Žapleš, Dudulani,

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Lâjneš, Njamcurja in Bulgaria). edonia, Albania, and Serbia, who community, known under the generalised The numerous Romanian-speaking for centuries were perceived by their sur- name Lâeši and/or Pletoši and Kortorari. communities inhabit the whole Balkan Pe- rounding population as Gypsies (Gjupti Within this metagroup community, the ninsula (except for Albania, Kosovo and / Gjupci in Macedonia, Jevgi in Albania, relatively well-preserved groups and sub- Turkey). Their self-appellation in Bulgar- etc.). They are not only actively construct- groups are e.g. Kălderari, Zlatari, Čurari, ia and eastern Serbia is Rudari / Ludari; ing their own comprehensive national Gabori, Kazandži, Aržentari, Korbeni, Bejaši in Croatia and in some places in history, but have also received official Modorani, Tismanari or Čori, who belong eastern Serbia; Baňjaši in Vojvodina, Ka- recognition as a detached community in to the Vlax II dialectal group. In Romania ravlasi in Bosnia, etc. In some instances, Kosovo, where they are part of the RAE there are also groups linguistically clas- as e.g. among Rudari in Bulgaria a cer- (Roma, Egyptiand, Aškali) communities sified as part of the Balkan dialect group tain extent of intergroup subdivisions is In Romania the mosaic of Roma groups is (Ursari, Spoitoari), and in Dobrudzha preserved based on professional features also diverse. To a great extent this mosaic there are Turkish- or Tatar-speaking Mus- (such as Lingurari [spoon-makers], Ur- is determined by the division of the Roma lim Roma with their respective preferred sari or Mečkari [bear-trainers]), and on into different categories during the period identity. Transylvania home to a signifi- regional features (e.g. Monteni, Intreni, of their enslavement in the Danubian prin- cant number of Romani-speaking Ru- Kamčieni, Dobrudženi, Tracieni, et..). cipalities (Wallachia and Moldova). With mungri (Roma Ungrika), part of them are Among these communities we can observe time the ancestors of the Vatraši category Hungarian-speaking Rumungri, often with the phenomenon of‘“preferred ethnic (from‘vatr’ - fireplace, i.e. settled, domes- a preferred Hungarian identity. i n identit’” (i.e. they prefer to be identified as tic slaves), also called‘Kherutne Rom’ (i.e. central Europe the variety of Roma groups Vlaxs / Romanians, and recently in some those who live in houses) have lost their is smaller relative to the one in the Balkans places (Croatia, Serbia) sometimes also as group distinctions and have become a and in Romania. In Slovakia, a large Roma Roma; in Bulgaria some of them are un- large metagroup community with partially population has been settled for centuries, dergoing a process of searching for their preserved regional or professional fea- divided most generally into the Slovenska own (non-Romanian and non-Romani) tures. Most of them are only Romanian- (Slovak) Roma (also called by some schol- identity, connected with attempts at con- speaking and many of them demonstrate ars Servika Roma) speaking Central or struction of their own quasi-history). a preference for a Romanian identity. Only Carpathian dialects of Romanes, and Un- Processes of searching and at- a small number of them also speaks Ro- grika Roma or Rumungri, many of whom tempts at constructing a new, non-Romani manes. The Romanian-speaking Rudari are only Hungarian-speaking and some of identity are observed also among other (in Wallachia), Lingurari (in Moldova), whom have a preferred Hungarian identi- communities in the Balkans, e.g. among Bâeši / Beaši in Transylvania) are a large ty. This is also the home of Vlašika or Olah the Turkish-speaking community of the community who also used to have a spe- (Wallachian) Roma (their number there Milliet ‘“peopl’”, as a neutral ethnic cat- cial status during the time of slavery. The is smaller) from different subdivisions - egory) in Bulgaria or among Albanian- descendants of the Lâeši slaves, who used , Bougešti, Drizdari, etc., who are speaking Aškali in Kosovo. The processes to be nomads and paid an annual tax to former nomads, speaking northern Vlax in this direction acquire qualitatively new their masters (the prince, boyars, or mon- dialects. Moreover, we find small commu- shapes for the Balkan Egyptians in Mac- asteries), are today a detached metagroup nities of Romanian-speaking Bajaši or Ko-

