DOCSLIB.ORG

The Siege of Leningrad and the Ambivalence of the Sacred: Conversations with Survivors

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Siege of Leningrad and the Ambivalence of the Sacred: Conversations with Survivors THE SIEGE OF LENINGRAD AND THE AMBIVALENCE OF THE SACRED: CONVERSATIONS WITH SURVIVORS JAMES CLAPPERTON DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF RUSSIAN UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH 2006 J <. my m Abstract This thesis is based upon a series of interviews conducted with thirty survivors of the siege of Leningrad (1941-44). The interviews took place in Edinburgh, Newcastle and St. Petersburg between 2003 and 2006. The conversations were recorded onto cassette. They were then compared with over three hundred additional recently published siege testimonies. The premise of the thesis is that across the decades the siege of Leningrad has been mythologised both in historiography and in public and private memories. Rather than seeking to detach this phenomenon from facts and data it is analysed as a key facet of the story of the blockade. It is also stated that Giorgio Agamben's concept of the ambivalence of the sacred through embracing both the sacred and the profane provides a fresh analytical tool for the study of siege memories. This is because it brings together myths of heroism associated with the blockade and stories covering acts of cannibalism and war profiteering. These extremes of human behaviour are not regarded as mutually exclusive but as intrinsic parts of siege mythology. Consequently, profane stories merely serve to underline the overall sacrality of siege testimonies. Declaration I declare that apart from quotations and references which are listed in the footnotes this thesis is entirely my own work. GýS ýlý-- James Clapperton Acknowledgements The thesis is dedicated to the courage and fortitude of the thirty survivors of the siegeof Leningrad who were interviewed. Listening to their stories was a deeply moving and humbling experience. I would like to thank my wife Sharleen and my parents for their constant support and encouragement throughout the duration of my studies. In addition, I am grateful for the guidance and patience of my supervisor Professor Larissa Ryazanova-Clarke. The assistance of Dr. Dirk Uffelmann and Michael Falchikov was invaluable. I am particularly thankful for the friendship of Marianna Taymanova and Pavel Dolokhov who took an interest in my thesis at a crucial juncture. Dr. Jane Goldman and Gus McLean provided moral support, advice and encouragement throughout my studies. The guidance of John Gooding in the History Departmentat Edinburgh was also a fundamentalmotivator behind the progressof the thesis. Finally, the support and comradeship of all my friends in St. Petersburg was vital for the completion of my studies. I would like to thank Julia Andreeva, Alla Borisova, Zhanna Kormina, Asia Nesterovskaia, Aleksandr and Vadim Radvilovich, Irina Rodionova, OI'ga Sharaia, Sergei Tchirkov and the staff at the Peter the Great Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography. Figures 1-4: The author with veterans from the Elektrosila plant. The author with Aleksandr Cherapukhin, Viktor Lodkin, Natalia Velezhova and Julia Andreeva. The author with veterans from Kolpino. The iconic sign warning citizens that during shelling this side of the street is more dangerous. (All photos were taken in September 2006). i THE SIEGE OF LENINGRAD AND THE AMBIVALENCE OF THE SACRED: CONVERSATIONS WITH SURVIVORS 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Outline of the Thesis 10 2. Between Myth and History: Siege Historiography 14 2.1 Introduction: Soviet Mythocracy Versus Eye-Witness Accounts 14 2.2 Historical Background 30 2.3 Remembering the Blockade: Siege Historiography Across the Decades 48 3. Oral Testimony and the Veracity of Long-Term Memory 61 4. Interviews with Survivors of the Siege of Leningrad: 80 Bridging the Gap between Past and Present 4.1 The Respondents 85 4.2 Group Interviews 88 4.3 Interviewing Method and Questionnaire 90 4.4 Questionnaire 95 4.5 Mapping the Self: Three Opening Accounts 102 4.6 Conclusion 111 11 5. Between Myth and History: Siege Testimony as 113 `Historiographic Metafiction' 5.1 Siege Testimony as `Historiographic Metafiction' 115 5.2 Recent Siege Testimonies 120 5.3 Football, and the RussianCat as Patriot 129 5.4 The Questionof Memory 135 5.5 Guardian Angels 140 5.6 Death and Transfiguration 146 5.7 Conclusion 151 6. In Defence of Myth: The Siege of Leningrad as 154 Sacred Narrative 6.1 Giorgio Agamben and the Ambivalence of the Sacred 156 6.2 Myth as Contested Ground 159 6.3 Between Myth and History: Diversifying the Concepts of Truth 165 6.4 `This Really Happened': The Sacredand the Real 180 6.5 Postlude:The Siegeof Leningrad Myth or Legend? 