University Education in Quebec's Federal Prisons: Report and Recommendations

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Lucien Morin Ph.D.

Professor of Educational Philosophy Department of Education University of Quebec at Trois-Rivieres

August 1979

HV 8883.3 .C2 M6 1979 \-\/

PA 4 HI n79 /UNIVERSITY EDUCATION IN HI QUEBEC'S FEDERAL PRISONS: REPORT AND RECOMMENDATIONS \ t I 8-ireii; M N.SIRV OF SOL ICITO G:NERAL R AU,' 23 190

BIBLI teiNSIte.. OTHÈQUE DU SO ,Ciic UR GÉNÉRAL BY

LUCIEN MORIN

PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF QUEBEC AT TROIS-RIVIERES

Cqoyeght of this any intended use document does not fProperauthonzation must be obtainedbelong from fain&the author» AUGUST 1979 Les Crown. droits d'auteur pas à l'État du present document Toute document doit utilisation du contenu dun'appartiennent ere approuvée préalablementpajsent par l'auteur

This report was prepared under a contract with the

Education and Training Division of the Correctional

Service of Canada, 340 Laurier Avenue West,

Ottawa, KlA 0P9. TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 3.

CHAPTER I - The Present Situation 4

1. Courses without programs 5 i. A changing objective 6 ii. Gathering information 9 iii. Description 14 a) Unclear data 14 b) Main themes 22 -Policy of accessibility 23 -Individualized instruction 27 -Linear adult education 32

2. Critique of the present situation 35 i. Rememberance of education past 38 a) Why university education in prison? 41 h) Human growth 48 -The person as mystery 49 -The person as openness and communion 51 -The person as conquest 53 ii. The improvised university 56 a) The fall of the ivory tower 56 b) Primitive totality 60 iii. Failure to understand the psychology of the student inmate 66 a) The criminal personality 67 -A good person 67 -Etiological inadequacy 71 b) Adolescent reasoning 73 c) Preconventional morality 77 iv. Administrating vs. educating 82 a) Superiors and subordinates 82 b) The blind men's elephant 83 c) Humanists and administrators 85

Conclusion 88

CHAPTER II - On University Education for Inmates: Recommendations 91

Introduction 91 - li -

1. The basic assumption: human dignity 92 j. The natural obligation to do what is good 94 ii. Human dignity 96

2. The objectives 98 j. The student must develop a critical mind 100 ii. The student must learn to consider the moral significance of things 103 iii. The student must be able to assess his own internal development 106 iv. The student must learn to master written and oral communication 108 v. The student must develop an awareness of his cultural identity 110

3. The content 113 i. A difficult choice 113 ii. Motives 118

4. The student 124 i. A need for higher standards 124 ii. Ability to read, desire to learn 127

5. The teacher 132

6. Evaluation 134 i. A recognized approach to evaluation 135 -The program 139 -The methodology 141 ii. Stages in the evaluative process 143 -The evaluation committee 145 -Evaluation criteria 147

7. Organization 152 i. The administrative aspect 153 a) The university 153 -Enrolment 155 -Implementation 156 h) The penitentiary 156 -The program co-ordinator 159 ii. The pedagogical aspect 164 a) Courses 164 I

- 111 -

b) Students 165 c) Professors 168 iii. Budget 168 iv. Schedule 172

8. The agreement 173

REFERENCE 178

CONSULTATIONS 186 INTRODUCTION

This study was commissioned by the Correctional

Service of Canada in order to respond to the following question:

"Should a university program be established in Quebec

penitentiaries?" In order to explain more fully the many

factors involved in such an undertaking, it was necessary, more specifically, for the researcher in charge of this study

to:

- establish the objectives of such a program;

- develop and propose one or more type(s) of program content;

- identify a clientele for such a program;

- identify the institution (prison) most able to promote and offer this program;

- determine the requirements for teaching staff;

- conduct a management study on the human, material and financial resources required for the continuing operation of the programs;

- establish a model for a memorandum of agreement between the Correctional Service of Canada and a recognized university.

It is obvious that these tasks - although both specific and determinative in nature - could only be indicative of the scope of questions to be asked and problems examined.

In other words, they alone did not exhaust either the theoretical 2

presuppositions (for example, those involving the purpose of incarceration, the aim of education in penitentiaries or the objectives of a university program for inmates) or the complexity of the problems inherent in such a plan (for example, one important variable, the CEGEP, was never initially identified). Thus it was constantly necessary to go beyond the apparently restrictive framework of this description of tasks in order to grasp all the nuances essential to an understanding of the question.

Moreover, as each task listed was directed toward an area of activity defined by its own objective and therefore involved relatively independent methodological strategies, only a simple and flexible overview would ensure that the conclusions of this study possessed some degree of coherent uniformity. This macroscopic approach, to use a well-known term, proved the most suitable for such a study.

Finally, from the very beginning of the study, it was soon apparent that the ultimate justification for establishing a university program for penitentiary inmates would basically depend on the philosophy, objectives, content and instructional techniques involved in the program being 3

considered. As a result, even before the material and financial conditions were examined and minimum viability criteria established, there was an almost urgent necessity to devise two antithetical program model outlines so as to elicit all relevant reactions from those concerned, understand them in their context and respond to them in the most efficient and flexible manner possible.

As can be easily imagined, a study of this scope could not have been conducted in isolation. In a sense, it was carried out by those for whom it is intended. For the most part, those who were consulted - inmates, university principals and assistant directors (education) - are the people who eventually - must be responsible for instituting and managing it. As well, external visits and meetings with qualified individuals and interested organizations provided additional input, for which we are grateful.

As we did not wish to forget anyone, a list of names of those consulted is appended to this report.

Once again, we would like to extend our most sincere thanks to all those who took part either directly or indirectly in this research. CHAPTER I

The Present Situation

"The necessity of making conscious decisions based on insufficient information is the major feature characterizing the human condition."

J. Fourastié, Le long chemin des hommes

The conclusions of this study will make little sense and its recommendations will be unrealistic and have little chance of success unless they are based on a general understanding of the situation which presently exists with respect to university teaching in penitentiaries. This situation is complex and complicated. It is especially difficult to understand in that its elements are scattered, confused and practically inextricable from the contradictions of everyday experience. For someone with a clear understanding, there is no need for special procedures or particular insight in order to see evidence of this fact.

The aim of this first chapter is to demonstrate this by drawing the most faithful portrait possible of the reality -5

in question, a portrait, it must be said, hidden under-

neath a great deal of approximation and reconstruction.

In a case such as this, an analysis of the situation

cannot take all the ramifications of the problem into

consideration. Fortunately, the basic orientation of

our education-related concerns does not have to be based

on an exhaustive description; correct information about

the essential points is all that is required. With this

in mind, our analysis will comprise two facets: first,

a description of what is actually being done in the penitentiaries with respect to university education; this

section is called "Courses without programs". Following this will be an examination of the present situation and, in particular, of the assumptions underlying it.

1. Courses without programs

A coherent understanding of the situation does not develop automatically, but as the result of constant and systematic consideration. The subject is dealt with in three separate parts, as follows, in order to facilitate an understanding of this progression. 6

j. A changing objective

From the point of view of its theoretical and

affective origin, this study developed from the conviction

that university programs in penitentiaries could have

unparalleled potential for basic and long-lasting inmate

rehabilitation, and from the perception that an experiment 1 similar to that carried out at Matsqui should be attempted

within the federal penitentiary system in Quebec where there

was no rehabilitative university program as such despite

the fact that it housed one-third of the total federal

penitentiary population.

These two presuppositions, which soon became the

objectives of this study, were the subject of extensive

examination during an exploratory meeting on the place and 2 role of university programs in the penitentiaries.

Suffice it to say that in the minds of the participants

the first objective, because it accorded primary importance to education in the rehabilitative process, should not only

form part and parcel of the university-level studies but also serve as a basis for any educational undertaking directed at inmates. If by rehabilitation (we shall return 7

to this notion later) we mean the furtherance and maturation of personal values, such as moral conscience

and sensitivity to others, values which promote the

development of autonomous and responsible individuals,

then rehabilitation is indeed a goal of educators, or at

least is seen as a highly desirable effect of any

educational activity. Furthermore, this was one of the

first observations we made as a result of our visits.

But it was just as obvious that rehabilitation had not yet been established as the primary goal of penitentiary education. Making rehabilitation the fundamental reason for university education for inmates, considering it as a true arkè, an altogether indisputable logical and metaphysical principle, was therefore a new and bold initiative.

