DOCSLIB.ORG

Empires of the Andes

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Empires of the Andes A Majestic Frontier Outpost Chose Cooperation Over War Empiresof the by Patrick Ryan Williams, ndesMichael E. Moseley, & Donna J. Nash The people huddled in their impregnable fortress atop the Ahigh mesa called Cerro Baúl, their last refuge as the mighty Inca legions swept through the valley far below. With its sheer walls and single, tortuous route to the top, the citadel defied attack by storm, so the Inca army laid siege to Cerro Baúl. For 54 days, the people held out. But with little food and no water, they found their redoubt The summit of Cerro Baúl, protected by steep, rugged slopes, provided a was not only a grand bastion virtually impregnable fortress for ancient civilizations of the Andes. but also a grand prison. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN DISCOVERING ARCHAEOLOGY 69 hen, in hopes of sav- The Moquegua Valley had been in the ing their starving Tiwanaku orbit until the Wari made their children, the defenders sent bold thrust into the region. To secure the youngsters down from their political outpost, the Wari intruders the beleaguered mountaintop. strategically settled the towering Cerro The Inca received the chil- Baúl and the adjacent pinnacle of Cerro dren with kindness, fed them, Mejia. Unraveling the nature of this and even let them take a few intruding colony and its relationship supplies to their parents with the surrounding Tiwanaku is a long- — along with a promise standing concern of the Asociación Con- of peace and friendship. tisuyo, a consortium of Peruvian and That was enough for the hungry American scholars investigating the and hopeless people of Cerro Baúl. They region. Recent mapping and excavation surrendered unconditionally to the new at Cerro Baúl and adjacent sites are imperial order about A.D. 1475. beginning to reveal pieces of this puzzle. The siege of Cerro Baúl was but the Where the two competing nations final chapter in the legendary history of met, their citizens apparently chose coop- what 500 years earlier had been the south- eration over conflict. Our excavations find ernmost outpost of the Wari, the first of no evidence of warfare during the cen- the great empires of the Andes. The Inca turies (from about A.D. 600 to 1020) in siege was described which the Wari and Archaeologists excavating the by Spanish chronicler the Tiwanaku shared summit of Cerro Baúl (the layout Garcilaso de la Vega, It was, for nearly the valley and its of the once-majestic city is shown and our two seasons scant water. Goods at right) discovered strong indica- of excavations at and ideas almost cer- tions of cooperation rather than five centuries, warfare in the frontier region Cerro Baúl lend cre- tainly were being - shared by citizens of the two dence to this histori- a majestic city exchanged; interac- empires. Among the evidence is cal lore. tion was inevitable, if this unusual kero (a drinking ves- that dominated sel used in important rituals) that The mesa today is for no other reason was found at the Wari-empire city a sacred mountain, than to discuss rights of Cerro Baúl. A hybrid design, it sanctuary of El Señor the frontier. to the most critical is decorated with elements of both Wari and Tiwanaku cultures, de Cerro Baúl, a spirit resource of the arid and depicts the Staff God, an that’s widely venerated throughout the desert. Water streaming from mountain important deity for both societies. region. But our investigations confirm rainstorms had to pass by a Wari canal Clearly, the Tiwanaku had some that it was, for nearly five centuries, a before it reached Tiwanaku fields. impact on the most important aspect of Wari life — religion. majestic city that dominated the frontier Furthermore, we recovered a between the Wari and the neighboring Tiwanaku-style kero (a drinking vessel ALL PHOTOS COURTESY OF P.R. WILLIAMS Tiwanaku empire. used in ceremonies) among the Wari’s The story of Cerro Baúl begins in the most sacred ceremonial offerings yet time archaeologists call the Middle found at the site — a strong argument for The 25-hectare (62-acre) summit of the El Paso Divide between Cerro Baúl Horizon, when the two empires ruled ritual interaction between the two Cerro Baúl — some 600 meters (nearly and Cerro Mejia, where the water course South