AUSTRALASIAN HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, I5, I997

An Archaeologist'sGuide to Mining Terminology

Ited 5as NEVILLEA. RITCHIEAND RAY HOOKER ing Iter the The authors present a glossary of mining terminology commonly used in Australia and New Zealand. The npl definitions and useagescome from historical and contemporary sources and consideration is given to those most frequently encounteredby archaeologists. The terms relate to alluvial mining, hard rock mining, ore rlll9 processing,and coal mining. rng. the \on resultantmodified landforms and relicswhich arelikely to be rnd Thereare literally thousandsof scientificand technicalterms ,of which have been coined to describevarious aspects of the encounteredby or to be of relevanceto field archaeologists processing metalliferousand non-metallic ores. working in mining regionsparticularly in New Zealandbut 1,raS miningand of M. Manyterms have a wide varietyof acceptedmeanings, or their also in the wider Australasia.Significant examples, regional :of meaningshave changed over time. Otherterms which usedto variants,the dateof introductionof technologicalinnovations, trrng be widely used(e.g. those associated with sluice-mining)are and specificallyNew 7na\andusages are also noted.Related Ito seldom used today. The use of some terms is limited to terms and terms which are defined elsewherein the text are nial restrictedmining localities (often arising from Comish or printedin italics. other ethnic mining slang),or they are usedin a sensethat While many of the terms will be familiar to Australian differsfrom thenorm; for instance,Henderson noted a number ella archaeologists,the authorshave not specificallyexamined' v)7 of local variantswhile working in minesat Reeftonon the Australian historical mining literature nor attempted to WestCoast of New T.ealand.l nla. incorporatethe numerousterms associated with Comish-type 3ln In the nineteenthcentury mining engineeringwas a mining and copper refining in Australia.An unpublished t.D. particularlyinnovative field, especiallywith regard to ore glossaryof theseterms by JackConnell and someother useful rtit1' treatmentsand processingmachinery. The more innovative Australianmining referencesare cited in the bibliography.2 nial mining companiesupgraded their plant periodically,while Although manganeseand copper mining in New Zealand(on :s of otherspersevered with outmodedequipment and systemsor Kawau Island c.1841-1842) predatesany other form of stuckwith techniqueswhich were in voguewhen their plant mining,by any standardsit wassmall scale and never likely to glossaryhas highlighted la\ e was established.Research for this amountto muchbecause of thesmall size of theore bodies, the the regionaldifferences in miningtechnology and techniques. distanceto markets,and problems associated with smeltingthe .1me The following lists havebeen compiled by the authorsto ore. tom assist archaeologists(especially those involved in site itint recording)to: TERMSASSOCIATED . recognise physical features and often long obsolete WITH ALLUVIAL MINING -,rait machinerycomponents on historicmining sites; alluvial gold: gold found in alluvium,ie riverineor estuarine help . encouragethe use of establishedor well-definedterms to depositsof sandor gravel.Alluvial denotesthe materialhas :rn-q. accuratelydescribe machinery and site featuresto avoid beenwashed and transportedby water. :ass. |\\ s confusion; amalgamatingtables: refer processing section. . ione enablethe more accurateinterpretion of mining methods auriferous:having gold content. from the survivingfield evidence; banjo/banjoing: (the term banjo is also applied to a short . iCE facilitatemore accurate coding of miningsite types for the handledshovel) This methodof alluvial goldminingwas used {lme purposesof comparativeanalysis and research,and extensivelyon the Hill End and Tambaroorafields in New v)7 management; South Wales.3The method involves the excavationof a . assist in understandingterms frequently cited in circular hole in a creek bank into which washdirt is contemporarymining literature. stockpiledready for washing.Next a trenchwas dug between The cited terms are restrictedto physical featuresor the stockpiling-holeand the creek (or water-hole).This machineryassociated with mining,ie potentialarchaeological createda banjo-likefeature, hence the derivationof the term. features.For convenience,they havebeen allocated into four The stockpiling hole was always dug at a slightly higher groups,viz. termsassociated with: elevationthan the trench.The latter was lined with rocks or housed l. alluvialmining and associated technology and landforms; a wooden sluice box. The method of washingand recoveringgold involvedusing a gold panas a ladleto splash 2. hardrock miningand associated technology; waterup the trenchand into the stockpileto washsome of the 3. oreprocessing or processingmachinery; washdirt down the trench. In practicethe lighter dirt was 4. termsspecifically associated with coalmining. supposedto be carried down into the waterholeor stream while gold in' Some equipmentand techniquesare common to both the heavier was trappedin the stonesor the presence alluvial (particularlydeep lead) and hardrock mining.These sluice-boxlaid in the trench.Despite the of many goldrushes includeitems associated with tunnelling,water supply, motive Australianminers in New Zealandduring the first power,and ore crush"ingand treatmenl.They reflect similar in Otago, banjoing is not mentionedin the New Zealand meansof overcomingcommon problems. Where termshave mining literatureand any field evidenceof it has long since multiplemeanings and are associated with differentaspects of disappeared. mining,e.g. tailings, they are cited, where appropriate, in each beachlead: concentration of fine gold in old marinesediments isof group; otherwise they are cited in the category they most (usuallyconsolidated and buried). Beach leads are often some specificallyrefer to. The authorshave attempted to cover all distancefrom modernshorelines and at differentheights (see the termsassociated with mining and ore-processing,and the bLacksanding). Fig. 1: A portable gold table being used Jbr b lacks anding at Ch ar lesnwn, Wesr Coast, South Island, New Zealand. Note the woodenflumes in the background (D epa rtment of Co ns e rv ation colle cti on, Westland).

bedrock:in alluvialmining parlance, the hard rock underlying claim: an area of land which has been peggedand legally alluvium.Often the richest auriferous deposits were located on assignedto a mineror mining company(by virtueof a license the alluvium/bedrockinterface. or miner'sright) to work for a specifiedperiod. A claim was blacksanding: a form of mining restrictedto the WestCoast of generallysmaller and cheaperbut less securethan a mining the South Island. Blacksand mining (blacksanding) lease. commencedbelatedly when it was realisedthat the extensive cleaningup: seewashing up. black magneticironsand beaches of the WestCoast contained ! cradle: a simplebut effectivemanually operated device used I rich depositsof fine gold (often in presence beachleads). The by diggers to separategold from washdirt by meansof a of gold in worthwhile quantities within { sea-beachesis rocking motion. Cradleswere an advanceon the basic gold relatively uncommon on a worldwide level. Blacksanders pan (seepanning) andwere much fasterto usethan a pan. oftenemploy small wheeled sluice boxes which canbe readily crevicing: the recovery of gold, usually by picking and movedalong a beach(Fig. I ). SeeHooker for description.a scraping,from crevicesin bedrock or the induratedbases of blasting: in some hydraulic claims, a small tunnel was streambeds. excavatedat the baseof a work face and a number of kegs of dam (mining dam): a structureof earth,masonry, concrete or powder introduced and ignited. The resultant blast was a timber intended to loosen the washdirt and save a considerable built acrossa watercourseto impondwater, usually for : alluvial mining purposessuch amountof waterwhich would otherwisebe requiredto break as hydraulic sluicing. As opposedto reservoirswhich down the face.Blasting was principallyemployed during dry are water storagescreated by either excavatinga depression I seasonsor in dry locationsto savewater because much more or by erectingan earthen, wooden, concrete I waterwas requiredfor breakingdown banksthan for washing or masonry structureusually on a flat the freeddirt. terrace.Incoming water was usually fed in by waterraces, and deliveredto work sitesby eitherraces or piping.In practice,in out: removingwashdirt blocking by driving or shaftingdown New Zealand at least, there was virtually no distinction a leadand excavating gallery(which to a wasusually timbered between dams and reservoirs. Wardens Courts were large up and stonesstacked to supportthe roof). responsiblefor issuingdam licenseswhich encompassedany bonanza(jeweller's sftop): small alluvial leads(or patchesof structurefor storing water for mining purposes.Reservoirs ore)of exceptionalrichness. tendsto be usedfor the storageof potablewater supplies. bottom: an induratedlayer below an auriferous alluvial deadman (holdfast):a log or similarlyshaped object used for deposit.Often the bottom and bedrock are one and the same anchoringor manipulatinggold dredgesin riversor ponds,or (seefalsebottom). in tenestrial situationsfor manoeuvringdevices such as bucket elevator: a manually operatedor more typically winches or cranes used for shifting large boulders (they poweredcontinuous chain ofbuckets used to raisewashdirt for probably had many other applicationson the goldfields). further processing. 'Dead men' were usuallyburied in a trenchat right anglesto the direction of pull, in locations where there were no California pump: in their simplestform Califomia pumps convenientlysited trees or boulderswhich could be usedfor consistof an elongatedwooden trough along which a canvas, the samepurpose. rope,or leatherbelt could revolve between two woodenwheels at either end of the box. Tight-fitting wooden slats were deep leads: ancientalluvial depositsoften buriedbeneath a attachedto the belt.When the lower end of the appliancewas considerablethickness of non-auriferousstrata. They are placedin waterand a crankhandle attached to theupper wheel usually worked by sinking a shaft from which tunnelsare was tumedmanually, water was elevated from the lower level drivenonto the leads(see hard rock miningdefinition). anddischarged into a flume at the upperend of the pump.The ditch: seerace. 1 .tt term is alsoused to describea pumpmade of tin cansattached dredgingplanl usuallyused in referenceto plantsdesigned to to an endlessbelt, ie a crudebucket elevator. recovergold-rich tailings (the dischargefrom mine batteries) I cement: a tough conglomerate composed of rounded or which haveaccumulated in rivers.harbours. estuaries etc. The 1 angularfragments of rock and black sandcemented by iron plants combine two different gold recovery technologies, : oxide. The gold was usuallyfreed from the cementby first alluvial dredging (bucket or suction) to recover tailings : crushingit in a battery. dischargedinto the waterwaysfrom upstreamquartz batteries, i\

sad Fig.2: Cutaway view of gold dredge (Peele194 I :579). J' l \- ole

V*''/" kntlh c to ( ol Llr t&u.rrJ'

atll and hard rock gold recovery treatments,notably the cyanide gauge box: a woodenor steelvertically sliding plate which :n5e process,to recoverthe bullion from the dredgedtailings. Four enabled(by specificpositioning of the plate)a measuredflow rIas dredging plants have operated in New Zr,aland, Judd's at of water to be directed from a supply race into a claim head ring Thames,a small operationat Coromandel,and the two gold race(see head). dredgingoperations in the North Islandon the OhinemuriRiver gold dredge:vessels (consisting of one or morepontoons) on (OhinemuriRiver Syndicate's, and the Waihi-Paeroa Extraction which variousforms of dredgingequipment were mounted in Co.). The site of the laner, the fifth largestproducer on the order to extract auriferous gravels from river beds, and later rsed Ohinemurifield, has considerable interpretation potential. )fa river marginsand terraces (Fig. 2).s drift/drifting: loose alluvial material.Mining into it was - spoon dredges: floating platforms on which a large lold calleddrifting (seehard rock mining definition). 'spoon'(composed of a steelhoop and a rawhidebag) was dr-v--blowing:a way of separatinggrains of alluvialgold from mounted.The spoon(later made with a strengthenedlip to and sandon aridAustralian goldfields. The dirt was droppedfrom provide a better cutting edge) was attachedto a pivoted sof a height,enabling the wind to blow awaythe lighterdust but arm which waslowered into thewater to scoopup a loadof not theheavier gold particles. the basalgravels, then winched back on to the dredge. tor elevator pond: (see hydraulic elevating) the depression - cunent wheeler: small dredgeswhich employedpaddle- for remaining(usually water-filled) following hydraulic or bucket wheelsto tum an endlesschain of buckets.First usedon .1J elevatin-q. the Molyneux(Clutha) :b) in 1868.As currentwheelers were restricted to locations lren. face:the work facein an alluvialclaim. where there was a strons current they were soon flat false bottom: a consolidatedand usually non-auriferous superseded. and stratumon which alluvialgold is concentrated,beneath which - suction dredges:although suction is an effectivemeans of :- in thereis oneor morelower bedsof washdirt,the lowestbeing dredging fine material, suction dredgesgenerally proved tion thetrue bottom. unsuccessfulon the goldfields; the suction pipes ! ere flume/fluming: woodenchannelling used in conjunctionwith continually clogged with stones,and the high specific an)' \\'aterraces to conveywater to a claim.Typically fluming built gravity of gold often resulted in everything but the gold oirs on wooden trestles was used to span depressionsor was being lifted. Suctiondredging on sea-beachclaims also anchoredto rock facesto bypasssheer slopes. In the absenceof provedto be inefficient, becauseinvariably there was either I for plentifultimber to buildfluming to bridgegullies (e.g. in Central too much sandor too much water. ior Otago),water race builders were obligedto go the long way, ie - steam-powered,continuous bucket dredges: the first AS follow thehillside contours to maintainheight (see siphon). steam-powered (self-powered) bucket dredge, the tte) fly-catching/fly-catchers:the placing of gold-tablesin the Dunedin, began operating on the Clutha River near ds). bed of a streambelow the outfall from a sludgechannel. It is Alexandra in 1881. It proved far superior in terms of )tO estimatedthat no more than 60 per cent of the gold was gravel extraction and gold recovery.The type soon no capturedby claim owners,some 4O per cent escaping with the becamethe mainstayof the industryhere and overseas. for tailings dischargeddown sludge channels.Much of the Steam-powereddredges were able to work into river escapinggold was caught in thefly-catchers. Restricted to banks, greatly expanding the scope of dredging fia ancient beach-leadworking areason the West Coast, e.g. operations.The developmentof the steam-poweredbucket are Charleston,Addison's Flat. gold dredge is recognisedas New Zealand'sgreatest are fool's gold: iron sulphide(pyrites) commonly found in quartz, contribution to alluvial gold winning technology (see coal measuresand alteredrocks. Often mistakenfor gold by tailings elevator). the uninitiated,it is virtually valueless.In the pastit hasbeen - electric-powered bucket dredges: a later development; usedas a sourceof sulphur. ,l to essentiallythe same gold recovery technologyas the ies) fork/stoneforks: therewere two main types:a long-handled steam-powereddredges, but electricalpower enabledthe The multi-prongedfork was usedto clear stonesout of tailrace constructionof more powerful dredgesand considerably tes. boxing,while a sturdytwo-pronged fork with the tinesbent at lowered operating costs. The first electrically driven lngs right anglesto the handle was used to clear stonesfrom dredgewas establishedon a claim in the upperShotover ries. tailraces. River,Otago, in 1894by the SandhillsGoldmining Co. wotersource

stuicebox

toitings Fig.3: Simplified diagram oJ'a hydraulic elevutor in operation (Ritchie 1986).