As is often the case, there is a sharp conflict between reality and theory, however attractive the latter may be. This was also the case with the theory on which we were operating; because of the reality of the situation, this study underwent a basic reorientation to the point where the initial objective, the introduction of a particular educational approach (education for the purposes of rehabilitation), was replaced by the objective of justifying the need for university-level education in penitentiaries. The initial objective involved the establishment of a university program based on rehabilitation (the,contractual agreement with the researcher indicates this). The revised objective involved examining and weighing the pros and cons of a university program for inmates. All in all, these two points of view are not only different but irreconcilable in many respects. Circumstances required that the second approach be adopted, but only after lengthy consideration of the first.

Why was this major change made in a study of such scope? There are two main explanations: on the one hand, contrary to our expectations, prison authorities knew little or nothing about our hypothesis (rehabilitation through university education), nor were they prepared to accept it without taking the time to examine it. On the other hand, as was to be expected, the penitentiaries had anticipated their own solutions to the question of university- 9

I level inmate education, basing themselves on their own very definite ideas on the general education of inmates.

ii. Gathering information 3 Despite its macroscopic approach our investigation

could not simply deal with questions such as: what is the

situation, why does it exist, what is wanted, what is

required and what can be done? Nor did we wish to burden

ourselves with either the usual cumbersome methodology or

an overly specialized research tool which might well have

produced seriously myopic results. Using a questionnaire

of our own developed for this specific purpose and based 4 on a institutional analysis (see Table A), we simply

visited various penitentiaries and consulted university

personnel, resource persons and officials of the

Correctional Service of Canada.

Before providing a description and critique of

the situation, a few preliminary remarks are necessary in

order to provide a better understanding of the information

gathered. - 10 -

First, for reasons related both to current administrative practices and to the highly complex nature of the problem under study, there is very little comprehensive, clear and coherent information available about university instruction in institutions, either from

the government or from the universities concerned. Second, . there does not seem to be any policy or clear educational outlook from which could emerge a basic direction for instructional techniques in penitentiaries; there are no well thought out, consciously chosen theoretical models.

Third, although education occupies an important place in terms of budget, activities of all types, the number of individuals involved and so on, it is not given high priority as a prime factor in the rehabilitation process.

The conclusions of these initial observations are easily identifiable: an exclusively descriptive approach would not be adequate since it would not make it possible to meet current requirements; the individual institutions or persons involved, unable to see how they fit into an overall context having all-inclusive significance, "invent" their facts and data with breathtaking eclectic empiricism; - 11 -

it becomes almost impossible to understand the essence

of education, since it is defined by immediate factors

rather than with reference to an educational theory or model; because the issue of university education as such

is so diffuse and is not autonomous, it must be approached by means of related or marginal issues, in other words, by something external to itself.

More concretely speaking, in preparing our analysis

we wished none the less to make good use of this - to say

the least - paradoxical situation by taking the following two precautions: first, we constantly sought to ascertain the meaning, the fundamental sense, of observed facts rather than to focus on the meticulous and useless collection of data which clearly are distorted and difficult to grasp; secondly, we concentrated our attention on concrete educational action. It was necessary to set limits and establish boundaries. By focussing on what might improve the situation, our research was confined to the realm of the possible. -12 -

TABLE A

Questionnaire outline

1. Identification of existing program(s)

1.1 Certificate, BA, MA, correspondence . . .

1.2 Duration, participating institution, university involved

1.3 Evaluation applied, in progress, planned

2. Program description

2.1 Objectives (accessibility, schooling, personal advancement, personal development and so forth)

2.2 Admission requirements, selection criteria . . .

2.3 Number of credits - program, session, week . . .

2.4 Program structure - compulsory, optional, independent courses . . .

2.5 Course content and description - list, syllabus . . .

3. Student population

3.1 Number, mobility, orientation . .

3.2 Motivation, type, characteristics, expectations . . .

3.3 Pass criteria, drop-outs, continuation following release . . . - 13 -

4. Organization and managment

4.1 Material resources - library, classrooms, instructional and audio-visual equipment

4.2 Financial resources - course unit cost, salaries, alternative means of financing . .

4.3 Management personnel - number, role, duties . .

4.4 Teaching personnel - qualifications, education, training . . .

4.5 Agreement - 14 -

iii. Description

As expected, the portrait of the situation that

emerges from the data collected does not represent merely

the sum total of these data. The description was arrived

at with difficulty and was the result of a searching

interpretation of blurred and underdeveloped images arising

from disparate and uneven information. In other words, it

more closely resembles a painting than a true-to-life

photograph. Its major features are as follows.

a) Unclear data

Although we know for certain that inmates have

taken and continue to take university courses, that the penitentiary system looks favourably upon this type of higher education and that the various universities have offered and continue to offer such instruction, we do not know the details of these facts in any precise way (see Table B).

For example, we have been successful in identifying the main participating universities: Concordia University, the University of Montreal, the University of Ottawa, the

University of Quebec at Montreal, Queen's University and the Téléuniversité. It is next to impossible ewithout

I - 15-

relying on opinions formed on the spot by staff members)

to rank or qualify each university's degree of involvement

- the evaluation criteria cannot be met, purely and simply

because of a lack of information. In addition, although

some universities have been involved for some ten years

(such as the University of Ottawa) and others for barely

two (such as the Téléuniversité), it was literally

impossible to piece together the history behind the real

motives for the involvement of each one even though, in

everyone's opinion, university education was always seen

simply as a service to be offered. It seems rather

doubtful that either the penitentiaries or the univerAties

considered the hypothesis that higher education would

encourage rehabilitation.

Furthermore, with the exception of the Téléuniversité whose purpose is well known, no university was able to explain clearly the nature and extent of its present involvement. In the absence of any educational theory upon which to base detailed planning of educational practice, university teaching seems resigned to the continued repetition of what is already in existence: isolated courses without -16 -

programs and ad hoc, short-range projects.

With respect to future plans and investment, there is little to say. In the course of our meetings, we heard occasional references and comments: it seems that a recent project of the University of Montreal involving a distance course (by telephone) in criminology has been indefinitely suspended; an equally recent pilot project of UQAM involving distance education has been shelved for the time being; because of staffing and reorganization problems, Concordia University is worried about its future involvement in penitentiary education; the University- of Ottawa, not entirely satisfied with the quality of its participation, is planning to carry out a complete evaluation of its activities in the fall of 1979; the Téléuniversité has an admittedly ad hoc philosophy and a policy of providing services where and when they are needed and thus is not geared to the long term or educational ends as such. - 17 -

TABLE B

Participation of Universities

University Duration In progress Project Instruction Responsibility

Concordia 5 years Yes Continuing Distance

Montreal ? ? 1 - Distance Continuing suspended Education

Ottawa 10 years Yes Educational Distance Faculty of Arts

UQAM 3 years Yes 1 - Distance Continuing suspended Education

Queen's ? Yes ? Distance ?

Téléuniversité 2 years Yes 1 - in Distance progress - 18 -

Valid statistics on the number of inmates enrolled in university courses are virtually non-existent (see

Table C). However, there are a number of explanations.

In many cases, the lack of a central records office in the penitentiaries is often the first problem mentioned. But most agree that none of the various reasons put forward to explain this shortcoming are adequate to justify the inability of the system of establish a simple and permanent academic record for each inmate. Perhaps, and this is a difficult attitude to deal with, the inmate is considered too exclusively as an inmate. It must be borne in mind that seeing him as a student as well would give rise to more careful treatment and consideration.

Another major obstacle, probably the most important, is the great mobility of the inmates. For someone who is not familiar with penitentiaries, the ease with which an inmate is able to obtain a transfer from one institution to another seems extraordinary. Even the most experienced staff members feel completely paralysed with respect to this situation. However, a desire for change is making itself felt and although one may endorse the very humanitarian reasons behind this policy, there is also - 19 -

unanimous opinion that there should be improvements made

so that the system may adapt to the requirements of a well-designed educational plan.

There are those who view the high withdrawal rate and, more specifically, the withdrawal/re-enrolment cycle

as another major difficulty in establishing and keeping useful statistics. We feel that this is only a symptom.

A more careful diagnosis would show that this is much more an effect than a cause of the problem, which should be sought rather in the kind of instruction that is usual in penitentiaries. One very astute university principal with whom we spoke dealt with this question. He stated bluntly that the real reason why many inmates dropped out of courses was that their education was centred on distance and correspondence courses and that this gave them a sense of isolation.

Finally, the low enrolment rate is often cited as a reason for lack of interest and, consequently, for the administrative maltreatment reserved for university students. The low numbers, which should facilitate the registration process, instead seems to hinder its operation. - 20 -

It is amazing how the efficiency of an entire system can be reduced to such apparently insignificant details.

