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First Line of Title HEAVENLY HANDWRITING, TEUTONIC TYPE: FAITH AND SCRIPT IN GERMAN PENNSYLVANIA, CA. 1683 – 1855 by Alexander Lawrence Ames A thesis submitted to the Faculty of the University of Delaware in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in American Material Culture Spring 2014 © 2014 Alexander Lawrence Ames All Rights Reserved HEAVENLY HANDWRITING, TEUTONIC TYPE: FAITH AND SCRIPT IN GERMAN PENNSYLVANIA, CA. 1683 – 1855 by Alexander Lawrence Ames Approved: __________________________________________________________ Consuela Metzger, M.L.I.S. Professor in charge of thesis on behalf of the Advisory Committee Approved: __________________________________________________________ J. Ritchie Garrison, Ph.D. Director of the Winterthur Program in American Material Culture Approved: __________________________________________________________ George H. Watson, Ph.D. Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences Approved: __________________________________________________________ James G. Richards, Ph.D. Vice Provost for Graduate and Professional Education ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Whom does one thank first for assistance toward completion of an academic project only brought to fruition by the support of dozens of scholars, professionals, colleagues, family members, and friends? I must first express gratitude to my relations, especially my mother Dr. Candice M. Ames and my brother Andrew J. Ames and his family, without whose support I surely never could have undertaken the journey from Minnesota to the Winterthur Program in American Material Culture nearly two years ago. At Winterthur, I found mentors who extended every effort to encourage my academic growth. Rosemary Krill, Brock Jobe, J. Ritchie Garrison, and Greg Landrey did much to help me explore new fields. I owe a particular debt to Winterthur’s art conservators. In one, Consuela Metzger, I found a thesis advisor willing to devote countless hours to guiding my intellectual exploration. In another, Joan Irving, I found a paper conservator gracious enough to share her vast store of knowledge with a novice student of manuscripts. To Emily Guthrie, Winterthur’s rare books librarian, I owe my reaffirmed commitment to librarianship. I offer my most heartfelt thanks to Emily, Consuela, and Joan for their cultivation of my interest in book history. Debra Hess Norris was a source of incessant inspiration. Able assistance from the Winterthur Library’s Lauri Perkins proved essential to this project. Many thanks are due to the faculty of the University of Delaware. The generous and knowledgeable Dr. Ronet Bachman, Professor of Sociology, guided the development of my quantitative method. Her enthusiasm for statistical inquiry has indelibly shaped my own social science-based approach to historical analysis. I am iii grateful for conversations had with Doctors Anne Boylan, James Brophy, Katherine Grier, and Arwen Mohun of the Department of History. My research would have been impossible to undertake were it not for the support of the Delaware Public Humanities Institute and Albert T. and Elizabeth R. Gamon Scholarship of the Peter Wentz Farmstead Society. I am honored to thank the UD Office of Graduate & Professional Education for their support of travel to a conference presentation in Chicago, and to Morrison and Fenella Heckscher for support to present at a conference in Harrisburg. I offer my humblest gratitude to the curators and librarians who extended every grace and courtesy to this novice scholar. Dr. Matthew Heinztelman of the Hill Museum & Manuscript Library at St. John’s University, Joel Alderfer of the Mennonite Heritage Center, Carolyn Wenger of the Lancaster Mennonite Historical Society, Bruce Bomberger of the Landis Valley Museum, Cory Amsler and Sara Good of the Mercer Museum, Ashley Hamilton of the Reading Public Museum, and Kim Schenck of the National Gallery of Art lent me both their time and expertise. Without the friendliness and wisdom of Candace Perry of the Schwenkfelder Library & Heritage Center, the quantitative portion of this thesis would have been utterly impossible. Fortunate indeed was I to consult with the eminent Don Yoder while pursuing this research. I owe a special debt of gratitude to Lisa Minardi, the immensity of whose knowledge of Fraktur is matched only by her kindness and generosity in sharing it. To her parents, Silvio and Katherine Minardi, who opened their home to me as I conducted my research, I proffer my humblest thanks. To all those above mentioned, to countless others whose kindnesses I failed to recount here, and to the memories of Henry Francis du Pont and Lois F. McNeil, I humbly dedicate this thesis. Its shortcomings are my own. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................... vii LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................... viii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................ xiii Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION: VISUAL PRAYER? SPIRITUAL-MATERIALIST DIRECTIONS IN FRAKTURSCHRIFT MANUSCRIPT STUDY .................. 1 Background: The Manuscript World of Pennsylvania Germans ........................ 5 Goal of Present Study: Modeling Change in Manuscript Culture .................... 12 Methods ............................................................................................................ 17 2 FRAKTURSCHRIFT AND ANTIQUA IN EUROPE AND AMERICA ....... 19 Origins of the Graeco-Roman and Gothic Scripts ............................................ 22 Imperial Script: Fraktur as Gothic Baroque ..................................................... 25 Fraktur or Antiqua? Type, Script, and National Identity ................................. 31 European Scripts in America ............................................................................ 38 3 THE PIOUS AND MYSTIC AMONG PENNSYLVANIA'S GERMANS .... 43 Composition of Pennsylvania's German-Speaking Population ........................ 44 Scripture Alone? Mysticism, Pietism, Anabaptism, and the Word of God ..... 49 Mysticism and the Schwenkfelders .......................................................... 53 Pietism ...................................................................................................... 58 Anabaptism and the Mennonites .............................................................. 60 4 LEARNING TO READ AND WRITE IN EARLY AMERICA AND GERMAN PENNSYLVANIA ........................................................................ 65 Teaching Literacy in Early America ................................................................ 66 Literacy Education: The Schwenkfelder and Mennonite Experience .............. 71 Vorschriften: The Material Evidence ............................................................... 81 The Politics of Education in Early Pennsylvania ............................................. 97 New Trends in Handwriting Education ............................................................ 99 v 5 MODELING CHANGE IN DESIGN OF PENNSYLVANIA GERMAN VORSCHRIFTEN .......................................................................................... 107 Goals of Statistical Analysis ........................................................................... 108 Methods .......................................................................................................... 110 Hypothesis Formation ............................................................................... 110 Conceptualizing the Vorschrift .................................................................. 119 Sample Characteristics .............................................................................. 124 Dependent Variables ................................................................................. 128 Independent Variable ................................................................................. 136 Analysis Strategy ....................................................................................... 139 Results ............................................................................................................ 140 General Additive Index ............................................................................. 141 Multivariate Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) Regression ........................... 142 Binary Logistic Regressions ...................................................................... 148 Discussion ....................................................................................................... 150 Future Applications of Generalized Linear Model ......................................... 154 6 CONCLUSION: THE LETTER AND THE SPIRIT ..................................... 156 Implications for Future Research ................................................................... 164 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................... 169 Manuscript Collections ................................................................................... 169 Published Primary Sources ............................................................................. 172 Secondary Sources .......................................................................................... 177 Appendix IMAGE PERMISSION LETTERS ............................................................... 183 vi LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Distribution values for date of Vorschrift production
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