l50m elevotorhole -,

- water-powered bucket dredges (hydraulic dredges): at St Bathans.The large boulderscommon in West Coast generallyused to describedredges on to which water was fluvio-glacialgravels were more than most elevatorscould piped aboard and used to drive Pelton wheels to power cope with, althoughhydraulic elevating was also used to a machinery including the excavatingbuckets. The lack of limited extent on the West Coast beaches(see Ritchie for sufficientwater power (head or fall) limited the use of descriptionof field evidenceof elevatingin the UpperClutha hydraulicdredges, although they wereused extensively in area).7 some areas,e.g., Waipori and Cardrona. Some dredges hydraulicking (hydraulic sluicing): a mining techniquein combinedsluicing and mechanicalexcavating to enable which a jet of wateris directedagainst an alluvial depositto themto progressinto alluvialdeposits. breakit down.The method,developed in Californiain 1852, gold tables: broad slightly inclined flat tables(often mounted was introducedinto New Zealand by Califomian diggers on wheels)covered with plush(matting) over which fine gold initially using canvashoses. The introductionof steelpipes bearingbeach sands were washedto recoverthe gold content. (madefrom rivetedsections) and cast iron monitors(moveable ground sluicing: a basicmethod of alluvial mining whereby nozzles) in the 1870s lead to high pressure sluicing auriferousterrace margins were brokendown by directing low supersedingthe earlier method.The methoddid away with pressurewater over them (free running water divertedfrom a muchof the pick and shovelwork involvedin groundsluicing headrace)to assisttheir breakingup with bar and pick. The and was the only practicalmeans of mining deep deposits. dislodged materal was then sluiced, ie directed through Hydraulic sluice workingsusually have steepworking faces channelsto sluice-boxesin which the gold was trappedin (comparedto groundsluicing) because the waterwas directed riffles. upslopeto underminethe work faces. gutters: incised ancient streamchannels in bedrock or older iron pipes:first usedin California,they rapidly superceded the alluviumwhich tendto trapand concentrate alluvial gold into canvashoses used prior to that.8In 1856 a San Francisco distinctleads and consequently provide rich pickings.Gutters companycommenced the manufactureof wrought iron pipes usuallyunderlie later alluvial deposits. for hydraulicmining, so their usewas well establishedprior to the onsetof sluicing(c.1870) on the New T,ealandgoldfields. head: a measureof waterflow and volume.When water was Graduallya whole rangeof pipe sections, (bends) sold to claimholders,a chargewas madeat so much a headfor elbows and associatedcomponents, e.g. gatevalves, were so many hours. A head was approximately I cubic foot per developed.The pipe sectionscould be hot rivetedinto standard (hence second(cusec) and was measuredby an outlet gate of specific lengths the presenceof a smithy on many alluvial claims), size (seegauge box) at the point wherea branchrace to a claim and each unitjoinedby connectingflanges. drewwater from a mainsupply race. A racemanwas employed on main supply racesto tum water on (ie divert water) to koura: Maori term for gold. A transliterationof the English specificclaims as required,to patrol the systemlooking for term. any defectsand to undertakerepairs. lead: (pronouncedleed) a well-definedbed of auriferous hurdy-gurdy wheel: similar in appearanceand operationto a wash-dirtin a terraceor streambed. Peltonwheel or similarimpact wheel. The term is sometimes long tom: essentiallya trough (sluice box) for washingthe usedsynonymously in referenceto Peltonwheels. The original gold from auriferousgravels, first usedin Califomia in 1850. hurdy-gurdy wheels had flat buckets cast into the Theywere the next step up from a cradleenabling the working circumferenceof the wheel.They weredesigned for using high of largerclaims and a betterrecovery percentage. They were head pressures.Large hurdy-gurdywheels were sometimes usuallyworked by two men.Washdirt was shovelledinto an connectedthrough gearing to derrick-hoistsand used to lift inclinedwooden trough about 4 metreslong with a uniform heavyboulders on hydraulicclaims.6 width of c.450millimetres mounted on a frameor legs.Water hydraulic elevating:In 1880J. R. Perryintroduced hydraulic was poweredin at the upper end while the material was elevatingwhile working in GabrielsGully in the Tuapeka agitatedwith a shovel.Large stones were picked out, while the district. Elevatorsemploy the Venturi hydraulic principle restof the materialpassed over a gratingat thelower end. Fine whereby energy releasedby the expansionof high pressure materialdropped through onto a seriesof riffles anangedlike water dischargedthrough a narrow pipe and a speciallyshaped thosein a cradlewhile the restof the materialwas discharged orifice (a Venturi) createsa powerful suction which lifts out thelower end. Usually Long Tomswere placed at theedge material(water and basal gravels) up a largerinner pipe so that of a creekwhich sweptthe tailings away. they can be passedthrough sluice boxes to recover the gold monitor (giant nozzle,sluice gun, nozzle):device consisting content(Fig. 3). Elevators(bucket and hydraulic)were used ofa pivotablesteel barrel with interchangablebrass nozzles for where there was insufficient fall (ie the ground being worked directing high pressurewater brought by pipeline onto a wastoo deepto allow thedisposal of tailings).Sometimes they sluice-facefor thepurpose ofbreaking it downand passing the were usedin seriesto elevatewashdirt from deepworkings. materialthrough sluice boxes. In practice,it seemsthe terms They were mainly usedon the Otago goldfields, most notably monitor and nozzle are frequentlyused synonymously,but 6 Fig.4: Chinesepaddocking claim at Blaclcw'ater,West Coast South I slanrl, New Zealanrl. The photograph shows the overburden stripped ofi, auriferous gravels being shovelled into a long tom type box-sluice, und waste rock strtcked behind the work lace (Department oJ Conse rv at io n coIIe c t ion, West land ). , oast ould toa r for lutha cin iit to 552. :gers ripes strictly speakingthe latterterm refersto the interchangeable Zealandand elsewhereobtained the right to manufacturethem :able brassfittings on theend of a monitor.The namewas probably and they soonbecame the predominantwater-powered means rcing derivedfrom the swivel-firingCivil War gunboatof the same of driving machineryon thegoldfields. u'ith name.Invented in Califomiain 1853,monitor technology was placer mining: a term of Spanishorigin usedextensively in cing further refined over the next 20 years.9The most powerful North Americanliterature to describethe mining of alluvial }JITS. nozzleswere known as Giants. They could be swivelled deposits; essentially a synonym for alluvial mining. iaces uithout intemrptingthe water flow. The developmentof a Placer/alluvialmining involvesusing water to wash(alluvial) *ted built-indeflector was an importantinnovation. Prior to thenit gravelsto recovergold and/or other heavy metals such as was necessaryfor one or more men to move a monitor platinum and tin. As water flows over gravels (placed in up and down with d the manually backwardsand forwards, or devicessuch as cradles,long toms,or sluiceboxes), dirt and considerableexertion and often coupledwith dangerto the --isco the bulk of the lighter non-auriferousmaterial are washed operators.The deflectingdevice enabled one man to easily away,while the heavymetal particles(e.g. gold) sink to the lipes Men who operatedmonitors/nozzles or to handlethe largestGiant. bottom and are trappedbehind rffies which are periodically rreredescribed as nozzlemen. gold 'elds. cleanedto enablethe to be recovered. piece gold, from a lump ' and nugget:a large of alluvial as distinct pothole mining (potholing):see tailings, pothole. The or massof gold embeddedin solidrock. puddle: processof soakingalluvial gravelsto breakdown the Ence paddock/paddocking(stone to grass): (1) an excavation stickyclay content. each madefor procuringwashdirt in shallowground; (2) a wooden bin or areafor the storageof washdirt; (3) to paddocka claim puddling machine/puddling site: a machine designedto gold-bearinggravel get is slish meantto work it systematicallyby meansof a seriesof small, agitate to rid of heavyclay, which shallowpits, or altemativelyto excavateout the whole mass washedaway in water.Puddling was used extensively on some of theAustralian goldfields where heavy clays were a problem. :rous leavinga largesquare pit (Fig. 4). In flood-proneareas on the \VestCoast, ground waspaddocked, the aim being to get as The configurationof a horse-poweredpuddler site is similarto much wash-dirtas possibleout and storedabove the known thatfound on a horse-poweredChilean mill stte.It consistsof the r flood level,so thatwashing could proceed if theriver rose.On a circulartrough excavated in theground around which a horse !50. theWest Coast the phraseslone to grasswas usedto describe dragsa pair of rakeswhich stir up auriferousgravels placed in *ing theact of gettingore out andstockpiling it in a paddock. the trench and causeadhering clay to be washedoff. Like a '* ere Chilean mill roller, the rakes in a puddlerare pivoted at a panning: the use of a fossickingdish or gold pan to test or :o an centralpoint obliging the horseto walk continuouslyaround recoveralluvial gold, usuallyin the gravelsof river or stream tbrm the perimeterof the puddlingtrench. I ater beds.The first gold pans,hand-forged by local blacksmiths, race (water race): an aqueductor channel(usually open) for '*.as appearedin the 184Osin theUnited States. conductingwater to or from a mining site.Large waterraces e rhe Pelton wheel: the Pelton wheel was the culminationof a from a permanentsource were called supplyraces. Typically Fine 30 year quest to design a betler water wheel. Prior to the water would race or a local water I like inventionof the Pelton wheel all kinds of curved buckets be drawn from a supply would ilged (attachedto therims of waterwheels) had been tried to utilise sourceand storedin holding dams from where it be ;dge water flows more effectively.Louis Peltonof Comptonville, conveyed by head-racesto individual claims. Tail-races, paved California,conceived the idea of a wheel lined with buckets usuallyboxed with rffies in the uppersection and with woodenblocks or flat rocks in the lower reachestook the finer itlng with verticalfins which split the water deliveredthrough a water-bometailings (sludge)from claims to where it was :s tor high pressurenozzle on impact. His patent wheels had dischargedonto lower lying ground or more frequentlyinto rlo a considerableadvantages over conventionalwater-wheels and existing water-coursesand rivers. Racesare called ditches in s the rapidly gainedfavour. They were much smaller,more readily Americanmining literature. erms transportable,able to be drivenwith a muchsmaller volume of . but water,and had easily replaceableparts. Companies in New reservoir: seedam. into a particularsludge channel. On the Kumaragoldfield it amountedto about30 percent of whatthe minerswere paying for water drawn from the Governmentraces. The short, often high-capacitytailraces from battery sitesto a nearbyriver are alsosometimes described as sludgechannels. sluice:see hydraulic sluice. sluice box: a long trough with a loose bottom on which there are rffies or holes.The washdirt (conveyedin flowing water) is passedthrough the box where the gold and other heavy metals is trappedin the riffles or falls through into the false bottom section.Long Tomswere essentiallyportable sluice boxes. sluice face: essentiallya work face; artificially createdterrace- facescreated by sluicingaway terrace margins. stone barrow: a low slung wheelbarrowused to cart away large boulders which would otherwise have blocked or damageda nilrace, or movethem from anyother inconvenient location. stone trays: a steel tray somethinglike a modem dragline bucketwhich wassuspended from a horizontalaerial ropeway (Fig. 5). A secondaryrope enabledthe tray to be raisedor lowered,or movedalong the main rope.At the work face,the tray wouldbe loweredto enablelarge stones to be stackedin it. It was then raised and run out along the main rope to a dumping area, where the tray was tripped, depositingthe stoneswell awayfrom the work area.Two rciling forms result from this technology:conical and linear mounds. stoningout: removinglarge stones froma tailrace,usually by meansof a stone-fork. surfacing/surfacer: West Coast terms associated with blacksanding,describing the workingof sea-beachclaims, and the diggerswho worked them. A stoning tray being used to remove excessrock rubble from a operation,West Coast, South Island, New Zealand (Department tailings (alluvial): the solid waste from alluvial mining of Conse rvation coll ect io n, West land ). operations.Finer materialwas usually washedinto adjacent watercourses.Cobbles and boulders remained either within the claim or adjacent.Tailings are often the dominantfeature on riffleJripples: bars or cleats on the bottom of a cradle, Long old alluvial mining sites.Their form is directlyrelated to the Tbm,sluice-box or tail-racefor catchingailuvial gold.Ripple is topography,the natureof the substrate,the positionof the believedto be of Australianorigin andwas used to describethe washdirt, the depth of overburden, water cleatson amalgamatingtables. the supply, the availablehead, the mannerof the water'sapplication, and the rock-sluices:large sluices or tail-raceswere frequently paved lay of the land with regardto dumping the wastematerial. with stonebecause of its greaterdurability than wood.Rock- The arrangementof tailings is an indicator of mining sluiceswere very effectivegold-catchers but weremuch more techniquesused and availabletechnology.t0 Alluvial tailings difficult and tediousto clean-up.However, this aspectalso can be grouped into three basic categories:hand-stacked, madeit muchmore diffrcult for thievesto stealgold (ie clean- mec hanically - hydraulicaLly stacke d, and dredge tailings (the up) from thesluices when they were unattended at night. latterbeing a specialisedform of the secondcategory). Hand- rotary screen: seetrommel. stackedtailings tend to be neaterand smaller in areathan those siphon:piping used to conveywater over an obstacleor across depositedmechanically or hydraulically. a depressionand deliver it to a lower level by meansof Almost withoutexception tailings were stacked on worked atmosphericpressure. The availabilityof iron pipesfrom about out or wasteground unless there was no altemativesuch as 1890 revolutionisedrace building. Previouslyit had been whena claim was started.At this stageit was oftennecessary necessaryto go around,or spangullies with expensivefluming to elevate(usually by meansof an inclinedtramway) large on trestles.Iron pipescould be laid directlyon trestles(in lieu volumesof heavycobbles out of the workingsand stackthem of fluming),but theconstruction of siphonsdown one side of a on virgin ground.Such tailings are likely to be indicativeofthe gully and up to a race(at a slightly lower level) on the other first working on a particularclaim. Understandablythese side was the preferredmeans of conveyingwater across unworkedareas are often workedby later mining companies. depressions. This pattemis well illustratedon the Kumaragoldfield on the sludge(channel): viscous mud or silrladen water.Under the WestCoast where the high percentageof largeboulders in the mining legislationin New Znaland,the govemmentcould alluviumnecessitated their stackinginitially on virgin ground gazettethat certainrivers were deemedto be sludgechannels, to facilitatethe working of specificclaims. in which case miners could apply for a right to discharge tailings (alluvial, hand-stacked):see Ritchie 1981for a full sludgefrom alluvial or hard rock mining directly into them. discussion.II All therivers on the SouthIsland West Coast were designated - parallel tailings: visually the simplestform of tailings, sludge channels.The Ohinemuri River is the predominant consistingof parallel rows of handstackedcobbles and North Island example. Sludge channel was also used to bouldersusually aligned at or nearright anglesto a river or describe major tailraces (often constructed by the N.Z. stream.Sites of this typeseldom exceed 100 by I 50 metres Governmentto facilitate mining). Mining parties paid a in areaand the stonerows areusually less than 1.5metres 'channel-fee'allowing them to dischargesludge and tailings high. They are frequentlylocated right on the edge of a 8 .ld it riverbank.A variationof this form, curved tailings. is slopeto be worked.A sidegutter was thenextended up one r)'ing essentiallysimilar. The stackedrows are curvedbut still or both boundariesof the claim. Waterwas conveyedto the often parallelto one another. top of the claim by race or pipeline and sluicing :r :ue box tailings: this form of tailings is a variationof the commencedby working downslope.A strip of ground paralleltype, but differs in that the rows of stackedcobbles about 3 metres wide was thus worked either side of the are containedin a box which is formedby eitherunworked gutter which actedas a channelfor the loosenedmaterial to ground, or more usually, a row of stackedtailings across be carried down the tailrace.This processwas repeated,so there that the groundwas cut away in parallelslices. Workings of iater) the lower (and frequently the upper)end of the workings. this type are typically locatedalong old terracerisers. Eavy The box arrangementappears to be an improvementon the false simple parallelmethod of working becauseall the gold- - amorphous tailings (hummocky tailings): catch-allterms .luice bearingsluice water would have beenchannelled through to describestone tailings with no coherentpatterning. At one end tailrace. There are severalgood examplesof this first glance this type appears to be the result of typein theupper Clutha valley. indiscriminatestacking of cobblesin low moundsor heaps Tace- herringbone tailings: tailings of this type, if neatly during sluicingoperations. A closerexamination usually stacked,are generallyconsidered to be the most interesting revealsshallow winding channelsthreading between the away form because of their symmetry. The characteristic moundsand leadingto a low point where presumablya dor 'herringbone'pattern was producedby hand stackingof sluicebox was located.Amorphous tailings are typically nient cobblesand bouldersuncovered within terracegravels locatedon river marginsand on ground with minimal fall, duringslrice mining operations.The stoneswere stacked the pattem often being in part attributableto the uneven gline in parallellines at anglesto a centraltailrace, the working surfaceofthe basalmaterial or bedrock. euay face encroachingfrom the lower end of a claim. This - small claim tailings (pothole tailings): the term pothole ld or offeredthe minimumimpediment to the sluicewater flow mining was coined by Ritchie to describethe principal :. rhe whichcanied the gold-bearing sediments down the tailrace method of gold working during the early days of the in it. andthrough a sluicebox wherethe gold was trapped, while nineteenth-centurygoldrushes in CentralOtago.lz During IOa the rest of the material dischargedinto a watercourseor this phasethe miners concentratedon working the stream Ilhe formed fans below the workings.Because cobbles and and river beds,which were dividedinto individualclaims result boulderstended to block the tailracesand trap the gold measuring24 by 24 feet (7.23by 7.23 metres)per miner. before it reachedthe sluice box, the stoneswere hand The minersdug into thegold bearinggravels with pick and lr by stacked into rows to enable the system to work as shoveland raisedthe gravel with the assistanceof a whip efficientlyas possible.Once a retainingwall was formed, or a counterbalancedlifting arm. The gravel was then uith cobblesand coarsegravels were forkedbehind the wall. pannedor cradled.The resultingtailings reflect the mining i- and Retainingwalls are an importantfeature of virtually all method.As a consequencethe creekbeds and surrounding forms of hand-stackedtailings. They were erectedin any low ground becamedotted with hummocky circular and situationwhere it wasnecessary to containthe tailings and oblongmounds, occasionally separated by waterchannels. ining preventthem from impedingthe tailrace,and in confined Althoughthe individualclaims were small, when numbers SCent situations,e.g. one claim aboveanother, where there was of suchworkings were established in closeproximity, e.g. in the no placeto dump the wasterock exceptwithin one'sown at Gabriels Gully, the aggregatewas quite extensive. re on claim. Excellentsurviving examples of this type can be seenin o the the flats of the Bendigo Creeknear Cromwell, a legacyof f the Herringbonetailings frequently consist of several the 1862-1865 rush there, and on the Lisle-Denison . the herringbonecompartments separated by ridgesof largely goldfieldsin Tasmania.l3Despite the fact that largetracts d the unworkedmaterial along which the waterwas distributed of riverbedswere worked this way, survivingexamples of erial. in pipes.Herringbone tailings are often very extensiveand the type are uncommon. The former tailings have been rnin_q representa hugeinvestment in termsof humaneffort. They obliteratedby freshetsor latermining ventures. rlings are generallyassociated with ground sluicing or low- cked, pressurehydraulic sluice workings into river terrace tailings (alluvial,stacking mechanically assisted): , (the _sravels.Some of the bestexamples in New Zealandare in - finger tailings: this form of tailings results from the land- thevicinity