Chapter V Summary and Conclusion

The Buddha reaUzes the inalienable connection between the philosophical problem of causation and change. In the process of Dependent Origination (paticcasamuppannadhamma), that is event, which depends on other events to arise, and which arise for just a moment in order to condition the arising of further events. It is in the continuously changing of phenomena from one state to another that causal law is observed and this change is seen as a perpetual reaction of conditions one with another. The sentient being is seen more or less as an immanent system becoming transient through its sense doors, and is seen as a metabolic process perpetually in reaction with its contacts. As in the physical spheres, the transformations are dependent on the proportions of the conditions with which it is a relation of action and reaction, so, in the psychological sphere, the psychological individual, which is the cumulative products of its saihsaric existence, is in constant reaction with the proportions of contacts. Therefore, the phenomenal world dependent on causes and conditions have been summed up as Ti- lakkhana: sabbe sahkhara anicca, sabbe sankhdra dukkhd, sabbedhammd anattd.

The theory of paticcasamuppada can be condensed into three aspects: (1) Metaphysical (2) Application to psychological aspects (3) Ethics - hetu and paccaya; it is mainly relation of action and its result. For instance, if we do something we get some result.

In the doctrine of paticcasamuppada, if is impossible to keep metaphysics, psychology and ethics separate from one another. The theory of paticcasamuppada is chiefly composed of psychological process and the moral aspect cannot be entirely separated from its metaphysics. The ultimate purpose of all its philosophy is not intellectual but moral - the attainment of freedom from the suffering and misery in the cycle of , the ultimate goal, i.e. Nibbana.

In the Pali Nikayas we can find various aspects of Nidanas in the formula of paticcasamuppada with different links and different terms. Among them the twelve links came to be regarded as the representative and most developed form of paticcasamuppada. As already discussed in the earlier chapter of this work the Noble Truth contains the cause and effect principle of paticcasamuppada by the dictum that sum total of dukkha identified with namarupa is entirely due to craving (tanha) and if tanha were absent the sum total of dukkha is identified with namarupa will not arise at all. Therefore, it can be said that whatever doctrine expounded by the Buddha is within the scope of the doctrine of the , so also it can be said that any doctrine expounded by the Buddha is within the scope of the doctrine of paticcasamuppada.

B The twelve membered formula of paticcasamuppada starts with avijja: Avijja is not only an absence of knowledge but also misapprehension of it. The meaning of avijja as the root cause of dukkha is figurative. It is done just for the convenience of teaching. Avijja is a state of prevention, an absence of true knowledge of the phenomenal world. When human actions are carried out with ignorance they become colored by either or demerit or neutrality. This is the birth of formations, a kammic force, governed by volitions. It is the seed of consciousness. Thus, when ignorance gives rise to volitional formation a person is bound to act. The ethical nature of one's own activity is governed by his volitions. Hence, ignorance is called the chief condition for kammic formations. Ignorance is predominant in unwholesome activities, while it is latent in mundane wholesome activities. Hence, both mundane wholesome and unwholesome kammic formations are said to be conditioned by ignorance. At this point, Buddha has connected the psycho-physical process of a living being with ethical or moral values. Thus, the whole life of a person is shaped by his intentions. When these intentions are endowed with ethical or moral values they give rise to meritorious activities which in turn generate a meritorious consciousness. On the contrary if one's intentions are not sound they will produce the exactly opposite result. In this case consciousness is nothing but their positive, negative or neutral energy which is the result of one's own kamma. We as the human beings are producing this type of energy moment to moment through our actions. As an ultimate result of this process one is said to have rebirth. Therefore, in the broader perspective sankharas are said to be the cause of rebirth. Vinnana performs two basic roles, that is cognizing an object and keeping the continuity of human existence from moment to moment. The three fold classification of Vifmana into patisandhi (rebirth-linking), bhavanga (life-continuum) and cuti (death) simply refers to the three stages of one and the same consciousness. Vinnana and namarupa are interdepending factors, none of them can exist in isolation or interdependent of each other. This implies that Vifinana is different from the Brahmanic soul as much as it is an impermanent ever-changing and dependently arisen factor. According to the Buddhist doctrine, Viiinana is not an eternal entity which goes from one life to another but it simply serves as a condition for another existence. The human personality, which is an immediate result of consciousness, is generally represented by the term namarupa. Nama denotes mentality or psychic personality comprising of five psychological factors