LENINGRAD

The-day 900 siege ingrad, 1941-1943 Len Hitler hated Leningrad. It was the birthplace of Steve Roberts Bolshevism. More than any other Russian city, he wanted it destroyed. Here, tells the story of the Second World War’s greatest and most terrible siege through the experiences of ten participants – two German, six Russian, and two Finnish. lamy Images A lamy Photo:

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014-020_MHM39_Leningradv2_SC.indd 14 31/10/2013 16:49 Below The city’s inhabitants clear away ruins and extinguish fires after Nazi bombardments at the , 1943.

Above Operation Barbarossa and the German attack on Leningrad. The map shows the NAZIS tightening of the German vice around Leningrad.

Ritter failed. He allowed his exhausted and von Leeb over-extended forces to adopt defensive Hitler chose positions. He had lost 190,000 men killed von Leeb for or wounded to get this far, and 500 guns command of and 700 tanks had been lost. Soviet Army Group casualties were even heavier. North’s assault With a siege under way, von Leeb on Leningrad because he was credited showed his callousness by issuing orders with having broken the supposedly for his artillery to fire on any fleeing impregnable Maginot Line. Hitler wanted civilians. This was to spare his infantry the same done to the Stalin Line in Russia having to deal with Russian citizens – the main obstacle before Leningrad. at close quarters. ‘It is the task of the A great believer in speed, von Leeb artillery to deal with such a situation advanced 900km, breached the Stalin and as far away from our own lines as Line, and surrounded Leningrad possible, preferably by firing on the within three months. ‘Don’t stop civilians at an early stage.’ This was for anything. Never let the enemy in accordance with Hitler’s edict that consolidate, once he has been thrown Leningrad would not be allowed to back,’ he told his soldiers. surrender and that anyone trying to Von Leeb then requested escape would be shot. reinforcements, as debate raged as to On the Eastern Front, the close of whether Leningrad or was the 1941 was a turning-point. Leningrad was primary objective. On 5 September 1941 encircled but not taken and the Germans Hitler decreed that if Leningrad were not had also pulled up short of Moscow. With captured in ten days, troops would be the onset of winter, there was no choice redeployed to Moscow. This was a crucial other than to dig in. Hitler was furious. moment for the city: the Germans would After an angry meeting with him on never again have sufficient firepower to 13 January 1942, von Leeb asked to be launch an all-out assault. relieved of command. But by 24 September, with his troops After the war von Leeb got off lightly: only 15km from the Winter Palace, it he was sentenced to only three years in photos: © WIPL, otherwise unless stated

was clear that von Leeb’s assault had prison at Nuremberg. All

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Left The Commissar Order in action. The Nazis ordered that all captured Communist Party officials were to be summarily shot. Below Russia’s vast distances and the speed of the German advance in the summer and autumn of 1941 left the invaders exhausted and over-extended.