the central Andes. The Wari, secular and groups who shared the valley. America 2,000 feet) above the valley floor — was split to irrigate expansive terraces that militant, governed most of highland and clearly the political and social crown of stairstepped the flanks of both hills. coastal Peru from their upland capitol at PERU the Wari outpost. Yet most of the This high-country irrigation system Ayacucho. The Tiwanaku, a trade-based erro Baúl was a bustling city of empire’s citizens lived not on the top, but may be the key to the Wari’s successful state with a religious core, controlled one- and two-story houses on terraces cut into less lofty heights. expansion into the extremely arid parts of what is now Bolivia, southern Corganized around plazas where people When the Wari arrived in the valley, Moquegua Sierra, especially during Peru, and northern Chile from a capitol raised guinea pigs (for food and fuel), Lima they introduced an agricultural technolo- severe droughts from A.D. 562 to 594 near Lake Titicaca. The Moquegua Val- prepared feasts, created obsidian projec- gy of terracing steep slopes and digging and from A.D. 650 to 750. ley, dominated by Cerro Baúl, is the only tile points, and made necklace beads of long, serpentine canals across the broken The summit of Cerro Baúl is divided Cerro Baúl place where the two civilizations are turquoise, lapis lazuli, onyx, and polished land. A 10-kilometer (6.2-mile) canal into two areas of very different architec- known to have come face-to-face. shell imported from the Pacific coast. wound from the Torata River through ture. A monumental core comprises 70 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN DISCOVERING ARCHAEOLOGY MARCH/APRIL 2000 discoveringarchaeology.com one- and two-story masonry build- from the El Paso canal. For construction the sacred center of Wari culture, an area The most common architectural form hall was intentionally set, and the beauti- ings, while the eastern occupation, stone, Wari builders turned to the mesa of sacrifice and propitiation of the gods. at the capital and other Wari cities is an ful ceramic vessels, many of them proba- extending to the edge of the mesa itself, quarrying the western half of the At Cerro Baúl, we find at least one and enclosed plaza flanked by impressive bly brought more than 500 miles from the and overlooking the route of ascent, is summit so heavily that it resembles a possibly two of these temples. In our stone halls. These halls included resi- Wari capital, were deliberately smashed crowded with more modest, one-story cratered lunar landscape. investigations of one of them, several fine dences of governors and wealthy citi- and thrown into the smoldering flames. stone dwellings similar to those found Fine masonry construction was artifacts were found in a ritual offering. The fire and destruction clearly were on the terraces of the slopes. restricted to important buildings that These include entire polychrome ceram- ceremonial and not a general sacking of Building atop the mesa was a daunting adhered to the strict architectural canons ic vessels, an engraved gourd bowl, and a As part of the the site. As part of the final sacramental task. Earth for mortar and silt for plaster of the imperial capital at Ayacucho. D- silver-alloy foil camelid 2.5 centimeters drinking episode in this hall — perhaps came from the banks of the Rio Torata, shaped structures are among the rarest (about an inch) across. final sacramental as part of the abandonment of Cerro two hours away by foot. Water for mix- and most distinctive buildings at the Baúl itself — Wari priests ceremonially ing those materials was hauled uphill political nexus, where they likely were at drinking episode, Wari interred the building. The offering of nother potentially important bead necklaces was made after the fire religious complex at Cerro Baúl priests ceremonially had been extinguished. Ais the plaza of the sacred stone, an archi- interred the building. tectural compound built around a large boulder at the center of the summit. imilarities in their religious An Intoxicating Ritual Sacred stones were prominent features in zens, government offices, and beer hous- iconography are impressive and A Sacrament of Drunkenness Built Inca cosmology, and a similar structure es for state-held parties that rewarded the suggestS