188 7. `Za Rodinu! Za Stalina! ' Myths of Patriotism in Contemporary 199 Siege Testimony 7.1 Introduction 199 7.2 Non-Intentional Meaning 204 iii 7.3 1812 and `Imagining' the Nation 209 7.4 Contemporary Russian Nationalism versus the Wartime 213 `Imagined' Community 7.5 The Cultivation of SacredMemory 225 8. Patriotism Part II: Categorical Identities 232 8.1 Categorical Identities: Piter/Leningrad 237 8.2 Wartime duties 244 8.3 `A Muzy ne Molchali' 251 8.4 The Role of Women during the Siege 255 8.5 The Question of Soviet Identity and Socialism with a 263 Human Face 8.6 Summary 276 9. A Topography of the Uncanny: Wartime Leningrad 278 9.1 Siege Iconology 282 9.2 KusochekKhleba/125 Grams 284 9.3 Food and the Ultimate Taboo 288 9.4 Burzhuika 299 9.5 Zazhigalka 306 9.6 Snow 313 iv 9.7 Sanochki 318 9.8 Conclusion 322 10 The Poetics of Walking Through the City 325 10.1 The City as a Labyrinth of Signs 334 10.2 Malyi Radius 337 10.3 Conclusion 343 11. The Red Eclipse: The Myth of the Badaev Warehouses 346 11.1 Historical Background 348 11.2 Between Myth and History: Survivors' Accounts of the Badaev 354 Bombing 11.3 Conclusion 365 12. The Road of Life and the Ambivalence of the Sacred 368 12.1 The Old laroslav' Tract 372 12.2 Crossing the Threshold from War to Peace 373 12.3 Doroga Zhizni Narratives 379 12.4 Conclusion 395 13. Pod Znakom `Monetazitsii' 397 13.1 Commemorating Victory: The 60th Anniversary of VE Day 403 13.2 Monetizatsiia 405 14. Conclusion 412 15. Bibliography 415 THE SIEGE OF LENINGRAD AND THE AMBIVALENCE OF THE SACRED: CONVERSATIONS WITH SURVIVORS The following thesis is based upon interviews conducted with thirty survivors of the siege of Leningrad. This produced around sixteen hours of discussions which were recorded onto cassette. These interviews were then compared with over three hundred additional testimonies published recently in Russian books, journals and transcripts of radio broadcasts. Subsequently, a picture could be compiled of the themes and issues with which siege survivors are currently concerned. It became clear following the analysis of these testimonies and siege historiography that the blockade has been defined both in historical texts and in personal recollections as a sacred theme. In the words of Lisa A. Kirschenbaum the siege is `one of those events that are immediately invested with symbolic significance and treated, even as they are unfolding, as if they are being commemoratedin advance". One respondent,retired submarinerViktor Lodkin made this point very clearly, `How can I discuss the siege in two hours? This is our sacred theme'2 Lisa A. Kirschenbaum: `Commemorations of the siege of Leningrad: a catastrophe in memory and myth', in The Memory of Catastrophe (edited by Peter Gray and Kendrick Oliver, Manchester UP, 2004), 106-17 (p. 106). Z Interviews with Viktor Lodkin, Natalia Velezhova and Aleksandr Cherapukhin, Assotsiatsiia Invalidov, Veteranov i Blokadnikov, St. Petersburg, September 2006, tape reference, BL11/JC/ /09/06/AIVB, side A, 1-32, transcript, p. 3. The actual names of the respondents have been replaced with pseudonyms. Refer also to the Oral History Society website and the section entitled 'Practical Advice' < http: //www. ohs. org. uk/advice/> [accessed 12/12/06]. 2 It also becameevident during the interviews that the siegeremained a source of heateddebate and various rumours and myths. For example, the bombing of the Badaev warehousesin September1941 is still regardedby many survivors to be the soul cause of the famine even though historical documentation has proved otherwise3. In addition, a number of respondents were adamant that German spies had infiltrated the city and had fired off green rockets to reveal the location of hospitals and other key buildings. Daniil Granin and Ales' Adamovich in their book Blokadnaia Kniga state that there is no hard evidence to support this story yet the rumours continue4. A story also circulated in the Russian press recently that a train of cats was sent into Leningrad in the spring of 1942 in an effort to reduce the number of rats in the