A University of Sussex PhD thesis Available online via Sussex Research Online: http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/ This thesis is protected by copyright which belongs to the author. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Please visit Sussex Research Online for more information and further details Gender and Rural Land Reform in Ethiopia: Reform Process, Tenure Security, and Investment Hanane Sharif Ahmed Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Economics University of Sussex November 2016 Declaration I hereby declare that this thesis has not been and will not be submitted in whole or in part to another University for the award of any other degree. Signature: Hanane Sharif Ahmed iii UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX HANANE SHARIF AHMED, DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY GENDER AND RURAL LAND REFORM IN ETHIOPIA: REFORM PROCESS, TENURE SECURITY, AND INVESTMENT SUMMARY This thesis consists of three inter-related empirical papers. It examines the gender dimensions of rural land reform process and impacts by exploring the accessibility and benefits of land- use certificates for female household heads vis-à-vis male household heads in the Amhara region of Ethiopia. The existing literature lacks a gender lens of the reform process and impacts. The first paper examines the factors that determine which lands are included in the household’s land-use certificate (status of certification), when during the reform process they become included (timing of certification), and whether there are gender differentials in each of these outcomes. The findings show that there was gender bias in the rural land reform process of the Amhara region in terms of both outcomes. The second paper examines the impact of land-use certificates and socioeconomic factors on household perceived tenure security by gender. The findings suggest that what consistently matters more for enhancing perceived tenure security of both male, and particularly female household heads is possession of legal documented rights to land holdings i.e. land-use certificates. The impact of socioeconomic factors such as male presence in the household, mode of production or land use do not seem to be relevant for determining the perceived tenure security of male and female household heads. The third paper examines the impact of land-use certificates and socioeconomic factors on land related investments by gender. The findings suggest that land-use certificates are significant determinants for enhancing land investments among both male and female household heads, although a relatively lesser impact on the latter group is observed. While the findings show that land-use certificates are important for enhancing land related investments, the results also suggest that the impact of socioeconomic factors are relevant for the female household heads such as renting-out land, and male presence in the household. iv Acknowledgments I would like to express my sincere appreciation to my thesis supervisors, Professor Andy McKay and Professor Julie Litchfield. Professor Andy always reached out actively to follow up on my progress, and introduced me to several people in my research area to give me a much-needed push to advance. His constant awareness and acknowledgement of the demands by my holding down a full-time job while pursuing a PhD, and his assurance that I could finish it, were a source of motivation and relief. Professor Julie’s meticulous comments on my research and her sense of humor created a perfect balance between the agony of the work that was yet to be completed and the of laughter. Thank you both for getting me through this long journey with your invaluable support and great patience. Unfortunately, I did not experience the joy of undertaking my PhD while on campus. I started and completed the program while working full-time and living in the United States. As a result, I missed the opportunity to interact with other PhD students on a regular basis and attend research seminars and lectures. Nevertheless, I always received a warm welcome from the PhD students and professors in the Department of Economics on every visit to the university. Many PhD students have given me support and motivation over the years both, in person and virtually. I want to thank Nihar Shembavnekar, who submitted this thesis in person on my behalf. And I want to give special thanks to Tsegay Gebrekidan Tekleselassie, who was a constant source of support and encouragement. To my World Bank directors, managers, task team leaders, team members, colleagues, and friends, thank you! You also provided me with the support and motivation to complete my PhD. v I want to thank several other friends: Silvia Muzi, Zaki Sherif, Maria Shash, Izabela Leao, David Wachira, Konstantin Wacker, and Khalid Shumburo. I also want to thank my dear friend and colleague Anne Brockmeyer. Her constant support and belief in me gave me the strength I needed to keep moving forward. I will never forget the “Friday PhD reminders” she sent every week to prepare me for my weekends of academic work. Thank you. I am especially grateful to my friend Nivine Mously and her family. They were my voice of reason and peace, especially during the last few months of my program. They always opened their home to me, especially when I needed a moment’s refuge from the mounting pressure in the final weeks. Thank you. I cannot measure the support my best friend Sabin Ahmed has given me in more than a decade of friendship. Her belief in me, her constant support of “Hanu, you can do this,” her prayers, and her “open-door policy” of being there for me when the going was tough remains a big blessing in my life. Thank you so much! Last but not least, my family: I want to thank my siblings, who believed in me and gave me the support I needed throughout the years. To my parents, “thank you” is an understatement. They have always recognized the value of education, and education was not a choice for their children. My completed PhD is a testament to their vision, sacrifice, and unwavering support. I cannot thank them enough nor repay them. I stand on the shoulders of giants. This degree is dedicated to them. As an aspiring poet, I wrote this to acknowledge everyone who was part of this important journey of mine: “Thank you” is not enough, Nor can I repay you with a marshmallow fluff, Together we built a castle that is tough, Certainly in years without off the cuff, I don’t know where this degree will take me, But for a while I will be certainly carefree. vi Contents Contents ............................................................................................................................................. vi List of Figures .................................................................................................................................. xiii Abbreviations ................................................................................................................................... xiv Introduction ..........................................................................................................................................1 1.1 Gender and Rural Land Reform .................................................................................................1 1.2 Gender, Reform Process, and Outcomes ...................................................................................3 Background on Rural Land Policy, Reform, and Gender: Ethiopia and the Amhara Region..............7 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................7 2.2 Ethiopia: Evolution of Land Policy............................................................................................8 2.2.1 Land Policy under the Imperial Regime .............................................................................9 2.2.2 Land Policy under the Derg Regime ...............................................................................100 2.2.3 Land Policy under the Current Regime (Post-Derg) .......................................................111 2.3 Ethiopia: Land Rights, Farming, and Gender ........................................................................122 2.4 Amhara Region: Socio-Economic Context and Land-Tenure Policy ....................................133 2.4.1 Socio-Economic Context ................................................................................................133 2.4.2 Land-Tenure Policy ........................................................................................................144 2.5 Amhara Region: Gender and Rural Land ...............................................................................177 2.5.1 Land Use and Control .....................................................................................................177 2.5.2 Marital Property Rights ...................................................................................................188 2.5.3 Inheritance Rights ...........................................................................................................188 2.6 Amhara Region: Rural Land Reform .......................................................................................19