while rupa denotes physical body constituted by four great elements. Both these factors are invariably dependent on each other; neither the nama nor the rupa can either exist or ftmction in isolation. The nature of namarupa is that of a conditioned phenomena; it has not got any substance. It arises and passes away from moment to moment. It is conditioned by Vinnana and conditions salayatana. The term ayatana denotes the six sense bases including five sense faculities and mind along with their respective objects. In the light of the statement "namarupa is the condition for the arising of salayatana". Salayatana means the six internal sense bases. With respect to external sense bases the sensory object should be understood as the sensory stimulator or the impact of these objects, which is met at point of sensory contact. Here, it should be noted that in this context sense objects cannot be understood as external material objects as in case of such object the statement "with the arising of namarupa arise the six sense bases" cannot become applicable. Phassa does not, merely, mean physical contact but it rather stands for a mental concomitant state involving the sense organ, the sense stimuli and the resultant consciousness. In the frame work of the paticcasamuppada, phassa is said to be the cause of pleasant, unpleasant, neutral feeling or in another term it is the cause of the entire mass of suffering. The underlying implication of these statements is that phassa, in this context, is effected by ignorance. It is a fact that one cannot avoid contact till the last moment of his life. However, as it is shown in the suttas phassa does not act alone but there are other factors such as volitions which decide its result. In case of a practitioner, who has gotten rid of feeling, perception and craving, dimension of the contact changes. When we talk of the cessation of phassa in the context of paticcasamuppada it does not mean the absence of any contact but it rather means the contact with right understanding without clinging. Vedana is the key link in the chain of Dependent Origination. It signifies either physical or mental experience. It is feeling that experiences an object when it comes in contact (phassa) with the senses and experiences the essential properties manifested in the object by the contact stimulus. There are six classes of feeling based on six types of contacts. Besides, there are three classes based on pleasantness, unpleasantness or neutrality of feeling. The former is the mere perception of external stimuli - a perception, devoid of any subjective interpretation; the latter, however, has a definite subjective content, for it must either be pleasant, unpleasant or neutral. Feeling is the immediate prerequisite of craving and craving (tanha) is the root cause of dukka. Craving is an instinctive impulse based on ignorance. It is an absence of reason or logic as a thirsty person's longing for water. When one dwells contemplating gratification in things that can , craving increases. It is neutral for the common man to develop craving for the sensual pleasure. It is extremely difficult to overcome sensual pleasure. Ignorance and craving are the most powerful factors in the cycle of rebirth. Ignorance is shown as the past cause that conditions the present and craving, the present cause that conditions the future. The main characteristics of tanha are that it leads to regeneration in sarhsara, savours of lustful attachment purses pleasures at every turn, that is to say it binds a being to the endless cycle of sarhsaric existence. Therefore, Nibbana is referred to as the extinction of craving (tanhakkhaya). Upadana is an intensified degree of craving, it is the mental state that clings to the desired object or person in various aspects of emotional effect. Clinging comprises the two mental properties of greed and error. In clinging the mental properties of greed and error are very intense. Greed associated with the immoral consciousness rooted in greed is craving which is dependent upon feeling {vedand paccaya tanhd). Intense greed and error associated with the subsequent classes or immoral consciousness rooted in greed, which are dependent upon craving, are clinging {tanhd paccaya updddna). Upad^a implies two meanings, both as "fuel" and subjective "clinging". Upadana literally meant that (material) substratum by means of which an active process is kept alive or going. Thus, when one lives contemplating gratification in things that can be clung to craving increases. In many suttas clinging (upadana) is classified into fourfold: kamupadana (clinging to sensual pleasure), ditthupadana (clinging to false view), sTlabbatupadana (clinging to rules and observance) and attavadupadana (clinging to believe in soul). Kamupadana is the firm state of craving for sensual pleasures. Ditthupadana comprises ten aspects of erroneous belief such as denial of alms-giving etc. These wrong beliefs are generally synonymous with denial of the Law of Kamma. STlabbatupadana is the adherence to the view that purification can be achieved by following wrongful rites and rules or observances. Attavadaupadana is the clinging to the belief in self or soul leading to twenty types of wrong view of self (sakkaya ditthi). All four types of clinging are rooted in craving. Upadana could not arise if there were not tanha. As long as attachment remains there is no possibility of emancipation from the wheel of rebirth.