city. Again, historians argue that there is no documentation which confirms this story. Nevertheless, two statues of cats have recently been erected in St. Petersburg5. These myths could easily be dismissed as rumours but their continued prevalence today is remarkable considering that it is now over sixty years since the siege was lifted in January 1944. It is also clear that by dispensing 3 Refer to the chapter entitled, `The Red Eclipse: The Myth of the Badaev Warehouses', pp. 3-4. ° Ales' Adamovich and Daniil Granin, Blokadnaia Kniga (The Book of the Blockade, St. Petersburg: Nezavisimoe Izdatel'stvo "PIK", 2003), pp. 299-300. S Elena Rotkevitch, `Bronze Monument to a Cat', The St. Petersburg Times, 23 January 2004. <www. spb.ru> [accessed 1/02/2006]. See also, `In Defence of Myth: The Siege of Leningrad as Sacred Narrative', pp. 39-40. 3 with the mythology containedwithin siegenarratives a fundamentalaspect of blockade testimony would be lost. On the other hand, despite Kirschenbaum's observation stated above that the siege has been a source of resilient mythologies from the outset this aspect of blockade discourse has never been thoroughly examined as a phenomenon in itself.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • ALEXIS PERI Department of History Boston University 226 Bay State Rd
    ALEXIS PERI Department of History Boston University 226 Bay State Rd. Boston, MA 02215 ACADEMIC APPOINTMENTS 2019-current Associate Professor of History, Boston University Spring 2020 Visiting Associate Professor of History, University of California, Berkeley 2014-19 Assistant Professor of History, Boston University 2011-14 Assistant Professor of History, Middlebury College 2011 Lecturer, Saint Mary’s College of California ADDITIONAL EMPLOYMENT 2002-04 Administrative Assistant & Interview Auditor, Regional Oral History Office, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley EDUCATION 2011 Ph.D., History, University of California, Berkeley Awarded Distinction 2006 M.A., History, University of California, Berkeley 2002 B.A., History, Psychology, University of California, Berkeley Awarded Highest Achievement in General Scholarship PUBLICATIONS Books: The War Within: Diaries from the Siege of Leningrad. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2017. Polish-Language Edition: Leningrad: Dzienniki z obezonego miasta. Siwek Grzegorz, trans. Krakow: Spoleczny Instytut Wydawniczy Znak, 2019. Awards: Peri 1 of 14 Winner, Pushkin House Russian Book Prize, 2018 (“supports the best non-fiction writing in English on the Russian-speaking world”) http://www.pushkinhouse.org/2018-winner/ Winner, University of Southern California Book Prize in Literary and Cultural Studies, 2018 (“for an outstanding monograph published on Russia, Eastern Europe or Eurasia in the fields of literary and cultural studies”) https://www.aseees.org/programs/aseees-prizes/usc-book-prize-literary-and-
    [Show full text]
  • Albany Avenges Prior Scalping; Saaersman Top Siena in Overtime
    *m* ALIAUr STUDINT PRIU Tuesday, February 28, 1967* Albany Avenges Prior Scalping; Saaersman Top Siena In Overtime With the SRO orowd sounding their pleasure, the Albany State oagers eked out an overtime victory, 76-75, over arch-rival Siena College, last Saturday nightat the Washington Avenue Armory. Standing out from a solid team effort by .coach Richard DO YOU KNOW "Doc" Sauers charges was Junior Scott Price. Price, State's 6-3 center and^top WHERE TO GO? rebounder, scored 24 points and pulled down 16 rebounds while sitting out much of the second half. tlon, the lead again seesawed before Opening the five minute overtime The balanced attack fea­ the sure ball handling of Lonnie session, Siena scored to make It Alb Press tured strong performances Morrison and the boardwork of sub 73-11. Marty O'Dknnell then hit on Tim Jursak thrust the Danes into one of his patented long jump shots' ALBANY, NEW YORK by seniors Marty O'Donnell the lead until the last two minutes to tie the score with 2:16 remaining FRIDAY, MARCH 3, 1967 VOL. Llll, NO. 7 •and Mike Bloom with 10 of the contest. Siena then managed in the game. Scott Price then put the points each, Lonnie Mor­ to tie the score despite the loss of Danes ahead on a field goal, but SO Theatre Tryoits four starters: Mark Palinski, Tom Siena came back with the equalizer. Cooperation Of Ml rison with 9 points and Jim Sheridan, Tom Amello, and Harry After a made exchange of posses­ Constantino with 7 points.