of Cromwell. dumping of tailings from trucks (sklps)in more or less those fan tailings:this type area crossbetween parallel tailings level moundsor rows radiatingfrom a point source,such and the heningboneform. They were constructedon as the headof a tailrace where the sluice box was located or at the headof an inclined tramway(refer definition). rrked groundwhich containedless coarse material than that in The lines reflect the pattem of dumping, the tracks being :h as which herringboneformations are frequentlyformed. Fan extendedalong each ridge as it was formed. A shallow ss.ilry tailings are derivedfrom both ground and low-pressure depressionmarking the line of the tram tracks and large hydraulic sluicing. The fan patternswere createdby the remnants the crests,and rhem minershand-stacking the cobbles and boulders (freed from of tram track often remain along thetracks pass or depressions. rf the theterrace gravels) in rowsconverging on a singlepoint in often throughcuttings these the tailrace where rffies were located to trap the gold, - radial fan tailings (descending): formed in locations rnies. whilst the spoil was washedto lower ground or into a where adequatefall and spaceallowed. Due to the steep n the nearbyriver. fall, large cobblesand small boulderscould be washed Lnthe blow down tailings: tailings of this type result from a down throughthe tailrace. Often a slight indentationon the ound system of sluicing known as blowing down (Ritchie crestsmarks where the boxing was situated. The latterwas l98l:55). The introductionof the methodis creditedto a extendedor radiatedas required. r tull Russianminer. Subsequentlyit has been used for the - conical tailings: where stonetailings have been dumped working of wide stretchesof poor alluvial ground in from a point source either at the head of an incline lings, Central Otago. Its greatestapplication has been in the tramway (horse-or water-powered),or from a stoning tray i and Cromwellarea where it was introducedbefore 1880.The which was anchoredto a singlecentral point, the resultant ,er or methoddiffers from ordinaryground or hydraulicsluicing, tailingsform distinctiveconical mounds. There are some ETICS which begin at the lowestpoint of the groundand were fine exampleson the Kumaragoldfield on theWest Coast. retres worked forward on a rising bottom. In the blow down The object of the exercisewas to minimise the ground ofa svstem.a maintailrac€ was excavated across the base of a coveredwith tailines. - linear mounds: linear formationsof contiguousconical the centreof the screen.The gold bearingwash fell throughthe Tt moundscreated by thedeposition of stonetailings dumped about I centimetrediameter perforations on to goldsaving Tl-t from a stoning tay. As the anchor points of a cableway tables on either side of the screen.Large rocks and any (from which a stoning tray was suspended)were material that did not fit through the perforationsmoved to a f progressivelyshifted as sluicing advanced,the tailings shootat the stem of the dredgewhere it was dischargedinto 5rr, tendedto fall in linearmounds with undulatingcrests often the river,or in the caseof laterdredges it waslifted by means rDa at right anglesto the sluiceface. of an elevatorand stackedwell clear of the dredge (see q& tailings (dredge):dredge tailings usually consist of extensive tailings, dredge for further details). Trommels mounted on iEr seriesof overlappingmounds of coarsetailings (cobbles and wheelsor steelrunners for manoeuvrabilityare an important :!t boulders) dischargedfrom gold dredges.There is a marked elementof modemday alluvial gold recoveryplants. h differencein heightand patterningbetween 'early'and 'late' tunnelling: seedefinition in hardrock section. $eE dredge tailings. In 'early' dredgesthe larger coarse material turbines: water-poweredturbines were essentiallyfurther G passedthrough the screen(see trommel) and via a shoot over developmentsof the conventionalwater wheel and thePelton !@t the stem of the dredge.The fine materialwas often discharged wheel.A turbineconsists of a fully encasedrotor driven by the r on top of the coarse material resulting in low undulating impactof waterfed on to it througha pipe;the energyoutput l mounds. The larger 'later' dredges created parallel high being relatedto the pressure(the head)and the volume of the rd concentricrows of tailings superimposed on the sinuous water.Turbines generate considerable speed and power but low *::[ coursethat the dredgeworked. After the advent of the tailings torque, consequentlythey were generallynot suitablefor :q stacker or elevator in 1894, dredge tailings were able to be poweringstamper batteries because too much gearingdown glr stacked20 metresor more high. was required.They also requirea consistentwater supplyto sl tailings stacker (elevator): a device credited to Cutten Bros work efficiently;even a smallamount of weargreatly reduces q Engineering,Dunedin in 1894 for stackingdredge tailings a turbine'sefficiency. ,irt well aft of a dredge.Prior to this innovation ql dredge-masters washdirt (pay dirt): theauriferous portion ofalluvial deposits were mld constantlyfrustrated because the excavatedspoil tended (gravel,sand, clay or cement). to flow back undertheir dredgesand thwart their operation. :q washing up (cleaning process Tailingsstackers, essentially an endlessbelt on a hugegantry, up): the of collecting the al|u material (gold, other heavy enabledtailings to be stackedin high moundswell clearof the metals and sand) trapped in tE[ tailrace rffies stemof a dredge,in so doingcreating the distinctivewinding and,separating the gold from the other heavy metals. ,- tailing pattems. :01 water balances:a variation tailrace: a channelor aqueductfor conveyingdirty water and of the self-actingtram technology d (seeincline tramway). Water tailings away from a mine site. Usually the sluice boxesor balancesworked in the opposite rb manner.A rffies wereplaced at the headof the tailrace. ballasttank full of water going downwardwould E haul a loadedtruck upward.When both hadbeen emptied, the !r tailrace tunnels:tailrace tunnels (also commonly described as truck, beingheavier, would retum to the bottomfor refilling. il sludge channels)were used extensivelyon the West Coast to Because jigs the tank usuallytook a long time to fill, (incline lor facilitateworking claims on the fluvio-glacialgravel terraces, tramways)were generallypreferred. e.g. at ShamrockCreek and on the Kumaragoldfield.t+ The url water right: historically, granted lack of fall in these locations thwarted sluicing, so long an authority by Warden's ry Courtsto draw a specified inclinedtunnels were driven from an adjacentvalley (e.g.the amountof water from a race or &d streamfor mining purposes.Water Taramakauvalley) to facilitate drainageand remove tailings rightswere eagerly sought @r I after and keenlyhisputed in Warden's from the work area.The tailracetunnels which camein under the Courts.They were 5' granted directly to claimholders the areasto be worked were accessedby one or more shafts and to companieswhich qi specialisedin supplyingwater which servedas drain-holesand enabledthe minersto sluice to miners. lDn down to the level on which leads of alluvial gold were water wheels:overshot water wheels were the mostuniversal motiveforce on goldfields. concentrated.Because there was no working space in the the Theywere used to drivea wide -rl[ claimsinitially, the gold savingboxes often had to be installed rangeof equipmentincluding pumps, winches, stamp batteries in head and mills, andelectric generating plants. Water wheels ranged the ofthe tunnelsand maintained there until spacehad 5c from 5 to over20 metresin diameterand were generally - been created outside the tunnel portals. The fall was overa rd particularlyimportant, the more the betterbecause it enabled metre wide. Some were able to be driven forwards or larger tailings to be dischargedthrough a tailrace. Large backwardsby movingthe wateroutlet fore or aft of top-dead- I bouldersencountered whilst driving the tunnel, or blockingthe centre.When usedin reversewater wheelsenabled material, ts raceswere alwaysproblematical. Before mining commenced e.g. pulp in treatmentplants, to be elevatedfrom one level to 5 another.In New Zealand,they were each day (ie before the water was turnedon) it was usual then termed elevatorsor 'rdr elevatingwheels; whereas practicefor someoneto checkthe tailracefor blockages.The they werecalled raff or raft wheels d in Australia.Water wheels(made full length of tailrace tunnels were boxed so that the water- mainly from timber) were r bornetailings would not scourthe tunnel-surfacesand cause preferred for their simplicity, economy and reliability. collapses.The wastematerial Machinerywas sometimesdriven directly off the centralshaft ry wasusually discharged on to the :qt valleyfloor or into a river at thelower end. but usuallythe energywas transferredvia a circulartoothed rack bolted towardsthe circumference m trommel (rotary screen): a powered rotating cylindrical of the wheel. This engagedgearing on an intermediateshaft via which pulleys M sieve,of various sizes,for cleaningand sizing aurifereous nn and drive-beltstransfered the power to a battery gravelsor ore. The developmentof trommelsis perhapsbest or other machines.Although waterwheelscontinued m exemplifiedby their role on the steampowered btcket dredges to be used,they weregradually superseded by Peltonwheels and turbines. lr*s developedin New Tnaland in the 1880s for recovering !n- gold. (usually windsail: a canvassail suspendedfrom a pole adjacent auriferous Trommels called screenson gold to a ;:g shaft to divert fresh dredges)constituted an importantpart of the gold saving air into the shaft. Used on the arid &Es Australiangoldfields. apparatusand were a major componentof the machinery(a Tt.Ir@ few dredgesemployed vibratory screens). Spoil brought up by wing dam: low barriersusually made of stoneor timber for T1:IEI the buckefchainwas dischargedinto the upper end of the eitherdeflecting a streamso that it erodesits own banks,or for 'tTlt.m trommel.As the materialmoved down towardsthe lower end it the purposeof dewateringa portionof the streamchannel so it6f wassprayed with powerfuljets of waterfrom a pipelocated in thatit canbe workedin a dry state. :]s-iT 10 rh the TERMS ASSOCIATED F.dtuE5 of o lrPical avlng WITH HARD ROCK MINING t d'grmd qsdadin , t any ana d.6ih of a tb|.. Itoa adit (dive or drift): a horizontal or gently inclined tunnel I into driven from the surface(typically into a hillside or outcrop)for the purposeof intersectingor mining an ore body (Fig. 6). i:.. *'lsdft neans / ltlnd Adits were also driven to intersectshafts for the purposeof { see Nfirhtl ': don dewatering.Adits are usually drivenwith a slight inclinationto lbdfzn) ffil onant enableladen mine trucks to run downhill and out of the mine. The empty truck is then pushedback up to the work face. A slightslope also enables ground water to drainout of a mine. aerial ropeway (aerial tramway): a large-capacity,very Irther )elton economicalsystem for conveyingore or coal from a mine to a processing facility. Transportis effectedby meansof r\ the or storage (or fixed to an }utput steelbuckets aerial sftrps)suspended by carriers pulleyson pylons.The buckets rf the endlesssteel rope strungalong r.r'ere the upperend and .!tlow usuallyfilled manuallyfrom a chuteat emptiedautomatically at the lower end.Aerial tramwayswere e for I in most dorvn generallyconsidered superior to self-actinginclines required minimal surface rl1 to situations. Aerial systems readily,and duces preparation,could traverseundulating terrain more required much less maintenance.Aerial ropewaysare called 'flying foxes'in Australia;in New Z,ealand,'flyingfox' is used poslls to describea deviceprincipally usedfor crossingrivers. They consistof a seator cagesuspended from a pulley which runs g the along a cablestretched across the river.The userpulls the cage ldin acrossby haulingon ropessuspended below the cableway. |tsavy air receiver: large elongatedriveted steelvessel used to hold compressedair at a pressureof 9G-100psi. Like boilersthey ology If had to be certificatedand havea numberstamped on them. fu.fflldt,tffiso*v Brlfrkwrctlwll*v POSlte this numbercan be locatedthe history of the receiver(and of tMwtzn l of t@n qadz raf rould thereforepart of the site's history) can be raced through d- the \linistry of Transportboiler records.Air receiverswere Fig.6: Featuresof a typicalurulergrourul quartz mine (Moore and Ritchie illing. ;ommonly sited in a small building near a mine entrance. 1996:34). rcline Compressedair (theair-feed) was typically delivered via pipes to undergroundworkings at 90-100 poundsper squareinch engineersdeveloped a variant of the beam engine in which a den's and used to drive rock-drilLs, mechanical loaders, hoists, centrally pivoted arm supportsbeams on either side of it, as ice or \entilatingfans, and other machines, where it wasnot feasible opposedto the usual situationwhere the beamis pivotedfrom ought ro use,or wherethere was no provisionfor electricity.While its centrepoint. A fine working example of an Australian \Agre the efficiencyof compressedair is very low (c.20per cent),it enginecan be seenat SovereignHill, Ballarat,Vic. r hich \\as very versatileenergy form and assistedin ventilation, bearers (timber bearers): heavy horizontal beams, particularlyin deadends. sometimeshitched into the rock walls, used to support the versal air shaft: a shaft specifically driven to connect with timbering in a shaft, or support superimposedsets. Shaft .rride undergroundworkings to provideventilation. bearerswere usually installed every 30 feet. lerrcs attle: mullock, ie waste rock. A Comish term still used in Blondin: the name given to variousforms of aerial cableway. rnged South Australia to describemullock and/or crushedwaste The term is derived from Blondini, the famous tight-rope )\'er a rock.usually associated with coppermining. walker. Blondins were principally used for open-pit working, ls or from quarriesto anticline: the arch of a fold within strata. especiallyfor conveyingsolid blocks of stone dead- othersites. The Blondin erectedby the CoromandelGranite Co. or crosscut. erial, back: theoverhead ceiling or roofofa stope,drive to conveygranite from their quarry to their wharf at Paritu is a rel to backs(back reel): provenore reserves in a mine.Also usedin notable(but now demolished)New Zealandexample. Blondins Jrs 0r referenceto the thicknessof ore above a particularpoint usuallyrequired at leastone massiveset of sheerlegsor a pylon ,heels underground. from which a heavy counterweightwas suspendedto keepthe r* ere beam engine/pump:the steam-poweredbeam engine (or bob cable taut under load. Typically the cradle or carrier ran out bility. engine) was developedin Britain in the first half of the along a near-horizontalwire until it hit a stop,which tripped a shaft eighteenthcentury for dewateringmines. Over the next mechanismwhich automaticallylowered the suspendedload to othed 100 yearsnumerous refinements were patented.One variant, the ground. Blondins were often powered by elecuicity This the Cornishbeam engine, was usedextensively in tin mines. producedby a turbine locatedon a nearbywatercourse. ullel s Beamengines consist of a largelever (5 to 15 metreslong, ie other blow: large section of reef exposedon surface and usually the beamor bob) which transmitsthe motion impartedby a . they worked by opencasr methods. piston a connectingrod or pump rod or both.In the to either bob wall: the front wall of a Comish engine house,usually was to the SouthAustralian 1840sthe technology transferred about 1.5 to 2 metresthick, on which the beam (bob) was Itoa goldminesof Victoria.tsThe copper mines and on to the hingedby a gudgeon(hinge pin). : arid Westem Springspump at MOTAI, Auckland, is the most notablesurviving beamengine in New Zealand.Other former bonanza (jeweller's Dor): small patchesof ore or alluvial er for notableexamples were employed at the KawauIsland copper leadsof exceptionalrichness. or for mine, and on the No. 5 shaft at the Martha mine, Waihi. brace: landing platform on a headframeto which ore and rel so Substantialrernnants of the distinctiveComish pumphouses mullock are raised; usually the same height as the mullock still surviveat the lastmentioned locations. Australian mining dumpand mill entrance. lt buck reet name given to large quafiz reefs in which there is little or no gold or silver. cage: the car or carrier usedto hoist men and materialsup and downa shaft. caps: heavy timbers placedhorizontally on top of one or two vertical timbersQtrops) to supportthe roof of a drive or tunnel (seesets, lath, sill), or bord (seecoal mining terms). chamber: (l) a largecavern excavated as part of underground workings for the placementof pumps,engines, winding gear and other machinery;(2) the loading areaadjacent to theshaft on eachmine level; known as a plat (derivedfrom German)in theU.S.A. and Australia. chute (shoot):a channelcut in rock,or constructedof timber, via which ore waspassed from a higherto a lower levelin an undergroundmine, or outside it, e.g. from an adit portal to a groundtramway. collar: timbering, steelwork, concrete or masonry erected aroundthe entranceto a shaft, usually about the first 3 metres from the ground surfaceto a headframebrace, to reducethe risk ofthings falling downand prevent fretting ofthe entrance. collar height the height of the entrance(s)to an underground mine(specifically one accessed by a shafi)above sea level. Cornish pumphouse: (seebeam enginelpump,engine house) Distinctivetall structureswhich housedComish beam engines used for dewateringmines. The shell of the most notable Comish pumphousein New Zealand,is preservedadjacent to the Marthamine at Waihi, while otherssurvive at the copper minesat Moontaand Burra in SouthAustralia, andat theDuke I of Cornwallgold mineat Fryerstown,Victoria. il costean: a trench dug into the ground surface to find and ! exposequaraveins or orebodies. I Fig.7:DriJter drill riggedJbr drilling (McAra t988). country rock: a rock massenclosed or intersectedby lodes, tl veins,or reefs.Commonly the predominantrock type found in I a particulararea. drive: (sometimescalled a drift or adit| ahorizontalor slightly l cribbing: close settingof timber supports,used in locations inclined undergroundtunnel which is excavated(drifted. or I wherethe countryrocft is soft or very wet. driven)along the courseof a yeln.Drives (and other forms of I mining tunnels)have the following recognisedfeatures cross-cut:a tunnel drivenacross the courseof a reef.As shafts - a I roof, floor, face (work face),and walls (sidewalls). ,Drivine were sunkto new levels,cross-cuts were excavated to cut the north'refersto a tunnelbeing driven in a northerlydirection. I reefs approximatelyat right angles,after which driving was dump: I commenced in both directions along the reef. Further seemullock dump. I crosscuttingcontinued until the farthestreef was openedup. dyke (dike): an intrusive,often parallel sided, body ofigneous t[ Usuallyrises were cut to upperlevels from long cross-cutsto rock which cuts through pre-existingstrata. In the Thames I ensureadequate ventilation. Cross-cuts were also made to mining areathey were also calledhard bars. connect d adits on the samelevel.. enginehouse: a stmcturefor housingmine winding, hauling, I deepfeads: mineral veins at greatdepths in a mine(alluvial or andpumping engines. They are more likely to be calledpump- il hardrock) workedby 'deepsinking', ie excavatingdeep shafts. houses,if pumpingwas their predominantpurpose, or boiler- housesif they housed boilers. The masonry I developmentwork: tunnelling(driving), shaft-sinkingand ruins of the engine/pump-house(built in 1848)at theKawau Island associatedwork undertakento gain accessto reefs in order to copper I mine site is a notable commencestoping at variouslevels. New Zealandexample while good fr examplesare found in SouthAustralia at Burra and Moonta. t dredgingplant: seedefinition in alluvialsection. The terms engine-house,pump-house, winding-house, and ! drifter drill: a heavy pneumaticallydriven drill used for boiler-houseare often interchanged,depending on the interest rt drivingin hardground (Fig. 7). Drifter drills aremounted on a or emphasisof a particularwriter, e.g. all of theseterms are I verticalsteel column which is wedgedbetween the roof and used in referenceto the Kawau Island structurementioned I floor of a drive. As the face advanced, the drill was above.The brick boiler houseat the Big River mine on the periodicallyrepositioned. WestCoast is a notableexample of thatgenre. I fl dip: the inclination of shata or a vein measuredfrom the face: the working face of a drive or adit; ie the part to be T horizontalat right anglesto thestrike. Sometimes expressed as excavatednext. 5 so many feet horizontallyper so many feet vertically. fault (ioint): a sheerplane or fracturezone in a rock mass il dolly pot: colloquialname for a mortar and pestleused by wherethere has been displacement of the sidesrelative to one i ;irospectorsin the early days to powder piecesof ore, whici another.There are several kinds offaulting. m theythen panned to recoverthe gold. Ifthe gold wasvery fine filling shaft: (seegloryhole) a shaftfrom thesurface via which f{ they sometimesroasted the specimenon a shovelto bum out filf was conveyedor droppedto backfill stopes.Tl.rey usually sulphides,then powderedit and mixed it with mercury.The leavedeep circular depressions. . resulting amalgam was then heated in a retort which footwall (stepwall):,the massof rock on the undersideof an vapourisedthe mercury leaving the gold behind. inclinedfault planeor vein of ore. !f r2 IM ,%7/z ,'%,%"