Ill. 11 Gabori, Cluj, Romania 2003 Ill. 12 Dajfa, Simferopol, Ukraine 2002

5 A contemporary picture of Romani communities in Eastern Europa

Ill. 13 Vlaxi/Vlaxurja women, Astrakhan, Russia, 2003 Ill. 14 Servi, city of Prejaslav Khmelnitskiy, Ukraine 2004

rytari. The situation in the Czech Republic relatives Sasitka (German) Roma near the is the Roma community of the so-called mirrors the situation in Slovakia because border with the former Prussia. Bergitka Ukrainian Roma with the self-appellation during the Second World War the local Roma, who have been sedentary for cen- Servi, with their internal subdivisions into Roma and Sinti were almost entirely anni- turies, live along the northern slopes of the Xandžari, Kalmyši, Gimpeni, Kahanci, hilated in Nazi concentration camps (only Carpathian mountains. Small communi- Korči, etc. Some of the subdivisions of a few families survived). After World War ties of Kelderari and Lovari, who are rela- the Servi have lost their language and II, the country was repopulated by Roma tively new migrants (from the beginning are Ukrainian-speaking. They settled in who came from Slovakia (primarily from of the 20th century) are scattered across the eastern Ukraine and the southern parts of the region of eastern Slovakia). In Hunga- country. The biggest Roma community in Russia as early as the middle of the 16th ry the settled Rumungri (Ungrika Roma) the countries of the former Russian Em- century, migrating from Poland. Nowa- and/or Ciganyok are predominant. Most pire and USSR is the community of Ruska days they are scattered all over Russia and of them are Hungarian-speaking, many (Russian) Roma, known also as Xaladitka also in Kazakhstan. In eastern Ukraine of them also with a preferred Hungarian Roma. These are the descendants of the and southern Russia we finda small group identity. One may also encounter Romani- firstsRoma who settled within the Rus- of Plaščuni, former nomads speaking a speaking groups of Rumungri, although sian Empire in the 16th to 17th century, Central or rather Carpathian dialect of they are less numerous (mostly in Eastern coming from Germany through Poland Romanes. Dialects from the same dialec- Hungary), as well as a minor presence of and Lithuania. They are former nomads, tal group are spoken also by some of the Slovenska Roma. The second most numer- mainly Orthodox Christians, who speak Slovenska (Slovak) Roma and Rumungri, ous community are the Vlašika Roma or a different dialect to the Baltic (or Nor- who settled in Transcarpathian Ukraine, Olah Roma with internal subdivisions into dic) groups of Romanes dialects. Ruska others are Hungarian-speaking, many with Lovari, Kelderari, Čurari, Drizari, Poso- Roma hsve more or less detached subdivi- a preferred Hungarian identity. Significant tari, Kherari, Čerhari, Khangliari, Colari, sions which are not endogamically closed. numbers of Rumungri are nowadays mi- Mašari, and others. The third community These subdivisions are detached according grating towards large Russian cities where is the Romanian-speaking Bojaši, with in- to the territories of residence (nowadays or they are referred to as Madjari. ternal subdivisions into Ardelan, Muntjan, in the past), e.g. , also called The Roma communities who are Titjan, etc.). Among some of them there is Xaladitka Roma in the past, and nowadays representatives of the Balkan dialect an on-going process of developing a Roma Litovska Roma, in Lithuania and Belarus; groups who migrated from the Balkan Pe- identity. Poland is a country with a rela- Lotfika (Latvian) Roma living in Latvia ninsula through Wallachia and Moldavia tively small number of Roma. In the re- and partly also in Estonia; Sibirjaki, who in the 17th to 18th century are relatively nu- gions which used to be part of the former are nowadays dispersed across the whole merous. These are the Ursara in Moldova Russian Empire live the Polska (Polish) of Russia and Ukraine. , with and southern Ukraine and Krimurja or Roma, former nomads who are now scat- all their more or less separate divisions Kırımlıtika Roma (from Kırım – the Tatar tered all over Poland. Their community currently live in different countries of the name for Crimea). Krimurja, who are also includes the so-called Xaladitka (or former USSR (including individual fami- Muslim by tradition, used to live in Crimea Ruska) Roma who live in areas bordering lies in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan), with- and in modern times resettled in Ukraine, the former Soviet Union, as well as their out interrupting their ties.Next in numbers southern Russia, Moscow and Povolzhie

