DOCSLIB.ORG

The Northern Black Sea Region in Classical Antiquity 4

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Northern Black Sea Region in Classical Antiquity 4 The Northern Black Sea Region by Kerstin Susanne Jobst In historical studies, the Black Sea region is viewed as a separate historical region which has been shaped in particular by vast migration and acculturation processes. Another prominent feature of the region's history is the great diversity of religions and cultures which existed there up to the 20th century. The region is understood as a complex interwoven entity. This article focuses on the northern Black Sea region, which in the present day is primarily inhabited by Slavic people. Most of this region currently belongs to Ukraine, which has been an independent state since 1991. It consists primarily of the former imperial Russian administrative province of Novorossiia (not including Bessarabia, which for a time was administered as part of Novorossiia) and the Crimean Peninsula, including the adjoining areas to the north. The article also discusses how the region, which has been inhabited by Scythians, Sarmatians, Greeks, Romans, Goths, Huns, Khazars, Italians, Tatars, East Slavs and others, fitted into broader geographical and political contexts. TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Introduction 2. Space of Myths and Legends 3. The Northern Black Sea Region in Classical Antiquity 4. From the Khazar Empire to the Crimean Khanate and the Ottomans 5. Russian Rule: The Region as Novorossiia 6. World War, Revolutions and Soviet Rule 7. From the Second World War until the End of the Soviet Union 8. Summary and Future Perspective 9. Appendix 1. Sources 2. Literature 3. Notes Indices Citation Introduction With good reason, the Black Sea has come to be viewed in historical studies as a distinct historical region (➔ Media Link #ab) and thus as a space of concentrated communication, comparable with the Baltic region or the Mediterranean region.1 A perspective which focuses on nation-states appears inappropriate, as the region only came to be dominated by nation-states in the 20th century.2 The shoreline of the Black Sea, which connects southeastern Europe, eastern Europe and parts of the Middle East, has been shared by the following states since 1991: Ukraine, the Russian Federation, Georgia, Turkey, Bulgaria and Rumania. For a longue durée perspective, the nation-state frame of reference, which is historically comparatively recent, is of little use.3 Much more prominent and enduring than nation-states has been the influence of nomadic and sedentary cultures, and the waxing and waning of competing empires (➔ Media Link #ac). This history has included extensive migration processes – some of which proceeded peacefully, some of which were violent – which increased the ethnicity and religious diversity of the region. Viewed from this perspective, the chosen focus of this article on the northern Black Sea region, i.e., primarily on territories which belong to Ukraine at present, is arbitrary. On the other hand, this focus can be justified as it makes it possible to identify contexts and structures which are characteristic of the historical region as a whole. These include the importance of the region as a space of classical and modern myths, as an economic region (➔ Media Link #ad) and as a zone of contact between nomadic and sedentary cultures (➔ Media Link #ae), and between Islam and Christianity. The territory discussed in this article encompasses roughly the former imperial Russian administrative provinces of Novorossiia ("New Russia") and Tavriia (Tavricheskaia guberniia). This region, which is today referred to as southern Ukraine, roughly lies between the Danube Delta and the Kerch Strait (Kerch in Russian and Ukrainian), including the hinterland.4 ▲1 Space of Myths and Legends The region to the north of the Black Sea has been settled by humans since primitive times. It was part of the world of classical (Greek and Roman) antiquity, which makes it a complex space of myths and legends. The ancient tales connected with the region in some cases have a grain of historical reality in them, but this has been continuously distorted and adapted to fit the narratives which the various groups constructed. In the form of the biblical flood, which is frequently described as having occurred in the region, the Black Sea is also connected with a topos which is present across cultures.5 The "evidence" is hotly contested, however, and has not put an end to the search for the "real" site.6 Ultimately, the question of whether the biblical flood occurred in the Black Sea is of secondary importance for a cultural studies perspective on the space.7 Thanks to the narrative of Iphigenia, the northern coast of the Black Sea also has its place in the mythical world of classical antiquity.8 Having been interpreted by Euripides (480–406 BC) (➔ Media Link #ag), Christoph Willibald Gluck (1714–1787) (➔ Media Link #ah) and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832) (➔ Media Link #ai), and more latterly by the Cypriot