It is obvious that the combination of all these factors does nothing to produce results which shed much light on enrolment. - 21 -

TABLE C

University Enrolment

5 Source Institutions Total enrolment

Regional planning ? (1978-1979)

André Rivard Archambault 14 (1978) Leclerc Cowansville Laval Federal Training Centre

Reception Centre ? (1978)

Visits Archambault 10 (1979) Leclerc Cowansville Federal Training Centre

Universities 0 to 20 (1979) - 22 -

Finally, with respect to penitentiaries, it is not known - except by imprecise and questionable empirical means - how many of them have, in the past, offered higher education. However, on this specific point, it should be remembered that initial experiments in providing university education apparently involved a limited number of courses and were the result of inmates' requests rather than programs designed and developed by the administration; consequently, they are difficult to pinpoint. Our visits to Archambault, Leclerc, Cowansville and the Federal

Training Centre demonstrated that, for the moment, university activities are mainly concentrated at

Archambault and Leclerc.

Although they may constitute a sort of geomorphological structure of the reality in question, the outlines provided by no means describe its essence, which can be found in meaning and significance. In order to discover this, we must look beyond the facts. b) Main themes

We have identified three major trends that emerge from the conception that seems to prevail in penitentiaries with respect to university education: a policy.of - 23 -

accessibility; individualized instruction; linear adult

education.

Policy of accessibility

With a few exceptions (two or three senior

managers), the main parties interested in university

education for inmates see it basically from the point of

view of accessibility. It must be strongly emphasized

that accessibility means what it says: offering to a

distant clientele university education comparable in

quality to that available to any student at any recognized

institution. To avoid any ambiguity, it is therefore

important to clearly focus on the fact that the first

objective (not the second or third) of this educational policy is not personal development, occupational training,

education as a status symbol to facilitate social reintegration, or even gratuitous cultural development, but to be able to deliver a service usually available in one fixed location to another location which is generally considered inaccessible. This does not mean that other objectives, such as those mentioned above, should be disparaged or excluded. But they are simply not priorities, 1 - 24 -

or basic or specific. It is not only recent projects such

as the one carried out by Gaétan Tremblay and Suzanne 6 Bouchard of UQAM which attest to this attitude. It seems

that the notion of accessibility has always been basic to 1

the various initiatives taken in this area (according to

most of those concerned, even at the college level) by

both penitentiaries and participating universities. 7 The assumptions involved in adopting such a

position, whether or not they clearly articulated in the

minds of those concerned, are significant and contribute

to a better understanding of the scope of the problem and 1 the remedies required. They merit careful study.

The first assumption might be termed "structuralist" or "systematic". The expression used hardly matters; the

important thing is to understand the dominant role it accords to relational factors, and which it so accords without reference to the "poles" of the relationship and almost at the expense of content. It is as if the process itself, in the manner of abstract formalism devoid of any existential obligation, were the vehicle for direction, 1 meaning and instrumentality. Concretely, this means a near justification of inactivity or at least indifference, - 25 -

for, as one person we consulted said, the system does all the work. Therefore it should not be surprising that education centred on accessibility is in this way justified in its refusal to admit or even take into consideration the possibility that an inmate may have particular learning problems or require special teaching strategies or indeed that he should be assessed according to a rehabilitation model of any sort - whether moral, cognitive or other. Obviously, the expectations arising from this assumption are disconcertingly simple. One must assume that the inmate is a normal, average adult who has not had or does not have the-"chance" to attend university.

The principle of accessibility, by means of a permanent system of opportunities, guarantees this chance. The rest is up to the inmate.

Closely connected to the structuralist assumption, the assumption of fragmentation is just as revealing.

As the essential aim of the principle of accessibility is to reach a distant clientele rather than to offer a specific course content and as its chosen objective is clearly service rather than education, one can hardly expect anything but the dissemination of a large variety of courses, Moreover, - 26 -

this is in fact the case. A very wide and diverse range of courses is offered to inmates: French, mathematics, advertising, sociology, psychology, criminology and so on.

There are no prerequisites and there is no organization, no accreditation required (especially in the case of the

Téléuniversité), no planned evaluation and no goal other than fulfilling an expressed desire. Burdened by its adherence to the "here and now" and conditioned by an inexplicable fear of the idea of totality, the assumption of fragmentation stands in open opposition to the concept of programming, preferring to promote, without knowing why, the perpetuation of a destructive inconsistency and a lack of continuity that is doomed to failure. It is not surprising that such a basis for accessibility tends in the long run to produce, in the user, an outlook similar to that of a highly specialized insect.

Finally, there is a third assumption, that of necessary indifference. While avoiding any moral connotation, it is nevertheless important to recognize that accessibility as such has few if any scruples.

Alerting an old Kantian formula to suit our purposes, we can say that if what is essential is to eat, then the source - 27 -

of supply, the quality of the food and the way it is ingested and digested matter little. From the viewpoint of a principle of unequivocal accessibility, this assumption is not in the least unreasonable. However, it is possible to see in such an amplification a very fragile foundation upon which to build. As we shall discuss later in greater detail, such a conception of the foundations of the principle of accessibility is precarious.

Individualized instruction

The second main characteristic of university education for inmates as it presently exists is unquestionably that it involves individualized instruction. This phrase implies a number of realities: teaching by objectives (the American term PPO is often used to . indicate this type of instruction); correspondence courses; distance education; telephone instruction; programmed teaching.

At the risk of over-simplification, we might speak of solitude in the learning process or, better yet, a solitary learning process. Basically, the idea is to let the student develop at his own rate and according to his needs, interests and ability. In addition, since the student is an adult and is involved in a process of "self-education", he is granted as much independence as possible. Consequently, visits by tutors, for example, are infrequent: two or three per session seem to be the average.

The modern origins of this trend are well known: consider the Montessori principle of self- regulation and self-control, Piaget's genetic theories, Piéron's notion of hereditary equipment,

Gley's "harmozones", Groos' theory on play, Wallon's projective stage, Clarapède's ten laws of behaviour and so on. Ever since adult education and, specifically, continuing education became a focal concern, in short, after general education moved beyond the classroom, so to speak, individualized teaching made great strides. Ivan Illich's definition is enlightening in this respect:

A good educational system should have three

purposes: it should 1) provide all who want

to learn with access to available resources - 29 -

at any time in their lives; 2) empower all

who want to share what they know to find

those who want to learn it from them; and,

finally, 3) furnish all who want to present

an issue to the public with the opportunity 8 to make their challenge known. Thus it should come as no surprise that individualized teaching occupies such an important place in university education. However, because they support questionable arguments, certain assumptions made by this movement must be dealt with.

A first assumption, which we will call nondirective, concerns individualization through content. And individualization, as the word implies, begins and ends with the individual. Thus it is easy to understand that an ideology based on courses, rather than programs, can convey the idea that the content of education plays hardly any role. If the student feels entitled to conclude the activities simply on the basis of passing interest, the very notion of truth, of progress toward truth, is set aside, degraded; it is no longer given a place in education. - 30 -

As a result, the only reality considered is the learning environment and education runs a great risk of being equated with co-operation with the authorities, whether pedagogical or administrative.

A second assumption is that of individualism.

It is of primary importance because it relates to the role of the teacher, relationships with others and a sense of values. We will return to this later. For the moment, let us simply outline its main components.

Individualization, which should not be seen as a characteristic of penitentiary education alone, places such great importance on the role of the student, the

"self-educator", that it does not know what to do with the teacher who, to use a concept of Sartre's, becomes

"de trop", superfluous. Indeed, it is not uncommon to observe that there is a uniquely contradictory concept of the teacher: he is regarded either as a sort of absurdly imperialistic autocrat or as a sort of kind, empathetic,

Rogerian big brother, a receptacle for every complaint.

In either case, undue criticism of abuses can hardly contribute to a clear understanding of learning problems. - 31 -

Nor is it uncommon to observe the emergence of further confusion when educational considerations tend to be substituted by metaphysical questioning. One moves imperceptibly from individualized teaching, for example, to the more complex issue of individualism, of the ego's basic inability to communicate. On the one hand, withdrawal into oneself results in a kind of unassailable, natural justification for every manifestation of the subjective: "Foolish, impossible, idealistic, no matter 9 what, my beliefs and values are mine." On the other hand, the impossibility of establishing healthy relationships with other people become apparent: "I cannot be real about another because I do not know what 10 is real for him." The readily perceptible result is the sudden manifestation of the problematic source of collective morality, of social ethics. In short, an excessive ego fixation encourages the development, at the centre of one's being, of a small, sheltered world enclosed between walls whose imperviousness is guaranteed by the permanent rejection of others, of one's fellow human beings. The result of this relativism, scepticism, and even nihilism. - 32 -

Finally, this assumption, as many have observed

before us, is not unrelated to axiological autarky.

