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Download This PDF File By C. U. FAYE Landmarks in the Development of the Western Book Mr. Faye is a language specialist in the vowels, and was transmitted to the Catalog Department of the University of Romans through the Greek colonies in Illinois Library. In this article he out- South Italy. lines the landmarks in the development of Let us turn from the origins of our the Western book stressing the importance alphabet to the chief materials (papyrus, of the Latin alphabet. etc.) that have been used in making the Western book, and to the two main forms HE OBJECT of this sketch is to deal (roll and codex) that it has assumed. Tbriefly with the elements that make up the Western book. The following will Papyrus, Parchment, Roll, Codex, Paper be touched upon: the codex form of the A passage in a Greek inscription2 of the book, the material of the book (paper, year 305 A.D. is evidence that, at that etc.), printing with movable type, and the time, papyrus and parchment were the development of the Latin alphabet, which chief materials of which books were is the alphabet of Western books as dis- made.3 tinguished from Oriental books. This al- At first both papyrus and parchment phabet appears today in our printed books books were rolls; later both appeared in (in capitals and lower-case letters), in 12:54-56, 1936. Published by St. Louis University. three main styles: Roman, Gothic, and The Greek alphabet is an important element in the history of Christendom and of European civilization. Italic. It is the alphabet of native Greek literature and of Hellenistic literature, which, it is scarcely necessary to point out, includes both the Septuagint and the Greek New Testament. It is also the link between The Latin Alphabet the original Semitic alphabet and the alphabets of the Christian world, being the ancestor of the Latin Experience has shown that the Latin alphabet used in the Western Church, and of various alphabets (Cyrillic, Coptic, etc.) used in the Eastern alphabet, with its less than thirty letters, Church. In this sketch but one of the descendants of the is more practical for putting thoughts on Greek alphabet, namely the Latin alphabet, will be dealt with. paper than an ideogrammatic system, such 2 This inscription is published in the Corpus inscrip- tionum atticarum, 3:48. The passage in question is as the Chinese, with its several hundred discussed in Th. Birt's Kritik und Hermeneutik nebst Abriss des antiken Buchwesens. Miinchen, 1913. ideograms. p. 264. The passage reads: ". The marginal notes . It is generally accepted that our alpha- preserved in books (ivfiifiyiois) either parchments (d^epait) or papyri ( x&o-rais) or in any kind bet originated with the Semites, was of tablets ( iv . .ypannaTtlois )." The inscription, then, 1 considers both parchments and papyri as being adopted by the Greeks, who added books, while other materials that received writing are gathered together under and covered by the term ypafitiareia ( ypantiartlov, that on which one writes) . 1 G. E. Mylonas has fixed the date for the intro- 3 Papyrus continued to be used for a long time duction of the historic Greek alphabet into Greece in the papal chancellery. The latest known papal between the twelfth and eighth centuries B.C. bull on papyrus is one that was issued during the See his article "The Date of the Introduction of reign of Pope Boniface VIII (1012-24).—Catholic the Greek Alphabet" in The Classical Bulletin Encyclopedia, 3:54. DECEMBER, 1940 33 codex form. Papyrus, being brittle, was marched in stately array down the ages. not so well adapted to the codex form as An examination of the script of the Al- parchment. During the fourth century cuin Bible,5 written at St. Martin's A.D. the parchment codex became supreme. Monastery, Tours, while Alcuin (hence Once established, it held its own through- its name) was Abbot there (796-804) re- out the Middle Ages. As regards form, veals remarkable similarity between its modern books are codices. minuscules and our present Roman lower- The reappearance of the roll, in the case letters. How did these letters come photographic film book, has indeed de- into being? One must not think of the stroyed the monopoly, but has hardly chal- various styles of writing that have ap- lenged the pre-eminence of the codex. peared as being related to each other in a Our modern books differ, as to material, vertical genealogical line and descending, from the medieval books in one important the later script from the earlier, in dis- respect: paper has taken the place of tinct chronological layers. The Caro- parchment. Paper was invented by the lingian minuscules are not direct descend- Chinese as early, at least, as the first cen- ants of the Roman capitals, they tury of the Christian