film director Michalēs Kakogiannēs (1922–2011) (➔ Media Link #aj),9 the narrative has become a kind of timeless theme of the arts.10 The island of Tauris in the legend is often identified as the Crimean Peninsula.11 There Iphigenia, Agamemnon's daughter, as a priestess had to offer strangers as sacrifices to the goddess Artemis (Diana), until she was rescued by her brother Orestes. The idea that the northern Black Sea region is a shore from classical antiquity has also played an important role in Russian discourses on the region. From the famous journey of Empress Catherine II (1729–1796) (➔ Media Link #al) to the Crimea in 1787 – a few short years after the annexation of the region – which was not coincidentally known as the "Tauride Journey", reference was repeatedly made to the region's classical heritage and the world of the classical myths.12 From the Enlightenment onward, which also left its mark on the Russian elites, classical antiquity was considered a particularly significant era. With the annexation of the Crimean Khanate on the northern shore of the Black Sea, the Russian Empire had acquired its own piece of the territory of classical antiquity. ▲2 The space is also connected with religious myths and legends, which also played an important role in Russian imperial discourses. In addition to the supposed baptism of Grand Prince Vladimir I Sviatoslavich (956–1015) (➔ Media Link #am) in Chersonesus in the 10th century, which will be discusses again below, these myths also included the supposed Scythian mission of the apostle Andrew (known in Russian as Andrei Pervozvannyi, meaning "Andrew, the first called"). Andrew’s missionary activity is said to have taken him northward from the Black Sea along the Dnieper. In the form of the apocryphal text The Legend of the Journey of Saint Andrew to Russia, the story of this mission was included in the Nestor Chronicle (Povest vremennykh let). This text is viewed as the most important surviving sources for studying the Kievan Rus. The text itself only contains the following prosaic reference: "[a]ls Andreas in Sinopé lehrte und als er nach Korsun' [Chersonesus] gekommen war, sah er, daß von Korsun' aus die Mündung des Dnepr nahe ist".13 However, as the conquest of the region by the Russian Empire got underway in the last quarter of the 18th century, such narratives which seemed to prove an ancient connection between Christianity and the East Slavic territory played a significant role in efforts to justify the annexation. The expansion of Russia into the region at the expense of the Ottoman Empire and the Crimean Khanate could in this way be portrayed as returning the region to its prior state. Ukrainian nationalist narratives have also included this collection of myths, but have integrated them into a linear Ukrainian (not Russian!) history.14 ▲3 The northern Black Sea region is, however, not only a mythical and legendary place in the Russian and Ukrainian contexts, as demonstrated by the Sarmatian myth cultivated by the Polish nobility in the 16th century. The Polish aristocracy began to trace its heritage as well as its system of values and norms back to the Iranian nomadic people the Sarmatians, who played a very important role on the northern shore of the Black Sea for a period of time.15 German-speaking travellers and ideologues, on the other hand, attached significance to the Goths who had advanced to the Black Sea in the 3rd century AD, whom they viewed as their ancestors. During the German occupation of the Crimea during the Second World War, the Germanization plans of Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) (➔ Media Link #an) were also influenced by this supposed line of descent. The cruel attempts at so-called Umvolkung (re-peopling) in the peninsula were thus given the name "Gotenland".16 ▲4 The importance of the region for the imaginations and the collective memories of various nationalities and social groups can only be hinted at here. It is clear, however, that the Black Sea, and in particular its northern shore, have long been emotionally charged spaces of memory which in this regard no one nationality has exclusively claim to. ▲5 The Northern Black Sea Region in Classical Antiquity The great ethnic and cultural diversity of this region has existed since earliest times. In classical antiquity, Asiatic and Greek influences resulted in the formation of "mixed civilizations" here.17 As the region was inhabited by groups which engaged in different forms of economic activity and lived in complex and mutually dependent relationships, none of the groups was able to gain lasting dominance over the others. Consequently, no centre of power emerged to dominate the region. The culturally different groups alternated between phases of coexistence and confrontation. ▲6 Due to its advantageous location and climatic conditions, the Black Sea region was already settled before classical antiquity and it was the destination of the so-called "Ionian Colonization" (of the 11th/10th century BC) and the "Great Colonization" of the Greeks (from the 8th to the 6th century BC).