Indeed, it would be quite accurate to say that there is

an uncontested individualistic attitude toward education

in prisons that subscribes (sometimes unwillingly) to the

theory of "creationism" as applied to values. When it

concerns inmates, the problem is easily understandable,

as we shall demonstrate. But when this attitude is

adopted to the same extent by the principal educators,

it makes one wonder. For in our view, they are

insufficiently aware that when the ego is considered

as the sole origin of values, the result is that values

correspond to "lesser-being", as Heidegger has shown so well. Implicit in the concept of individualism is something which is the opposite of, or at least is resistant to, the concept of wholeness. There is a risk that education which does not adequately recognize this will lead to what Simone Weil identified as the absurd principle of de-creation, in other words, de-education.

Linear adult education

A third major characteristic of penitentiary education is its emphasis on the "adult education" aspect. - 33 -

It would be no exaggeration to say that great confusion

exists in the area of adult education. Descriptions vacillate between normative visions of an educational

ideal and educational theories based on actual facts.

In the case of the penitentiaries, there are no pretensions. Indeed, we even noted a great open- mindedness in this respect: if we may rely on our principal informants, the general aim of the system

is to encourage the development of inmates as both

individuals and social beings.

This concept, which goes far beyond the educational aspect as such, seems to be characterized by a view of the individual as autonomous, responsible and capable of spontaneous self-development provided, on occasion, that he has the assistance of a human or mechanical "facilitator". This approach deals not so much with the inmates intelligence and individual mental faculties that can be developed through education as with his total personality, which must be accepted in its entirety and in a comprehensive fashion. In short, whether his studies be in the area of advertising, sociology or computer science, the inmate deserves to be - 34 -

regarded primarily as an adult undergoing a process of

change and the object of his own education.

This liberal philosophy of adult education is

somewhat offset by a curious insistance on linear concepts.

With one exception, we are dealing with a notion that has

its roots in a system in which every university enrolment

presupposes a mandatory ritual passage through secondary

and then college education. Initially, we had interpreted

this point of view as that of a few individuals from the

same institution who were particularly attached to what

they considered a generally good experience of college

education. This interpretation was premature. All

institutions in the system shared the concern for linear

continuity: highly academic education in very formal,

successive stages.

This approach is astonishing: not only does it make a dangerous connection between the notion of a mature adult and chronological age, but it also has significant practical implications. On the one hand, it creates doubt as to whether it is possible to combine various courses and activities in order to achieve an integrated effect on - 35 -

the inmate, an effect which would be consistent with

new and coherent behaviour within a process of change.

On the other hand, it helps perpetuate the already very widespread idea that although the inmate is an adult

from one point of view, he is not at all adult when it comes to learning. This view ignores the approaches to personal change which place value on direct access to knowledge and on self-education.

Thus one need only pause to analyse the situation that exists with respect to university education in penitentiaries to realize that it is quite special.

There should be no hesitation in pointing this out.

The merits of the argument properly depend on the bold- ness of the critique. Let us consider this critique.

2. Critique of the present situation

In a sense, the simple fact that it is part of the larger context of education in general makes a critique of university education for inmates almost easy; this is unfortunate. As education has by no means acquired its

"letters patent of nobility" and is even seen as something to be tolerated rather than desired or sought after, - 36 -

emphasizing faults and weaknesses would simply be

following the popular trend. As well, there is the

usual range of prejudices that back up this attitude:

education is too expensive for what it brings in return

- eighty-five per cent of inmates are recidivists. Why

offer to criminals, at no cost,.something that many

ordinary citizens cannot afford? Inmates are

unintelligent in any case - most of them have never

gone beyond the ninth grade - so what would be the point

of providing university education? Those who take courses

are very poorly motivated - they are most concerned with

improving their image before the National Parole Board or with finding an easy way of spending time. In short, the view is that education can only make them more cunning and thus better criminals. Finally, is it necessary to recall the arguments of those traditional rivals, socialization and production?

But if we had to limit ourselves to the many falsehoods and half-truths that surround this subject, the important points would never be dealt with. We have mentioned the major weaknesses in the present conception - 37 -

of university education for inmates. Remaining receptive and making an effort to understand are everyone's first, and perhaps most fundamental, responsibility. "The point is not to get angry but to understand!" (Camus). If one does not succeed, he has upset himself for nothing, whether he is content to simply deplore the state of affairs or claims to improve it.

Again, it will not be enough to understand; one must also redress the situation.

With respect to how the critique of the situation should be approached, we thought that the simplest way would probably be the most effective. Since we are dealing with university education for inmates, the three main fields of analysis are already clear: i) an analysis of educational thought and practice; ii) an inquiry into the direction of university teaching; iii) a critique of the way the inmate/student is perceived. We shall also deal with a fourth question which relates to government responsibility in this area before we discuss the only two possible hypotheses for the future of university education for inmates. - 38 -

j. Rememberance of education past

Despite appearances, this heading is not intended to evoke nostalgia. It was deliberately chosen for its overabundant generosity. It enables us to do justice to a reality that perhaps used to exist but whose traces are no longer in evidence at the present time. In fact, it is necessary to make a harsh judgment with respect to both university education in penitentiaries and inmate education in general.

"Correctional education has not been conceived of in terms of essentially human development . . . enlightenment and the strengthening of reason . . . (or) the development of man as an historical person, a person who is a member of a society and a civilization . . . . (It) has been thought of mainly as a matter of helping inmates to adapt to environmental conditions, especially 11 those relating to employment . . . . "

On the whole this assessment holds true particularly for university teaching, where neither human growth, cognitive development, social conscience or cultural axiology figure as components of an educational plan. There is no plan for university education in prison, any more than there is for the other levels. This does not mean that education does not exist. Official texts are there to prove otherwise. - 39 -

Section 2.10 of The Penitentiary Service Regulations states that the Correctional Service of Canada must offer a program of education,

"designed, as far as practicable, to prepare inmates, upon discharge, to assume their responsibilities as citizens and to conform to the requirements of the law."

It is stated elsewhere that the goal of education is "to 12 motivate the offender towards law-abiding behaviour".

A recent statement by the Correctional Service of Canada, inspired by the recommendations in the "Report to the

Solicitor General of Canada concerning The Educational

Program of The Canadian Corrections System" is very explicit:

"1. The primary purpose of correctional education is to improve the abilities, knowledge and attitudes of inmates so they will be less likely to engage in criminal activity after release.

2. The second purpose of correctional education is to provide academic and vocational credits to inmates in order to improve their employability, while participation in educational programs is voluntary, all inmates should be functionally literate at the time of release. - 40 -

3. The third purpose of correctional education is to provide meaningful employment for inmates. which will contribute to the stability and security of the institution". 13

Nevertheless such statements deserve comment.

Except for the last one (which has only just been made public) these viewpoints are very general and have always 1 laid stress on the regulation aspect rather than on content. By that we mean that education exists in the prison primarily because of respect for the law rather than because of ideological conviction. Further, these viewpoints are not based on a well-defined philosophy of education and do not imply the existence of a theoretical teaching model with practical and verifiable ramifications.

In addition they neither accentuate the specific autonomy of university teaching nor bring out its dependence on the objectives of correctional education.

In our opinion, it is clear that the institutions we visited did not have an overall plan for education.

On the more specific question of university education, little is available. To be completely fair, mention should be made of the great variety of activities offered, the huge amount of energy expended, the good intentions - 41-

and the overwhelming zeal. And for the sake of precision,

it will be helpful to keep the specifically university-

level aspect of our analysis clearly in mind. With this in view, we should like to justify our comments under two headings which seem fundamental to us; the first concerns educational goals and the second the concrete pedagogical implications of human growth. a) Why university education in prison?'

First of all, we should examine the reasons for any education. We need not remind anyone that education is a movement. "Education is action" wrote Mialaret borrowing from Durkheim. "Education is the action of adult generations on those who are not mature enough yet for life in society." "Education is an art" says Maritain. "There is no art without ends, art's very vitality is the energy with which it tends toward its end, without stopping at 15 any intermediary step." Despite the somewhat old- fashioned nature of this reminder, it is essential to recognize that any valid education involves a goal and that no educator can act in a human manner if he does not have an ideal in mind which he freely wishes to realize. - 42 -

To pretend otherwise is to allocate education to chance,

or at least to compare the educator to an animal or vegetable, which both follow an external impulse because

they have no concept of goal and cannot direct but only be directed.

Further if it is a question, as in our case, of

attempting to remedy the situation, this cannot be done without a clear idea of what the education will be, or better yet, what it should be. What it should be is

nothing other than a question of goals. So if a critique

of the situation is to be positive, it cannot begin by

examining problems of administration, budget, structure, or university or governmental management. It must begin with thoughts on education itself, that is, on what should be its goals, objectives, content, teaching methods - and particularly its ideals - since education consciously or 11

unconsciously reflects the ideas and opinions that we hold

about human and social values. Therefore, the direction

to give education depends first and foremost on what one

considers the supreme goal of education to be. 16 Furthermore, as Cremin so admirably points out,

Plato and Aristotle, Rousseau and Dewey, Whitehead and - 43 -

Alain, - all those who have contributed to the meaning

of human education - have taken for granted that it is

community and culture (elat the ancients called paideia)

that ensured the realization of these goals and ideals,

on the basis of free deliberation. What then is the

situation in this regard in the prisons?