Bhava (becoming) is the potential being that results out of accumulated craving. It includes some elements of human personality such as mental capacity and skills. In this case bhava should be viewed as a process of change and not as permanent entity. In many suttas of Nidanasamyutta, bhava (existence) is classified into three, namely, kamabhava, rupabhava and arupabhava. This classification is clearly based on the three realms of existence in which a being can take rebirth as a result of its past kamma. In the formula of Dependent Origination, bhava should be understood as both: (1) kammabhava (kamma-process of becoming) leading to rebirth; and (2) upapattibhava (rebirth-process of becoming) that means the namarupa of new-existence resulting from kamma. The bhava that arises fi-om upadana is basically kammabhava, the other upapattibhava being merely its product. Similarly, in the phrase "bhava paccaya jati", i.e. with becoming as condition birth arises, bhava (becoming) implies kanrmiabhava which is related to birth in one existence by the relations of kamma and sufficient condition. In this case bhava is similar to Sankhara, though not fiilly identical. The Sankharas are preliminary activities leading to an act of performing while cetana or volition at the time of performing is kammabhava. > Birth is in itself the final outcome of a kamma, resting on avijja, performed in an earlier birth. It is an act of being bom. Birth is not possible if there is no previous existence, therefore, bhava is said to be the condition for jati. And since aging and death arise only when there is birth, not in its absence, birth is the condition for aging and death. Jaramarana is the last link in the formula of Dependent Origination. Jara is the act of growing old; marana is that by means of which beings die. Old age is explained according to its nature as jara, according to condition as jTranata (the state of being old age), according to function as khandiccaih (brokeness of teeth), paliccam (grayness of hair) and valittacata (wrinkling of skin); according to the natural condition as ayuno sariihani (decline of vitality) and indnyanarh paripako (ripeness of faculties). Death (marana) can be simply explained as the phenomenon of extinction or biologically as the cessation of the vital functions in a single life. Strictly speaking, however, death is the continually repeated dissolution and vanishing of each momentary physical-mental combination and thus it takes place every moment. In the Nikayas, the term marana is explained by using various synonyms describing different aspects of death: cavanata (falling away), bhedo (breaking up), antaradhanam (disappearance), maccu (mortality), maranarh (death), kalakiriya (completion of life time), khandhanam bhedo (the dissolution of the aggregates), kalevarassa nikkhepo (discarding of the body). Birth, aging and death represent the three stages in human life, the interval between birth and death is regarded as aging or decay. Thus, birth is a prerequisite condition for aging and death, and sorrow and so on. The belief in immortal existence is only a symptom of deep-seated fear of death. If this obsessional fear could be removed the problem would be no more. The realization of Four Noble Truths and cultivation the is the key to remove this obsession. The twelve links in the formula of paticcasamuppada begirming with avijja ending in jaramarana, show how human being involves in samsaric existence, cycle of birth and death. But by extinction of these all factors man can be free from dukkha in the wheel of existence. He may find the way out of this tangle. If one is unable to detect the true nature of samsaric existence there won't be any urge to search the path of liberation and a person would not be free from the endless cycle of rebirth. The true knowledge of reality is an essential step on the path of complete liberation. Ignorance (avijja), which is deeply rooted in man, is blindness that prevents him from seeing his deeds as they really are, and so allows craving to drive him on to ftirther action. If there were no ignorance, there would be no such actions. In the absence of actions, conditioned by ignorance, then subsequently there would be no rising of new consciousness. When the consciousness is not allowed to get established and grow so that it can give rise to new existence there would be no fiirther rebirth. When we talk of the cessation of phassa in the context of paticcasamuppada it does not mean the absence of any contact but it rather means the contact with right understanding without ignorance and clinging. Feeling is the immediate prerequisite of craving and craving is the root cause of samsaric existence. Therefore, to get rid of this chain it is required that our defiled responses of feeling be overcome. For this reason the Buddha has made feeling