intimate contact between the Loyalty in the Andes has been uncovered near the Wari site of loyalty of important subjects. Wari and Tiwanaku. The Tiwanaku Pikillacta in the Cuzco region. These The most interesting of the long halls influence on hybrid Wari keros reflects stones were the centers of ritual and that have been excavated so far contained the incorporation of Tiwanaku ideas in n essential sacra- or condors, as do the Cerro Baúl examples. received offerings of special libations a burnt deposit of classic vessels and keros, the highest realms of Wari religion, and Ament of both the Wari typically portrayed the Staff God on ceramics, (such as maize beer or sacrificial blood) some of which were decorated in a hybrid the existence of a Tiwanaku–style kero Wari and Tiwanaku empires while Tiwanaku preferred stone. And some differences or of sacred items. Common Inca sacrifi- Wari-Tiwanaku style. Six fine necklaces in the most sacred of Wari ritual offerings — and of the fabled Inca who succeeded them — cen- between Wari and Tiwanaku portrayals are notable. cial offerings included llamas, coca were also recovered from this burnt offer- on the summit documents the inclusion tered around chicha, an alcoholic beverage that was Later Wari manifestations, for example, included leaves, gold or silver work, and in ing.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • © Cambridge University Press Cambridge
    Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-85099-5 - The Atlantic World: Europeans, Africans, Indians and Their Shared History, 1400-1900 Thomas Benjamin Index More information Index Abenakis, 310 Muslims in, 24–25 independence of Brazil, Acadians, 243–245, 494 Niger Delta chiefdoms, 609–612 Acosta, Josede,´ 281, 286 33 inspiration of early Adams, Abigail, 534 plant domestication, 34 revolutions, 518 Adams, John, 435, 525, savanna state development, reasons for anti-slavery 539 25–28 actions in Caribbean, Address to the Congress of slaves, indigenous 587–589 Angostura, 606–607 agricultural, 33 revolutionary republicanism, Africa, 24–35 as infantrymen/archers, 517 agriculture, 24, 25 27 and slavery, 518, 613.See Akan kingdom, as laborers, 27–28 also American animal domestication, 34 slave trade, indigenous, 28, Revolution; arts, 30 33, 35 Enlightenment; French Berbers in, 25 Songhay (See Songhay) Revolution; Haitian Canary Islands chiefdom (See South Africa chiefdom, 34 Revolution; Spanish Canary Islands) Thirstland, 33–34 America revolutions colonization, 662 trade in, 25, 29 agriculture Dyula, 82 tribute systems, 33 expansion in 14th-century early descriptions of, 80–81 underpopulation, in Europe, 38–39 economic/political sub-Saharan, 35 in pre-contact Africa development in Wolof, 81, 82 irrigated, 24 sub-Saharan, 34–35 Yoruba kingdom, 30.Seealso rain-fed, 25 endemic disease, 28–29, 35 Angola, and Portugal; in pre-contact Americas, 19, equatorial Central Africa antislavery, and Africa; 21 state development, 33 gender relations, in chinapa, 17 European disease, 35 Africa; Portuguese plant domestication, 22 famine, 35 imperium, in Africa; slash-and-burn, 21 forest-savanna edge state slavery; slave trade; West Ahuitzotl, 12 development, 28–29 Africa Aimore,´ 156 Ghana empire, 27 African Trade Act, 487 Akan kingdom (Africa), hearth of civilization, 25 Africanus, Leo, 28, 75, 117, Alaska, pre-contact herding in, 25 331 sub-arctic/arctic, 21 hunting/gathering in, 33–34 Age of Reason.
    [Show full text]
  • PONCE Phd Thesis.Pdf
    Durham E-Theses A comparative study of activity-related skeletal changes in 3rd-2nd millennium BC coastal shers and 1st millenium AD inland agriculturists in Chile, South America PONCE, PAOLA,VANESA How to cite: PONCE, PAOLA,VANESA (2010) A comparative study of activity-related skeletal changes in 3rd-2nd millennium BC coastal shers and 1st millenium AD inland agriculturists in Chile, South America, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/546/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 i ii Abstract The reconstruction of patterns of physical activities, behaviour, and lifestyle in past populations is one of the goals most often pursued by bioarchaeologists. This study considers the presence of a group of markers of occupational stress (MOS) that are accepted by many in bioarchaeology as representing the impact of physical activity.