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Crimean Khanate, Ottomans and the Rise of the Russian Empire*
    STRUGGLE FOR EAST-EUROPEAN EMPIRE: 1400-1700 The Crimean Khanate, Ottomans and the Rise of the Russian Empire* HALİL İNALCIK The empire of the Golden Horde, built by Batu, son of Djodji and the grand son of Genghis Khan, around 1240, was an empire which united the whole East-Europe under its domination. The Golden Horde empire comprised ali of the remnants of the earlier nomadic peoples of Turkic language in the steppe area which were then known under the common name of Tatar within this new political framework. The Golden Horde ruled directly över the Eurasian steppe from Khwarezm to the Danube and över the Russian principalities in the forest zone indirectly as tribute-paying states. Already in the second half of the 13th century the western part of the steppe from the Don river to the Danube tended to become a separate political entity under the powerful emir Noghay. In the second half of the 14th century rival branches of the Djodjid dynasty, each supported by a group of the dissident clans, started a long struggle for the Ulugh-Yurd, the core of the empire in the lower itil (Volga) river, and for the title of Ulugh Khan which meant the supreme ruler of the empire. Toktamish Khan restored, for a short period, the unity of the empire. When defeated by Tamerlane, his sons and dependent clans resumed the struggle for the Ulugh-Khan-ship in the westem steppe area. During ali this period, the Crimean peninsula, separated from the steppe by a narrow isthmus, became a refuge area for the defeated in the steppe.
    [Show full text]
  • Federal Research Division Country Profile: Tajikistan, January 2007
    Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Tajikistan, January 2007 COUNTRY PROFILE: TAJIKISTAN January 2007 COUNTRY Formal Name: Republic of Tajikistan (Jumhurii Tojikiston). Short Form: Tajikistan. Term for Citizen(s): Tajikistani(s). Capital: Dushanbe. Other Major Cities: Istravshan, Khujand, Kulob, and Qurghonteppa. Independence: The official date of independence is September 9, 1991, the date on which Tajikistan withdrew from the Soviet Union. Public Holidays: New Year’s Day (January 1), International Women’s Day (March 8), Navruz (Persian New Year, March 20, 21, or 22), International Labor Day (May 1), Victory Day (May 9), Independence Day (September 9), Constitution Day (November 6), and National Reconciliation Day (November 9). Flag: The flag features three horizontal stripes: a wide middle white stripe with narrower red (top) and green stripes. Centered in the white stripe is a golden crown topped by seven gold, five-pointed stars. The red is taken from the flag of the Soviet Union; the green represents agriculture and the white, cotton. The crown and stars represent the Click to Enlarge Image country’s sovereignty and the friendship of nationalities. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Early History: Iranian peoples such as the Soghdians and the Bactrians are the ethnic forbears of the modern Tajiks. They have inhabited parts of Central Asia for at least 2,500 years, assimilating with Turkic and Mongol groups. Between the sixth and fourth centuries B.C., present-day Tajikistan was part of the Persian Achaemenian Empire, which was conquered by Alexander the Great in the fourth century B.C. After that conquest, Tajikistan was part of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, a successor state to Alexander’s empire.
    [Show full text]
  • Black Sea-Caspian Steppe: Natural Conditions 20 1.1 the Great Steppe
    The Pechenegs: Nomads in the Political and Cultural Landscape of Medieval Europe East Central and Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 450–1450 General Editors Florin Curta and Dušan Zupka volume 74 The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/ecee The Pechenegs: Nomads in the Political and Cultural Landscape of Medieval Europe By Aleksander Paroń Translated by Thomas Anessi LEIDEN | BOSTON This is an open access title distributed under the terms of the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license, which permits any non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided no alterations are made and the original author(s) and source are credited. Further information and the complete license text can be found at https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ The terms of the CC license apply only to the original material. The use of material from other sources (indicated by a reference) such as diagrams, illustrations, photos and text samples may require further permission from the respective copyright holder. Publication of the presented monograph has been subsidized by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education within the National Programme for the Development of Humanities, Modul Universalia 2.1. Research grant no. 0046/NPRH/H21/84/2017. National Programme for the Development of Humanities Cover illustration: Pechenegs slaughter prince Sviatoslav Igorevich and his “Scythians”. The Madrid manuscript of the Synopsis of Histories by John Skylitzes. Miniature 445, 175r, top. From Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository. Proofreading by Philip E. Steele The Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available online at http://catalog.loc.gov LC record available at http://catalog.loc.gov/2021015848 Typeface for the Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic scripts: “Brill”.