    [Show full text]
  • Poetry Sampler
    POETRY SAMPLER 2020 www.academicstudiespress.com CONTENTS Voices of Jewish-Russian Literature: An Anthology Edited by Maxim D. Shrayer New York Elegies: Ukrainian Poems on the City Edited by Ostap Kin Words for War: New Poems from Ukraine Edited by Oksana Maksymchuk & Max Rosochinsky The White Chalk of Days: The Contemporary Ukrainian Literature Series Anthology Compiled and edited by Mark Andryczyk www.academicstudiespress.com Voices of Jewish-Russian Literature An Anthology Edited, with Introductory Essays by Maxim D. Shrayer Table of Contents Acknowledgments xiv Note on Transliteration, Spelling of Names, and Dates xvi Note on How to Use This Anthology xviii General Introduction: The Legacy of Jewish-Russian Literature Maxim D. Shrayer xxi Early Voices: 1800s–1850s 1 Editor’s Introduction 1 Leyba Nevakhovich (1776–1831) 3 From Lament of the Daughter of Judah (1803) 5 Leon Mandelstam (1819–1889) 11 “The People” (1840) 13 Ruvim Kulisher (1828–1896) 16 From An Answer to the Slav (1849; pub. 1911) 18 Osip Rabinovich (1817–1869) 24 From The Penal Recruit (1859) 26 Seething Times: 1860s–1880s 37 Editor’s Introduction 37 Lev Levanda (1835–1888) 39 From Seething Times (1860s; pub. 1871–73) 42 Grigory Bogrov (1825–1885) 57 “Childhood Sufferings” from Notes of a Jew (1863; pub. 1871–73) 59 vi Table of Contents Rashel Khin (1861–1928) 70 From The Misfit (1881) 72 Semyon Nadson (1862–1887) 77 From “The Woman” (1883) 79 “I grew up shunning you, O most degraded nation . .” (1885) 80 On the Eve: 1890s–1910s 81 Editor’s Introduction 81 Ben-Ami (1854–1932) 84 Preface to Collected Stories and Sketches (1898) 86 David Aizman (1869–1922) 90 “The Countrymen” (1902) 92 Semyon Yushkevich (1868–1927) 113 From The Jews (1903) 115 Vladimir Jabotinsky (1880–1940) 124 “In Memory of Herzl” (1904) 126 Sasha Cherny (1880–1932) 130 “The Jewish Question” (1909) 132 “Judeophobes” (1909) 133 S.
    [Show full text]
  • Peter the Great and His Changing Identity Emily Frances Pagrabs Wofford College
    Wofford College Digital Commons @ Wofford Student Scholarship 5-2016 Peter the Great and His Changing Identity Emily Frances Pagrabs Wofford College Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.wofford.edu/studentpubs Part of the European History Commons, and the Slavic Languages and Societies Commons Recommended Citation Pagrabs, Emily Frances, "Peter the Great and His Changing Identity" (2016). Student Scholarship. Paper 17. http://digitalcommons.wofford.edu/studentpubs/17 This Honors Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by Digital Commons @ Wofford. It has been accepted for inclusion in Student Scholarship by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ Wofford. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Peter the Great and His Changing Identity Senior History Honors Thesis May 11, 2016 Emiley Pagrabs Pagrabs 1 Introduction Well aware of the perception that foreigners held of him, Peter the Great would never apologize for his nationality or his country. A product of his upbringing, Peter did have some qualities that many foreigners criticized as barbaric and harsh. Said Peter: They say that I am cruel; that is what foreigners think of me, but who are they to judge? They do not know what the situation was at the beginning of my reign, and how many were opposed to my plans, and brought about the failure of projects which would have been of great benefit to my country obliging me to arm myself with great severity; but I have never been cruel…I have always asked for the cooperation of those of my subjects in whom I have perceived intelligence and patriotism, and who, agreeing with my views, were ready to support them.1 Essentially, Peter I was simply a Russian.