iyedananupassana) one of the four "Foundations of ." Whatever feeling he feels, when a practitioner abides contemplating in those feelings, he does not cling to anything in the world. Though clinging is the direct result of craving, ultimately it is the result of ignorance about Four Noble Truths. There is interdependence between ignorance and clinging. The Eightfold Path is the only way to get out of this vicious cycle. When the nature of clinging is thoroughly realized, the feelings which have been fastened to a desired object or person, will cease to have their emotional effect. When the three spheres of existence (bhava) have been abandoned by a practitioner through the three kinds of trainings, i.e., the perfect morality (adhisTla), the purer thought (adhicitta) and the higher wisdom (adhipanna), a practitioner is said to have cut off craving, rolled back the fetters completely, has made an end of dukkha.

c The scholars world over are of the opinion that the twelve membered formula represents the final stage in the development of the formula of Dependent Origination. Though the scholars try to provide an answer to the query regarding the origin of this formula by pointing out different passages of the cannon, no finality has yet been reached on this issue in absence of any conclusive evidence. Though the idea of Dependent Origination is seen as the basic doctrine of Buddha's discourses, the reference to the twelve-membered formula does not occur in the early Pali Scriptures as the Suttanipata. What we find there is a mere mention of some terms, which underline various reasons for the arising of dukkha. For example, in the Guhatthakasutta there occur terms such as satta (attached), kama (sensual pleasure), iccha (wish), tanha (craving), mamayita (cherished), chanda (longing or desire), phassa (contact) and sahhd (perception). Similarly, in Parayanavagga we come across words such as avijja, veviccha (avarice), pamada (sloth), jappd (craving) and abhilepana (defilements or sticking to). If we put them in due order, we can get an approximation to some formula of Dependent Origination. It is believed that before reaching its final shape, comprising twelve links, the formula of Dependent Origination underwent at least two stages, namely, the stage involving simple statements about the origin of dukkha and the stage involving incomplete formula. In our opinion, this development did not stop with the emergence of standardized formula (twelve links), but it rather continued even thereafter till it was taken to its logical and in the Upanisasuta, where the formula is extended upto the point of realization of the destruction of defilements (asavakhayenana) in order to explain the creative aspect of the causal law. The twelve membered formula shows an element of fiision of two distinct approaches explaining the continuity of sansaric existence, such as, psychological, i.e., tanha, upadana, etc., and metaphysical, i.e., viniiana, bhava, etc. It is also said to be an amalgamation of various short formulas. There are some scholars who think that the twelve membered formula is the original and others are its shorter versions formed to suit the particular occasion. Almost sixty percent suttas of NS present a complete formula, however, the number of suttas presenting irregular formula is also quite high. Though we caimot say with any certainty whether one or the other formula is the original, we can certainly say that the theory of Dependent Origination underwent irmumerable tests and was experimented on number of occasions and for number of reasons. In our opinion, the variations, that are found in the formula, is the result of this continuous experimentation on path of the Buddha and his disciples. Each time they examined this theory from a new perceptive or applied it to different phenomenon under question, they found out something new, which they expressed either by adding a new link or by using a different term that could express the idea they would like to emphasize. The study of two , namely, PratTtyasamutpadavi- bhanganirdesasutra, which belongs to tradition and Salistambasutra belonging to the early tradition shows that by this time the development process of the formula of Dependent Origination attend completion in terms of factor, their number and sequence. PratTtyasamutpadavibhahganirdesasutra shows its relation with the paticcasammupada and Vibhangasutta of Buddhavagga in Sarhyuttanikaya. Thus, from the structural aspect PratTtyasamutpadavibhanganirdesasutra has much in common with Pali Suttas. However, the former is more systematic and elaborate in exposition than the latter. It is quite possible that they share a common source. Salistambasutra marks a beginning of a new phase in the history of this formula as its application being extended to the physical world. This has given a new dimension