Fig. 8: Horse-powered whim and ?t2 poppet head adjacent to a deep lead shaf mine at Rosson the WestCoast, 7z South Island, New Zealand (Department ,'u oJ Cons ervation coI lect ion, Westland ). '* '%, :_*:^ #b& //, 1& '7/U W:l' **- n: 7/' ..+ ,//t %'7//'/ '!!+-., v7' 'rt Francis turbines: high-volumewater-driven turbine usedto by a a single rope running round a bull wheel at the upperend //a powermachinery. of the incline,or two ropeswound in oppositedirections on to "//a '4t gadd: a smallrock wedgeor chisel. a winch drum, so that one was woundin while the otherwas paid out. Usually the top truck would be loadedfrom a storage gallery: sometimesused as a synonymto describea level or ,a, bin aboveit, and dischargeautomatically when it reachedthe drive in a mine, but usually more often refersto a stopedarca bottom. Then the processwould be reversed.Usually inclines * ithin theabove. % only had threerails, the middle one diverging to let the trucks gangue:usually used to describenon-metallic or low-value pass.The inclineson the Wairongomaigoldfield nearTe Aroha menllic mineralsin an ore,which areconsidered waste. are probably the most notable surviving examples in New gl,or1-hole:an opencastexcavation into which ore and/orrock Tnaland. 9rtly uas dumped,then takenby level and shaftto the surfacefor jackhammer: a hand-heldpercussive drilling machineused dor treatment,or to stopeswhere it wasused for backfill. mainly for down-drilling, e.g. foundationholes, or shaft- ns of gossan(oxidised zone): oxidisedrock overlyinga sulphide sinking,in mines. -a b'odr (seesuLphide zone\. jig (self actingincline tramway): seeabove. iving gpuge:to mineonly therichest portion mineral kibble (kibbal): (derived cn. of a deposit. from German kubel, a bucket)a bammer and tap: rock-drillingprocess usually involving two wooden or steel barrel-shapedcontainer used to haul ore or rrlen. one being responsiblefor holding and periodically water up from a mine. Usually used on small scalemining |eOUS rotating a hand-heldpercussion steel drill, while his mate ventures in associationwith a windlass. Larger capacity ilnes rnlermittentlystruck it with a heavyhammer to promotethe kibbles,known as 'sinkingkibbles', were used in conjunction dnllin_eaction. with poppet heads to sink main shafts. The barrel shape iling, minimisedthe catching of thelip on the sidesof the shaft. hanging wall: massof rock abovean inclinedfault planeor rmp- .tin of ore(seefootwall). lagging: secondarytimbers placedbehind the main timber >iler- supports in a shaft or drive to hold back rubble or loose i the hard bars: seedyke. countryrock. headframe: poppet PPCI alsoknown as heads.Thesteel or wooden laths: heavytimbers placed horizontally along the sidesof a good iramework erected (Fig. over a shaft 8). They had to be tunnel or drive betweenthe outer surfaceof theprops and the onla. srronglybuilt to withstandthe weightof the load beinglifted walls to preventrock (or coal)falling inwards. and ind thelateral stresses on thehead sheave (the massive narrow feader(feeder): A small erest grooved pulley over which the steel winding rope ran). ore-richveln extending from a larger one. s are Consequentlytheir design evolved over time. oned levels: Undergroundmines are establishedas a seriesof hoppers Qtaddocks):ore holding bins in both above-and r the horizontalworkings or levels which are usually numbered below-groundsituations. Stamp hoppers in large mills held from the surfacedown. In mines developedon quartz veins, rufflcientore for 24 hoursoperation. obe the levelsvaried from c.20 to 100 verticalmetres apart. The incline:(l) an inclinedunderground passage (see incline shaft). levels are connectedby vertical shaftsor steeply inclined Sometimesdescribed as a decline.(2) a slopingembankment passages(see rise and winze).In somemines sub-levels were mass on a rail or tramway. established.They were termedintermediate levels andusually ) one incline shaft (underlie or underlay): a principal entranceto a prefixedby thelevel number beneath. mine slopingat about45 degreesto follow the dip of an ore lode (reeJ):part ofan ore zoneor rock masscontaining several hich bodl'. veins spacedclosely enough so that they and the intervening ually incline tramways (self acting, jig): there were two basic rock canbe minedas one unit by driving,or stopingif thelode s\ stems employing two parallel sets of tram-tracksand is steeplyinclined. >f an utilisingthe weightof a loadedtruck going downwardto pull magazine: a secure ventilated structure or locker used for an empty truck up an adjacentline. This was achievedeither storingexplosives. t3 mineralisation: the presenceand distribution of minerals in prop: any wooden post or support used in underground * ore. The term is also used to describethe processor account workings. &l for the presenceand distributionof mineralsin ore. propylitic alteration: rock alteredby hydrothermalaction and * moil: pointed a heavy steelbar usedfor driving shot holes in containingminerals such as calcite,chlorite and quartz,the F soft ground. latter often being auriferous. tu mucking: removal of blasted-downore from a face or stope. prospecting trench (costean): a trench excavated in an t The menand machines who do this work arecalled 'muckers'. outcropor rock masswith a view to prospectingor locatinga q mullock: an old Comish mining term used to describe the reef. q waste rock from a mining operation. Whereas the ore is pump-house: a building housing pumps for dewateringa t stockpiledand treatedto recoverminerals, mullock (aule in mine. The ruins of the Kawau coppermine's engine/pump- I South Australia) is the barren material which is deemednot houseand the Marthamine's Comish pumphouse at Waihi are I worth treating.It is usually dumpedin radiating heapsbelow a the two pre-eminentsurviving examplesin New Znaland, F mine drive, or theshafts accessing underground mines, or used while good examplescan be found in South Australia at t to backfill stopes. Moontaand Burra. (hitches): F notches indentationsexcavated in the roof or walls quartz: a hard denseform of silica commonly occuringas ft of a mine drive to securesupporting timbers. veins in countryrock. Quartzveins or reefsare of economic t open-cut (opencast): method of mining where a lode or ore significanceif they contain large concentrationsof desired ]! body outcropsat or near the surfaceand can be mined without mineralssuch as gold, silver, or mica.As quartzis theultimate resortingto underground source methods.With modem machineryto of mostalluvial and reef gold, exposed quartz reefs are -[il efficiently remove the overburden it is now possible to soughtand sampledto ascertainthe presenceof gold, other cr& opencast mine to much deeper levels than in the past. soughtminerals and their concentrations. q Commonlyused to mine stockworksystems. rake/rakeline: a rake refersto a string of ore-truckshauled by I ore: a naturalmineral deposit of variouselements. The term is a mine locomotive or horses. The Waihi Gold Mining d usually used in situationswhere at least one elementis a Company's Waihi-Waikino rakeline is the pre-eminent E sought-aftermetal, e.g. gold. An ore-body(ore reserve) may be exampleof its type in New Zealand. f workedif testsindicate that there is enoughmetal-ore in it so raise (rise): a verticalshaft excavated upwards from a lower E thatit is economicallyfeasible to work. passage. P outcrop: a location where a lode, r reef, or stratumis exposed reef: often used synonymously with lode. Prominent on the naturalground surface. I concentrationsof quartz(or othermineraliferous) veins within oxidised zone (gossan):the upper part of an ore-body which countryrock. I has beenaltered by oxygenand weathering,usually f with the rising: upwards excavation(a rise) involving the use of loss or chemical modification of some of the mineralisation. rl stronglybuilt compartmentalisedtimber-structures known as cf. sulphidezone. serswhich servedas a working surfaceand temporaryore bin. # paddock (hopper):box-shaped wooden ore storagebins (also Riseswere about 2.5 metresby 1.2metres in sectionand might d seealluvial mining definition of paddock). extendfrom one level to another(c.50 metres)or from a stoDe ]E paddocked one:stored or stockpiledore. to the levelabove. Pelton wheel:the inventionof Louis Peltonof Comptonville, rock-drills: a genericterm for a range of compressedair- -r Califomia,the Pelton wheel was the culminationof a 3O-year drivendrills usedto boreholes for explosives. q questto designa betterwater wheel. Pelton designed a wheel sets: pre-cuttimber framesused for proppingthe sidesand lDl|- with small replaceablecups or buckets regularly spaced roofs of drives. Typically sets are placed 4 feet apart. More {6il around its outsidecircumference. It was driven by a high sophisticatedsquare-frame sets were used to provideworking pressurejet of water (usuallyunder a headof 80 feet or more) surfacesduring stoping (see rising). { which struckthe buckets,tuming the wheel and the shafting !5 shaft: a verticalor nearvertical passage to provideaccess from attached to it. Pelton wheels (many were manufacturedin r- the groundsurface to undergroundlevels, or from onelevel to Thames, others were manufactured and imported from u another.The shaftsof establishedmines were usually timbered Australia,England, and the United States) were widely usedin (especiallyin unstableground) and usually subdividedinto I the early daysof goldminingto drive batteriesand providea three sections. Typically two were used as winding a@ cheap form of power. The speed,therefore the power of a compartments/haulage ways for lift cages(or a bosun'schair), Peltonwheel, could be regulatedby a deflector(if fitted)or by and the third containeda ladderwayas well as drainageor d adjustingthe incoming water flow. rrd ventilationpiping etc. The division of the shaft into two or picked I stone:rich piecesof ore, e.g. quartzpicked out for more compartmentsalso createdan unevenairflow (the air gold TU showing or assaying. rising in onesection and sinking in the other(s)which assisted plat seechamber. ventilationand helpedprevent the formationof foul air (air "iE popper drill: with little or no oxygen). 'uf& a relatively light drill mounted on T3EI pneumatically-operatedtelescopic leg; used for boringholes in shaft collar (collar height): the height of the entrance to a r- an upwarddirection (see drifter drill). mine shaftabove sea level or a local datum. The collar refered rfm portal: surfaceentry to an adit (drive)or tunnel.In mining,the to the frameworkaround the neck of the shaft. term is usually used in referenceto the main entrancesto shoot (chute)'.see chute ur undergroundmines, \"fih or the timberedor masonryentrances to sill: heavytimbers set into the groundor floor of a tunnelor adits/drives. ! il,t drive to hold supportinglegs (props)apart. The useof sills is riarf poppet head: seeheadframe (poppet head is distantly derived generallyrestricted to areaswhere considerable pressures are from puppet,ie. a thing manipulatedby linesfrom above). presenton the sidewallsof a tunnel.A sill is alsoa geological rl[T powerhouses:the buildings at a mine or battery where the term usedto describea massof igneousrock intrudedbetween .BS main switchgearand otherrock types. controlswere situated.Originally the il-t term appliedto generating actualon-site equipmentsuch as sink, sinking: the processs,usually aided by explosives,of :1|e'*:t producer-gasplants, or coal-fired steamturbines. excavatingshafts for accessto lowerlevels in mines. -:r, Iu l4 round skimps: a Comish term for tailings, only used in South often allowed to work sectionsof mines that were no lonser Australia. viablefor companies. o and skip (ore skips,handcarts, trucks): smallrail-mounted, side trucking: the loading of ore from stopesor elsewherein a z- the or end-tippingore carts used for conveyingore or mullock mine and its transportto processingsites. When trucked, ore is from a workfaceto the surfaceof a mine.The men who pushed conveyedin woodenor steeltrucks (skips, rnbs). See tramway. them were called truckers.The man ore bucketsattached to aerial tunnel: the term tunnel originatesfrom Comish miners who ropewaysare known as buckets or aerial (see ting a skips aerial referredto an adit or drive as a tunnel.Strictly speakingan adit ropeway). doesnot becomea tunneluntil it is driventhrough a rock mass, rng a sludgechannel: see definition in alluvialsection. e.g. a ridge or an ore body, enablingfree passagethrough it. rImp- stationary engine: term coveringall typesof steamengine tunnelling: essentiallythe sameas driving. The excavationof hi are mountedon a foundationto provide a fixed energysource for tunnelVaditsto gain accessto leadsin alluvium,or to enable rland, pumping,winding, and driving machinery. haulage, or the passage of water (in races) through lia at steels:the rods or drills usedfor boringholes with theaid of a consolidatedground or hard rock. The roofs of tunnelsthrough pneumaticdrill, or a handdrill operatedby a sledgehammer in weak ground were generally supportedwith timber props. ng as Ae caseof lhe hammer and tap method.Explosives are then Some timbers, e.g. red beech (on the West Coast) were romic placedin the holesand detonatedto breakout the work face favouredbecause of their tendencyto talk, ie makedistinctive Esired ;rndadvance the drive or shaft. squeakingnoises when nearing the point ofcollapse. imate stock, stockwork: country rocft containing so many fine underlie (or underlay): Australianterms for an incline shafi. 'fs are srringersor veinlets that it may be more economicalto vein (lode): a generalterm for a narrowbody of ore with depth other .\cavateand crush all therock ratherthan the veinlets alone. andlength but relativelysmall thickness. stope:an undergroundexcavation from whichore is extracted, whim (whimsies): strictly speakingany devicefor winding up led by usuallyabove or belowa driveor workinglevel. The processis a rope, but normally used to describea vertically mounted tining ;alled stoping.Once the ore body has been removedthe winding drum (poweredby a horsewalking round it) usedfor ninent resultantchamber is sometimesdescribed as stopedout. The raising ore from a mine. As the horse moved a rope passing shape of a stope,which is ofteninclined, depends on thewidth, over a pulley suspendedabove the shaftgradually wound on to hei_ehtand extent lo*'er of an ore body. Timber sets are used to the drum, which in tum elevatedthe suspendedload. Field provideworking platforms when stopingsteeply inclined reefs evidenceof the existenceof a whim is usually in the form of lodes (see str.r//s).Stopes were often backfilled with ninent 'rr flat circular areas(c. l0 to 15 metresin diameter),often marked This materialis describedas stope-fillings. * irhin -tullock. by a shallow circular depressionwhere the horse walked, and strike: thedirection or bearingof a seam,vein, fault etcwith a occasionallytimber or steelremnants of the winding drum at :,.rizontalsurface at the pointof intersection.The strikeof the the centrepoint. rse of Whims were also usedfor hauling ore up or :,rr.intnrock is usuallymentioned in relationto the angleof down incline tramways, uTl as and for lifting pumprodsout of shafts :.: ol a vein. when servicingCornish engines. re bin. Two whims of unconventional form wereused for hauling might stringers: fine and often convoluted offshoots of the main coal to fire steamboilers at theAjax (approximately quartz mine neer . stope :netalIiferous reefs synonymouswith veinlet). Reefton on the West Coast. The sulls: wooden props cut to fit and placed acrossa stope to archaeologicalevidence indicates the winding drums were positionedin an excavatedwell beneaththe horsetrack, rather d air- ::;rent the sidewalls from collapsingor sloughingoff, or to lrsFrort a platform for the ore to land on when overhand than abovethe horsesas is the moreusual situation. q:{in,g.ie miningupwards from a particularlevel, as opposed whip: a structurecontaining a pulley mountedover a shaft.A :s and :: vnderhandmining (ie excavatingdownwards from a floor roperunning over the pulley was attachedto a horse.When the \Iore .:rel t. horse was led away from the shaft, it pulled suspendedloads xking sulphide zone: the unweathered,usually larger and deeper up the shaft. The term is also used to describe a rnn of a mineraldeposit. The ore in a sulphidezone is usually counterbalancedpole used to lift washdirt or sterile material s from :.:rder and more difficult to treat than that in the oxidisedzone from smallalluvial workings. :r'el to :.33rthe surface. winch: usedfor hoisting materialsand winze-sinking.Usually rbered srmp/sumphole: the base of a mine shaft where water poweredby small,reciprocating, compressed-air engines. ,J into .a;,-umulatesand from which mine water is removed by rnding winding engine/gear: steam or electric engines installed :umping or a drainageadir. Sumpsat the baseof a shaftalso :hair), adjacentto the main shaftsin undergroundmines to raise and :nabledthem to be drainedby the use of speciallydesigned rge or lower the cages which conveyed men and materials to the ::iling buckets.These were lowered down a shaft using the uo or various levels. Since the lives of the miners dependedon the i rnder.When the bucketreached the water-filledsump, its fie air winders,they had to be maintainedto a high standard,and the :3-- openedautomatically, allowing it to fill. On lifting the ;sisted drivershad to be certificated.Many windingengines had two :a-.eclosed, enabling a full load of waterto be broughtto the Lir (air winding drums, so that one cagecounterbalanced the other. >urfacewhere the bucketwas triggeredagain and its contents Substantialremains of winding gear on old mining sites in :efeasedinto a drain.Also seesump in processingsection. New Zealandare now limited to the Big River and Inglewood etoa tailings:from hardrock mining,refer definition in processing mines (Murray Creek goldfield) on the West Coast. In elered Australia examples survive on the Croydon goldfield in -.-cIion. tram/tramway: narrowgauge lines (c.450 to 600 millimetres) Queensland.r6See also definition of enginehouse. rith a level or gentledownhill gradientalong which trucks windlass: a wooden roller with a crank at one end mounted mel or * ould be pushedone at a time by a miner,or pulledin rakesof over a shaft. When the crank was tumed it wound up a rope sills is tralf a dozenor more by a horse,depending on weight and attachedto a kibble and consequentlylifted the latter out of a lBS are distance.The act of haulingore away from a stopeis called shaft. logical rramming or trucking. Aerial ropeways are sometimes winze: a generallysmall-section vertical or steeplyinclined rn[een Jescribedas aerial trams. shaft or passageexcavated from one level to another in tributers: miners who work a section of an ore body undergroundworkings usually along the line of a reef.Winzes ,es. of t'elongingto a companyon their own account,and pay as do not reach the surface, and were usually excavated rovaltya percentageof the valuethey recover.Tributers were downwardsfrom an upperlevel to a lowerone. r5 TERMS ASSOCIATBDWITH PROCESSING amalgamating tables (gold tables, or tables): surfaces ORE TO RECOVBRTHE METAL CONTENT coveredwith copperor Muntz sheeting(see Muntz metal) for amalgamatinggold particleswith mercury.Those associated agitation: generally refers to the agitation of slimed ore in with stamper batteries were relatively small whereas variousforms of agitationvessels (such as vats or B & M talt amalgamatingtables associated with beach sluicing claims tanks), either to keep it in suspensionor to circulate or (particularlyon the West Coast)were often quite extensive. oxygenate it, particularly with regard to dissolving the One at Charlestonwas 102 feet long and covered with preciousmetal content.Compressed air was used to agitate 816 squarefeet of coppersheeting (Faris 1941:177).Small pulverisedgold-ores because it increasedthe efficiencyof the mobiletables using either plush or copperamalgamating plates cyanideamalgamation process (see cyanide process). wereused for black-sanding(see definition in alluvialsection). alloy: a compoundmixture of two or more metals. amalgamatingdrums: mostly used on West Coastalluvial amalgam; when mercury (quicksilver)is added to finely claimsto assistin the separationof extremelyfine gold and crushedquartz containing fine gold it createsa mixture (an blacksandtrapped on blanket tables.This materialtogether amalgam)of gold and other precious metalswhich are then with a quantityof mercurywould be put into a drum mounted separated,usually by retorting ofl the mercury. on an axle androtated by meansof a smallovershot or pelton amalgamating: processby which fine gold was recoveredby wheel. Severalhours of tuming would ensure the gold passingit over mercury-coated,copper amalgamating plates. amalgamatedwith themercury and could later be retofted. The fine gold amalgamatedon the plateslaid on tables (see arrastra: the mostelementary form of crushingplant. Earliest amalgamntingtables) extendingout from the mortar boxes forms consistof boulders(mullers) dragged round a paved I below the stampsin batteries,or extensivetables erectedon circular gutter by a horsedrawnswinging arm. Later they beachsluicing or blacksandingsites. The gold was periodically consistedof fixed circular pans in which crushedore was I collected by retorting the amalgam.Amalgamating was also further ground by poweredrevolving weightstogether with ,l doneto someextent in grindingpans, e.g. Berdans (Fig. 9). mercury (for amalgamating) and water. Chilean mills and I Berdanpans areslightly moreadvanced devices based on the I same principle. Arrastras,used extensivelyin the United I States,seem to havefound little favourin Australasia.There is RAILEYS PATENT i GNINDI NGSD AMALCAMATINC PAN no record of the usage of horse-drawnarrastras in New ,| FOR GOLD AND SILYER ORES T,ealandand few reportsof theirusage in Australia. n assay:the processof determiningthe gold and silvercontent of ore.Usually about 4O0 grams of pulverisedore was melted : with fluxesin a crucible-fumace,then the resultant lead button I wascupelled (see cupellation) in a mffie-furnaceuntil all the I basemetals were absorbedor vapourised.The bead which il remainedconsisted of gold and silver.This was weighedand the silverparted in hot nitric acid which was thenpoured off, ; leavingjust pure gold. This was reweighed,the difference being the weight of the silver fraction.The quantitieswere il calculatedin ounces,pennyweights and grains per ton. 1 B & M tanks (tanlrs,conical tanks, pachucas):tall tanks tl (usuallymade of steel,sometimes concrete or wood) usedin ! the cyanideprocess (Fig. l0). Compressedair was forced I throughthe conical bases of the tankscreating a powerfulair- I lift which agitatedand aerateda chargeof finely crushedore t (slimesor pulp) andpotassium cyanide for aboutfive days(see Fig. 9: Diagram of Railey's Putent Grinding arul Amalgamuring pan agitation).The tankswere designedand patentedin 1902by 1 gold for treating arul silver ores (Annual Journal of the House oJ' C. F. Brown, GeneralManager of the Komata Reefs Gold t!f! RepresentativesI 887 Vol.l , Section C5, oppositep. 72). Mining Companynear Paeroa. The concreteand steel remains I