    [Show full text]
  • Russian Culture: Past and Present Summer 2017
    Russian Culture: Past and Present Summer 2017 Moscow & St. Petersburg, Russia Study Abroad Program Guide Office of Study Abroad Programs University at Buffalo 201 Talbert Hall Buffalo, New York 14260 Tel: 716 645-3912 Fax: 716 645 6197 [email protected] www.buffalo.edu/studyabroad DESTINATION: RUSSIA MOSCOW Moscow (Russian: Москва́ , tr. Moskva) is the capital and the largest city of Russia, with 12.2 million residents within the city limits and 16.8 million within the urban area. Moscow has the status of a federal city in Russia. Moscow is a major political, economic, cultural, and scientific center of Russia and Eastern Europe, as well as the largest city entirely on the European continent. By broader definitions Moscow is among the world's largest cities. Moscow has been ranked as the ninth most expensive city in the world by Mercer and has one of the world's largest urban economies. Moscow is the northernmost and coldest megacity and metropolis on Earth. It is home to the Ostankino Tower, the tallest free standing structure in Europe; the Federation Tower, the tallest skyscraper in Europe; and the Moscow International Business Center. Moscow is situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia, making it the world's most populated inland city. The city is well known for its architecture, particularly its historic buildings such as Saint Basil's Cathedral with its brightly colored domes. With over 40 percent of its territory covered by greenery, it is one of the greenest capitals and major cities in Europe and the world, having the largest forest in an urban area within its borders - more than any other major city - even before its expansion in 2012.
    [Show full text]
  • Siege of Leningrad Revisited: Narrative, Image, Self
    SIEGE OF LENINGRAD REVISITED: NARRATIVE, IMAGE, SELF Introduction Polina Barskova The siege of Leningrad, the longest-lasting military blockade in modern history, has never suffered from a dearth of written documentation. As early as September 1941, this tragedy drew the attention of journalists, historians, and poets, both in the USSR and the west. During the war, the most immediate purpose of this coverage was that of propaganda, to en­ courage Leningraders to persevere despite the loss of at least one million lives. After the siege ended in 1944, its narration acquired a somewhat peculiar character: often sensational and only partially informed in the west and euphemistically "neutralized" in the Soviet Union.1 Study of this topic was severely hampered as a consequence of "The Leningrad Affair" (1949-53); after a wave of severe purges, museums and archives dedi­ cated to collecting siege materials were shut down, thus disrupting any attempt at responsible scholarship. For the next four decades, until the time of perestroika, the siege engendered a mighty flow of descriptions. (A full bibliography of Soviet siege texts could easily number in the thousands.) Unfortunately, these accounts typically rehearsed variations on the themes of heroism and sto­ icism, with Blokadnaia kniga, in which the writers Daniil Granin and Ales' Adamovich used victims' and survivors' diary accounts to present a more objective interpretation of conditions during the siege, constituting the major and valuable exception.2 In this book, attention is focused not on the allegorical virtues of the "front-city" but rather on the price Lenin­ graders were forced to pay for their city's endurance.
    [Show full text]
  • (WALL NEWSPAPER PROJECT – Michelle) Examples of Investigative Journalism + Film
    ANNEX II (WALL NEWSPAPER PROJECT – michelle) Examples of investigative journalism + film Best American Journalism of the 20th Century http://www.infoplease.com/ipea/A0777379.html The following works were chosen as the 20th century's best American journalism by a panel of experts assembled by the New York University school of journalism. 1. John Hersey: “Hiroshima,” The New Yorker, 1946 2. Rachel Carson: Silent Spring, book, 1962 3. Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein: Investigation of the Watergate break-in, The Washington Post, 1972 4. Edward R. Murrow: Battle of Britain, CBS radio, 1940 5. Ida Tarbell: “The History of the Standard Oil Company,” McClure's, 1902–1904 6. Lincoln Steffens: “The Shame of the Cities,” McClure's, 1902–1904 7. John Reed: Ten Days That Shook the World, book, 1919 8. H. L. Mencken: Scopes “Monkey” trial, The Sun of Baltimore, 1925 9. Ernie Pyle: Reports from Europe and the Pacific during WWII, Scripps-Howard newspapers, 1940–45 10. Edward R. Murrow and Fred Friendly: Investigation of Sen. Joseph McCarthy, CBS, 1954 11. Edward R. Murrow, David Lowe, and Fred Friendly: documentary “Harvest of Shame,” CBS television, 1960 12. Seymour Hersh: Investigation of massacre by US soldiers at My Lai (Vietnam), Dispatch News Service, 1969 13. The New York Times: Publication of the Pentagon Papers, 1971 14. James Agee and Walker Evans: Let Us Now Praise Famous Men, book, 1941 15. W. E. B. Du Bois: The Souls of Black Folk, collected articles, 1903 16. I. F. Stone: I. F. Stone's Weekly, 1953–67 17. Henry Hampton: “Eyes on the Prize,” documentary, 1987 18.