    [Show full text]
  • Anthropology 433
    Anthropology 433 ANDEAN ARCHAEOLOGY Spring 2018 Professor Clark L. Erickson PROFESSOR: Dr. Clark Erickson 435 Penn Museum [email protected] 215-898-2282 DESCRIPTION: ANTH 433: Andean Archaeology (Cross-listed as Latin American and Latino Studies 433) This course provides a basic survey of the prehistory of civilizations in the Central Andean Region of South America (the central highland and coastal areas that today are Peru and Bolivia and parts of Ecuador, Chile, and Argentina). Topics include the history of South American archaeology, peopling of the continent, origins and evolution of agriculture, early village life, ceremonial and domestic architecture, prehistoric art and symbolism, Andean cosmology and astronomy, indigenous technology, the historical ecology of landscapes, outside contacts and relationships, economics and trade, social and political structure, state formation and urbanism, and early contacts with Europeans. The lectures and readings are based on recent archaeological investigations and interpretations combined with appropriate analogy from ethnohistory and ethnography. The prehistory of the Amazonian lowlands and "the intermediate area" of northern South America will be covered in other courses. Slides and several films are used to illustrate concepts and sites presented in lecture. I generally do not stop the lecture to spell terminology, although periodically you will be provided handouts with lists of important terminology. Questions and comments are encouraged and may be asked before, during, or after lectures. I will also make use of artifacts from the extensive South American collections of the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology (Penn Museum).in class and/or in the collection rooms of the Penn Museum instead of in our regular classroom.
    [Show full text]
  • Thesis Death and the Family: Testing Andean Lineage
    THESIS DEATH AND THE FAMILY: TESTING ANDEAN LINEAGE TOMBS THROUGH CRANIAL NON-METRICS Submitted by Sarah Frances Herrera Department of Anthropology In partial fulfillment of the requirements For the Degree of Master of Arts Colorado State University Fort Collins, Colorado Fall 2016 Master’s Committee: Advisor: Ann Magennis Co-advisor: Mary Van Buren Michael Lacy Copyright by Sarah Frances Herrera 2016 All Rights Reserved ABSTRACT DEATH AND THE FAMILY: TESTING ANDEAN LINEAGE TOMBS THROUGH CRANIAL NON-METRICS Historical records indicate that ancestor worship was practiced as part of ayllu social organization in the Inka empire during the Late Horizon and beginning of the Colonial Period (1440 A.D. - 1650 A.D.). This same set of beliefs and practices is often ascribed to the Late Intermediate Period (900 A.D. – 1440 A.D.) throughout the Andes by many researchers (Doyle 1988; Herrera 2003; Ibarra 2013; Isbell 1997; Mantha 2006; Martiarena 2014). It is important for the study of any site so far removed from the historical records to be cautious when using these documents for the interpretation of the archaeological record. The significance of this study is that little has been done using a bioarchaeological approach to test the assumption that ayllus and ancestor worship were present in the Conchucos region during the Late Intermediate Period. The site of Marcajirca is located on the ridge of a sacred ancestor mountain, Mt Llamoq, in North Central Peru. Although the site is a village, it has an especially large amount of mortuary architecture consisting of above ground tombs or chullpas, as well as caves, and underground structures that contain human remains.
    [Show full text]
  • Print This Article
    Bulletin of the Geological Society of Greece Vol. 55, 2019 A Review of Obsidian Source Exploitation in pre- Columbian South America Periferakis Argyrios National and Kapodistrian University of Athens https://doi.org/10.12681/bgsg.20997 Copyright © 2019 Argyrios Periferakis To cite this article: Periferakis, A. (2019). A Review of Obsidian Source Exploitation in pre-Columbian South America. Bulletin of the Geological Society of Greece, 55(1), 65-108. doi:https://doi.org/10.12681/bgsg.20997 http://epublishing.ekt.gr | e-Publisher: EKT | Downloaded at 04/10/2021 19:47:05 | Volume 55 BGSG Review Paper A REVIEW OF OBSIDIAN SOURCE EXPLOITATION IN Correspondence to: PRE-COLUMBIAN SOUTH AMERICA Argyrios Periferakis argyrisperiferakis@gma il.com Argyrios Periferakis1 DOI number: http://dx.doi.org/10.12681/ 1National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Department of Geology and bgsg.20997 Geoenvironment, University Campus, Ilissia, 15784, Athens, Greece [email protected] Keywords: obsidian, South America, Inca, pre-Columbian civilisations Abstract Citation: Periferakis, A. (2019), A review of obsidian source The focus of this paper is the obsidian quarries of the Pacific coast of pre-Columbian exploitation in pre- South America, which were exploited by the indigenous populations since ca. 11000 columbian south America, Bulletin Geological BC. The importance of obsidian in geoarchaeology and palaeoanthropology has Society of Greece, 55, 65- already been demonstrated in sites from all around the world. In this paper, the 108. presence of obsidian in correlation to tectonic activity and volcanism of South America is presented, along with the main sources in their regional geological context. Obsidian Publication History: artefacts were the mainstay of everyday life of indigenous populations and obsidian Received: 12/08/2019 Accepted: 11/10/2019 was also used in manufacturing weapons.