I

't1,i u "t.,' eiYw;"4 "F , itrtt r'--i:;4Y il

T I 5 Fig. I0: Puchucatutks 't!l (ulso knownas Brown agitators, afer the *, inventor, or cyanide *i ugitutiontanks) ut the r ew Victoria huttery site, Wuikino, North Island, w la Nex' Zealand (N. ,/t: ,,,:b.gtf;,. Ritchie ). n ''*l: I' Ttx "'3.d:,:; '1i

lr

4 :I3CCS of the B & M tanksat the Victoriabattery site, Waikino, and rrtbr theconcrete tanks at the Union batterysite at Waihihave been riated classifiedB by theNew ZealandHistoric Places Trust. :ireas ball mill: usedto describecylindrical mills wherethe length is hims less than or roughly equal to that of the diameter(see tube :lslVe. nriil). Initially developedfor relativelycoarse grinding, when * ith *s usedin conjunctionwith classifersthey were often employed i4 *"* "" Small for fine grinding.The ore,usually wet but sometimesdry, was a rlates pulverisedby the actionof steelballs (from I to 4 inchesin *Nii; diameterinitially) tumbling within the revolving cylinder :ur ial supportedon hollow trunnions.The feed was fed in through .trand the trunnionat one end and dischargedat the othereither by r3Iher :r erflowing,or throughpowered discharge gates. unted general metals )t basemetal: namefor chemicallyreactive such iton .. lead.copper and zinc, as opposed to theprecious or 'noble' gold ::tals suchas gold andplatinum, which areless reactive. l. battery: seestamper battery. 'lliest :ai ed beneficiate:the processingof oresto regulatethe sizeof the rhey :roduct, remove unwanted constituents,and improve the : \\AS :uality. purity or assaygrade. In essence,the concentrating 'nith .rJ preparationof ore for smelting. i and Berdan (pan): a frame-mountedinclined revolving cast iron ,r, rn the :isin between0.6 and 1.25metres in diametercontaining a * .'nited ::.rr v steelweight (sometimesa piece of stonewas used) :3rals rrur\\n dSa muller(Fig. I I ). The slow revolvingaction causes if ;r"n i, \ew lrl muller to finely grind the ore, particularlyconcentrates. $41ail i' ..;, 3lrdan's 'Gold-orePulveriser, Washer and Amalgamator' was l.ntent -.:ented in new York in i852. Early modelswere over j,;. xlted I :retresin diameter,were heated,and had multiplemullers. _',i.rtton 3:rJans becamepopular for fine grindingafter cyaniding was Fig. I l: A row ol sevenberdans at the Invinciblemine site,Rees Valley, rll the ". ::l) adopted.Mercury was added to the Berdansto form an central Otalao,South Island, Nev'Zealand (N. Ritchie). .rhich :* :.{.rm rviththe finely groundgold (ie theycould be usedfor J and ..--.:r srinding or amalgamatingor both). Berdanswere -1 nff ::nmonll erectedin parallelin the largercrushing batteries. blast furnace: the origins of blast furnacetechnology are :rance l::i rrere widely usedin New Tnalanduntil earlythis century obscurebut theyare generally thought to havebeen developed \\ efg :--.: :heir remainsare relativelycommon on old mining sites. in what is now Northem Europe before AD 1400. Many -: s.'riesof sevenmounted Berdan pans at the Invincible innovationsand associatedterminology (beyond the scopeof -- -. this glossary;refer chapterson iron and steel in industrial trnks :lre nearGlenorchy in CentralOtago is oneof thefinest archaeologytexts) have occurred in blastfurnace technology :, -i.rSeramples in NewTnaland. in over the ensuingcenturies, one of the mostnotable occurring --d Blake crusher: to reducethe cost of pulverisingores to a :orced in 1709at Coalbrookdale,Shropshire, when AbrahamDarby (either jaw gyratory) .rl air- rock crushers or were perfectedthe techniqueof smeltingiron ore with coke,rather -.::mum. :d ore ::.:lo1ed to crush the ore initially, as thesewere the most than charcoal.Blast furnaces enabled much greaterquantities (see s :: rnomical machinesthat were availablefor this purpose. of iron andother metals to be producedbecause they could be ':luruS machineswere used in New Zealandincluding Giant, chargedcontinuously with oreand charcoal or cokewhich was Gold .''-":ge.Lamberton and the Blake-Marsden,but for efficiency, fed into the top of the fumace and gradually descended nains :: r:om\'. and durability, the latter (the 'Blake-Marsden throughit. In theprocess water and other volatiles were driven 1-.'.:riser', morecommonly known as the Blakecrusher) was off in the uppersection, and the ore was reducedto flowing ..-i:l) recognisedas the optimum machine.Blake-type metal.The efficiencyof the processwas greatlyenhanced by ::r>hers rverereciprocating-action machines, which crushed blowingair into the fumace(originally by bellows)because it .:: t'1 direct pressurebetween a fixed plateand a swinging reactedwith the charcoal/cokeand increasedthe rate of the .... Thel'had one major disadvantage compared with gyratory reductionof the ore. Earthy impuritiesfused to form a slag, ::-rhirs in that the latter produceda more consistentsize which togetherwith the moltenmetal was funnelled down into ::r\luct which was the ideal for furtherprocessing. Gyratory a hearth in the base of the furnace, where the densermetal :::>herswere also less prone to gettingfeed blockages. accumulatedat the bottom with the slag overlying it. blanket tables:after crushing(in a battery)the pulp (fine|y Periodicallythe moltenmetal could be tappedoff andcast (see ::-.hed rock andore) was passed over eitheramalgamoting or pig iron). .:.-\ :.:nketrng tables,or both sequentially.Blanket tableswere bfistercopper: produced ina converterduring the last stage of 1ta ,.::rlar to amalgamatingtables but weresurfaced with plushor a conventionalsmelting process,blister copper,'the end ::iFet 'blankets'.The heavy metal content settledor was product of smelting copper sulphides,consists of a black :"pped in the weave.The blanketswere periodically removed blistery porous matte. This nearly pure copper requires ld *ashed in tubs to recoverconcentrates. Most of the rehningbefore it canbe usedcommercially. :l.rnketsused in N.Z. mills weremanufactured by theMosgeil blowers: powerfulfans usedto createthe jet of air injected :.,irc) \\'"rollenMills near Dunedin,especially for mill use. The into blastfumaces. (2 :.rtenalcost l2 shillingsper yard yardswide) and had to be buddle: namegiven to a rangeof deviceswhich usea sloping ::placedevery three months. surfaceto separateparticles of differentdensities from a slurry. blanketings:heavy metals trapped in the blanketson blanket The most common form, known as a round buddle or round :,;bles. table,used the centrifuge principle and a circulatingwater flow t7 in addition to gravity. The water sprayswashed the finely complex ores (mundic, refractory, or pyrite ores): ores groundmetal residues and other impurities into launders,bul containingseveral mineral sulphides and requiringa seriesof the separationwas achieved by gravity. They were often used treatmentsto separateand recover the precious metal portions. for reprocessingtailings dischargedfrom battery sites. One concentrates: processedfinely-crushed ore buddlecould concentratethe ore from ten stamps. containing a mixtureof metallicsulphides and heavy desired metals such as bullion: commonlyused to describebars of semi-refinedeold gold andsilver (see concentrating). or silver.Sometimes used in a more specificsense, e.g. lold concentrating:the processof separatingthe heavy fraction of bullion or silver bullion. The term is also usedas a general the pulverisedore from the lighter material.Machines for namefor the metal productof a smelter,e.g. lead,cast into concentratingwere called concentrators.WitJtey tables, jigs, ingotsor bars.Bullion usuallyrequires further refining before andbuddles were threeof the main it canbe usedcommercially. typesof concentratorsused in New Znaland,. calcining:same process as roasting. concentration: refers to methods used to increase the Chilean Mill: the earliestform of ChileanMills likety to be proportion of economic metal by pre-crushingore and found on Australasiangoldfields consistof a circular trench mechanicallydiscarding the barren rock particles before around which a large steel cappedwheel was pulled by a smelting.Concentration is usuallydone with basemetal ores to horse,in so doing crushingquartz placedin the trough.A reducethe volume of materialthat has to be smeltedand similartechnology is commonlyused for puggingclay in the consequentlylower smelting costs. brickmakingindustry. The crushedquartz dust was washed cone separators:large diameter cones (c.15 feet in diameter) awaywhile theheavier freed gotd particlesaccumulated in the usedto separate(ie classify)the coarseand fine fractionsof base of the trough from which they were periodically pulverised ore (sand and slimes)after the concentrateshave recovered.Traditional Chilean mill sitesare quite common on passedover Wilfleytables.Tlte lighter fraction was lifted by an someof the Australiangoldfields, e.g. Victoria.The authors upcurrentof water through the invertedcone and creamedoff are unawareof the existenceof any traditionalChilean mill via an annular launder around the top perimeter.Larger sitesin New Zealand.Modem Chileanmills are ore-milline particleswere washedout via a nozzle in the bottom of ihe machinesconsisting of a revolvingiron pan in which ore ii coneinto intermediatesand vats, where they drained,prior to crushedby two vertically mounted wheels which revolve being shovelled into larger concrete sand-trearment againstthe baseof thepan. vats (usuallyin a tankshed). chlorination: usually refers to the Freiberg chlorination conicaltanks: seeB & M tanks. processby which metalsare leachedout of crushedore in a converter: a machine,usually chlorinesolution. The processwas developedby Carl plattner a steelcylinder which can be rotatedto differentpositions for charging, in 1858.trBarrel chlorination,in which bleachpowder and pouringslag and pouringmetal, which is employedin acid were addedto a cylinderof crushedore, was the most the lastpart of thecopper smeltingprocess. Converters commonmethod. Although chlorination was usedextensively are lined with firebrickswhich areconsumed in the processand have overseas(especially in the UnitedStates), it wassoon dropped to be replacedregularly. The processinvolves mixing moltencopper produced, in favour of cheaper pan amalgamation technology, and matte in a blast fumace with silica. A powerful eventuaffycompletely superceded by theadvent ofthe cyanide air blast is blown throughthe mixturefor an houror so until the process.Only onecompany in New Z.ealandis knownto have coppersulphide is oxidised to copper metal. The productsproduced usedchlorination. In 1898Progress Mines Ltd. at Reeftonon in a converterare slag andblister copper,the latterhaving theWest Coast established a chlorinationplant but only usedit a copper contentof 99 percent or more. for a few years before adopting cyanidisation.The latter technology had many advantagesover chlorination.The crucibles:pots for meltingor smeltingsubstances in a fumace. cyanideprocess enabled the recovery of silverand other metals Usuallyceramic . which could not be achievedwith chlorination.The latter crusher: various machines for breaking down rock by processrequired one tonne of chemicals(mainly bleaching crushingit. SeeHuntingdon mill, jaw crusher,Blake crusher, powder)to treatabout l4 tonnesof ore,whereas one tonneof roller crusher. Three stages of crushing are generally cyanide and zinc would treat 100 tonnes of ore. The recognised-primarycrushing employing jaw crushers or chlorinationprocess also required pre-roastingof the ore, stonebreakers;secondary crushing employing batteries necessitatingthe installationof fumacesand the purchaseof (stamps);and tertiary crushingor grinding usingBerdans and fuel.18The Newbury-Vautinchlorination process was widely othergrinding machines. usedin Australia,Chlorinated tailings are a (ferric brick red crushing rolls: pairsof powerfulsteel rollers used to crushore oxide)colour.te andflux to a uniform small particle size before the material classifierVclassifying-boxes:a wide varietyof machinesused goes into a smeltingfumace. Particularly used prior to the to separate(classify) the coarserparticles of pulp. In larger smeltingof basemetal ores to increasethe efficiencyof the plants classifierswere arrangedin successivegroups, each smeltingprocesss. refining the pulp a further step. Classifyingprocesses are often cupel: a small ceramicbowl made of specialheat resistant alternatedwith concentratingprocesses in a mill because claysused for refininggold. The processknown as cupellation concentrationworks moreefficiently with particlesof uniform (seedss4)). I size. cupellation:part of the processof assaying. cleaning up: periodiccollection of gold trappedon blanket ! cyanide process:the McArthur-Forrestcyanide process was I tables, or other alluvial gold catching devices,e.g. from patentedby Scottishchemists in 1887.The patentrights were stamperbattery mortarboxes where cleaning up referredto the held by the CasselGold ExtractionCompany. In 1889the first I recoveryof concentratesfrom sands;also used to describethe actualfield test in the world was conductedby New Zea\and periodic separationof amalgamfrom, for example,the copper Crown Mines Company at Karangahake plateson amalgamatingtables. on behalf of the Cassel Company.2o11't. introduction of cyaniding on a coke: (see coke in sectionon coal mining). the usual and commercialscale was a revolutionaryworld first,enabling low preferred fuel for base metal smelting. lf Jote was in short gradeores to be workedprofitably and 90 percent of the gold supply,coal, firewoodand charcoalwere sometimesused in and about 50 per cent of the silver to be recoveredfrom all smelters. gradesof ore.The methodologygave a tremenclousimpetus to l8 : ores the Ohinemuri mines. Within a few years it was widely ries of adoptedby many goldmining companiesin New Tealandand nions. overseas.It was first usedin Australiain 1892,but became (in mga especiallypopular after the patentrights expiredin 1897 uchas which year the New Traland governmentacquired the patent rightsfrom theCassell Company). In thebasic process, finely- pulverisedore (lessthan 200 meshsize) is submittedto the donof actionof a dilute potassiumcyanide solution (by percolation es for throughit) for approximatelyfive daysin a tank.The pregnant ; iio c cyanidesolution was then drawnoff (by vacuumfiltration in s used more advancedplants) and passedthrough wooden boxes where the gold and silver contentprecipitated (as a black € the sludge) on zinc shavings,after which the solution was a and recirculated.Later it wasfound that the processworked more before effectivelyif compressedair was usedto agitatethe solution, res to o\ygen andwater being an essentialpart of theprocess. Many d and of the largernorthem mills in New Zealand,e.g. the Crown andVictoria, did mostof theirgold-saving by cyaniding. nEter) The cyanideprocess enabled so much extra gold to be ons of recoveredthat it becameeconomic to re-processold tailings. ; have In Australiavirtually all the old tailingswere re-treated about iby an the turn of the century, and many were done again in the Fi14.12: A Challenge Ore Feeder,one of a number of similar rypesof pd off 1930s.These episodes often representthe most conspicuous machinery for feeding a consistentllow oJ ore into batteries and other [-ar_ser lvidence on gold mining sites. Cyanide tailings are a types oJ crushing or grincling machinery (Davies I 894). of the .-haracteristicbone-white colour. Timber work within cyanide rior to preserve well iron corrodesrapidly.zt tailingstends to very but thehopper is rotatedin shortjerksby a bevelgear, actuated by t vats process madeit economicalto The adventof the cyanide also a striking mechanismattached to the battery camshaft,thus wheretailings from batteries Jred-eeriverine and marineareas spilling the ore on it into the mortar box at regular intervals. treatment.See hadbeen discharged to submitthem to cyanide When the level of the ore in a mortar box dropped,the stamper plant. ;an be Jredging shafttappet would move more distancewhich by meansof the :g and cl.anide tanks (leaching vats): wooden,steel or concrete abovemechanism caused the feeder to dischargemore ore. ':nks :opper used for containmentof pulp undergoingcyanide The principal self-feedersused in Australasiawere the *'hich l33tment. Challenge,Tulloch, Roller and Hendy ImprovedChallenge ularly. distributer: a multi-armeddevice (similar in principleto a suspensionfeeder. Archaeological evidence of feedersis often rced in :ient garden sprinkler)which distributespulp evenly into difficult to definebecause the machinesconsist of manysmall blown 4anide tanks. and not readily identifiablecomponents within a wooden rlphide dressinlo dress: processof sorting ore into its various framework. Once the latter has decomposed the steel lina :rrnponents,usually by mechanicalmeans, e.g. vannersor componentsare freed and tend to get scatteredabout a site. ropper i.:j,tlt tables. There are now few substantially intact feeders on historic mining sites in New Zealand.The Blacks Point Museum Ihright-Lloyd sintering plant: a plantdesigned to roastlead llnace. battery near Reeftonhas a working Challengefeeder, as does :s-:s before smeLting,consisting of an endlessbelt which the Hauraki ProspectorsAssociation battery at Thames.There palletsof ore throughan ignition fumaceand 'iosll carried is a substantiallycomplete Challenge feeder at the Big River ck by --l'lenunder a strongair blast to oxidise the sulphurbefore mine nearReefton, and rernnantsof feeders(of unknowntype) rusher, g ly. r Ir* hargi n automatical at the Mount Greenlandmine near Ross and at the Brittania rrrally dut: abbreviationfor pennyweight.A pennyweightequals mine north eastof Westport. a/.t or '-1grains. 480 grainsequal one troy ounce. rneries flotation: method of mineral separationin which a froth as and Edrr.ardsRoaster: a roasterdeveloped in Ballarat,Victoria, createdin water by variousreagents floats somefinely crushed -:.rout 1897 for the continuousroasting of gold ores. It mineralswhich wereskimmed off, while otherssank and were :.rnsistedof a long steelchamber heated by a fumacebeneath, drained off. Flotation, virtually the last word in fine gold rsh ore ,:r *hich a thin layer of crushedore was agitatedand moved savingtechnology, was undertakenin flotation cells. It was nrerial .-ug by mechanicalrabbles. On the Chillagoegoldfield in first used on a large scale to treat silver-leadores at Broken ro the Srnsland and at other Australianmines Edwards roasters Hill in 1896,and subsequently has become almost universal in of the i:re usedto treatlead ore sulphides. base metal plants.It was also extensivelyused in Western feeder(ore feederor self-feeder):a machineconsisting of a Australiato treatdifhcult telluridegold ores.Flotation has not sistant ::orage hopper and an intermittentlytriggered discharging been usedextensively in New 7.ea\and.A notableexample of 'llation rechanismfor feedinga regulatedamount of ore(or coal)into its use here was in the later plant at the Blackwatermine, i sranperbattery or othercrushing device. Regularity of feed Waiuta,West Coast. :nro crushingmachinery is critical for the maintenanceof a flue: (l) an enclosedchannel for conveyingheat (hot ai1and is was .tladv throughput, effective crushing, and minimising noxiousgases) from a smelteror fumace;a long brick or steel 5 \\'ere ::echanicalwear on the machineryfrom uneven running. stnrcture(often built againsta slope)to producean up-draught he first \\}en large quantitiesof ore piled up in a mortar box, it to increasethe efficiency of a smelting fumace or oven, or to (almost .ealand --ushionedthe fall of thestamps, impairing their movement and improvemine ventilation.A flue leadsto a chimney of the :thciency and occasionedmore frequentbreakages of the alwaysvertical, and also known as a stackor smokestack). ona nreens.Feeders enable the input of ore into mortarboxes in Square sectionedfreestanding chimneys known as Welsh ng low ,:ontrolledquantities, the ideal depth above the dies being stackswere used on smelters,and round stacks(known as te gold ..: to 2 inches.The term is often used in referenceto a Comish chimneysor stacks)were used on boilers (almost om all Challengefeeder (Fig. 12).in which a circularcast iron plate withoutexception for no knownreason except tradition); (2) a etus to ,about60 centimetresdiameter) mounted in thechute beneath woodenchute to conveymine water. r9 fluxes: kettles (separators): solid metal vesselsused to contain - chemicals or other substances,e.g. ironstone(ferrous amalgamand free mercuryafter they had beendrawn off from silicate)added to a chargeof ore and fuel in a furnaceor settlers. converterto lower the melting temperatureand modify the kilns (roasting pits or ovens):prior to i 900 ore was often chemicalprocesses occurring. dried in kilns or pits beforecrushing. Roasting and drying ore - chemicalsor substancesadded to an assaysample during wasdone for two mainreasons - to fractureparticularly hard refining to effect a more rapid fusion than would be ore beforecrushing, and/or to oxidisesulphides and makethe possibleby heatingthe mineralalone. Limestone, sodium gold moreamenable lo amalgamationand chemical treatment. carbonate,borax, and microcosmicsalt were the most Ore roastingwas practised in manyparts of Australiafrom the commonlyused assaying fluxes. 1850son. There are two traditionalroastinq oven desisns- grizzlieslgrizzly-bins: bins located above crushers in a deepcircular pit ovens(resembling lime kilnit. andbeeh]ve- stamperbattery. Trucks of quartzwere tipped into the bins shapedovens (similar to beehivecoke ovens). The formerare which had bars(grizzlies) about 2 inchesapart at the top; the generally excavatedvertically into a slope. Short tunnels hner materialwent through,the coarse material was conveyed providedaccess to chutesin thebase ofeach kiln via which the to the crushers.Large chunksof rock on the grizzlieswere dried ore was removedcontinuously. Roughly a ton of wood -flr often broken manually with a knappinghammer. per ton of ore was required,the wood being loadedinto the kiln in alternating5 feet thick layerswith the ore. pit kilns gyratory crusher: for initial or primary crushing of ore the i lI tl,"ull usually had a capacityof 50 to 100 tons of ore. In New choice was limited to either jaw or gyratory crushing :tEllu Zealandroasting pits or kilns are unique machines,although the latter were often usedfor secondary to the Hauraki ,'iulil goldfield crushing after the ore was initially broken down in jaw becauseof thepresence of complexores which made gold recovery ]llfiT crushers.Gyratory crushers consist of a circularshell with the very difficult prior to the adventof the cyanide process. T*1[ inner sidesinclined towards a centralorifice. A verticalshaft, In New Z,ealandfine examples of subterranean roastingpits [1 supportedby a spider,passes through the lower opening.The exist at the Woodstock-Talisman,Victoria, and Try Fluke battery shaft,eccentrically moved at the bottomand equippedwith a sites.Ore drying and dry-crushingbecame t obsoleteafter the advent of cyanidation.The quartz dust conicalcrushing head, crushed the ore betweenthe inclined t! derivedfrom dry crushinghad previouslyresulted in many sidesof the shell and the crushinghead. The crushingaction ltry deathsfrom silicosis.In Australiagood examplesof beehive was continuousand rapid and lessprone to cloggingup than .rl[ roastingovens exist at Maldon,Vctoria jaw crushers.Gyratory crushers also produced a productof a and Hill End, NSW. 