    [Show full text]
  • The Axis Advances
    wh07_te_ch17_s02_MOD_s.fm Page 568 Monday, March 12, 2007 2:32WH07MOD_se_CH17_s02_s.fm PM Page 568 Monday, January 29, 2007 6:01 PM Step-by-Step German fighter plane SECTION Instruction 2 WITNESS HISTORY AUDIO Objectives Janina’s War Story As you teach this section, keep students “ It was 10:30 in the morning and I was helping my focused on the following objectives to help mother and a servant girl with bags and baskets as them answer the Section Focus Question they set out for the market. Suddenly the high- and master core content. pitch scream of diving planes caused everyone to 2 freeze. Countless explosions shook our house ■ Describe how the Axis powers came to followed by the rat-tat-tat of strafing machine control much of Europe, but failed to guns. We could only stare at each other in horror. conquer Britain. Later reports would confirm that several German Janina Sulkowska in ■ Summarize Germany’s invasion of the the early 1930s Stukas had screamed out of a blue sky and . Soviet Union. dropped several bombs along the main street— and then returned to strafe the market. The carnage ■ Understand the horror of the genocide was terrible. the Nazis committed. —Janina Sulkowska,” Krzemieniec, Poland, ■ Describe the role of the United States September 12, 1939 before and after joining World War II. Focus Question Which regions were attacked and occupied by the Axis powers, and what was life like under their occupation? Prepare to Read The Axis Advances Build Background Knowledge L3 Objectives Diplomacy and compromise had not satisfied the Axis powers’ Remind students that the German attack • Describe how the Axis powers came to control hunger for empire.
    [Show full text]
  • St Petersburg 8
    Plan Your Trip 12 ©Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd St Petersburg “All you’ve got to do is decide to go and the hardest part is over. So go!” TONY WHEELER, COFOUNDER – LONELY PLANET Regis St Louis, Simon Richmond Contents PlanPlan Your Your Trip Trip page 1 4 Welcome to Top Itineraries ���������������20 Travelling to Moscow ����36 St Petersburg ������������������ 4 If You Like� ����������������������22 Museums St Petersburg’s Month by Month ������������24 & Galleries �������������������37 Top 10 ������������������������������� 6 With Kids ������������������������26 Eating ���������������������������39 What’s New �������������������� 13 Money-Saving Tips �������28 Drinking Need to Know �����������������14 & Nightlife ������������������ 43 Visas �������������������������������29 First Time Entertainment ������������ 46 St Petersburg �����������������16 Tours & Activities �����������31 Shopping ��������������������� 48 Getting Around �������������� 18 Visiting on a Cruise �������34 Explore St Petersburg 50 Historic Heart ����������������54 Vasilyevsky Island ������� 143 Day Trips from Sennaya & Kolomna ���104 Petrograd & St Petersburg ������������ 173 Vyborg Sides ��������������� 154 Smolny & Sleeping ���������������������186 Vosstaniya ��������������������121 Understand St Petersburg 197 St Petersburg History ������������������������� 200 Arts �������������������������������226 Today ���������������������������� 198 Architecture ����������������� 219 Literature ���������������������236 Survival Guide 241 Transport ���������������������242
    [Show full text]
  • Russian Museums Visit More Than 80 Million Visitors, 1/3 of Who Are Visitors Under 18
    Moscow 4 There are more than 3000 museums (and about 72 000 museum workers) in Russian Moscow region 92 Federation, not including school and company museums. Every year Russian museums visit more than 80 million visitors, 1/3 of who are visitors under 18 There are about 650 individual and institutional members in ICOM Russia. During two last St. Petersburg 117 years ICOM Russia membership was rapidly increasing more than 20% (or about 100 new members) a year Northwestern region 160 You will find the information aboutICOM Russia members in this book. All members (individual and institutional) are divided in two big groups – Museums which are institutional members of ICOM or are represented by individual members and Organizations. All the museums in this book are distributed by regional principle. Organizations are structured in profile groups Central region 192 Volga river region 224 Many thanks to all the museums who offered their help and assistance in the making of this collection South of Russia 258 Special thanks to Urals 270 Museum creation and consulting Culture heritage security in Russia with 3M(tm)Novec(tm)1230 Siberia and Far East 284 © ICOM Russia, 2012 Organizations 322 © K. Novokhatko, A. Gnedovsky, N. Kazantseva, O. Guzewska – compiling, translation, editing, 2012 [email protected] www.icom.org.ru © Leo Tolstoy museum-estate “Yasnaya Polyana”, design, 2012 Moscow MOSCOW A. N. SCRiAbiN MEMORiAl Capital of Russia. Major political, economic, cultural, scientific, religious, financial, educational, and transportation center of Russia and the continent MUSEUM Highlights: First reference to Moscow dates from 1147 when Moscow was already a pretty big town.