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(along the Volga river). Some of them had group is currently undergoing a process of and Latvia. These two groups are divided lived in Transcaucasia and central Asia consolidation, as it includes descendants into internal subdivisions: among Lovari until recently, but migrated from there to of the so-called Laeši who used to live in these are Ungri, Čokešti and Bundaša; various cities in the Russian Federation the regions between the rivers Dniester among Kelderara - Serbaja, Moldovaja, and Ukraine. A special case is the commu- and Prut, joined the Russian Empire in the Grekurja, Bugari, Dobrožaja, Mačvaja, nity of Dajfa / Tajfa (old self-appellation early 19th century. Today this group is set- Mihaešti, Ionešti, Bidoni, etc. The trend Urumčel or Urmačel) in Crimea, who are tled in various cities in the Russian Fed- (in most cases still ongoing) among Kel- today Tatar-speaking and have a preferred eration and Ukraine. Significant numbers derari is towards segmentation of separate Tatar self-identity. Their ancestors came to of Laeši continued to live in the Republic subgroups into new groups. Currently, the these territories probably also from the Bal- of Moldova (divided into two parts – Ka- furthest developments in this direction are kans and Asia Minor during the Ottoman tunarja living in the south and the more to be observed in the case of the so-called Empire, probably in the 16th to 17th century. detached Čokenarja in the north) and in Šanxajci or Kitajcurja or Kitajako Rrom A considerable number of repre- Bessarabia (Ukraine). who live in Odessa. In the countries of the sentatives of the Vlax II dialect groups The time of the Large Romani Mi- former USSR there are also Romanian- live in these regions too, such as Vlaxi / grations at the end of the 19th and begin- speaking Roma, such as Lingurari, living Vlaxurja who arrived from Wallachia and ning of the 20th century saw the arrival of in the contemporary Republic of Moldova Moldavia, most probably in the 17th to 18th the communities of Kelderari and Lovari and Bessarabia; a significant part of them centuries and who are today settled mostly in Russian Empire. They migrated via the migrated also to Ukraine and the Russian in eastern Ukraine, southern Russia and territories of the Austro-Hungarian Empire Federation. The Vlaxija in the Republic Povolzhie (along the Volga river). Other and are nowadays found in different re- of Moldova are also Romanian-speaking. groups belonging to the same dialectal gions of the Russian Federation (including Both groups have a preferred Moldavian/ group are Kišinjovcurja or Kišinjovci. The Siberia), Ukraine, Byelorussia, Lithuania Romanian identity.

Ill. 15 Ruska Roma, city of Prejaslav Khmelnitskiy, Ukraine 2003 Ill. 16 Kelderari, Ivanovo, Russia, 2004

Conclusion ment of their civic awareness and their common factor not only for the newly ac- integration into the respective states. This ceded countries, but to a certain degree for The internal subdivision of the Roma is fact is easily explained in the light of the the entire Eastern European region. These reflected in their group, subgroup, meta- turns of their history and their belong- processes encompass the Roma from the group and preferred identity. Parallel to ing in the social life of the countries and region, too, which leave their impact on this, most of the Roma in Eastern Europe regions where they have been settled for the development of the Roma identities have established a qualitatively different centuries. With the onset of the 21st cen- and grants them new, common European new level in the complex structure of their tury a series of considerable changes be- dimensions. In the new European reality community identity. This is the feeling of came palpable that were related above all the development of the Romani communi- belonging to each respective country’s na- to the finalisation of the processes of Eu- ty acquires new and wider spatial dimen- tionality. The presence of such a level in ropean integration in the majority of the sions that transcend the existing state bor- the structure of their identity is the result Eastern European countries. The migra- ders. Large portions of the existing Roma of attaining a certain level in the develop- tion floods and labour mobility became a groups migrate from Eastern Europe to