to the doctrine of Dependent Origination called objective Dependent Origination that would take care of causal relation in outside world. The objective Dependent Origination governed by causes is called bahyahetupanibandhah. Another important factor of the objective Dependent Origination is that it also takes into account the indispensable (unavoidable) role of auxiliary conditions called pratyayas (Pali- paccayas). The auxiliary conditions, in case of plant, should be understood from the coming together of six factors, namely, earth, water, heat, air, space and season. Without these conditions nothing can arise. It also implies that a production of a particular thing is a result of coming together of these conditions and not of a single cause. This aspect of objective Dependent Origination is called bahya pratyayopanibandha. The mention of elements (dhatus) as condition (pratyayas) and replacement of consciousness (vijnnana) by season (rtu) is also new contribution of Salistambasutra. This twofold analysis of objective Dependent Origination into causal and conditional is also extended to subjective Dependent Origination. When there is mere presence of avidya, sariikharas arise. Such a relation between cause and effect is referred to as causal relation governing subjective Dependent Origination. The conditional relation of subjective Dependent Origination is to be understood as coming together of six elements (dhatus), namely, earth, water, heat, air, space and consciousness. The explanation about six dhatus and their function is an instance of consolidation of materials found in Pali Suttas. Thus, four-fold classification of Dependent Origination, namely, external or objective causal realtion (bahya hetupanibandha), subjective causal realtion (adhyatmika hetupanibandha), objective conditional relation (bahya pratyayonibandha) and subjective conditional relation (adhyatmika pratyayopanibandha) is the original contribution of Salistambasutra as it has no parallel in Pali suttas. From the philosophical point of view, the central theme most of the suttas from the Nidanasarhyutta is the theory of Dependent Origination. These suttas provide us with the number of angles for understanding this theory. For instance, in some suttas each of the twelve factors is explained from the point of view of its nature, origin and cessation. While doing so the suttas emphasize the function of each factor and its role as an intermediate link between proceeding and following factor. In some other suttas the theory of Dependent Origination is emphasized from the point of view of meditational practice and as an object of knowledge. In some of the other, suttas we may find the focus of attention fixed on a particular factor in order to emphasize their special role or relation. Apart Irom this, we also find suttas that throw light on the intricate relation of law of Dependent Origination with some of the other concepts such as: nutritions, five aggregates, Four Noble Truths, etc. Another important class of suttas is the one that describes Dependent Origination as the middle path as oppose to non-Buddhist doctrines. Pratltyasamutpadavibhanganirdesasutra basically explains law of Dependent Origination and comments on each of the twelve factors. Though most of the material found in this sutta is paralleled in Pali Suttas still on few occasions its description of the factors slightly differs from that of Pali sources. This difference, however, is not as major as can be called a doctrinal shift. As said above SalistambasQtra by consolidating on Pali and Sanskrit Hmayana materials marks a beginning of new phase in the application and understanding theory of Dependent Origination. Its major contribution is its attempt to explain the law of causation with regard to unconscious things. There cannot be an identity between the idea of paticcasamuppada as related to human mind, human action and the passive conditionality found in case of external material world. In case of human being the cause and effect or an action and result are governed by an active intention. However, this intention is missing in case of the external material world. The conditionality in the external material world is mechanical and thus fixed. Though the Salistambasutra does not clearly propose the theory of illusoriness it does use the term Maya in the paragraph number eleven. It also uses similes of reflected images, which become important as illustration of illusoriness in later Mahayana texts. If one compares explanation of all the twelve factors as found in Pali Suttas and Salistambasutra one can clearly experience slight doctrinal shift. In Salistambasutra an attempt is made to establish more logical and more convincing relation between two adjacent links. According to it, thinking plays an important role in the whole of Dependent Origination.