The personnel we visited and questioned in the

penitentiaries did not have, and this is undoubtedly the

greatest weakness, any definite idea of the goal of

education. When asked about this fundamental question,

nine times out of ten the prison education authorities

replied with an instrumentalist concept: education is

useful for this or that, education permits this or that,

education produces this or that. Education makes things

happen, but no one specified what direction it must take

LI or why. We must beware, for this serious deficiency is

not the result of a well-developed theoretical choice in

the well-known manner of a James B.Conant or a Martin Mayer

("It is well to rid oneself of this business of the aims

of education. Discussions on this subject are among the 1 dullest and most fruitless of human pursuits", The Schools). 1 Rather it is due to the three following factors, 1 j. First, the problem is sometimes camouflaged as a jurisdictional dispute. Education is a matter of provincial jurisdiction, and by implication this includes the articulation of an education philosophy. The reasoning is simple: if the province has the last word, it should also have the first - from which arises the assumption that it is one of its duties to establish the goals of education.

There are two flaws in this. a) Firetly, it is inaccurate. Provincial control of education does not entail an automatic politization of a philosophy of education, that is, a philosophy of man. On the contrary, a healthy view of the government as a political authority ensuring the common good, presupposes a society of free men capable of drawing up the nation's moral charter on the basis of principles which transcend it and which are in fact there to inspire politics.

b) Secondly, this attitude is contradicted by practice. To say that education is a provincial responsibility presupposes that one is aware of the objectives and policies of the Department of Education concerning the different levels of education. But this is not the case. The penitentiaries seem to have - 45 -

concentrated their attention on the administrative side of education, especially where it concerns questions of budget. This was particularly evident when no one seemed

to have heard of the "Livre vert sur l'enseignment primaire et secondaire" (The green paper on primary

and secondary education), of "L'école québécoise,

énoncé de politique et plan d'action" (Quebec schools

- policy and planning); of the "Livre blanc sur le collège"

(The white paper on collegiate education); or of the

Report of the "Commission d'étude sur les universités" 17 (study commission on universities). These recently- published documents, which were prepared by the Department of Education and had a considerable impact on Quebec society in general, present the essence of government views on educational goals. At present the penitentiaries are not conversant with them.

ii. Secondly, the penitentiaries personnel have a strange way of approaching the question of educational goals by reference to the inmates. To the question: "What are the goals of education in the penitentiaries?" they reply by talking about the inmates' motivation. As a general rule, it is known that this motivation is not very -46 -

high. As we mentioned above, any motive is fine to the

inmate. While there may be some people whose first

objective is schooling, we found no one who could argue

in terms of inner growth.

The main objection to this way of seeing things

is excessive empiricism. Crammed with countless and

inconceivable experiences, the penitentiaries have an

instinctive but superficial knowledge of the inmate's

inner thoughts. Little escapes them. The error is in

relying on the limiting oneself to this kind of knowledge.

To see education in terms of the repeated actions of the

inmates alone, valid as it may be, is to look through

the small end of the telescope. The important thing is

to see what is obviously lacking for the inmate.

iii. Thirdly, even when one insists on obtaining

the personal views of the staff on educational goals in

the penitentiaries, the conclusions we reach are disappointing. For one thing, contradiction reigns in 18 this area - as in many others - even though the majority of those involved adopt the utilitarian attitude that a secondary, collegiate or university diploma facilitates entrance to the work world. Only two - 47-

authorities told us that not only should education aim

at personal growth, but that the present system could

only be ineffective and belittling if it continued to

operate in ignorance of the true goals of education.

For another, the penitentiaries are not familiar with

educational philosophy. The increasing use of the

"management by objectives" concept greatly influences

their view of all educational activity. Further, almost

all the staff in training or professional development

are directed in the field of school administration,

where such concepts are favoured. If it has not already

happened, we can expect the parallel idea of "competency

based education" to arrive shortly.

In short, penitentiaries simply have not become

accustomed to hearing about the philosophy of man. In our

opinion, this is another great deficiency which needs to

be pointed out and corrected. The penitentiaries will have to recognize sooner or later that each day we grow more aware that human values are not automatically, by

themselves, affirmed or defended. The moment they seem

the most certain, the tide of events carries them away,

their course changes. They are precarious and fragile. - 48 -

The danger, of course, (is this suspected in the prisons?) lies in considering each treatise on man as final, whereas human history sees it is an attempt and a beginning; to make him look to the past, so to speak, whereas the past looks to the future; to see in the past the answer to all questions, whereas it is often a question asked of the future.

The fact that goals are lacking in correctional education bears witness to the view of man prevailing in this environment. b) Human growth

Dewey speaks of human growth as the ultimate goal of education.

"From our point of view then, the aims of education are that someone become someone of quality or value by incorporating quality or value into his being. The more being an item has, the more value it has. Now man, as a human being, has numerous potentialities. The more education contributes to his actualizing these potentialities, the more a human being he will be. The more he realizes himself, the more he makes of himself, the more valuable person he becomes. The measure of his value then is not in his doings or makings of things, not even in his contribution to society, but in his self-fulfilment or in the self- actualization of ideals".i9 -49 -

Self-actualization or self-fulfilment in their higher sense of freedom of the self are not the main concern of university education or of education in general. We shall see why.

It is neither our task nor our intention to discuss the difficult concept of a personalist philosophy of man. Those who wish to examine the question in depth 20 may read the experts in the area. We shall limit ourselves here to those factors which can shed light on our plan for education.

The.person as mystery

The Sphynx taught that man is an enigma and perhaps the greatest enigma of all. An enigma, not as part of the animal world or as a social being, that is as a product of nature or society, but as a person. It is because the human person is unique in the order of living things that the whole world is nothing in comparison. Being unique, the person is not absorbed into the continual uninterrupted process of cosmic life; he cannot be a moment or an element of cosmic evolution. The person, man as a person, is not a child of this world - hiS origin is elsewhere. And this is what makes man an enigma. He is unique because a person - 50 -

is never a completed fact, he is constantly evolving.

No man can say that he is a person in the full meaning

of the word.

The person is always in a state of flux:

explaining, developing, enriching himself - and

integratity is the constant ideal. He is unique

because he creates and realizes his destiny by drawing his strength from a being which transcends him.

Transcendence, sacredness, spirituality: these are

concepts which are perfectly compatible with person- hood. And it is on these concepts that his sacred

dignity is based.

Having said this, it is far from certain that

the inmate is viewed as a person and a mystery. On the

contrary, everything about him seems known or knowable.

In fact it is not unusual for projections to be made of his future behaviour, since his whole personality appears

to be "comprehensible". The inmate does not have the

sacred autonomy of the person. He is one reality among

others, that is, a reality like other realities of the historic and natural world, whose main characteristic is - 51 -

to be but a part. Furthermore, the inmate is not viewed as a person in the process of becoming. The inmate just is. He has been and always will be the same: an inmate, or more severely, a criminal inmate. Strangely, the phenomenology of the prisoner excludes, in its category of temporality, the before and after. Duration and present are one. And since the person has the infinite before him, since he enters into the infinite and it becomes part of him, it is obvious that the concept of an inmate puts a limitation on him which prevents him from becoming a person.

The person as openness and communion

Even if he is unique, an end in himself, the person is not closed in on himself in individualism and egocentrism. The person stifles and suffocates when he remains closed in on himself. Only the true person is capable of coming out of himself, of reaching out to other people and other things. The person has need of the other, but this other is not an external other, a stranger; for the person, the other, the "thou" as the philosophers say,

is a person to the same degree as the "I" - he is another

"I", another person. What is lacking in individualism, - 52 -

in egocentricity, is a sense of the human in relationships with one's neighbour. Individuals communicate with one another. Only persons can enter into communion with one another. The person is independent of social determinisms, despite the fact that he is at the same 1 time a social being, responsible for the legacy of the collective unconscious, taking part in historical relationships based on freedom and love. Individualism ends up on the road to objectification, mechanization and automation. Mechanical, automatic beings are impersonal, incapable of depth, love or respect. To summarize, the person is defined above all, not by relationships to society and the cosmos, not by his dealings with a world enslaved by objectification, but by his openness to the beyond, in his dealings with the transcendent. It is from these intimate relationships that he draws the strength that enables him to adopt an open attitude to the world and mankind.

