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Thesis Death and the Family: Testing Andean Lineage

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THESIS DEATH AND THE FAMILY: TESTING ANDEAN LINEAGE TOMBS THROUGH CRANIAL NON-METRICS Submitted by Sarah Frances Herrera Department of Anthropology In partial fulfillment of the requirements For the Degree of Master of Arts Colorado State University Fort Collins, Colorado Fall 2016 Master’s Committee: Advisor: Ann Magennis Co-advisor: Mary Van Buren Michael Lacy Copyright by Sarah Frances Herrera 2016 All Rights Reserved ABSTRACT DEATH AND THE FAMILY: TESTING ANDEAN LINEAGE TOMBS THROUGH CRANIAL NON-METRICS Historical records indicate that ancestor worship was practiced as part of ayllu social organization in the Inka empire during the Late Horizon and beginning of the Colonial Period (1440 A.D. - 1650 A.D.). This same set of beliefs and practices is often ascribed to the Late Intermediate Period (900 A.D. – 1440 A.D.) throughout the Andes by many researchers (Doyle 1988; Herrera 2003; Ibarra 2013; Isbell 1997; Mantha 2006; Martiarena 2014). It is important for the study of any site so far removed from the historical records to be cautious when using these documents for the interpretation of the archaeological record. The significance of this study is that little has been done using a bioarchaeological approach to test the assumption that ayllus and ancestor worship were present in the Conchucos region during the Late Intermediate Period. The site of Marcajirca is located on the ridge of a sacred ancestor mountain, Mt Llamoq, in North Central Peru. Although the site is a village, it has an especially large amount of mortuary architecture consisting of above ground tombs or chullpas, as well as caves, and underground structures that contain human remains. One way to infer ayllu organization and ancestor worship as well as validate the use of historical records for Marcajirca would be to identify affinity and kinship structure in collective burials in combination with material evidence that these burials were used for ancestor worship. Were the chullpas and caves at the Late Intermediate Site of Marcajirca reserved for family burials and ancestor worship? ii In order to test this, I attempted to determine if the people in one tomb were significantly different biologically from the people found in other tombs based on the relative prevalence of heritable non-metric traits. Twenty four non-metric traits on 106 crania from 15 different tombs were scored. The frequencies of these non-metric traits were used to calculate the mean measure of divergence to produce a numerical summary of the biological distance between groups of skeletal remains. There were a few noticeable patterns from the non-metric analyses at Marcajirca. Cave 19 differs the most from other tombs at statistically significant levels. Many of the other caves and chullpas do not exhibit statistically significant differences and often exhibit negative distance values. These results do not provide enough information to positively identify each tomb as a unique family burial, but may be more indicative of a wider ayllu group present at Marcajirca. Only Cave 19 represents a distinct group, possibly from an outlying community that considered itself as part of the larger ayllu linked by their belief in Llamoq as its founding ancestor. In the case of Marcajirca, it does appear as though historical records related to kinship and ancestor worship can be applied to the archaeological interpretations for this site and its role in the regional ayllus. Future research based on intersite biodistance analysis could be used to determine if there was a real biological distinction between the various ayllus reported to exist in the Conchucos Region. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Before anyone else, I need to thank my best friend and husband, Frank, for always supporting me in my dreams since the moment you met me. This support transcended moving to a new state, draining our meager savings, and leaving you alone for a month to travel to Peru by myself to do the research I eventually used for this thesis. Then years later you found the way for me to have the time I needed to do something with that research and write this thesis. Your love and help gets me through everything. To Abram, my smart little man. Thank you for being such a good little person and loving me so much. I hope you know that you can always follow your dreams. Whether that is being an inventor, an archaeologist, or whatever it is that you are gifted to love. I hope that you have the courage to stick with it and love what you do. To my mom, thanks for not being afraid when your young daughter excitedly brought home a book about mummies in the second grade and for supporting every science project about mummification. Also to your example for the value of gaining an education and the ability to do so while being a loving mother. To my Dad, thank you for instilling in me a love of other cultures, other people, travel, and for always being my number one fan. To my co-advisors, Ann and Mary, thank you for taking me on as a student my first year when I was lost and unsure of myself. I couldn’t have done this without your support and guidance throughout this experience. A special thanks to Mike Lacy for his countless hours put into helping me with the statistics on this research. I would also like to thank everyone that I worked with in Peru. I wouldn’t have had a thesis project if it weren’t for Bebel Ibarra and Stephan Naji for finding a way that I could contribute to the goals for their project at Marcajirca. I couldn’t have learned the non-metric iv markers without the help of Anne Titelbaum and Bronwyn McNeil, aside from their friendship and continued support with this thesis. This research was also made possible through the Alice Hamilton Fund of the Colorado Archaeological society. Finally, thanks to everyone in my cohort at CSU and especially to Laura, Aymee, and Becca. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... iv List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... vii List of Figures ............................................................................................................................. viii Chapter 1: Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1 Chapter 2: Ayllus Ancestors Huacas ............................................................................................. 7 Social Organization and Ayllus .................................................................................................. 7 Ayllus in the North Central Highlands ..................................................................................... 10 Sacred Huacas and Apus .......................................................................................................... 12 Andean Ancestor Worship and Funerary Traditions ............................................................... 17 Changes in Mortuary Practices in the Northern Highlands ..................................................... 22 Mortuary Architecture in the North Central Highlands ........................................................... 27 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 31 Chapter 3: Marcajirca ................................................................................................................ 34 Site Location ............................................................................................................................. 34 Organization of the Site ........................................................................................................... 39 Radiocarbon Dates ................................................................................................................... 41 Mortuary Structures ................................................................................................................. 43 Human Remains and Context .................................................................................................. 48 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 52 Chapter 4: Materials and Methods .............................................................................................. 54 Materials .................................................................................................................................. 54 Age and Sex ............................................................................................................................. 54 Cranial Modification ................................................................................................................ 55 Non-Metric Trait Selection ...................................................................................................... 56 Data Recording ........................................................................................................................ 59 Grouping of Data ..................................................................................................................... 60 Common Statistical Approaches to Biodistance
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