'mi*.tu moreconstant size. See BLake crusher. Later,patent steel ovens were used, e.g. the Edwardsfumaces at Kalgoorlie. M Huntington Mill: a roller mill designedfor crushingquartz d oreby meansof verticallymounted rollers in combinationwith knapping hammer: A heavylong-handled hammer, the head "]rb of which tapersto a striking face measuring centrifuging.Huntington mills consist of circular cast-iron approximately @r 8 centimetresby 3 centimetresfor maximum basins3 feet 6 inchesdeep. Inside the basins(two sizes, breakingimpact. IWl 3 feet inches Used for manuallybreaking lumps of ore, e.g. large lumps 6 and 5 feet in diameter)horizontal rollers were n suspendedslightly off verticalso that their weight kept them caughton Srizzlies(see definition). pressedagainst the rim of the revolvingpan. According to launders: woodenchannels used to conveypuLp from one ",,''[ I {rilllo Gordon, severalHuntington mills were imported from the treatmentstage to thenext in a cyanideplant. USA and used in New Zealandbut there appearto be few leach: to dissolveminerals or metalsout of ore by use of a t q surviving examples.22Despite being cheaperand easierto suitablesolvent, typically cyanideor chlorine solutions,or n[ erectthan stamp batteries, New Zealandmillmen prefened the acid; also usedto describethe use of the cyanideor similar nry! latter.The first documentedusage of a Huntingtonmill in New processesto recover fine gold from tailings dumps by Zealand was at Nenthom around 1890. The Nenthom percolation. ri!ll||rl specimenis now on displayat the GoldenPoint batterynear leachate:liquid thathas percolated through soil, rock, tailings Macraesin Otago. Huntington mills were not popular in '|E etc. In old mining locations it often iontains very high rm Australiaeither. Apparently they were considered less durable concentrationsof sulphides url[lt andnot reliable andother compounds. enoughfor usein remotelocations. Jili: ll Mackay Pan (Improved Mackay Pan): severalimproved Huntington-Herberlein Plant: patentedplant designedto amalgamatingpans (over and above Berdan pans) were r{ treatdifficult leadsulphide ores. Ore wascrushed, mixed with devised.The Mackay Pan is notablebecause it is of New il& crushedlimestone and heatedin an air blastin a cone-shaped Z,e.alandmanufacture (Fraser & Sons,Auckland). It employed r:I[il kettlebefore smelting in a conventionalfumace followed by *$m a seriesof cylindricaldiscs of varyingdiameters which ground further treatmentin a converter.The Chillagoesmelters in materialbetween them and against the sideof thepan. Queenslandemployed a Huntington-Herberleinplant but after tml problems with the charges tending to clinker into matte (regulzs): an intermediateproduct of the copper rr.uli unmanageablemasses it was replacedwith a Dwight-Lloyd smeltingprocess. Matte is producedin a blast fumace,and ft sinteringplant. consistsof coppermetal, copper sulphides and iron silicates. Mattenormally contains 40 percent to 55 per centcopper jaw crusher breaker or stonebreaker):a machinefor and faw is furtherrefined in a converter. crushingrock or ore.It consistsof a massiverectangular frame -!ir!q with a fixed crushingsurface at oneend. Ore is crushedby the milling: term used to describethe crushing of ore (hence 'stamp actionof a heavysteel powered plate or jaw which is arranged mills'). "tslit to swing internallyso that it crushesanything between it and muffle-furnace:a small fumace usedfor cupellationof lhe - r', the fixed surface.Typically, jaw crusherswere designedto leadbuttons recovered from the meltingof an assaysample in ''-:ii: reduceore to chunks2.5 inchesin size. a cruciblefumace. jiggers: vibratory machinesfor concentratingcoarse sand, Muntz metal: a metalalloy consistingof 60 per cent copper 'Tr commonlyused in the cyanideprocess. They consistof two and 4Oper cent zinc, namedafter its inventor.The metalwas water-filledboxes, one with a short-strokeplunger, the other first usedon amalgamatingtabLes by Thamesmillmen in 1875 -ll fitted with a sieveor hopper.The latter containeda finely in lieu of purecopper plates, when these were in shortsupply. perforatedplate and beddingwhich caught heavy minerals It proveda durableand effectivealternative especially when (suchas gold and scheelite)and waterand sandwere pumped poorore was being crushed.23 At the time Muntzwas readily 'r through. available from local ironmongers who imoorted it for 20 | -'J ltt conlaln ,ff from s often ing ore Ciogt Sf,crron 'h hard alte the .rtment. |om the FSlgns- eehive- ner are _ZINC PRECIPITATINO'LAi. BOXES runnels rich the I 3: Plan oJ precipitating boxes (source unknown). f uood ' :. arul elevation zinc nlo the :t kilns .heathing vessels' hulls. Muntz metal was favoured in water.The granuleswere then boiled in nitric acid which n \ew :reterenceto copperby many of the northemmills, e.g. the dissolvedall the silver,leaving the gold. {auraki Victoriaat Waikino becausethe amalgamdid not adhereso These of the h made two refining methods led to the advent iirmll and thereforewas more readily descaled(removed) process in 1869. :vanide chlorine which was developedin Australia :rom Muntzplates. process gold pots and lTanean The involved melting bullion in clay bubblingchlorine gas with the silver ta. and ore feeders:see feeders. throughit which reacted to form chloridewhich was skimmedoff. The silverwas then FCame Pachucatank: Australianterm for B & M tank. recovered 1 theprocess u dust by electrolysisin anothervessel. In 902 pan amalgamation:this methodwas developedfor treating purifying gold perfected 1 many of electrolysisfor was and hasbeen ::mplex metallic ores, especiallythose with high silver widely process threeto xehive usedever since. Although the may take :-rntent(such as thosefound in the Ohinemurigoldfield). It four daysthe end resultis gold of 99 per centor betterpurity. . \sw. .:iiolred heatingpulp in largemetal tubs (pans) with steamto :.unaces The processinvolves immersing plates of gold in a solutionof r:,lmot€ amalgamationThere were two main variantsof the hydrochloricacid in a porcelaincell. The platesare attached :,;thod: the Washoeprocess, and the ReeseRiver process. with gold or silverhooks on to a seriesof metalrods which act re head differedin that the latter involvedroasting the crushed as an anode.In each cell thick plates of impure gold are .mately -:.:1-:: :n a fumacefirst. After treatmentin the pans.the ore was altematedwith thin platesof pure gold. The latter act as a ;mpact. - -::irged inlo settLers. cathode.The solutionis thenheated to 60 degreesCelsius and lumps gold trercolation: a process whereby pulp and cyanide solution continuouslystirred. When an electriccurrent is applied, dissolvesoff theanode plates and precipitates on thecathodes. -::i mix.edtogether in a vat for a specificperiod without )m one :::'.etion(ust allowedto percolate). The silvercontent becomes insoluble chloride and falls to the bottomof the cell. Otherimpurities such as platinumdissolve pE iron: crude iron from a smelting fumace was cast into the solutionand can be recoveredby otherprocesses. :eofa :rrrnalll in depressionsin a bed of sand to produce Jns. or --:lleable blocks known as pigs. Pig iron is now madeby Refiningis the last stageof copperproduction, raising the similar -;:hines. the size of the pig being determinedby the purity of the metal typically to 99.6 per cent copper.Copper rps by : : ri enience of handling. refining could be done very preciselyby controlledsmelting but was more usually done by electrolysis.Typically blister precipitation boxes (zinc boxes): wooden multi- :cilings copperanodes were suspended in a solutionof coppersulphate :r:rpanmentedboxes which containedzinc shavingsonto r high throughwhich an electric currentwas passed,causing pure -:.i.-h the bullioncontent in cyanidetreated pulp precipitated copperto be depositedon thecathode. i blacksludge (Fig. 13). See zinc slimes. :proved '. refinery: becauseof the natureof refining and the valueof the , wefe pulp: is producedby stamperbatteries and other ore crushing products, it is often undertakenin structures(refineries) in -;,-hines. It consistsof hnely crushedore mixed with water, 'f \ew nearby towns or some distancefrom the actual mine sites. ;ontainstwo fractions:coarser sands and s/imes which are :ploy'ed -:i Typically refineries are secure well-ventilatedbuildings. ground :-L:rnelvseparated for furthertreatment. See also spitzkasten. Althoughthe interior has been gutted, the Grand Junction mine pr ritic smelting: techniqueof smelting copper ores by refinerybuilding at Waihi is a good survivingexample of this typeof stmcture. !-opper -- ..;ng the sulphurcontent of the ore as the fuel, with very :e. and :..: or no additionalfuel in the fumace.Requires a powerful refractory: often used to describe complex ores that are licates. :": rlast for rapidoxidation of thesulphur. Pyrite is an old term difficult or costly to treat for the recoveryof gold and silver. rer and ::i sulphide. The Karangahakeores were often describedas refractory,as reduction: the processof breakingdown ore to recoverits werethe oresfrom the Mount Lyell minein Tasmania. i hence ::t.f,l content. regulus(matte)'. sulphide rich matteusually cast in ingotform refining: the processof extracting impurities (including afterthe roasting of copperores. of the r:-trls) from gold or other molten metals.The first known retort: a heavycast iron pot in which amalgamis heatedin a nple in :3trningprocess was that of cementationwhereby plates of fumace (often in a specialisedretort room) to separatethe gold :".1J *.ere stackedin earthenpots surroundedby powdered and mercuryfractions. The evaporatedmercury condenses in a coolingtube (which ,-opper !:.ine or ceramicdust. The pots were then heateduntil they extendsfrom thelid of theretort) enabling it to be recovered gold (retortedgold) nl was :i.r$ed red. This was hot enoughto enable many of the andreused. The remains in gold n 1875 .npurities to seepinto the pot walls or the dust but not hot the body of the retort.After beingallowed to cool, the i:rrrughto melt the gold. In the sixteenthcentury inquartation was scrapedout carefullyand weighed,then takento a bank 'upply. . rrhen ; as developedto removethe main impurity in gold, ie silver. whereit wascast into ingots,assayed and paid for accordingto its value(based purity). readily Th; processinvolved melting gold with at leastthree times its on its it for i iight of silver,then granulating the mixture by pouringit into revolving ore-dryer: seerotary kiln. 2l (calcining): roasting the process of roasting, burning or in the slimeswas largelyunrecoverable prior to the adventof calciningany ore to break it down and bum off or remove cyaniding. problematicalor unwantedimpurities such as sulphides.As a smelter: a purposebuilt structurewith appropriatefumaces, pre-treatmentprior to the smeltingof basemetal ores, heating kilns,or ovens,ventilation, sumps etc. for smeltingores. theore and holding it at a high temperaturefor a time oxidised sulphidesand simplified the chemistry of thesmelting process. smelting: the processof extractinga metal from its ores by heatingin a reducing The roastingof hard auriferousquartz made it more brittle and environment;the chemical reduction of a metal thereforeeasier to crush.It alsoburnt out the sulphides,such oxide with carbonmonoxide in a furnace.Prior to the advent as pyrites and bismuth, which hinderedamalgamation and, of Ihe cyanide process, mining companiesoften resorted separationof the gold content,and helpedto congealminute to smeltingrefractory auriferous ores, which is not normally practical gold fragmentswhich otherwisetended to float on the water for gold recovery because the high surfaceduring crushingand amalgamation.Roasting quartz temperaturesrequired for smeltingnecessitate considerable fuel costs.Smelting involvedheating it to a temperaturewhich was insufficientto is the standardmethod for treatingcopper ores. The process smelt the ore. Typically the deep circular kilns used for involves isolating the metal from the chemicalcompounds roastingwere loadedthus: a layerof wood was placedon the in which it occursnaturally, and heating it to meltingpoint. The bottomof the kiln and uprightpieces were placed around the higherdensity of the liquid metalthen causesit to separate sides;then the kiln wasbuilt up with alternatelayers of quartz from the lighter ore. Smeltingis usually done in several stages and wood; the top was heapedand coveredwith earth or because the chemical reactions occurringduring the process crushedrock, the objectbeing to obtaina slow combustionof needto be carefullycontrolled. the wood and so avoid intenseheat. If properly calcined, smeltingfurnace: (technically melting rather than smelting) a quartzis friable,free from slag,and ofa whitecolour streaked small round fumaceapproximately 1.2 metreshigh in which '!ar with red. the final melting of gold was undertakenprior to pouring it illl into mouldsto produce roasting furnace:used in someplants to pre-treatsands prior bullionbars. f, to cyanidetreatment. spitzkasten(initial classifier):a devicewhich wasoften used rr before a concentrator.Spitzkastens roasting (or drying) ovens: these perform essentiallythe were shaped like an invertedpyramid samefunction as a roastingkiln or pit but are much smaller andused a downwardcurrent to separatethe rm andfabricated of steel. coarsesand fraction from the frnerslimes. $uitl q roasting pit: seetiln. stamper battery (stamp mills): a mill for crushingore by meansof a sequenceof stampingmotions achieved by the rod mill: seetube mill. altematelifting and droppingof heavystamps by meansof a i:l roller crusher: a machinefor breaking down rock or ore by poweredcamshaft (Fig. la, seestamps).In New Zealandthe I crushingit betweenone or more steelcylinders. The material termbattery is commonlyused to describethe structurewhich x to be crushed was fed in at the top and after treatment housedstamper batteries (Fig. 15).In theUSA theyare usually ,I dischargedbelow. Typically the rollers were mounted describedas [Califomian]stamp mills. riq horizontally,but the Huntingdon rU centrifugalroller quartzmill The basic design,made of wood, was in use in Roman (crusher) (see Huntingdon 1fl0)lNl mill) contained three vertically times. Water-poweredwooden stamps are called Comish mountedrollers. Roller crusherswere e{t!B usedin the Australian stampsin Australia.They were usedin the coppermines at copperindustry from - ;n the 1840s thenusually known as rolls, Burraand Kapunda from c.l85l until at leastthe 1870s.The now Cornishrolls.2a i5 all-metalCalfornia stampevolved very rapidly in Califomia rotary kiln: a revolvingore dryer, typically consistingof a fromthe Cornish stamp in theperiod 1850-1852, although the ttg long steelcylinder (similar in form to that of a tube mill). [B! Pulverisedore is fed into one end and gradually moved uGr throughthe cylinder by its rotation.Heat is directedfrom a firebox at the lower end throughthe drying cylinder,in so doing roastingthe ore,causing it to breakdown and bum off sulphidesetc. The most notablesurviving example in New Tnalandis on the Luck at Last mine site near Whangamata, Coromandel.Although the revolving ore dryers have long been removedfrom the site,the brick fireboxesand flue structures still existand the general layout of thefacility is still apparent. self-feeders:see fe ede rs. settlers (separators):large steel tubs with rotating stining arms used to separateamalgam from pulp; the heavier amalgam and free mercury settled to the bottom of the tub whereit was drawn off into kenles.The amalgamwas then retorted(in a retort furnace)which vapourisedthe mercury which was then condensedfor re-use.What remainedwas silver/goldbullion which wasrefined in a fumaceand cast into ingots. slag: glassy or crystalline byproduct (predominantlyiron silicates)from the smeltingof metallicores. Typically slag, while still liquid, was dischargedoutside a smelterwhere ir solidifiedinto hardblack masses.At the KawauIsland copper smelterit wascast into blocksand used as a buildingmaterial. This was also doneat the coppersmelter in Kapunda,South Australia. slimes:the pulp producedby crushingconsists of a coarser fraction known as sands and a finer fraction known as slimes Fig- l4: A ten heud stampbattery show'ing the main structuralJ'eatures - while bothcontain minute particles of.precious metals, that (Cordon 1894 oppositep.312). 22 hent of rlnaces, s. oresby ion of a Fig. I 5: Features of a rypical r to the ' ( Co romanrlel, N ew Zealarul ) stamp er s often ////-,/ ,/ t $JEtf,F battery showing the three main r is not ' ./ ,/ ,/ , ariatiahptii, proc ce s s e s : p r imary cr us hing, Jine ' ,/ ,/ ,/ table e high '/ /--' cmillde tailkt grinding, and cyanide treatment //'/,lCRUSHlNGf (M oore arul'Ritchie I 996 :34 ). derable / ./ 7-7- /-7-7- copper Jm the heating ral then usually sCtlOnS rlled. :lting)a r uhich t'irstreliable evidence of their useon theAustralian goldfields - shoes:the replaceablehammer heads attached to the base uring it is 1856.The basicdesign was establishedby 1860and they of eachstamp shaft in a battery.Each shoehas a protusion have changedvery little since. Descriptionsof commonly which fitted a socket in the end of the shaft. In New en used lound stamper-batterycomponents are listed below. Zealandshoes usually weighed 168 to 215 poundseaeh like an If waterwas readilyavailable it was generallyused as the andvaried in depthfrom 9 to 10 inches.Their weightwas filte the motivepower source. Coal and wood fired boilerswere used reducedby 6 to l6 ouncesper ton of orecrushed. nhere fuel was plentiful or in locationswhere there was - stamps (or stampers): each battery (stamp mill) was ore by limited water.Some of the larger batterieswere driven by composedof variousnumbers of stampsusually in groups :lectric motorsand dynamos, e.g. those of the Phoenix b1 the Quartz of five Wr mortar box. Each stamp consists of a shaft msofa \lining Companyat Bullendale,Otago, and the Waihi Gold with a stampingshoe attachedto its lower end, and a and the \lining Company's Victoria battery at Waikino. Stamp tappet positioned at about the midpoint. Large battery popular l uhich :etterieswere by far the most meansof crushingore complexessuch as the Mctoria battery at Waikino had .:J depositsin New Z,eal,and,even though usually cementedalluvial stampswhich weighed 1 250 poundseach. The stamps, superiormethods had been devised. The American --:posedly driven by a camshaftso they lifted and fell in a particular --:nrngauthority, H. A. Rickard,considered that Thames (and Roman sequence,(1-4-2-5-3 was preferred in New Znaland), rr.sibly other)New Zealandmillmen used them to crushores Comish pulverisedthe ore after it had been reducedinitially to ; hich werenot suitedfor batterycrushing.2s Stamper batteries rinesat 2.5 inch (shoes rulls) were popular becausethey were relatively cheap, size by crushers.The stampingsurfaces 0s. The .:mple,and durable,easy to transportand repaiqand readily and dies)had to be replacedregularly. .lifomia i: rilable. It soon reacheda stage where it was hardly - tappets: thimble-shapedcomponents attached to the shafts ueh the :3!-essaryto orderone from a foundry;there were so manyup (shanks)of stampers.The tappetswere designed to engage :-.r saleor lying abandonedon miningsites. thecams on thecamshaft which in turn lifted eachstamper - cams:curved arms fixed to a poweredshaft (the camshaft) in sequence. * hich sequentiallyraise the stamps in a batteryto facilitate stamp sands:essentially taiLings, the resultof crushingore in ore-crushing.Once raisedeach stampfree-falls onto the a battery/stampmill. The fine waste sand fraction of the orecontained in themortar box (seedefinition below). original ore after its metal content has been removed. - dies:replaceable hammering surfaces in the mortarboxes Frequentlydischarged into waterwaysin the past,or flushed in a battery(stamp mill). Thoseon the Haurakigoldfield downslope from a battery often creating a distinctive site *ere locally manufacturedof cast iron, weighed 80 to feature and indicator of the former existence of a battery I 16 poundseach, varied in thicknessfrom 3 to 5 inches, upslope. This is the material which was reprocessedin andwhen wom out andreplaced weighed 35 to 45 pounds. dredgingplants. was For every ton of ore crushedthe weight of the dies sulphide ore: usuallyused to describelead or copperores in reducedby 5.5to 8.5ounces.26 which the metalis chemicallycombined with sulphur.These - guides: iron or hardwood cross-membersmounted ores were usually difficult to treat and were roastedto oxidise between the kingposts in a battery.They enablethe stamper thesulphur before smelting. shaftsto move up and down but rigidly control their sump:a sinkor pit belowa smeltingfumace designed to retain horizontalmovement. moltenmetal. Also seemining definition in hardrock section. - kingposts: vertical wood or pre-caststeel posts which supportthe stampers in a battery. tailings: from hard rock mining are the portions of washed, ::6 crushedore (usuallyin a finely groundstate after processing) - mortar boxes:the largecast iron boxesfitted with heavy which are consideredtoo impoverishedto treatfurther, and are cast iron dies in which five head (usually) of stamps discarded(commonly into rivers last century). See stamp droppedonto ore or cement(see alluvial section) reducing sands. it to a pulp which then passedthrough mesh screens {commonlyat the rate of about7 tons in 24 hours).The tanks (leaching vats): an integral componentof cyanidation crushedmaterial was then usually subjectedto further technology.Those used with Casselcyanidation plant usually reductionprocesses including: amalgamation screening, had an internal diameter of 20 feet and were initially classifying, or further ground (in Berdans or other constructedon the northem goldfields of 3-inch thick heart placedin the kauri. Later riveted steel tanks became The :turCs machines).In somebatteries mercury was commonplace. baseof the mortarboxes to amalsamatewith freedeold. larger sandvats were squareconcrete or steelstructures.