D The concept of suiina or sunnata reveals the essential and the basic platform of the earliest teaching of the Buddha, as presented in as it survived up to present and of the early developments in other HTnayana school, Sarvastivada and Vijnaptimatrata, covering the first centuries of world Buddhism leadingji) Mahayana. The usage of the term suiina in the Pali Cannon is multifarious. It describes a noun from as an adjective in the sense of empty, void, etc. Here, it does not indicate any philosophical idea or any special sense. Secondly, when sunna is combined with nouns or any other substantial forms it conveys an absence of the things or qualities denoted by them. Thus, in the initial stage the word suiina was used in a general sense of empty or void as an mere adjective. However, in the next stage of its development, it was being used to represent a secluded place suitable for meditation. For resorting to a solitary place, free from outer disturbances, is conducive to calmness of mind free from inner hindrance. Further in its development the word empty or emptiness which was applied literally to the empty place is also used metaphorically to describe the meditative state experienced in an empty place. This usage of suniia (adjective) in the sense of empty and sunnata (abstract noun) in the sense of emptiness both, referring to the empty place, and to the state of meditation, is the first stage in the extension of the common meaning of emptiness in early Buddhism. Further, the use of the word sufinata as in 'suiifiata-' (concentration of emptiness) or ' sunnata-vihara' (abode of emptiness) indicating the meditative degree, is more technical and hard to explain, because as a meditative degree, it is a thing to be experienced through mental effort. The term emptiness (sunnata) or concentration of emptiness (sunnata-samadhi) is defined as contemplating the nature of conditioned world as emptiness. It is a crucial practice to understand lust or passion. It is noteworthy that sunnata-samadhi occurs together with the two other types of concentrations, namely, animitta-samadhi and appanihita-samadhi. Here, sunnata-samadhi refers to concentration of non-self, animitta-samadhi refers to the concentration of impermanent and appanihita- samadhi to concentration of suffering. Thus, sunnata-samadhi is one of the three paths leading to liberation. The abode of emptiness (sunnata-vihara) is the stage free from all inclinations. In the Patisambhidamagga, sunnata-vihara occurs together with animitta-vihara appanihita- vihara. Here, sunfia-vihara does not signify the overall state that can be compared with Nibbana as found in the Cujasunnatasutta, but rather signifies one of the three aspects of Nibbana. Sunnata-vihara, as explained in the Culasunnatasutta, is the highest meditative state. It is identical with Nibbana, therefore, the Buddha calls it the abiding of great man. The descend in this highest state is gradual and collateral. It expects dual introspection at each stage thus unlike Madhyamika philosophy, sunnata in early Buddhism is not absolute but relative as it is defined in relation to experience. For the Buddha, clinging to self is one of the major obstacles in the way of realization of truth. According to Sufifiolokasutta, no element of experience can be regarded as one's self or as belong to oneself. When one gets rid of this clinging his mind turns towards Nibbana, which is uncompounded (asankhata). According to Patisambhidamagga, reflection on non-self is a means for obtaining insight with regard to the world by this means one realizes that all compounded things (sahkhara) are void. Thus, the concept of non-self and the concept of suiifiata are identical. It is not or Madhyamika or the Mahayana teacher, who were the first to identify sunnata with Nibbana. The Buddha himself in so far as he is quoted in the suttas of Nikayas has spoken of this. The word sunnata in the context of suflnata-vimokkha or sunnata-cetovimitti stands for selfless state which is one of the aspects of Nibbana. The other two aspects, namely, animitta-vimokkha and appanihita-vimokkha are not covered under the concept of sunnata-vimokkha. Thus, sunnata, in this context, is identical with Nibbana in one of its aspects. However, elsewhere as in Patisambhidhamagga defines that sunnata is declared to be an epithet of Nibbana. Thus, the relation of sufifia or sunnata with Nibbana is twofold. It is partial as it is identical only one of the aspects of Nibbana and it is total as in certain context it is fully identical with Nibbana. The notion of emptiness, in Theravada tradition, is limited to establish non- substantiality of things and was never applied to deny things themselves as that would have destroyed the whole purpose of the teaching. The study of Theravada literature reveals that its main concern is ethical and moral, and not philosophical