    [Show full text]
  • War, Chronology, and Causality in the Titicaca Basin
    LAQ 19(4) Arkush 11/6/08 8:53 AM Page 1 WAR, CHRONOLOGY, AND CAUSALITY IN THE TITICACA BASIN Elizabeth Arkush In the Late Intermediate Period (ca. A.D. 1000–1450), people in many parts of the Andean highlands moved away from rich agricultural lands to settle in defensive sites high on hills and ridges, frequently building hilltop forts known as pukaras in Quechua and Aymara. This settlement shift indicates a concern with warfare not equaled at any other time in the archaeo- logical sequence. While the traditional assumption is that warfare in the Late Intermediate Period resulted directly from the collapse of the Middle Horizon polities of Wari and Tiwanaku around A.D. 1000, radiocarbon dates presented here from occupation and wall-building events at pukaras in the northern Titicaca Basin indicate these hillforts did not become com- mon until late in the Late Intermediate Period, after approximately A.D. 1300. Alternative explanations for this late esca- lation of warfare are evaluated, especially climate change. On a local scale, the shifting nature of pukara occupation indicates cycles of defense, abandonment, reoccupation, and wall building within a broader context of elevated hostilities that lasted for the rest of the Late Intermediate Period and beyond. En el Período Intermedio Tardío (ca. 1000–1450 d.C.), los habitantes de muchas partes de la sierra andina abandonaron ter- renos productivos para asentarse en sitios defensivos en colinas, a veces construyendo asentamientos amurallados en las cum- bres, llamados “pukaras” tanto en Quechua como Aymara. Este cambio demuestra una preocupación por la guerra no conocida anteriormente en la secuencia arqueológica.
    [Show full text]
  • Raised-Bed Irrigation at Tiwanaku, Bolivia
    RAISED-BED IRRIGATION AT TIWANAKU, BOLIVIA Introduction The Bolivian Altiplano is a high-elevation (over 12,000 feet above sea level), seemingly inhospitable environ- ment. At first glance, it appears an unlikely locale for a flourishing empire capable of supporting a large popu- lation. Yet for approximately 600 years, the Tiwanaku Empire thrived on the Altiplano. The Empire rose about 400 AD, fed by local abundance - fish from the lake Titicaca (the world’s highest navigable lake), meat from llamas and alpacas pastured on high plateaus, and potatoes and other crops grown in raised- bed fields fed by irrigation channels and drained by massive ditches. Like other empires, Tiwanaku’s expansion depended on abundant food production, and for over seven centuries, it regularly produced food surpluses. These surpluses were a product of ingenious irrigation systems. Map 1. General Map of the Lake Titicaca region. According to Andean religion the creator emerged from Lake Titicaca to shape the earth and the first people. Because of its sacred nature, the lake’s shores are ringed with the ruins of small shrines and temples, some dating as far back as 700 BC. Researchers think that Tiwanaku (the city) was originally one of these small religious centers. Tiwanaku, the Community But in the 6th century, because of the political power of the Tiwanaku people, Tiwanaku became a prize pilgrim- age center. Many of these pilgrims traveled long distances, crossing the Titicaca’s blue waters on reed crafts. Then they walked due east over the grassy plains of the altiplano toward the blue-and-white peaks of the Andes (see Illustration 2).