Communists

Kliment Voroshilov On the 11 July 1941 Voroshilov took over command of the North- Western Front, becoming responsible for Leningrad’s defence. His approach was flawed from the start, since he insisted on defending the Luga Line in an effort to stop the German advance as far from the city as possible. Other options were not considered. Within a week Voroshilov had hundreds of thousands of civilians, Georg von mostly women and teenagers, working Küchler on this defensive line, which was already On 17 January within German artillery range. 1942 von Leeb Voroshilov then made a fateful decision. was replaced A rail convoy of food was heading towards by Georg von the city, but, perhaps concerned about Küchler, a solid negative impressions, Voroshilov turned and methodical commander, but also a it away. The effect was to condemn fervent Nazi and hater of Communists. hundreds of thousands to death. The error He launched the Luftwaffe’s biggest was compounded when Voroshilov failed air raid on 5 April against the Baltic to act on warnings to disperse existing Fleet, which was supporting the city with food stocks throughout the city: Luftwaffe heavy artillery fire, but was also frozen-up bombs then destroyed the Badaev food in the Baltic ice and very vulnerable. A warehouses. Stalin summoned Voroshilov battleship, three cruisers, and a destroyer to Moscow for a ‘carpeting’ – which he was were put out of action. lucky to survive. Von Küchler reiterated the invading Voroshilov gambled on defending army’s infamous Commissar Order a line south-west of the city, but the which declared that all Communist Germans outflanked this as they poured Party officials were to be shot. He also On 30 November 1943 von Küchler in from the south. His response was to circulated the Reichenau Order, which stated that the civilian population in the order the formation of Home Guard stated that ‘feeding native inhabitants occupied zone east of the Panther Line was battalions on 20 August, including from army kitchens is a misguided to be evacuated and he was not fussed how women and teenagers ‘armed with humanitarian act’. it was done. ‘No consideration will be given hunting guns, home-made explosives, On the ground Soviet counter-attacks to preserving the unity of families. No and sabres and daggers from aimed at battering German supply-lines horse-drawn transport will be provided.’ Leningrad’s museums’. It was like trying only resulted in the destruction of the 2nd In spite of being in command for two to stop a tank with a peashooter. Shock Army. On 30 June a delighted Hitler years, von Küchler was unable to take the By the end of August, Stalin was promoted von Küchler to field marshal. city. In 1944 he was approached about sufficiently concerned to send in agents As the time approached for the joining the July plot to assassinate Hitler, to spy on his commander’s operations. to throw the Germans back but declined. It was the same month that The Russian dictator was left in no doubt from Leningrad, von Küchler became von Küchler’s Panther Line was broken. about the chaos. Crucial matters such as aware of the massive enemy build-up. But After the war von Küchler was sentenced artillery defence and the evacuation of he was powerless to prevent it. He prepared to 20 years for maltreatment of Soviet civilians and industry had been neglected. to fall back to positions 150 miles to the partisans, but was released after eight on There was no doubting Voroshilov’s west, known as the Panther Line. compassionate grounds. foolhardiness. On the 8 September he had