or dialectical. Though it has introduced the notion of emptiness it did not go further in examining its logical implications as was done by the later Mahayana tradition. Thus, it is evident that the word sufifia operates on three different levels of meaning. On the first level, it conveys mere absence of something. On second level, it has a more specialized application. Here it is identified with the state fi-ee from self and that what belongs to self (atta). As mentioned before, it is one of the aspects of Nibbana but not the actual nibbana. On the third level, sufifia or sufifiata is fully identical with the highest spiritual state of Nibbana. Throughout the long , unity amidst diversity is strikingly evident. There is no limitation of period, place for one who involves in studying Buddhism to accept the doctrine of Dependent Origination. The Buddha explains his doctrine of denial of a theory of the phenomenal nature or of the reality of an eternal entity behind the physical phenomena or of a 'substance' underlying the physical phenomena. In a purely analytical argument, the individual is seen as a psycho-physical compound, and whatever there is of body or of mind is fijrther analyzed without discovering anything of a permanent nature. Dependence of an effect on the cause of habitability of cause in the production of an effect, denial of the potential existence of an effect in a cause, non-substantiality of both cause and effect, and absence of permanent experiencing and performing entity are features of the theory of Dependent Origination. The emptiness is the ultimate result of Dependent Origination. However, from the point of view of Culasunnatasutta one can also say that insight into Dependent Origination is a result of the constant process of elimination, that is through the meditation of voidness.

E Why should we understand paticcasamuppada? Because the doctrine of paticcasamuppada is the key to the solution of the fundamental problem of human life involving in conditioned world. The fiinction of paticcasamuppada can be condensed thus: 1. It shows what is suffering, how suffering arises, how suffering ceases and what is the way leading to cessation of suffering. 2. It clarifies that all phenomena of existence are nothing but impermanent, suffering and non-self 3. Through its multiple applications it helps us to understand how to solve our problems and what our final goal is along with its attainable path and means. 4. It clarifies in a profound way theories and practices for mankind covering vast area of human life.

The role of this doctrine, specially in the life of a Buddhist, is of a great importance, particularly from the point of view of their ethics and their practice. Thus, the doctrine of paticcasamuppada directs us to understand the conditioned existence and it throws light on the way of practice to prevent suffering from arising in accordance with mutual dependency. These points are some of the important reasons why we must understand it. How to practice in order to release from sarhsaric existence? Suffering arises depending on the causes and conditions. If one wishes to be freed from suffering he has to eliminate whatever cause gives rise to suffering. Suffering in samsara does not cease by itself One has to make a consistent effort to minimize it and ultimately roots it out without remainder. Each and every individual has the potentiality to eradicate suffering, but degree of its energy or strength may vary from individual to individual. Effort plays an important role in the way of life. From time to time the Buddha has stressed the need for effort. The reason why effort is so crucial is that each person has to work out one's own deliverance. The Eightfold Path, which is the last of the Four Noble Truths, is a necessary condition for the cessation of suffering which in terms represents Nibbana. To follow the Eightfold Path is not an easy task, therefore, the quality of viriya is required. The Buddha advises his disciples to resort, to strenuous effort for obtaining the highest spiritual state, that is to say free from all bondages. The Buddha's firm resolution "Let only my skin, sinews and bones remain, and let the flesh and blood dry up in my body but I will not relax my effort so long as I have not attained what can be attained by manly strength, by manly energy, by manly exertion" shows the highest degree of mental strength on his path. This must be an exemplary of mental attitude towards practice. Thus, the Buddha emphasizes the importance of effort and urges upon his disciples the supreme effort. Then what is the purpose of practicing and following paths discovered and experienced by the Buddha? The cessation of dukkha can be the only answer; freedom from cycle of rebirth; the realization of the unconditioned state; the final release.

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