    [Show full text]
  • Russian Culture: Past and Present Summer 2017
    Russian Culture: Past and Present Summer 2017 Moscow & St. Petersburg, Russia Study Abroad Program Guide Office of Study Abroad Programs University at Buffalo 201 Talbert Hall Buffalo, New York 14260 Tel: 716 645-3912 Fax: 716 645 6197 [email protected] www.buffalo.edu/studyabroad DESTINATION: RUSSIA MOSCOW Moscow (Russian: Москва́ , tr. Moskva) is the capital and the largest city of Russia, with 12.2 million residents within the city limits and 16.8 million within the urban area. Moscow has the status of a federal city in Russia. Moscow is a major political, economic, cultural, and scientific center of Russia and Eastern Europe, as well as the largest city entirely on the European continent. By broader definitions Moscow is among the world's largest cities. Moscow has been ranked as the ninth most expensive city in the world by Mercer and has one of the world's largest urban economies. Moscow is the northernmost and coldest megacity and metropolis on Earth. It is home to the Ostankino Tower, the tallest free standing structure in Europe; the Federation Tower, the tallest skyscraper in Europe; and the Moscow International Business Center. Moscow is situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia, making it the world's most populated inland city. The city is well known for its architecture, particularly its historic buildings such as Saint Basil's Cathedral with its brightly colored domes. With over 40 percent of its territory covered by greenery, it is one of the greenest capitals and major cities in Europe and the world, having the largest forest in an urban area within its borders - more than any other major city - even before its expansion in 2012.
    [Show full text]
  • The Availability Digest
    the Availability Digest www.availabilitydigest.com @availabilitydig Crimea Loses Power for Two Weeks December 2015 Most of the citizens of Crimea were without power from November 21 through December 8, 2015. No, it wasn’t a cyberattack. It was sabotage in response to Russia’s 2014 annexation of Crimea, which had been part of Ukraine. Ukrainian activists blew up the four Ukrainian power feeds that provide most of the electrical energy for Crimea, and the saboteurs then continued to prevent repair teams from restoring power. Crimea Isthmus of Perekop Strait of Kerch Crimea is a major land mass on the northern coast of the Black Sea. It lies south of Ukraine and west of Russia and is very close to both countries. Crimea is connected on its north side to Ukraine by the Isthmus of Perekop, a narrow strip of land. Crimea is only thirteen kilometers from its east side to Russia across the Strait of Kerch. Russian Annexation of Crimea After World War II, Ukraine became part of the Soviet Union. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, Ukraine became an independent nation in 1991. Crimea, which is barely connected to Ukraine by land, became part of Ukraine following a public referendum. The Ukrainian Peninsula In March 2014, Vladimir Putin, Russia’s president, reclaimed Crimea as part of Russia. He described the annexation as the correction of a historic injustice and brushed aside international condemnation. In a show of democracy, Russia allowed Crimea to vote in a referendum on whether they wanted to be part of Russia or remain with the Ukraine.
    [Show full text]
  • Pax Britannica and the Anti-Systemic Movement of Viceroy Mehmet Ali Pasha of Egypt
    PAX BRITANNICA AND THE ANTI-SYSTEMIC MOVEMENT OF VICEROY MEHMET ALI PASHA OF EGYPT A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES OF MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY BY OKYANUS AKIN IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN THE DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS DECEMBER 2019 Approval of the Graduate School of Social Sciences Prof. Dr. Yaşar Kondakçı Director I certify that this thesis satisfies all the requirements as a thesis for the degree of Master of Science. Prof. Dr. Oktay Tanrısever Head of Department This is to certify that we have read this thesis and that in our opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Science. Assoc. Prof. Dr. M. Fatih Tayfur Supervisor Examining Committee Members Prof. Dr. Hüseyin Bağcı (METU, IR) Assoc. Prof. Dr. M. Fatih Tayfur (METU, IR) Prof. Dr. Çınar Özen (Ankara Uni., IR) I hereby declare that all information in this document has been obtained and presented in accordance with academic rules and ethical conduct. I also declare that, as required by these rules and conduct, I have fully cited and referenced all material and results that are not original to this work. Name, Last Name: Okyanus Akın Signature: iii ABSTRACT PAX BRITANNICA AND THE ANTI-SYSTEMIC MOVEMENT OF VICEROY MEHMET ALI PASHA OF EGYPT Akın, Okyanus M.S., Department of International Relations Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. M. Fatih Tayfur December 2019, 234 pages The Pax Britannica, as a system, defined the political-economy of the nineteenth century.