ZJ [,r br nil q& nil Fig. 16: A rube mill, one oJ' ril a range of machines usedJbr n grinding ore prior to cyanide rbr treutment lVictoriu battery site. Waikirc, North Island, New f, Zealanel: N. Ritchie). d I[ ril ry f ,il -rl IH r[ dnil t rd

-tn ni rpru @,il &d u il Fig. 17: Afrue vanner(Young 1978:140). -r q qt ilq * H d N+s' EI eil fit:fl r tap hole: a hole near the baseof a fumace for the controlled betweentwo rollers(Fig. 17). Crushedore fed onto the belt q: draining of slag. was carriedup the incline,against a currentof flowing water r|rt! tapping: the processof removingliquid s/cg from a fumace. which washedaway the light waste.The heavyfraction was 'f carried tube mills: mechanically powered rotating cylinders into over the end of eachbelt and collected.Widely used n which middlepulp wasdischarged through a hollowshaft (Fig. initially, they bowed ovt to Wilfley tablesbecause of the latter's higher n 16). Each tube mill was partly filled with imported flints efficiency and ability to separatevarious gradesof nM["111 material (siliceousconcretions) which crushedreduced ore to lessthan for further treatments.Archaeological evidence of l*{td vanners 200 meshsize. If flints were not availablesteel balls or scraD is usually in the form of the cast steelends of the $& iron was used.Discarded vestigial flints or roundedpieces oi rollersscattered about within batterysites. Frue and Triumph hn steel are a diagnostic feature around former tube mill sites. vannerswere the mostpopular models used in New Zealand. rF Tube mills are similar in principleto ball mills, but differ in To the authors' knowledge,no intact examplesof these nd that their length is much greaterthan their diameter;hence machineshave survived in New 7.e,aland. .,.:a generally they havegreater capacity and were favouredin the vats: largewooden or concretetanks (usually open-topped) in Tlllffi largermills suchas the Victoriabattery at Waikino.The tube which cyanide or other percolation treatmentswere carried q@ mills installedin the Victoria were 18 feet long and 4 feet out. j 9 inches in diameter.They were considereda significant waterjacket blast furnaces:the standardfurnace employed lDrl{uli technological innovation, proving to be by far the most by the basemetal industry at the turn of the centurywas a tall &l economicaland efficient means of milling theWaihi ores.Rod steelstructure, rectangular in section,in which ore, i:I!il mills are similar to tube mills but differ in that the crushins fuel and fluxes were charged in alternatelayers. Oxygen JiiLIlqll was achieved by the action of a mass of steel rods (3 oi for the reactionswas providedby blastsof compressed produced lnf|fi rr 4 inchesshorter than the lengthof the mill) ratherthan flints or air steelballs. by mechanical blowers. Waterjacket blast fumaces u iI[ incorporatedan ingeniousinnovation, viz. an steel jacket xnnf ! tuyere:ports for injectingair into smeltingfumaces, rerons or through which water circulated,similar in principle to the -.rr4 boilers. operationof a car radiator,to keep the walls of the fumace at iliMa,ntu vanners: ore dressing(concentrating/separating) machines about 100 degreesCelsius much lower than the l000-plus d incorporatinga wide inclined fabric or rubber belt stretched degreesCelsius reached in the interior during smelting. ^:rru 24 Consequentlywaterjacket fumaces lasted much longer than bord: an undergroundmine passagewaymade through solid theolder brick-lined furnaces which had to be rebuiltregularly coal by the bord and pillar mining method, usually 2 to 3s the brickswere actually consumed in the smeltingprocess. 5 metreswide. .\fter a few hours of firing, moltens/dg andmatte were tapped bord and pillar mining (room and pillar): a methodof coal rt the bottomof a fumace.A fumacewith a 50-toncapacity mining wherebya grid systemof roads (bords) is established '*ould require l0 to 15 tons of fuel and fluxes.The output leavingpillars of coal. Most of the pillarscan be minedlater '* ould be aboutl0 tonsof matteand 30 tonsof slag,the rest of and the roof allowed to collapse(which in tum often causes rirematerial gas beinglost or dischargedas or dust- ground subsidence).The remainingstanding coal pillars are \f ilfley tables: shakingtables invented by Rittingerin 1844 called stumps.Evidence of earlier bord and pillar mining is -:nd developed by Wilfley for use in separating (or oftenvisible in exposedsections in open-castmines. :.,ncentrating) heavy pulverised from the fractionof ore the bins: large wooden or steel coal stoftrgestructures usually .:ehterfraction. The main componentof each machineis a designedfor loading trucks or railway wagons,and usually ..:ghtly sloping,often linoleum-covered,table. Wilfley tables incorporatingscreens to grade the coal to desired sizes (see -.': a reciprocatingaction created by a spring-loadedretum screens).On the WestCoast bins were usedfor storingcoal for *-::h causesheavy particles e.g. gold, aided by a steadywater many weeks because the ever-changing river bars often :-.:'i. to movetowards the end of thetable each time it isjerked delayedthe arrival or departureof colliers (coal ships). ,-.ar^kby the spring.The materialwas dischargedinto a tub or ::annels(launders) via which it wasconveyed to the nextpart bratticetlrattice cloth: heavy sackingor fire resistantfabric :: theplant for furthertreatment such as cyanidisation. Wilfley used in a mine passageto confine the air and force it into ":les were a major advance over vannersbecause they working areas(line canvasor line curtain). Brattice material :::t'le d variousgrades of materialto be separated. was usually storedin a brattice shed or store near a mine entrance.Also usedto excludeventilation to specificareas, rinc slimes: a black precipitatecontaining gold particles e.g.to controlmine heating or fires. ::"rrred on zinc shavingsin precipitation boxes(zinc boxes), r ::rtegralpart of the cyanideprocess. Slimes were washed in breaker props: large wooden props set in a group at a goaf edge.They :t.l iIo dissolvethe zinc),then dried andsmelted with fluxes are usedto break off the goaffal/ at a given point :: :3.-overthe gold. Zinc slimesusually consisted of 56 per and preventthe fall extendingalong the roadway(bor{. :::: bullion. briquette: smallovoid mini-bricksof compressedfine coal or semi-cokebound with coal-tar,pitch or bitumen. Despite TER}TSLARGELY ASSOCIATED much considerationby coal mining interests,it appearsonly \\ ITH COAL MINING three briquette plants have ever been establishedin New -3:140). Znaland.A briquetting works was establishedat Westportin hack balance: massive counterweight, commonly a block of 1907 to increasethe utilisation of slack coal from the " .--:::3. used to maintain tension on a cableway, whether SeddonvilleColliery but closedin 1912,largely because the *ct:.ded or in the form of an endless rope running over pitch used to bind the briquettesmade them prohibitively ri- ei i on a haulage. When a cableway is demolished or expensive(Morgan & Bartrum 1915:45).In the late 1950s = :r-ited. the back balance is often left at the original site. StateCoal Mines installed a plant :..a:r. balances are an integral part of cable haulage systems German-madebriquetting at Ngakawaubut its was i..r haulingcoal or ore. use discontinuedbecause the resultant -s: briquettesproduced too much smokewhen burnt. A briquette mnlr shovel: large round-mouthed shovel used for loading manufacturingand carbonisationplant was establishedby : -a tr".ken from a face. The Bradv was the favoured brand in WaikatoCarbonisation Ltd at Rotowaro,Huntly coalfieldin ".:- Zealandmines. l93l andcontinued in operationuntil 1985.The defunctplant fi&!'rier: a block of coal left unworked in a mine as protection and its interestingtechnology are still standing.The New ;::.:.!t tlooding, gas, re belt fire, or other danger; or to maintain Tnaland,Historic PlacesTrust has recentlydeclared the site an {:;:jt- '\entilating : \\'ater districts' within a mine; or to form a historic conservation area. The plant produced briquettes -' j-rn xl was '- betweenadjacent mines. which sold on the New Znaland domestic market under the tradename (see 1- used IErLr\ se cdps. Carbonettes carbonisation). lalter's lrrrb-house: buildings housing showersand ablution facilities caps (Dars):heavy timbers placed horizontally on top of one Jes of '-r' :-r.-rs to change, and clean up after coming off their shift. or two vertical timbers Qtrops)to supportthe roof of a tunnel nce of * -r-r",-lothes were kept in the bath-housethrough the week; (seesers). of the :'.i,:: miner's gear being suspended from the roof to dry. cars: essentiallymodem versionsof mine skips or trucks. iumph : -:. .i rng examples on the Huntly coalfields have a distinctive Small rail-wheeledwagons designed for carryingcoal, ore or :aland. a:.tir3nce. They consist of a central room (with a ridgeline waste material underground,and to the surface.Once man- these ':-:-..rtor) for changing and clothes storage, with shower hauled, they are now usually moved by attachmentto '.a:..:lres in lean-to's on either side. The bath-house at ropeways,or pulled by small electric shuttle-cars.In the rd) in i .:it'all on the West Coast has a New Zealand Historic Waikatocoal minescars referto the vehiclesused to haulcoal :'=-:i Trust B classification. --arried from faces to conveyorswhich take it to the surface.Skrps h*hire oven: used in coke production. Beehive-shapedcoke attachedto ropewaysprovide transportto the surfacefor men ploved , . i:: \\ ere by far the most common form of coke oven during and equipment only. Some cars are modified for specific s a tall :€ :ate nineteenth and early twentieth century. The haulagepurposes, e.g. carting props and caps,or consistof el and : :'r:'-.nction of the ovens involved specialistbrickmaking and specilisedequipment such as winches and pumps, cement lr the ;..:rg skillsand the end resultis visually interesting.Typically mixers,and other equipment perrnanently attached to bogies. lJuced :i,.i i\ cre built in rows back-to-back.This permitted the use of carbonisation:the distillation ofcoal to producecoke, gas and rnaces : : -rnmon flue, conservedheat and generally added efficiency liquid by-productssuch as tar and creosote.In 1931Waikato rmproved the quality of the coke. The Brunner mine lacket --: CarbonisationLtd establisheda carbonisingplant (a Lurgi Io the : --::rpler on the Grey River near Greymouth contains the best Spulgas retort) and auxiliary briquette plant at Rotowaro, ulce at r-:. :r ing examples of beehive coke ovens in New Zealand. Huntly to providean outlet for largequantities of slackcoal O-plus bench: a relatively level undergroundworking floor or surface (fine coal) which at that time was beingdumped for lack of a elting. :::eild to enablethe minins of a coal seam. market. The carbonisationplant, the first in the Southem 25 hemisphere,and subsequentlythe only one in the country, to haul empty skips up. Where a haulerwinch providesthe r-il closeddown in 1985,but it is still standing(refer briqueue). motivepower empty skips are hauled 'inbye'(inwards by) the ffi cavil: the allocation of a working place to a miner; done by inboundmotion of the ropewhich runsaround a sheave(pulley) mrr meansof a draw. setbelow the road. Full skipsare hauled 'outbye'(outwards by) ,ru the outboundmotion of the rope. A tension device keepsthe E5 cleat parallelcleavage planes or partingsacross coal beds ropetight on the cee-wheel(see return whee[). rm known as the cleat of the coal, along which the coal breaks moreeasily than in theother direction. fans: prior to the advent of poweredfans, mines installed ltu chimneysor flues(and maintained fires) to create clipping shed: an integral part of an endlessroad haulage a convection draughtwhich drew air up the chimneyand in consequence system.A shedor locationwhere skips are manuallyclipped rd throughthe mine, e.g. the Blackball mine. From the 1890s (with individualsteel rope clips)onto a movingendless rope t onwards,mine ventilationwas improvedby installingrotary so thatthey can be hauled either into or out of a mine.The men ,GI fansto forceair throughthe workings. There were involvedin this work were calledclippers. Chain clips were manytypes. ir In New 7r.aland,the Cappelfan predominatedinitially. They later replacedby grippers. I were later supersededby Sirius or Sirocco/ars housedin coal-cutter(mechanised): a machinefor cuttingsolid coal for concreteor brick structures(see fan-house). hr a distanceof up to 3 metresin front of it (dependingon the iG fan-house:a structuresited at the retum portal stability ofthe roof;. The cutter,attached to a boom which can airway where ventilation I move horizontallyor vertically,may be ball or banel shaped. fans and drive-motorsare housed. In some instancesfan-houses were built into theportal. :iiw. coke: the solid residue left after bituminous coal has been .l fault: a break carbonised.Foundries were one of the mainusen of the product. or dislocationin thecontinuity ofa coal seamor rock strata.There are many kinds of fault. n coke ovens: ovensdesigned to carbonisecoal and produce f,!il (breaker coke.There are two main forms: oblong andbeehive. feeder feeder): equipmentdesigned to aid and un controlthe flow ofcoal from onesystem to another,e.g. from a colliery: an altemativeterm for a coal mineand its il associated bin onto a conveyor.Optimum flow is achievedby the structuresand buildings.The term seems have rh to lost favour mechanicalbreaking of largelumps of coal into smallerpieces thesedays. ifi0 1* andits controlleddischarge from onesystem to thenext. conveyor:method for transportingcoal ruut by meansofa seriesof firedamp: explosivegases, especially methane, released from endlessbelts (ie a conveyorbelt). Rubber conveyor iG beltsare no coal onceit hasbeen worked. To reducethe risk of explosions longer allowed in New Znaland undergroundmines because undergroundmines have to be continuallyventilated by means fl safetyregulations require modern conveyor belts to be anti- [r,l| of hugeextractor fans (see , staticand fire resistant. /ans fan-house). flame safety lamp (FSL): an enclosed lamp used for il conventionalmining: a systemwhich is olderthan continuous rrfr measuringthe presence of methane,or blackdamp(a mixtureof miningand employs the cyclical