    [Show full text]
  • The Inka: the Lens Through Which We See the Andean Past  Copyright Bruce Owen 2006
    Andean Archaeology and Ethnohistory The Inka: The lens through which we see the Andean past Copyright Bruce Owen 2006 − Announcements − Chelsea Bahr has the readers? − The contact list is posted − please check it for accuracy, email me for fixes, changes, additions, deletions, etc. − A handout with some help on pronouncing Andean terms is available on the class web page under "Handouts" − Quiz − Today we’ll look briefly at the Inka as they existed when Francisco Pizarro and his men arrived in 1531, taking the capital, Cuzco, by late 1533 − This is the Andean society that we know by far the most about − As such, it provides clues and models for understanding earlier societies − Obviously, the distant past was not just like the recent past − But using the Inka as a starting point beats using only our European preconceptions as a source of models − First, let's think about the two eyewitness accounts we just read − What kinds of written sources are there? − letters, reports and other narrative accounts by conquistadores − such as the extract from Pedro Sancho de Hoz's An account of the Conquest of Peru, 1534. − Sancho was one of two scribes or secretaries to Francisco Pizarro − he was there at most of the important events of the conquest − he recorded what happened as official reports to the Spanish crown − sometimes specifying that Pizarro and others had reviewed his account, approved it, and attached their signatures − early scholarly works (Cobo, Cieza) − such as the extract from Pedro de Cieza de León's Chronicles of Peru, 1553 − Cieza
    [Show full text]
  • TRADE and LOGISTICS in the INCA EMPIRE Lec. Rosario
    IV. INTERNATIONAL CAUCASUS-CENTRAL ASIA FOREIGN TRADE AND LOGISTICS CONGRESS September, 7-8, Didim/AYDIN TRADE AND LOGISTICS IN THE INCA EMPIRE Lec. Rosario Consuelo Vicuña Jurado [email protected] Abstract Trade is one of the most important aspects to a civilization, without trade, civilizations cannot thrive or grow. It also keeps good relations with rival empires because the civilizations rely on each other. Trade was not as simple as today, even though it was hard to establish trade contacts between nations, they weren’t only trading money and resources but also religion, culture, tradition and wisdom. Therefore trade was extremely important. Trade routes have developed since ancient times to transport goods from places of production to places of commerce. Scarce commodities that were only available in certain locations, such as salt or spices, were the biggest driver of trade networks, but once established, these roads also facilitated cultural exchange—including the spread of religion, ideas, knowledge, and sometimes even bacteria. Unlike most of the other route The Spice Routes were maritime routes linking the East to the West. Pepper, cloves, cinnamon, and nutmeg were all hugely sought-after commodities in Europe, but before the 15 th century access to trade with the East was controlled by North Africans and Arab middlemen, making such spices extremely expensive and rare. With the dawning of the Age of Exploration (15th to 17 th centuries), as new navigation technology made sailing long distance possible, Europeans took to the seas to forge direct trading relationships with India, China and Japan. The spice trade was one of the reasons for the development of a faster ship, which encouraged the discovery of new lands.
    [Show full text]
  • Robert Barker
    Robert Barker An Analysis of the Creation of Chronology and Genealogy of the Inca Dynasty in a Selection of Early Peruvian Chronicles Robert Barker Department of Spanish and Latin American Studies University College London 1 Robert Barker Contents Acknowledgements 3 Abstract 4 Chapter 1: J.H. Rowe‘s Chronological Hypothesis and his Legacy 7 Chapter 2: Reviewing the Textual Evidence: A New Look at the Early Peruvian Chroniclers 44 Chapter 3: Alternative Methodologies: From Ethno-history to Archaeology 96 Chapter 4: The ‗Lost‘ Incas: A New Hypothesis 133 Summary Conclusion 174 Glossary 177 Bibliography 180 2 Robert Barker Acknowledgements I would like to take this opportunity to thank everyone who has helped and encouraged me to complete this thesis. In particular, I would like to specially mention my supervisors Professor Stephen Hart and Dr José Oliver who patiently and expectantly encouraged and guided me to the completion of this work. Professor Jason Wilson who from the very beginning encouraged me to do this PhD, as well as Dr David Henn without whose help and advice I would probably have been forced to leave this work unfinished. I would also like to take this opportunity to thank the Graduate School who organised many courses, which assisted me in the organisation, research, planning and writing of this thesis as well as providing financial help for a field trip to Peru. Furthermore, the time spent and advice given on how to tackle this difficult project by Professor Makowski of the La Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Fransisco Hernández of the same university and Dr Alfredo Valencia of the San Antonio de Abad Universidad del Cuzco, and César Astuhuaman from University College London, Simon Luff, Richard Slack, and Simon Williams, friends and colleagues who made several suggestions and comments which are included in this thesis.