    [Show full text]
  • 1768-1830S a Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate
    A PLAGUE ON BOTH HOUSES?: POPULATION MOVEMENTS AND THE SPREAD OF DISEASE ACROSS THE OTTOMAN-RUSSIAN BLACK SEA FRONTIER, 1768-1830S A Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences of Georgetown University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History By Andrew Robarts, M.S.F.S. Washington, DC December 17, 2010 Copyright 2010 by Andrew Robarts All Rights Reserved ii A PLAGUE ON BOTH HOUSES?: POPULATION MOVEMENTS AND THE SPREAD OF DISEASE ACROSS THE OTTOMAN-RUSSIAN BLACK SEA FRONTIER, 1768-1830S Andrew Robarts, M.S.F.S. Dissertation Advisor: Catherine Evtuhov, Ph. D. ABSTRACT Based upon a reading of Ottoman, Russian, and Bulgarian archival documents, this dissertation examines the response by the Ottoman and Russian states to the accelerated pace of migration and spread of disease in the Black Sea region from the outbreak of the Russo-Ottoman War of 1768-1774 to the signing of the Treaty of Hünkar Iskelesi in 1833. Building upon introductory chapters on the Russian-Ottoman Black Sea frontier and a case study of Bulgarian population movements between the Russian and Ottoman Empires, this dissertation analyzes Russian and Ottoman migration and settlement policies, the spread of epidemic diseases (plague and cholera) in the Black Sea region, the construction of quarantines and the implementation of travel document regimes. The role and position of the Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia as the “middle ground” between the Ottoman and Russian Empires
    [Show full text]
  • The Crimean Tatars and Their Russian-Captive Slaves an Aspect of Muscovite-Crimean Relations in the 16Th and 17Th Centuries
    The Crimean Tatars and their Russian-Captive Slaves An Aspect of Muscovite-Crimean Relations in the 16th and 17th Centuries Eizo MATSUKI The Law Code of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich (Ulozhenie), being formed of 25 chapters and divided into 976 articles, is the last and the most systematic codification of Muscovite Law in early modern Russia. It was compiled in 1649, that is more than one and a half centuries after Russia’s political “Independence” from Mongol-Tatar Rule. Chapter VIII of this Law Code, comprised of 7 articles and titled “The Redemption of Military Captives”, however, reveals that Muscovite Russia at the mid-17th century was yet suffering from frequent Tatar raids into its populated territory. The raids were to capture Russian people and sell them as slaves. Because of this situation, the Muscovite government was forced to create a special annual tax (poronianichnyi zbor) to prepare a financial fund needed for ransoming Russian captive-slaves from the Tatars.1 Chapter VIII, article 1 imposes an annual levy on the common people of all Russia: 8 dengi per household for town people as well as church peasants; 4 dengi for other peasants; and 2 dengi for lower service men. On the other hand, articles 2-7 of this chapter established norms for ransom-payment to the Tatars according to the rank of the Russian captives: for gentry (dvoriane) and lesser gentry (deti boiarskie) twenty rubles per 100 chetvert’ of their service land-estate (pomest’e); for lesser ranks such as Musketeers (strel’tsy),2 Cossacks, townspeople, and peasants a fixed payment from ten to forty rubles each.
    [Show full text]
  • Mountainous Crimea: a Frontier Zone of Ancient Civilization
    Mountainous Crimea: A Frontier Zone of Ancient Civilization Natalia G. Novičenkova Mountainous Crimea, Taurica, was a region separated from the ancient cen- ters of the peninsula and the communication lines connecting Chersonesos and the Bosporan Kingdom. This region is not particularly well studied and therefore it has been impossible to trace its development in Antiquity, and to clarify its role in the history of ancient Crimea as a whole. The geographical conditions of the Mountainous Crimea determined that the ancient population of this area dwelled almost entirely on the main moun- tain range. From a modern point of view it seems unlikely that a mountain ridge could unite a population into a single ethnic group instead of splitting it into several distinct segments. Yet our evidence from Antiquity suggests the opposite. Thus, for example, Plinius the Elder wrote that the Scytho-Taurians inhabited the range (Plin. NH 4.85). This evidence has evoked bewilderment among scholars1 because this part of Crimea has the harshest weather condi- tions and is covered with snow from November to May almost every year. The main mountain range of Crimea is formed by a chain of plateaus situ- ated at about 1,000-1,500 m above sea level. Here an ancient road system was laid out uniting all the mountain passes into a single system of communica- tion.2 The plateaus with their alpine meadows served as excellent summer pastures. They were effectively protected against any threats from outside. The Taurians, who inhabited the mountain range, were not obliged to strug- gle for the steppe’s nomad territories or to drive their cattle for hundreds of kilometers.