Era. It was brought "emerged"—to use a term that has become into the Near East by the Arabs about established—from scripts then in exist- the eighth century. The earliest example ence.6 in Europe appears to be a document in Important scripts that have not had so the Escorial dated 1009.4 Since the inven- evident an influence upon modern letter tion of printing, paper, which already ear- forms as, for instance, the Carolingian lier had been encroaching upon the minuscule, must be passed over in silence. monopoly of parchment, after a while We proceed to a mention of the Gothic definitely took possession of the field. script. Up to the Renaissance, medieval books were chiefly parchment codices, written in The Gothic Script Roman capitals, to which, in the course As the Roman square capitals reflect of time, were added minuscules (by print- the genius of Rome, so the Gothic script ers called "lower-case" letters) and letters is a flower of the spirit that produced the in the Gothic script. Let us proceed to a Gothic cathedrals. As the curve of the consideration of these. Roman arch was broken in the Gothic arch, so the smooth outlines of the Roman Roman Majuscules (Capitals) and Mi- nuscules (Small Letters) 5 A facsimile of the first page of Genesis in this Bible is given in Franz Steffens' Lateinische Palaog- The Roman capitals of our books today raphie, 2 verm, aufl., 1929, plate 47. This facsimile affords an illustration of the "hier- are, essentially, the same as the monu- archy of scripts." The scribes used different styles of writing for different purposes. As the Church had mental "square" capitals of the Roman in- its hierarchy: pope, archbishop, bishop, priest, so writing also had its hierarchy. The Roman square scriptions. They were also commonly capitals, being, as it were, popes, were used for the important book headings; the minuscules, correspond- used as a book hand up to and including ing to common clerics, were used for the text itself; while for material of intermediate importance other the fifth century A.D. Characteristic of styles of script were used. 8 Hellmut Lehmann-Haupt has presented a conveni- Roman genius are these letters that have ent outline of what took place in his "The Heritage of the Manuscript" in A History of the Printed Book, Being the Third Number of The Dolphin, ed. by 4 Esdaile, Arundell. A Student's Manual of Bibliog- L. C. Wroth, New York, 1938, pp. 3-23. For details, raphy. London, 1932, p. 36. works on palaeography should be consulted. 34 COLLEGE AND RESEARCH LIBRARIES letters became broken and angular in reasonable price. Printing was the solu- Gothic writing; e.g., the almost circular tion. Compared with the output of the Carolingian o becomes jQf,—the circle is scribes, that of printing was mass produc- broken,—hence the terms used to denote tion. The essence of the new invention this script: fractura, by medieval scholars ; was that the letters of the alphabet and Fraktur in German; and brise in French. the current abbreviations and ligatures With the material under the next head- were each cast into a separate and indi- ing we conclude our consideration of the vidual movable type. The tendency has chief varieties of script that have survived been to lessen the number of the abbrevia- in our present-day printed books. tions (a survival is X for Christ-, as in Xmas) and of the ligatures (a survival Italian Humanistic and Cursive (i.e., is for et) that early printing carried on Italic) Hand as a legacy from the manuscripts. Our lower-case Roman letters are de- rived from the humanistic book hand of Precursors of Typography; a Rival of the fifteenth century, a product of the Typography: Xylography Renaissance in Italy, being the fruit of In earlier examples of printing (namely study and imitation of earlier models of that done by wood-blocks for the making Carolingian writing. of playing cards, figures of saints, stamped There developed also in Italy, during textiles) that which was printed formed a the fifteenth century, a cursive hand, unified design; letters that perchance ap- Italic—a modification of the humanistic peared in the pattern were not set sepa- book hand, with some borrowings from the rately—the design was as much a unit as Gothic cursive then current in Italy. the poster is today. This hand survives both in Italic type and These remarks apply also to xylography. in our present-day cursive writing. In this variety of printing the whole page, consisting usually of illustration with text, The Stage Now Set for the Invention of was cut on a block of wood and the page Printing printed as a unit. The artist had to make All the elements of the printed book, as many designs as there were pages in the except movable type, were now at hand: book.
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