    [Show full text]
  • Domestic Life During the Late Intermediate Period at El Campanario Site, Huarmey Valley, Peru
    University of South Florida Scholar Commons Graduate Theses and Dissertations Graduate School July 2020 Domestic Life during the Late Intermediate Period at El Campanario Site, Huarmey Valley, Peru Jose Luis Peña University of South Florida Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd Part of the History of Art, Architecture, and Archaeology Commons Scholar Commons Citation Peña, Jose Luis, "Domestic Life during the Late Intermediate Period at El Campanario Site, Huarmey Valley, Peru" (2020). Graduate Theses and Dissertations. https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/8478 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at Scholar Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Scholar Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Domestic Life during the Late Intermediate Period at El Campanario Site, Huarmey Valley, Peru by Jose Luis Peña A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Applied Anthropology Department of Anthropology College of Art and Sciences University of South Florida Major Professor: Robert H. Tykot, Ph.D. E. Christian Wells, Ph.D. Nancy White, Ph.D. David Chicoine, Ph.D Mary Glowacki, Ph.D. Date of Approval: April 7, 2020 Keywords: household, pottery analysis, Andes, identity Copyright 2020, Jose L. Peña DEDICATION I dedicated this dissertation to my beloved wife Patti Peña for her constant support and patience during this incredible journey, and to my twins, Christian and Anna, for their constant love and hugs in times when I need them the most.
    [Show full text]
  • Myth and Memory at the Site of Tiwanaka, Bolivia
    The Making of Place : Myth and Memory at the site of Tiwanaku, Bolivia Leslie A. Friedman Architectural Conservator Los Angeles, California, USA [email protected] Abstract. The sacred site of Tiwanaku, Bolivia, the first major city-state in the Central Andes, has, for almost 3,000 years, been appropriated for various intents by the Inca, the Spanish, the Bolivian state, European travelers, spiritualists, and the indigenous Aymara people who claim the World Heritage site as their ancestral home. Investing the site with meanings, myths, memories, each group has created – or re- created – the spirit of the site of Tiwanaku. Today, the site of Tiwanaku continues to be a vortex of competing claims and a location for multiple intangible heritages, such as Aymara cultural ceremonies and modern music videos; a newly- created solstice festival that is held yearly at the site; and, arguably, the rituals of archaeology and world heritage. This paper traces the making of place and heritage: how, from its inception through today, multiple histories and collective memories have physically altered the site of Tiwanaku, impacting its excavation, conservation, and presentation; and how intangible acts shape the tangibility of place. The World Heritage site of Tiwanaku, located near the border between Bolivia and Peru, dominated the Central Andes between A.D. 500 and A.D. 1000, its political and cultural influence spreading far into what is present day Peru, Chile and Argentina. Utilized by the Inca in the 15th century and appropriated to justify their own powerful empire; a source of awe and building material to the conquering Spanish in the 16th century (who by dismantling the site also sought to destroy the myths and historic memory associated with it); the subject of inspired travelers’ accounts for hundreds of years; the focus of Bolivian pride since the 20th century; and more recently, the symbolic location of Aymara identity, the site of Tiwanaku exemplifies the 1 concept of “place-making”, as it has been continually created and re- created for thousands of years.
    [Show full text]