Is the inmate respected in his personalist tendency toward openness and communion? We doubt it.

An individualized pedagogy, constantly turned in on self, - 53 -

teaching in tiny units, and limited to self-regulated

subject matter, leaves little room for openness. The

solitude of the individualist ego, since it is absolutized

by official practice, ends by destroying. In accenting

the relational aspect, it deprives itself of contact with

any other thinking, and has to start from zero.

Individualization is primitive in the sense that it tries

to dispense with context and content in order to begin with itself, for itself. But in so doing, it gives itself

a context and content of uncertainty, committing itself

to the problem, but without taking advantage of the

conditions required for success. For a personalist, the individualist state must be transcended. It is not a question of downgrading what has been exalted, but of exalting what has been downgraded, namely the reciprocity of persons.

The person as conquest

Outwardly, the person reflects strength of character in the sense that character expresses the victory of the spiritual principle in man. Temperament is a gift of nature; character is a conquest and supposes - 54 -

inner freedom. Character means that man has made a choice, drawn a distinction, that he is not indifferent, that he is not confused. This freedom is the freedom of the spirit, the creative spiritual energy, because it is the spirit which also shapes the person, the character of man. Without it a person becomes dissociated, disintegrates into parts, the soul loses its unity and becomes incapable of action. Freedom of the person is not a right but a duty because a person does not have the right to be a slave.

Inwardly, the person is inseparable from love.

Love is the path which leads to the realization of the

person - to be capable of passion, wonderment, pity and compassion. This is the love called agapè, or caritas; this is love which is the gift of self, which does not seek anything for itself or to enrich itself but to give. As

Jean Lacroix says:

"By love or charity we mean here the deepest human communion, the person himself in his mysterious centre which is the basis of both individuality and 1 community.

. The person as conquest is not an experience open to the inmate. He is allowed to understand only a very - 55 -

limited kind of freedom. Worse still, he is made to

believe that if he achieves more in life, it is only

by accident. Everything plays against love's power to

transform him. It takes a special kind of courage in a

man for love to spring forth from hatred. The example

of V. Frankl would perhaps be used for educational

purposes in prisons. Known as the father of logotherapy,

Frankl was a prisoner in the infamous concentration camp

at Aushwitz. One bitterly cold and damp winter morning,

dragging his half-bare and swollen feet, weak and

exhausted ("my body eating away at itself from within", he

said later), his soul nearly engulfed by despair, Frankl began to think about his wife, clinging desperately in his mind to her image, the brightness of which transfixed him.

"A thought transfixed me: for the first time in my life I saw the truth as it is set into song by so many facts, proclaimed as the final wisdom by so many thinkers. The truth - that love is the ultimate and the highest goal to which man can aspire. Then I grasped the meaning of the greatest secret that human poetry and human thought and belief have to impart: the salvation 22 of man is through love and in love." - 56 -

The fault in our conception of the inmate's education is not that love is absent, but rather that there is no place for it. ii. The improvised university

The penitentiary system's concept of education in general understandably affécts the justification it gives for university teaching. For the sake of greater clarity, we will show how its position is in line with the current way of viewing the university and how this appears inadequate with respect to the inmate.

We apologize beforehand for the bookish nature of the following paragraphs with their many references.

Given the importance of the subject dealt with in this study, we felt that it was not only useful but necessary to proceed in this manner. The danger of ambiguous interpretations is thus minimized. a) The fall of the ivory tower

Ever since Plato and Isocrates quarrelled over the purposes of higher education, people have always had antipodal views on the subject. On the one hand, the university was the venerated cloister of general culture, - 57 -

the place of higher learning and disinterested research,

a community of masters and disciples serving truth, good-

ness and beauty, with no responsibility for action.

Cardinal Newman put this idea of the traditional

university into words quite well:

"A university is the high protecting power of all knowledge and science, of fact and principle, of inquiry and discovery, of experience and speculation; it maps out the territory of the intellect and sees that . . . there is neither encroachment nor surrender on any side . . . useful 23 a great deal of trash." knowledge is

On the other hand, the university was invited and 24 encouraged to cast off its image as "the House of Intellect"

and become the mere incarnation of the utilitarian dreams which had been so harshly criticized and ridiculed by

Newman. The transformation took place in the middle of

the nineteenth century. The example of England will serve

our purpose.

In 1851, the London International Exhibition was

the pride and joy of the people of Britain. There was no doubt whatsoever in the minds of the many visitors and exhibitors as to the country's astonishing successes in the areas of technology, industry and economics. However, - 58-

at the Paris International Exhibition in 1867,

Lyon Playfair commented that Great Britain had lost a

lot of ground to its great competitors - France, Russia,

Austria, Belgium and Switzerland. He blamed this

setback on the fact that these countries were focussing more on their technological, industrial and economic objectives. They were seeking to serve a useful purpose.

These observations were to bear fruit. Between 1871 and

1881, England witnessed the creation of "civic universities" where the union of liberal studies and practical research was to solve the immediate professional, technological, 25 industrial and economic needs for society. 26 Criticism of this concept was widespread.

However, it was all in vain. The university had entered the era of professionalism. It would never look back.

Years later, the professional university underwent another major transformation by becoming a

"multiversity". Clark Kerr describes it in this way:

"The idea of multiversity is a city of infinite variety. Some get lost in the city; some rise to the top within it, most fashion their lives within one of its many subcultures . . . . It is not one - 59 -

community but several, the community of the undergraduate and the community of the graduate; the community of the humanist, the community of the social scientist, and the community of the scientist; the community of the professional scholarship and the community of the non-academic personnel; the 27 community of the administrator."

Therefore, whether or not it regrets turning its

back on general education, the contemporary university has

become specialized, or fragmented. Its primary concern is

no longer the unity of knowledge or the relationship

I between man and knowledge. The university professor or

student is no longer a synthesizer and the univèrsity is

no longer the sanctuary of universitas or unitas. The ivory 1 tower has crumbled and from its ruins has risen, with less glory undoubtedly, the multiversity - the cafeteria

university.

It is clear that university education in our

prisons belongs to the multiversity movement. As can

already be seen from the above description, the plurality

of ends, the contradictory objectives, the emphasis on

administration, the innocent devotion to courses without

programs, individualized teaching, the naïve policy of total accessibility and the scarcely-veiled belief in self-regulated adult education would belie any claim to the contrary.

Having identified where university education in penitentiaries fits into the pattern, it now remains to consider how satisfactory its position is. b) Primitive totality

Modern, multifaceted man discovered the exploded society and pluralism and.subsequently invented the alternative school and the multiversity. However, this does not mean that all the problems were solved. In his heart of hearts, man knows that he cannot turn his back on his own nature, the most important needs of which are not dependent on his will. For example, no era has so far been able to relieve him of his need for the all- encompassing, for harmony, order and unity. Homo sapiens has conserved from his primitive nature the category of significant totality, the category of meaning. As Einstein once said, "I shall never believe that God plays dice with the world". There must be a kind of goal, a great ultimate totality toward which all realities converge and in which they find their meaning. - 61 -

Therefore, to claim that man delights in

fragmentation, in plurality, in imbalance and in the crisis born of continuous ruptures is inaccurate. To be sure, the state of crisis and confusion is not foreign

to him. It is a natural part of every generation and of every growth process. Man has never been content with merely existing and has never been able to bear being reduced to this state. For him, existing is indissociable

from questioning. In discovering his position in the scheme of things, man discovers at the saine time the need to question it. Question it, that is, in the first sense of the word: to criticize it. Few of those who have shaped our cultural and spiritual heritage have

failed to do just that or to express their opinion of the quality of the journeys mapped out and undertaken by men in their time.

Conversely, since human existence naturally leads to human questioning, the critical function is necessarily the act of questioning man's place in the world. The search for meaningful solutions to the problem of man's crisis is not only the first duty of the critical function; it is - 62 -

a quest which is never-ending. Not that there are no answers. Quite the contrary, in fact. Down through the ages, since the long-ago marriage of Why and Wherefore, countless answers of all kinds have been given, all of which are more or less considered as the "causes" of,

"reasons" for and "roots" of man's situation in the world.

Thus, explanations have always been given of the origins and genesis of man's situation. Yet, no one has ever been taken in by them. Answers to man's situation, however full and worthy, do not exhaust the order of deep, ultimate meanings. These have no known limits and no specific contours. Man has long searched for them and has hoped to find them. Each subsequent era continues to hope and sometimes imagines that it has succeeded in its task.

However, man's critical reasoning is there to remind him that nothing is definitive and that his quest is not yet over.