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014-020_MHM39_Leningradv2_SC.indd 16 31/10/2013 16:51 TIMELINE The siege of Leningrad Elena found walking the city ever more 1940 difficult. ‘I would stop and want to rest, but I knew it was too dangerous. If I did, 19 December Risto Ryti becomes President of Finland I might never get up.’ She fainted several 1941 times a day with starvation sickness. When Elena felt she might give up, she 6 June The Commissar Order turned to self-portraiture as a way of 22 June Germany invades the Soviet Union galvanising herself. By February 1942, cannibalism was 29 June Construction of Luga Line fortifications ever-present. ‘It had become dangerous begins, together with evacuation of to make a journey through the city,’ women and children Elena said. ‘It was becoming increasingly 11 July Voroshilov appointed commander difficult to trust others.’ She continued of North-Western Front, taking over to sketch, including gaunt figures in the Leningrad’s defences library. ‘Some of them died in their places, with a book propped up in front of them.’ 14 July Reinhardt’s Panzers establish a Above A Russian armoured train heads for the front With the threat of infection, a bridgehead on the far side of the Luga in the early days of the campaign. clear-up of the streets was ordered in River, opening the gates to Leningrad March. ‘Anyone who was able to walk 19 July First attack on Leningrad by Army Group signed orders to scuttle the Baltic Fleet, or even crawl got outside and began North stopped 100km south of city including all its valuable guns. On his last working.’ For Elena this collective effort 27 July Hitler visits Army Group North and day in command, 11 September, he turned was the turning-point for the city. orders von Leeb to take Leningrad up at the front-line waving a pistol about, For years Elena was forced to hide her by December encouraging his men to fight. On the sketchbook from the NKVD, the Stalinist same day he was summarily dismissed. secret police, her work being viewed as too 31 July Finns attack the Soviet 23rd Army On Stalin’s death in 1953 Voroshilov ‘pessimistic’. In 1991, however, she received at would become Chairman of the an invitation from a leading gallery to 8 August Von Leeb begins attack on Luga Line Presidium of the Supreme Soviet. exhibit her work. The gallery was in Berlin. 15/16 August Manstein turns the Soviet position at Elena Martilla Georgy Lake Ilmen, allowing a German advance Young Elena Zhukov on Leningrad from the south-east Martilla, a On 11 18 August Lychkovo train massacre: the Luftwaffe talented portrait September bombs a trainload of child evacuees artist, swapped Zhukov was from Leningrad easel for other flown in on tools as she Stalin’s orders 21 August Hitler orders the encirclement of helped on the city’s defences and in its to take over the defence of the city. He Leningrad in conjunction with the Finns hospitals. Keen not to neglect her talent, arrived to find a mood of defeatism, 30 August German forces cut the strategic however, she also enrolled in the last which he countered by declaring that the Moscow–Leningrad railway and other functioning art academy. city would be defended to the last man. connections to Leningrad In November 1941 her teacher gave her Deploying the 338 large guns of the the assignment of going out and making Baltic Fleet for extra armament, he 6 September a lfred Jodl of the German High sketches, to record the siege for posterity. divided the city into defensive sectors Command fails to persuade the Finns Elena had to devise a strategy, as daytime and organised the digging of trenches. to continue their offensive temperatures were below zero, so a quick He stated that any soldier withdrawing 8 September Germans capture , outdoor sketch, followed by work at her would be shot. ‘Attack! Not one step blockading Leningrad and beginning flat, were required. backwards!’ became his mantra. Russian the siege Being on the streets was dangerous, casualties multiplied as Zhukov extended too, and the young artist frequently had this to include the families of deserters. Badaev food warehouses are destroyed to take cover in bomb shelters. He had a reputation for cruelty and by incendiary bombs Elena recounted the story of a wasted thousands of lives in counter- 11 September Voroshilov is replaced by Zhukov young boy of nine or ten, who had attacks that were doomed to failure. The largest food depot in Leningrad, been left behind when a factory’s His worst decision was continuing 12 September Badajevski General Store, destroyed workforce was evacuated and was to order massed attacks from a tiny now foraging the streets on his own. foothold the Russians had on the 15 September Von Leeb transfers 4th Panzer Group Children who had lost their families east bank of the Neva, the Nevsky to Moscow offensive and were alone, ageing beyond their Bridgehead, which became a killing 17 September Zhukov issues Command Order that years, touched Elena. ground. Zhukov refused to accept that anyone retreating is to be shot The siege was tough on the elderly, the Germans were hunkering down for a too. The oldest person in Elena’s block siege and continued attacking an enemy 19 September German troops stopped 10km died, but only after smashing the china he believed was intent on capturing the from Leningrad and searching desperately for bread city. Frontal assault against an army now 20 September Zhukov sends Soviet forces across crumbs among the broken pieces. dug in was suicidal. Neva to establish Nevsky Bridgehead