    [Show full text]
  • International Crimes in Crimea
    International Crimes in Crimea: An Assessment of Two and a Half Years of Russian Occupation SEPTEMBER 2016 Contents I. Introduction 6 A. Executive summary 6 B. The authors 7 C. Sources of information and methodology of documentation 7 II. Factual Background 8 A. A brief history of the Crimean Peninsula 8 B. Euromaidan 12 C. The invasion of Crimea 15 D. Two and a half years of occupation and the war in Donbas 23 III. Jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court 27 IV. Contextual elements of international crimes 28 A. War crimes 28 B. Crimes against humanity 34 V. Willful killing, murder and enforced disappearances 38 A. Overview 38 B. The law 38 C. Summary of the evidence 39 D. Documented cases 41 E. Analysis 45 F. Conclusion 45 VI. Torture and other forms of inhuman treatment 46 A. Overview 46 B. The law 46 C. Summary of the evidence 47 D. Documented cases of torture and other forms of inhuman treatment 50 E. Analysis 59 F. Conclusion 59 VII. Illegal detention 60 A. Overview 60 B. The law 60 C. Summary of the evidence 62 D. Documented cases of illegal detention 66 E. Analysis 87 F. Conclusion 87 VIII. Forced displacement 88 A. Overview 88 B. The law 88 C. Summary of evidence 90 D. Analysis 93 E. Conclusion 93 IX. Crimes against public, private and cultural property 94 A. Overview 94 B. The law 94 C. Summary of evidence 96 D. Documented cases 99 E. Analysis 110 F. Conclusion 110 X. Persecution and collective punishment 111 A. Overview 111 B.
    [Show full text]
  • First Russian Schools for Muslims in Tbilisi (Georgia)
    First Russian Schools for Muslims in Tbilisi (Georgia) Nani Gelovani Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Faculty of Humanities, Institute of Oriental Studies, Associated professor; Georgia ABSTRACT The city of Tbilisi (its pre-1936 international designation – Tiflis), which became a center of Russian Administration in the Caucasus region since 1801, a residence of the Caucasus Viceroy (Namestnik) since 1845 and an administrative center of Tbilisi Governorate since 1846, was gradually established as an administrative, trade and industrial center of the South Caucasus (Transcaucasia). Through Tbilisi, Russia established diplomatic and trade relations with Eastern countries. In 1847-1849, the first Russian schools for Muslims in the South Caucasus, separately for Shiites and Sunnis, were opened in Tbilisi specifically, where the Caucasus Viceroy could closely supervise “the progress and success of this establishment”. This first experience of Muslim schools was a success: the population, who refrained from sending their children to parochial schools for religious reasons, showed sympathy to them. Opening educational establishments for Muslims controlled by the Tsarist Administration in the South Caucasus can be explained by Russia’s interest to promote the swift adaptation of the Muslims of the South Caucasus to Russian legal and cultural environment and by the need for training clerks among local residents to work at the Administration. The present report will consider the history of the first Russian Muslim schools in the South Caucasus, in Tbilisi in particular (charter, educational program, teaching aids, pedagogical staff, privileges for the graduates, estimate, etc.) based on the materials found in the archival documents and periodicals. Key words: Archival documents; Education; Russian Empire; South Caucasus; Tbilisi.
    [Show full text]
  • T He Length of the Ottoman Period in Hungary Is Often Taken As Having
    GEZADAVID THE EYALET OF TEMESVAR IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY he length of the Ottoman period in Hungary is often taken as having T lasted 150 years. In reality, this period is valid only for certain cen­ tral territories, while large areas in the southern region, including lands which now belong to other countries, were subjected to Ottoman occupa­ tion for a much longer time. Of the vilayets existing within the boundaries of the Hungarian Kingdom, the beylerbeylik of Temesvar, 1 our present topic, had the longest history, being the centre of a p~al,k for 164 years. It is known that the town was captured in 1552 and was immediately made the seat of a province. Its territory changed continuously until 1566, the year of the conquest of Gyula, when this important castle also became the centre of a sancak, incorporating the whole of the former sancak of Arad as a nahiye.2 Needless to say, further smaller or larger changes hap­ pened later too. For instance, the possession of the castles of Jeno3 and Lippa4 was often disputed. With the peace of Karlowitz, important territorial losses were inflicted upon the vilayet (from now on eyalet) of Temesvar. The new borders were drawn along the rivers Maros5 and Tisza and consequently all the settlements north of the river Maros, that is the entire sancaks of Gyula (except perhaps two or three settlements) and Pankota, 6 and important parts of the sancaks of Csanad7 and Lippa, were lost8. However, approxi­ mately two thirds of the original extension of the vilayet of Temesvar re­ mained in Ottoman hands.
    [Show full text]