Consider, for example, the case of Seneca. He was very critical of the morality of his time, claiming that the vices resulting from the taste for excessive luxury had reached unheard-of depths. His exaltation of virtue -63 -

as the supreme value is doubtless a noble and lofty

contribution to the evolution of ethics. However, it

does not dispense each subsequent generation of thinkers

from the unrelenting task of reopening the investigation

into the unfathomable origins of moral consciousness.

In other words, the response of Roman stoicism to a

given moral crisis could not have had the effect - even

if it had wanted to - of closing the discussion on the

strictly human meaning of the origins of moral obligation.

Consider another example. When the characters

of Homer, Sophocles and Aeschylus proclaim their faith in

and fidelity to the gods of Olympus, we recognize that it

is because they are men. But when Christians proclaim their faith in God, it is because He is God. Without going into the details and vicissitudes of this complex question, we must acknowledge that Christian faith sheds much light on the problem of God's existence and on the understanding of man's relationship with God. However, who will claim that the beliefs of Christianity have exhausted the deepest meanings of these questions? The debate concerning the mysterious origins of religious sentiment, and the basis - 64 -

for the affective category of the supernatural, to borrow

an expression from Lévy-Bruhl, has not yet been resolved

to everyone's satisfaction and, most probably, never will

be. Regarding this delicate matter, many would be tempted

to go along with Kierkegaard and add that "speculation"

and "reflection" constitute a radical obstacle to any

attempt at explaining or understanding the problem.

In any event, the fact that man feels less need to prove

that there is a God than to believe in him does not alter

the problem in any way. Neither the proof nor the belief

is sufficient in itself to reduce to one unifying meaning

all the aspects of the question, "Does God exist?"

Man's perception that crises exist in his world

did not originate with the creation of his world.

Rather, it originated with the birth of man's self-

awareness and need for meaning, and the development of his critical faculties.

Therein lies the difficulty. Since it is

professionalized or specialized, the contemporary multiversity must presuppose that man has acquired the

habit of fundamental criticism and questioning. If the - 65 -

university, is no longer concerned with human meaning as an objective (as was the traditional university through "studium generale" or general culture), it is mainly because it assumes that this is already uppermost in the minds of each student. Self-consciousness, moral consciousness and religious consciousness have become the conditions of the multiversity, not its objectives; conditions which must already have been met before entering university. Met where? In the "gymnasium" for the German university, in the "lycée" for the French university. Whether we consider it an indication of progress or a step backward, we will not discuss it for the moment. One fact is clear. What Gusdorf demanded yesterday of the university now appears to be the responsibility of the CEGEP:

"University is not there to serve a purpose. It is there to serve. By its very presence and however mediocre its teachers may be, it 30 recalls men to the order of humanity."

In this sense, and contrary to popular opinion, the multiversity is much more demanding than the traditional university. Furthermore, it now becomes easier to appreciate its innovations. For example, we,now - 66 -

understand the relative importance of heterogenous, unmatched courses and individualized teaching, since the university student is assumed to be mature enough to be able to link, personally and professionally, his

interest as a specialist to his meaning as a man.

As far as the principle of accessibility is concerned, it is not only justified but valued to the highest degree, becoming part of the noblest possible definition of the common good, that which characterizes it by the concept of participation. Adult education thus takes on its fullest meaning, maturity no longer being the ol;jective but the prerequisite for admission.

Considered at this level and in this new light, it appears that university teaching in penitentiaries today falls far short of this ideal. What the inmate should already have acquired is still lacking. iii. Failure to understand the psychology of the student inmate

If, as we have tried to show, the ultimate aim of education is personal development and if contemporary multiversity teaching presupposes that the adult student is already committed to this aim through his own personal - 67 -

quest by means of deliberate interiorization of axiological choices, what of the university-level student inmate?

Three major characteristics are worthy of consideration.

They concern the personality (the phenomenology of the inmate), his thought processes (cognitive behaviour) and his actions (level of moral development). a) The criminal personality

We have no knowledge of criminology and no intention of involving ourselves in a field which we imagine to be complex and complicated. For the moment we will deal with the matter from an educational standpoint with the intention, more specifically, of examining two problems, the implications of which are of prime importance to education: the image the inmate has of himself and the relationship between the criminal personality and the learning process. A good person

Documentation on this subject is voluminous and 31 contradictory. However, one very recent, controversial view is becoming increasingly popular every day. This view is expressed in the thesis of Yochelson and Samenow, according to whom there is such a thing as a criminal - 68 -

personality formed neither by external factors such as

family, economic situation or cultural environment, nor

by involuntary internal determinisms such as brain damage

or abnormal combinations of chromosomes. The thesis

proposes that the criminal personality evolves from a

succession of free, voluntary choices. The criminal is

a decision maker, one who chooses freely and deliberately

to lead a life of crime and who wants to be seen as responsible for this choice.

" We recognize the element of choice in criminal behaviour. These men had control over what they did. The concept of "choice", rather than "illness", was essential in 32 emphasizing personal responsibility."

What amazes is that in addition to considering himself free and responsible for his actions, the criminal views himself as a good, morally sound person.

"One of the most striking features of the criminal is his view of himself as a good person. Despite all the injuries he has inflicted on others, he does not consider himself a criminal." 33

One cannot help but note that at least from an ethical standpoint, such statements bring to mind the old problem which once pitted Plato against Aristotle, Corneille - 69 -

against Racine and Mauriac against Bernanos: does man

do evil (does he commit crimes) through ignorance (Plato)

or by choice (Aristotle)? More fundamental still, it is

the concept of good and evil which is in question, the metaphysical concept, one might say, of the origin and

cause of evil. A certain tradition which dates back to

the nineteenth century, but still seems popular in some

circles such as the present penitentiary system, has conditioned us to some extent to consider man as a sick person whose behaviour from an ethical standpoint can always be "explained" by his "illnesses". No one is responsible a priori for his own cancer.

For example, in his Genealogy of Morals,

Nietzsche speaks of "this illness called man" and of man who is sick of himself, so much so that it is stated and repeated that sickness is man's normal state. In Political

Economics and Philosophy, Marx advances the theory that man's illness is essentially economic and political in origin and calls this sickness "alienation". It affects each individual as well as society as a whole. It is an individual illness in the sense that all physical and - 70 -

intellectual feelings have been replaced by the simple alienation of all feelings. It is also a social illness in that one man's means of survival is also another man's means of survival. According to Freud (Eros and Thanatos), the illness becomes cosmic and biological in that man is a neuropathic animal whose life is a constant struggle between desire and reality. Of all the animals, man alone has a history because his historical process is based on the unhealthy desire to become something other than he really is.

In this context, it would be easy to say that the criminal is a sick person whose criminality could be explained by analysing the cause of his illness. However, in reality this is not so, as demonstrated by Yochelson and Samenow and, before them, Aristotle, although in a somewhat different manner. Man does evil because he sees it as his good. Crime then appears to be the prerogative of man, who is morally capable of good and evil. Evil, here, is not metaphysical imperfection or physical defect but rather moral evil, that is, freely chosen evil. -71 -

Because he sees evil as his good, the criminal is

content with his life. As Camus concluded in The Myth of

Sysyphus, "one must imagine Sysyphus happy." Using the

same "illogical logic", we must believe that the inmate

is a "happy" person and a "good" person, although a

strange one.

Etiological inadequacy

If lack of intelligence alone does . not account for

criminal behaviour, could the opposite be true? In other words, are crime, the criminal life and the criminal mentality direct, primary causes of the criminal's inability

or difficulty to develop intellectually? Does crime make him an idiot? Several theories have been advanced to this

effect. We have neither the qualifications nor the time

to summarize them in this short paper. However, for reasons based on ethics and science, we do not support them.

From the ethical standpoint, the experience of moral philosophy and developmental psychology teaches us the indispensable anteriority of the rational to the elective, of clear conscience to appetite, of intelligence to will.

Sound moral action presupposes that the reasons for the action are "known", even if justification for the moral - 72-

act can always be invented after the fact. Ethical responsibility is conditional on lucid and rational consciousness, which precedes the decision to act in a certain way. A given succession of actions must be interpreted as a sign of "mental" development, or "level" of intellectual maturity, rather than its cause.

From the scientific standpoint, recent studies unquestionably prove that the desire to establish a causal relationship between criminal behaviour and learning disabilities is virtually untenable. To clear the matter up, the American government ordered a complete study on the subject. A report presented to the National Institute for Juvenile Justice and Delinquency

Prevention (Murray et al) draws the following conclusions.