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014-020_MHM39_Leningradv2_SC.indd 17 31/10/2013 16:51 TIMELINE the siege of leningrad 1941 continued By early October Zhukov conceded that the Germans had abandoned their 22 September Hitler states all off ers of surrender attempts to take the city by storm and from Leningrad are to be rejected were settling in for a long siege. ‘For 5 October Zhukov ordered back to Moscow; the first time in many days we could Zhdanov is left in charge tangibly feel that the front had fulfilled its mission and halted the Nazi offensive 8 November Germans capture , severing on Leningrad.’ the last rail route into the city He might have drawn this conclusion Hitler states Leningrad must ‘die earlier and saved thousands of lives. of starvation’ Autumn 1941, when the Germans were stopped in front of Leningrad, 10 November Soviet counter-attack begins would nonetheless become part of 22 November First convoy of lorries brings supplies Zhukov’s legend. Stalin then recalled across him to Moscow – probably a blessing for the defenders. Above One of the most famous Soviet 10 December recaptures Tikhvin Many believe Zhukov to have been propaganda posters of the war: Mother Russia 1942 Russia’s most effective general during summons her children to the defence of the WWII. As well as improving Leningrad’s homeland. nowhere was the struggle – racial and political as well as military – more 1 January Leningrad down to two days’ supply defences, he organised the evacuation visceral than during the siege of Leningrad. 7 January Soviet Lyuban Off ensive launched of some 1.5 million civilians and co-ordinated the operations that led to 8 Janury First hospital opens for treatment the breaking of the siege in January 1943. Shostakovich. This performance is proof of starvation Zhukov also played a major role in of our spirit, courage, and readiness 17 January Von Leeb replaced by von Küchler in saving Moscow and in the encirclement of to resist.’ According to the conductor, command of army Group north the German Sixth Army at Stalingrad. As ‘people just stood and cried’. the Red Army marched through Eastern After the war Eliasberg spoke to 25 January Last working hydroelectric power , all the way to Berlin, it fell to him some German veterans who told him station closes, leaving Leningrad to accept the German surrender. that they had intercepted Russian radio without running water, heat, signals and listened in. They admitted or electricity Karl Eliasberg that they knew that evening that they 26 January Leningrad’s Musical Comedy The greatest would never take the city. Theatre closes due to collapse symbol of Eliasberg later wrote, ‘Those moments of electricity system Leningrad’s do not come often. I cannot explain the defiance came feeling I had. The glory of fame and the 27 January Food supply and distribution on 9 August 1942, grief of loss. The thought that maybe the breaks down when Dmitry brightest moments of your life are gone. 29 January death of Olga Berggolts’ husband Shostakovich’s 7th Symphony was played The city now lives a peaceful life, but no from starvation at the city’s Philharmonic Hall. The music one has the right to forget the past.’ had been flown in by military plane so 18 February First reports of dysentery that it could be performed in the city. Leonid 27 March all able-bodied citizens clean streets It was Eliasberg himself who took Govorov and courtyards the decision to perform the symphony, On 1 April 1942 dedicated to Leningrad, in the besieged Govorov took 30 March First rehearsal for Shostakovich’s 7th Symphony takes place city. The Germans were trying to isolate over command Leningrad not just from the rest of Russia, of the Leningrad 1 April Govorov takes command of but from the rest of the world, and this front. A brilliant Leningrad front was Eliasberg’s attempt to reach out. artilleryman, he turned around the 5 April Germans launch an air attack on He was chronically short of musicians, military situation in the city. the Baltic Fleet however, with the first rehearsal Govorov built up ammunition stocks. attended by only 25 out of 80. Some The shells available to batteries rose from 15 April Tram services resume on three army musicians joined in, attending 800 to 5,000 per month. The Red Army routes into the city rehearsals then going back to man deployed real firepower for the first time. 27 April Last Soviet defenders on the nevsky their guns. Eliasberg may have been Govorov knew that the key was precise Bridgehead are overrun a hard taskmaster, but he made the whole counter-battery fire against German thing happen. Although the musicians gun emplacements. ‘We must hit them 4 June Hitler visits Ryti and Mannerheim were worn out, they responded to his before they hit us.’ in Finland; Mannerheim granted sheer determination. Govorov needed to know where German the title Marshal of Finland On the evening of the performance, guns were located so he employed ‘decoys’ 18 June Fuel pipeline laid across Lake Ladoga, the hall was packed. Eliasberg spoke – brave gun crews who fired, then dived for bringing petrol into Leningrad on the radio at 6pm. ‘In a few minutes cover as the Germans retaliated. you will hear for the first time the 7th Govorov helped Eliasberg, the 27 June Mannerheim visits Germany Symphony of our fellow citizen Dmitry conductor, with his plan to perform