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Ill. 17 Kaburdži, Albania 1999 Ill. 18 Burgudžii/Parpulii, Bulgaria 1998

various countries in Western Europe remain, but it is not difficult to forecast in group (and subgroup and metagroup) to permanently settle there (or at least that the development of the processes of identities. This means that finally, after with the intent to settle). At this stage segmentation and consolidation of the several decades, we will find a totally dif- the relations (including through mar- groups will certainly acquire new di- ferent overall tableau of the Roma pres- riage) among the members of the groups mensions that will find their expression ence in a united Europe.

Bibliography

Вукановиħ T. (1983) Роми (цигани) у Jугославиjи, Вранье: Нова Jугославиjа. | Деметер, Н. Г. / Бессонов, Н. / Кутенков, В. (2000) История цыган. Новый взгляд, Воронеж: Институт этнологии и антропологии РАН. | Chelcea, I. (1944) Ţigani din Romania. Monografia Etnograficà, Bucureşti: Editura Institului Central de Statistica. | Erdös, K. (1958) A Classification of Gypsies in Hungary, Acta Ethnographica VI: 449-457. | Ficowski, J. (1986) Cyganie na polskich drogach, Kraków/Wroclaw: Wyd. Literackie. | Horváthová, E. (1964) Cigáni na Slovensku. Historicko - ethnografický náčrt, Bratislava: SAV. | Marushiakova, E., Popov, V. (1997) Gypsies (Roma) in Bulgaria, Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. | Marushiakova, E. et al. (2001) Identity Formation among Minorities in the Balkans: The Cases of Roms, Egyptians and Ashkali in Kosovo, Sofia: Minority Studies Society “Studii Romani”. | Marushiakova, E., Popov, V. (2001) Historical and Ethnographic Background. Gypsies, Roma, Sinti, in Guy, W. (ed.) Between Past and Future: the Roma of Central and Eastern Europe. Hatfield: University of Hertfordshire Press: 33-53. | Marushiakova, E. / Mischek, U. / Popov, V. / Streck B. (2008) Zigeuner am Schwarzen Meer. Leipzig: Eudora Verlag. | Marushiakova, E. (2008) Gypsy/Roma Identities in New European Dimension: The Case of Eastern Europe, in Marushiakova, Е. (ed.) Dynamics of National Identity and Transnational Identities in the Process of European Integration. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing: 468-490. | Matras, Y. (2002) Romani. A Linguistic Introduction, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. | Петровски, Т. (2001-2002) Ромите во Македониjа денес. Скопjе: Здружение на љубители на ромска фолклорна уметност ”Романо Ило”, Кн. 1-3. | Сикимиħ, Б. (ed.) (2005) Бањаши на Балкану. Идентитет етничке заjеднице, Београд: Балканолошки институт САНУ. | Tcherenkov, L. N. / Laederich, S. (2004) The Rroma Otherwise Known as Gypsies, , Gyifti, Tsiganes, Ţigani, Çingene, Zigeuner, Bohemiens, Travellers, Fahrende, etc. Volume 1: History, Language, and Groups; Volume 2: Traditions and Texts, Basel: Schwabe.

1 The region of Eastern Europe, as referred to in this text, encompasses the countries east of the so-called „Iron Curtain“ that divided Europe after World War II: Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, as well as the countries of former Yugoslavia (Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia, Bosnia and Her- zegovina, Croatia and Slovenia) and the European part of the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, the Russian Federation, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova) which used to belong to the so-called „socialist system“, and Greece and Turkey, which were not part of it.

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