    [Show full text]
  • The Siege of Leningrad (1941-1944)
    War fronts The siege of Leningrad (1941-1944) François-Xavier NÉRARD ABSTRACT Lasting 900 days between September 1941 and January 1944, the siege of Leningrad claimed the lives of 800,000 of the city’s inhabitants, mainly through cold and hunger. The population of the city was subjected, moreover, to enemy fire and to ruthlessly strict control by the Soviet authorities. The memory of the suffering of Leningrad’s population was first celebrated, then stifled, and is only gradually re-emerging. Tanya Savicheva's Diary The siege of Leningrad by German and Finnish forces (as well as the soldiers of the Division Azul, Spanish volunteers) is a key episode in the Second World War on Soviet territory and saw the reappearance of a form of warfare that was thought to have died out in the nineteenth century. Although less present in narratives of the war in the West, the siege was a major traumatic event for the USSR and Russia. As a symbol of resistance and suffering, it differs from Stalingrad, a heroic victory that could be celebrated more easily. Of Leningrad’s 2.5 million inhabitants on the eve of the conflict, only 600,000 were still alive in the city when it was liberated by the Red Army on 27 January 1944, around one million having been evacuated before and during the siege. It is estimated today that 800,000 people died in the siege, mostly from cold and hunger. Leningrad, along with Moscow and Kiev, was one of the major objectives of the German offensive launched on 21 June 1941, but the city was not taken during the attack.
    [Show full text]
  • Chasing Success
    AIR UNIVERSITY AIR FORCE RESEARCH INSTITUTE Chasing Success Air Force Efforts to Reduce Civilian Harm Sarah B. Sewall Air University Press Air Force Research Institute Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama Project Editor Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Dr. Ernest Allan Rockwell Sewall, Sarah B. Copy Editor Carolyn Burns Chasing success : Air Force efforts to reduce civilian harm / Sarah B. Sewall. Cover Art, Book Design and Illustrations pages cm L. Susan Fair ISBN 978-1-58566-256-2 Composition and Prepress Production 1. Air power—United States—Government policy. Nedra O. Looney 2. United States. Air Force—Rules and practice. 3. Civilian war casualties—Prevention. 4. Civilian Print Preparation and Distribution Diane Clark war casualties—Government policy—United States. 5. Combatants and noncombatants (International law)—History. 6. War victims—Moral and ethical aspects. 7. Harm reduction—Government policy— United States. 8. United States—Military policy— Moral and ethical aspects. I. Title. II. Title: Air Force efforts to reduce civilian harm. UG633.S38 2015 358.4’03—dc23 2015026952 AIR FORCE RESEARCH INSTITUTE AIR UNIVERSITY PRESS Director and Publisher Allen G. Peck Published by Air University Press in March 2016 Editor in Chief Oreste M. Johnson Managing Editor Demorah Hayes Design and Production Manager Cheryl King Air University Press 155 N. Twining St., Bldg. 693 Maxwell AFB, AL 36112-6026 [email protected] http://aupress.au.af.mil/ http://afri.au.af.mil/ Disclaimer Opinions, conclusions, and recommendations expressed or implied within are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official policy or position of the organizations with which they are associated or the views of the Air Force Research Institute, Air University, United States Air Force, Department of Defense, or any AFRI other US government agency.
    [Show full text]