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014-020_MHM39_Leningradv2_SC.indd 18 31/10/2013 16:53 TIMELINE The siege of Leningrad Shostakovich’s 7th Symphony in the Olga 1942 continued city. Knowing he was short of musicians, Berggolts Govorov allowed Red Army participation. Helping others 30 June Von Küchler promoted to field marshal Also, before the performance, he ordered motivated people 9 August Performance of Shostakovich’s 7th a bombardment of German positions. to survive. This Symphony at Leningrad’s Philharmonic Hall Determined that the concert should lift underpinned the Russian morale and shatter the enemy’s, poetry and radio 19 August Soviets begin the Sinyavino Offensive he had radio transmitter dishes set up, broadcasts of Olga Berggolts. She read 4 September Manstein diverts forces intended for so everyone heard. to unite the people of Leningrad and a fresh assault on the city to fight a Govorov was thorough in his distract them from their suffering. battle of attrition south of Lake Ladoga preparations for Operation Spark, which Olga had plenty of worries of her broke the blockade in January 1943. own. Her own elderly father was carted 1943 Mock-ups of enemy positions were created off to Siberia in early 1942, possibly for 12 January Operation Iskra (Spark) begins to give the Red Army assault practice, having a Jewish surname, or because and firing ranges were set up to improve he refused to inform on colleagues. 15 January Govorov promoted to colonel-general gunnery. At 9.30am on 12 January, the The Nazis did not have a monopoly 18 January Operation Spark breaks blockade assault began. on prejudice or brutality. Govorov showed his humanity On 29 January 1942, Olga’s husband Zhukov made marshal of the Soviet Union and courage by disobeying orders to died of starvation. Olga had to transport 22 January Front line stabilised attack strong German positions on the his body to the cemetery herself on a Sinyavino Heights: a potential suicide child’s sledge. Nevertheless, it was Olga 28 January Govorov awarded Order of Suvorov mission for his men. who sustained the citizens during the 1st Class On the morning of 18 January, Govorov’s dark days of February 1942. ‘I will talk 6 February First trainload of provisions reaches the troops made contact with Soviet forces to you during the artillery fire, lit by its city via overland route advancing from the east, finally breaking – glow,’ she said. ‘I will love and I will live.’ but not yet lifting – the siege of Leningrad. Olga recited extracts from ‘February 10 February Operation Polyarnaya Zvesda attempts It was to be another year before the Diary’, a poem written during the to lift the siege Germans were pushed back completely. siege’s first winter. 21 September army Group North prepares fall-back In the autumn of 1943, Govorov Elena Martilla, the artist, said of position 150 miles west of Leningrad supervised preparations for the final Berggolts, ‘We listened to her every battle, assembling 21,000 guns, over day. It was a light for us at the end of 17 November Govorov promoted to army general 1,500 rocket launchers, and some a long, dark tunnel.’ Olga said, ‘Their 600 anti-aircraft guns – the biggest only connection with the outside world 1944 concentration of firepower ever assembled was the radio. If I brought them a 15 January Soviet assault against remaining German in Russia, and one that ensured moment’s happiness, then my existence siege positions overwhelming superiority over the enemy. is justified.’ She became the voice of 27 January Govorov’s offensive secures the complete On 15 January 1944, the final assault besieged Leningrad. liberation of Leningrad, bringing the 872- began. Over half a million shells and ‘That winter,’ stated Olga, ‘death day siege to an end rockets were launched in 2½ hours. It was looked straight into our eyes. But those the war’s heaviest barrage. By the 22nd who sent us so much death miscalculated. 9 June Soviet counter-offensive against Finland the Germans were retreating. At 8pm on They underestimated our voracious commences 27 January, Govorov was able to declare hunger for life.’ 1 August Ryti resigns from office Leningrad liberated. When the siege was broken on 18 January Govorov, the ‘real hero’ of Leningrad, 1943, Olga shared in the city’s euphoria. 4 August Mannerheim becomes Finnish President was promoted to marshal of the Soviet ‘This happiness, the happiness of liberated Union. He was to die from chronic heart Leningrad, we will never forget.’ 1945 disease in 1955 and was buried in the wall Stalin did not want unbridled 27 January Govorov awarded the title Hero of the of the Kremlin. celebrations, however, as he was Soviet Union anxious about attention being drawn to Leningrad’s suffering. Olga was invited 4 March Mannerheim resigns as Finnish President to Moscow to broadcast siege reflections, 1948 but was told not to mention starvation. Heroism was fine, but not hunger. 27 October Von Küchler is sentenced to 20 years After the war Olga visited the Piskaryov imprisonment for mistreatment of Memorial Cemetery in Leningrad, where Soviet partisans 600,000 lay buried. Her words would be 1951 carved on the memorial, ‘Know you who gaze upon these stones, none is forgotten 27 January death of Mannerheim, aged 83, and nothing is forgotten.’ Olga’s husband in Switzerland was buried there. 1955 Left The people of Leningrad at work 19 March death of Govorov, aged 58 digging defence-works.