operations of cutting,drilling, jn nitrogenand carbon dioxide). Based on theDavy Safetylamp. shooting,and loading. :f flotation: a wet processfor the separationof coal from n,aste continuous mining: mining by meansof mechanicalcoal qF rock. Coal particlesare floated to the surfaceby either air cutting machines(many different types and sizes) which llirli4n bubblesin a liquid mediumor by chemicalfroth flotation.The removecoal from a facewith rotatinscutter blades and load it litEGt processis not commonly used in New Zealand. It was into shuttlecars. employedat the Strongmanmine on theWest Coast. riut,fl creeper/creeperloops: usually sited at the end of rope-road ,,uli tr gantry: a structurewhich carriesa coal conveyorfrom where haulages,creepers are endless chains with hookswhich catch Ntut it emergesfrom a mine to the top of nearbybins or screensto on to the axlesof skipsand pull them arounda loop or to a riltr facilitate their loading.Gantrys are also used on rope-road point where they can be manuallyclipped on to the main pr haulagesto maintaina consistentgrade. haulageagain. ilrM goaf (gob): an areaabandoned and left to collapseusually by cross-cut: (l) openingat an angle to a main working or removingmost of theremaining pillars of coal (seestumps). il opening;(2) a roadwaydriven between two parallelroadways u&8u! to connectthem. haulage: portal of a drift tunne| The term is also used to ]m describea specificendless rope systemor its alignmentor deputy: person in charge of one section of an underground 1m route. mine. ilrrfiil hauler: winchesdriven by electricity,water or steamwhich dip (decline):usually refers to thegradient of a coal seam.On ulir tti. providethe motivepower for endlessrope cableways or other the West Coast it is sometimesused to describethe point riil(0f,{ forms of 'overland'haulage systems. Once established 'main where the main incline intersectsother undersroundmine JlE ]t haulers'usedin coaland ore miningwere usually maintained roads.27 on the one site until the mine closed.Smaller more portable "ll,u t dog-watch:midnight to 7 a.m.work-shift. haulerswere used in minesto haul materialsfrom onelevel to dolly car: controlcar perrnanentlyattached to a drift haulage anotheror to themain hauler(s). In thelogging industry, highly rusro rope.The termdolly-car is alsosometimes used in referenceto portable'log haulers'areroutinely used to dragfelled treesto 1i:..:l|D skips. skids(ie loadingsites). 1r drift: an inclinedaccess from the surfaceto an underground heading:a roadwaydriven parallel to thedirection ofcleavage .fi@r: coal seam,or from one seam to another.A drift (tunnel) in a coal seam(often at right anglesto bords).Described as Trf usuallycontains a conveyorbelt for haulingcoal, and,/or a car- riseheadings or dip headingsdependent on the grade. :r: haulingsystem for conveyingmen and materialsto and from hydraulic jacks: used to supportthe roof during longwall i:nr the work faces. mining.None are presentlyin operationin New Zealand(see downthrow: amount of displacement,measured vertically, longwaLlmining). j"Ti - beiweenthe upper and lower portions ofa coal seamdisplaced hydraulic stowage:the filling of workedout sectionsof a coal f]Tftjiil by a downthrowor normalfault. seamby pumpingin a slurry of waterand sandor rock. The endlessmpe (rope road): a ropehaulage using either gravity or water drains away leaving the residue which tends to a drivencee-wheel to impart motion to an endlessrope. Gravity consolidate,thus supporting the overlying rock andpreventing -ir drivenropes utilise the weight of loadedstlps going down-grade collapseof thesuperincumbent strata. 26 :Jis the hldro-mining: the New Zealanddefinition of hydro-mining ripper: a machinefor extractingcoal (and soft ores)by tearing t,) ) the liffers from that overseas.In New Z.ealandit refers to the use the materialfrom a face. pulley) rf waterchannels to carrycoal from a faceto an underground rising main: pipes in shaftor drift for conveyanceof drainage irds by) .ump from whereit is conveyedto the surface.It is the sole water to the surface. the Teansof mining at the Bennydalemine in the southWaikato, rob: to extract more coal from pillars previously left for -ps '.rhere the coal seamsare blown then sluiced.Overseas, it support. .nstalled ::fers to the useof high pressurewater delivered by a monitor rolling seam: a coal seamwhich has been warpedby ground :r\actlon : r cut or sluicecoal from a face. pressuresto producea seriesof anticlinesand synclines giving incline(self acting): seelig. it a wave-likeappearance in section. : I 890s jig: a self-actingincline/endless rope-road, which full skrps by room and pillar: a systemof coal miningessentially the same i rotary ::.,-endingthe slopepull up emptyones. Power is only used :i tvpes. as bord and pillar. A seamofcoal is dividedinto a seriesof ' : brakingpurposes. Also a deviceused for removingstone rooms prior y. They '- to mining and the intervening pillars are left to :r coal. supportthe groundabove. 'us.d in jr -b\': areaoff the main rope-roadwhere full or empty skips rope-clip:initially a shortlength of chainwrapped around the -.-: .:rtionedbefore being clipped to therope. rvhere rope and attachedto a skip. They developedinto portablesteel 'i x,lmp-room(cap-room): a room or buildingin which miners' devicesto attach(clip) skipsto a rope-road.Typically the clips :. some -.:-.rmps are storedand recharged.Typically personal self- were securedby strikinga locking platewith a hammer.This -:', r3 apparatusis storedin the samestructure. actionlocked the jaws of theclip ontothe rope. Each clip hada . in coal-firedboilers. :pe-road !': Lr,,ttom: the seam level in a mine shaft or the bottom seam:a layeror bedof coal. .:----: iIlCtlOl. shaker: a vibratory screen for separatingcoal into various .urlly by : the area surrounding the top of a coalmine shaft or grades. .r'rps). "rhlongwall mining that uses a used to -:--.rii\ and buildings such as haulers,screens, workshops, rotating action to shear the material from a coal face as it ::Tlentor - -*::_. ,-hlrgingrooms etc. traversesalong it. :.r-'.pr .olid wooden posts used in underground mines (coal Sirocco fan: with the introductionof electricity into mines in n trhich --: -::, in conjunction with laths to prop up the walls and the 1890s,high speedmotors were soon used to drive small ..r other -:- r: tunnels.The props are cut to length as required. Props fans for ventilation.During 1898, an Englishman,Samuel :d'main -:: -:,rllr setunder a cap or headboard. Davidson,patented the Siroccofan which featureda seriesof ::ntained -:: hole: tslang) small mine where coal was worked without smallcurved blades around the circumference.When tested,the Nrtable -:i:,-l lo an1 designedlayout. fan had a capacityfar aheadof any otherfan. The first example : levelto went into use at the PeltonColliery, Durham in 1902.Once -.. itrrres: that part of a coal resource which can be highly collieries realisedthat Sirocco fans were much more efficient : - . - r:lll!'allYmined. - UCtr) tU thanall precedingfan-types and cost less to constructand run, *trurn tair. airway): air or ventilation that has passedthrough theygained rapid industry acceptance and were widely used. workings and may containgas or dust. -- -::_::ound slack coal: prior to aboutWorld War Two slack coal was used -:ibed as :i:urns. roadways used for the movement of retum air from to describefine coal for which therewas little market.Now it .-: r:i3 back to the main fan. is generallyused to describecoal with a specificupper size -.'ngwall :tturn rlheel (carriage): the large horizontally mounted limit and is widely usedin self-feedingcoal-fired boilers (see .:nd (see - - :: . .rt each end of an endlessrope cableway.Retum wheels screens). -: :'..^untcdon a caniage which moves to maintain a constant shaft-mine: a coal mine which is accessedbv shaftsrather ':-: li a coal rr on the cable. The tension is maintainedby a back thaninclines. --..;':-.. rk. The a large suspendedcounterweight located behind the skip (truck, car, dolly-car): a tub-like wheeledcontainer made -::-:: ::nds to irheel caniage. of wood or steelfor conveyingcoal (or ore). Their capacity -:r enting :jb ::me siven to the coal walls of a roadway; the sides of variesfrom about 0.5 tons (when used in narow seams)to - , . :illars. 10 tonsin fully mechanisedmines (see cars). 27 slope-mine:a coalmine which is cut at a l0 to l7 degreeangle supersededby the adventof hugeelectric fans (see fan-house). I into a mountainside. The impressiveround or squarechimneys were usually made slurry: theconveyance ofcoal, ore,or othersolid materials by of bricks.Two of thebest surviving examples in New ZealanrJ,, fi water either via a pipeline or fluming. One of the most relicsof the Blackballmine, are located near Blackball on the remarkablehistoric hydraulic systemsin New Zealand was West Coast of the South Island. Another fine example, establishedin the 1930son theWest Coast of theSouth Island. althoughthreatening to collapse,still standson the Tynside It involvedover 3 kilometresof surfaceand suspended fluming minesite beside the Grey River near Greymouth. il to convey coal from Hunter's Coal Mine to coal bins wedge:a wedge-shapedpiece of timberto tightenprops in place; establishedon an offshoreisland (Seal Island) from whereit steelwedges are also used for anchoringslot androof bolts. was shipped.In the 1940s8.5 kilometresof (see fluming wongawilli: a system of undergroundmining devisedat the m definitionin alluvial mining section)was usedto conveycoal Wongawillimine, south of Wollongongin the Illawaradistrict, from the CascadeCreek mine, Dennistonto the railhead. New SouthWales, late last century. It differsfrom the traditional sooty-back:a zoneof crushedcoal along a fault or joint plane. bord and pillar melhod in that areas of coal are mined by Often proneto collapse. working in tunnels excavatedin a herringbonepattern. The rf spider: a spikedcandle-holder, also used in undergroundgold herringbonetunnels are driven off bords.The methodenables a mining.The spikecan be impaledin minetimbers. higher extractionrate than traditionalbord & pil/ar mining. As the coal is workedout the roof is allowed rylint: coal of inferior quality ofrencontaining dirt bandsor to fall which usually resultsin concretions.Shale splints are the most common. surfacesubsidence. The methodis cunently being usedat theHuntly East mine at Waikato,New Zealand. sprag: a pieceof timberplaced between a prop and the rjb to m preventthe rib falling; a woodenor steelspike placed in skip ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS wheelspokes to preventthe axle from tuming and controlthe rate of descentdown grades. Thanks to John Gumbley, Department of Conservation, steel:a drill rod. Hamilton (formerly Coalcorp geologist, Huntly) and Harry Bell (Coal Mines Inspector, Hamilton) for information about u stone drive (stone-driving):a drive (driving) throughsolicl the definition and usage of many of the coal mining terms; rock to provideaccess to a coal seam. Jim Staton (Conservation Officer, Department of Conservation, I: stone dusting: the sprayingof finely ground limestoneor Hokitika), Phil Moore (geologist, Waihi Beach), Dr Rod other non-combustibleand non-siliceousdust onto coal, to Clough (Heritage Consultant, Auckland) and Dr peter Bell reducethe possibilityof coaldust explosions. (Heritage Consultant, South Australia) for useful suggestions :m stoppings:a structure(temporary or permanent)built across and amendments which have been incorporated into the final an undergroundmine road to controlventilation, to limit the text. Peter Bell also provided some of the illustrations used. risk of mine fires through spontaneouscombustion, or the u spreadof poisonousor explosivegases. Stoppings also prevent NOTES unauthorisedaccess to old underground workingsfor safety I Hendersonl9l7 l 14. reasons. M 2 Connelln.d. stowing:backfilling a goafto preventsubsidence. 3 Drinkwater1982:75. stripping: processof removingcoal, often used to describe m 4 Hooker1983. bulk removalas in open-castoperations; also used to describe theremoval of overburden. 5 Heamand Hargreaves 1985. m 6 Bowie stumps: seebord and piLLarmining. 1905:185. il subsidence: the deformation of superincumbentstrata or 7 RitchieI 981:64. m ground (usually 8 Bowie surrounding evidenced by dropping or 1905:49. I slumping)as a resultof theremoval of a coalseam (or orevein). 9 Bowie1905; ICS Reference Library 1908. ry sump: a water reservoirin a coal seam;or the bottom few I 0 RitchieI 981. metresof a shaft('well') whereground l wateraccumulates and 11 Ritchie1981 . from whereit is pumpedto thesurface. l2 Ritchie1981 62. swing-shift: sometimesused to describe the rotation of M 13 Coroneos1993. working shifts for differentperiods of time, but commonly j usedto describethe 6 p.m.to midnightshift in coal mines. l4 Hooker1982. ,i tamping rod: a woodenrod usedfor tampingshotholes. l5 seeDrew and Connell 1992 and Milner this volume for ru furtherdetails. tippler (tumbler): a rotating frame used for automatically iI[ 16 seeWegner 1995. dischargingcoal (or otherores) from skrpsor railwaywagons. ilm A tippler is usuallymounted over a hopperor a conveyorto 17 Eissler1898. enablethe coal or oreto be loadedinto bunkersor ontoanother 18 Thornton1982:13. I meansof transporte.g. rail wagonsor roadtransport. l9 P.Bell pers. comm. 1991. ii tramming (trucking): pushingfull or empty skipsby hand; 20 Park1913. li,illfl: moving mobile machinesunder their own power is also describedas tramming. 2l P.Bell pers. comm. 1991. n 22 Gordon1894:315. underviewer: mine manager'schief assistant,in chargeof undergroundwork. 23 Rickard1898:179. .h{ni pers. upcast: a shaft or other mine openingthrough which air is 24 P.Bell comm.1991. ventedto the surface,after ventilating mine workings. 25 Rickard1898. See Dreadon (1966:13-15) for a detailed ventilationchimneys: tall (20 metreplus) chimneys built over account of battery operation and the processesright ! throughto thestage of bankingthe gold. air shafts.By meansof a furnacein the baseof the chimneya ..*tlli draughtwas createdwhich suckedfoul air up from the mine 26 RickardI 898:212. workingsbelow. The needfor tall ventilationchimneys was 27 J. Statonpers. comm. 28 - 4OUSe). 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