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Carl FINNS Mannerheim Mannerheim became Finnish Risto Ryti commander- Finland had in-chief in the been at war Winter War at with Russia for the venerable age of 72, when he proved three months himself to be the best winter general in from the end the business. of November 1939 (‘the Winter War’). Before the Continuation War, the Russia had invaded Finland and secured Germans offered to give Mannerheim That winter, death 11% of Finnish territory and a buffer zone command of 80,000 German troops, which to protect Leningrad. he declined for fear of being associated too looked straight Ryti became the fifth President of closely with the Nazi war effort. into our eyes. But Finland in December 1940. He had to By the end of August 1941, Leningrad decide which side to back when war was three-quarters surrounded. With those who sent between Germany and Russia broke out, their pre-Winter War boundaries and opted for Germany as most likely to recovered, the Finns were advancing us so much death prevail. The Finns prepared to re-annex along the north-eastern shore of Lake miscalculated. They the lands they had lost in the Winter War. Ladoga. On 31 August, Mannerheim gave When Germany attacked Russia, Finland the order to stop the attack when the underestimated remained officially neutral until Soviet air 1939 border had been reached. ‘‘ raids gave Ryti the excuse to launch ‘the Mannerheim cannily kept the Germans our voracious Continuation War’. Finnish troops regained at bay, and refused to allow his troops to hunger for life. the territory previously lost and more. participate in the siege. But for this act of The Germans applied pressure on forbearance, it is possible that Leningrad’s Olga Berggolts Ryti in September 1941 to continue defences might have crumbled. The Finnish his offensive, but without success. ‘The halt left the south-western shore of Lake Germans aimed at us crossing the old Ladoga in Russian hands. As the German border and at continuation of the noose tightened, the Russians used the lake TIMELINE offensive to Leningrad. I said that the – when it froze – as the only remaining capture of Leningrad wasn’t our goal supply-route, the famous ‘Road of Life’. The siege of Leningrad and that we shouldn’t take part.’ Hitler used the occasion of Mannerheim’s The Russians did not know what 75th birthday on 4 June 1942 to visit him 1956 exchanges had taken place between and try to persuade him to step up military 29 April death of von Leeb, aged 79, the Germans and the Finns, however, operations, but without success. following a heart attack so the mere threat of a Finnish attack Mannerheim was an astute politician, complicated the defence of the city. and knew that the vital question was Death of Ryti, aged 67 Ryti eventually faced a dilemma, as when to open peace negotiations with come the winter of 1942 he was having Russia. Too early and they risked German 1968 serious doubts about Germany’s ability reprisals, too late and Soviet occupation to win the war with Russia. of Finland would result. 25 May death of von Küchler, aged 86 When Russia’s major counter-offensive Mannerheim took over as President 1969 against Finland began on 9 June 1944, the on 4 August 1944. With Germany now Finns faced hostility from both Germany, weak enough not to pose a threat, peace 2 December death of Voroshilov, aged 88 angry at Finnish attempts to secure a negotiations began with Russia. The separate peace with Russia, and the Continuation War was concluded on 1974 latter, eager for revenge. Russia wanted harsh terms, but at least Finland 18 June death of Zhukov, aged 77, unconditional surrender from the Finns, retained its sovereignty. following a stroke who continued to fight, buoyed by military aid from the Germans, desperate to keep 1975 them in the war. About the authoR Ryti resigned as President on 1 August Stephen Roberts is a freelance writer Death of Olga Berggolts, aged 65 1944, citing health reasons, which gave his and historian. 1978 successor a free hand to end the informal alliance with Germany and pursue peace Further information Death of Karl Eliasberg, aged 70 negotiations with the Soviets. Two good recent studies of the Siege In spring 1945, the Soviets and the 1991 of Leningrad are Leningrad: state of Finnish Communists demanded that Ryti siege (2008) by Michael Jones and Elena Martilla’s siege sketches stand trial for his role during the war. He Anna Reid’s Leningrad: tragedy of a exhibited in Berlin was sentenced to ten years’ imprisonment, city under siege (2011). but was pardoned in 1949.

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