"The existence of a causal relationship between learning disabilities and delinquency has not been established; the evidence for a causal link is feeble." (p.65)

"With few exceptions, the quantitative work to date has been so poorly designed and presented that it cannot be used even for rough estimates of the strength of the link." (p.65)

"No study has yet been conducted which even claims to demonstrate that the average delinquent is more likely to - 73 -

suffer from learning disabilities 34 than his non-delinquent counterpart." (p.66)

In short, according to this data it seems that the inmate,

as "man becoming", has not yet chosen the avenue of

hypostatic development. In simpler terms, what the

multiversity takes for granted in its CEGEP and adult

students - self-conquest and the discovery of the human

meaning of things - is still lacking in the inmate. I Furthermore, not only does the inmate appear pleased with this situation, which anyone else would consider

humiliating, he does not suffer any direct disadvantages

in terms of cognitive learning.

b) Adolescent reasoning

Although the cognitive problems of the inmate do

not stem from his criminal life, they are no less real.

Over the past several years, research carried out by 35 Douglas Ayers, Tony Parlett and Steve Duguid has shown

that, "Most prisoners are deficient in certain analytic

problem solving skills . . . . They may be likened to • preadolescents deficient in intellectual and moral 36 development." To what exactly is the deficiency

attributable and how can we recognize it? The answer to I -74 -

this question can be found by examining the following two proposals: The inmate can be compared to a child in terms

of his logic; compared to an adult, his reasoning is

seriously deviant. 37

In one way, it is said that an inmate reasons

like a child. And how does a child reason? One thing is

certain, a child does not reason with his reason alone.

The inception of his intellectual development shows that

the child has very little autonomy in the act of reasoning.

His reasoning does not go beyond the all-encompassing

confusion of an undifferentiated world. He (the child)

is part of the things he judges, and he considers objects to be scarcely separate from himself. Piaget puts it very well:

"assimilation and accommodation proceed from a state of chaotic undifferentiation to a state of differentiatig with correlative coordination"

In less technical terms:

"Intelligence thus begins neither with knowledge of the self nor of things as such but with knowledge of their interaction, and it is by orienting itself simultaneously toward the two poles of that - 75-

interaction that intelligence organizes the world by organizing itself."'

Let us not decèive ourselves, this integralist

lack of differentiation cannot be reduced to biological

terms. It is part of egocentrism, a specific and well-

known characteristic of the child's cognitive process,

and as such a properly epistemic phenomenon. We could

add as well that while egocentricity belongs to a

distinctive stage in the child's intellectual development,

it is not reserved to childhood alone. This phenomenon

appears at all ages, in anyone whose mental development has been curtailed.

"It is the assemblage of all the different precritical and consequently pre-objective cognitive attitudes of the child's mind . . . . It is a spontaneous attitude which, at the beginning, rules the child's psychical activity and which persists throughout life40 of mental inertia." during periods

We must assume that it is on the basis of this form of undifferentiated egocentric reasoning that a similarity

can be seen between the cognitive status of the inmate and that of the child. - 76-

In another way, it is stated that the inmate does not reason like an adult. And how does one recognize adult reasoning? Since pre-Socratic times, correct reasoning has been defined as being the way in which reason sees common and constant elements in different kinds of objects. The rational is the common principle in the union of two opposing realities. A rational principle is one which creates unity among a plurality of opposities,

a unity brought about by a continued insistence on the characteristics which these opposites have in common.

This very simple concept is important for our argument. On the one hand, it makes it clear that the essence of reason lies in seeing the connection between disparate objects. Reason must be able to recognize the contrast before working with the similarities. In practical terms, reason presumes that differences exist, differences which it has not invented, but which are antecedent to and independent of its own existence.

Thus, any man, precisely because he is a rational animal, must constantly try to discover and elucidate principles of unity if he wishes to escape the meaning- -77 -

lessness of the world of opposites surrounding him.

On the other hand, in connection with the discovery of similarities, reason has always been associated with the concept of measurement. To reason is to measure, to compare. All reasoning requires two things: that which is judged or measured and that which is used to judge or measure. A factor which seems constant in all acts of judgment is that something is considered to be a principle, that is, as pre-existing and that something else is measured against it. Moreover, for it to be an effective measurement, this principle must be known beforehand.

The task of all reasoning is to discover this principle and then to apply it. We use the metre, for example, as a principle of measurement in judging length; we judge art by esthetic principles, and so on.

In short, since he cannot or will not recognize contrasts at the logical level, the inmate does not think, judge or reason as an "average" adult. c) Preconventional morality

A stranger to adult reasoning, the inmate also suffers from deficiencies at the level of moral development. - 78 -

He is "morally retarded" writes Tony Parlett. "He has the moral attitudes of a juvenile and thus juvenile attitudes".

For this reason, the author continues, "our task is not so much the education of the prisoner but the moral develop- 41 ment of the prisoner" . With the help of developmental psychology, we will attempt to show what it means to have the moral attitudes of an adolescent.

After Piaget, who tried to apply his cognitive 42 theory to the development of moral judgment, Lawrence

Kohlberg was able to identify various distinct stages in the development of moral judgment, distinguishing three levels of development (preconventional, conventional, postconventional), each one composed of two different kinds of moral reasoning (which are sequential and are numbered as stages 1 to 6).

At the preconventional level, the child is responsive to cultural rules and labels of good and bad.

This is a level of utilitarian relativism; of obeying the law through fear of punishment; of pragmatic egocentrism. At the conventional level, the young person tries to satisfy the expectations of his family, group or nation with conformity and loyalty. Stage 3 is,called - 79 -

"interpersonal concordance" and Stage 4 "law and order".

Finally, at the postconventional level, the individual

makes a clear effort to define moral values and principles

that have validity and application apart from the 43 individual's own identification with these groups.

In general, Stage 1 or Stage 2 (preconventional

level) is uppermost until 10 years of age; about 13, the

average adolescent is at Stage 3. Between 16 and 20 he

will be at Stage 4. Stage 5 is rarely reached before

20-25 and it is unlikely that Stage 6 will be reached 44 before 30-35. From a study by Parlett et al, the

average inmate would be placed at Stage 2 in moral development which Kohlberg describes as follows:

"Stage 2: The instrumental relativist orientation. Right action consists of that which instrumentally satisfies one's own needs and occasionally the needs of others. Human relations are viewed in terms like those of the market place. Elements of fairness, or reciprocity, and equal sharing are present but they are always interpreted in a physical pragmatic way. Reciprocity is a matter of "you scratch my back and I'll scratch yours", no/5 loyalty, gratitude, or justice." of

Here again, the inmate has characteristics which do not accord well with commonsense expectations. And it - 80 - is perhaps the error of the penitentiaries that they have trusted too much to their experiences with individuals rather than relying on careful study.

For our purposes, the description which has just been given, although it is short and incomplete, enables us to draw certain conclusions, the most revealing of which, doubtless, is the inability of the services proposed to meet the real needs of the inmate. It is not university education - in the sense of multiversity - that he needs, but education. And unless the current program is replaced or changed, it must be assumed that this kind of education is of practically no use to him. The reasons are clear.

While he needs to learn what it means to be a person, and about human dignity, love and respect of one's neighbour, he is simply offered "courses". It must be emphasized that this is not what he needs. The critique that Paul Wagner gives of secondary education is just as applicable to the university level:

"Simply having inmates process through basic education programs and acquire high school equivalency certificates does little to develop the intellectual skills necessary for a person to become (and to care - 81-

to become) a reflective, deliberative, and responsible being. n46

While the inmate has problems of logic that no

indiscriminate teaching, especially the kind that leaves

him to his own resources, can effectively tackle, almost

no effort is made to face them in a careful and competent

manner. Still, it is at the cognitive level that the work must begin.

"Effective work with criminals must be based on an understanding of how they think, so that they can be lei 7 from there, to think differently."

His value system, especially in the moral order,

is very primitive, yet no importance is placed on the teaching

content, a content which might open up other alternatives.

For the inmate, any plan for education which does not approach moral realities with frankness and clarity, is missing the main point. Although education .in the moral sense is not the whole of education, it certainly constitutes one of its most far-reaching aspects.

The question is simple: should university education be withdrawn from the prisons? The answer is not so simple.

Before attempting to reply, something should be said on the subject of the current administration. - 82 -

iv. Administrating vs. educating

This is a delicate question, but we do not wish to dodge the issue. Stephen Duguid of Matsqui remarked: "It is the staff of the program that will be the determining 48 factor within either a perfect or imperfect structure".

We have three comments: a) Superiors and subordinates

There is no line of ideological continuity between the principal authorities, senior management and the numerous subordinates. The thinking which comes from the upper levels - often beautiful, profound, rich and demanding - seems to be lost or dissipated in the network of innumerable hierarchies. Although contacts are numerous, they are usually for administrative reasons. The result is disappointing, giving the impression at times that there is a lack of consensus and a lack of direction with regard to principles and basic orientation. While decentralization may result in savings at the administrative level, when applied to ideas it only engenders contradictions. It is urgent that the higher regional authorities announce their philosophy, their goals and their requirements for university education. - 83 -

b) The blind men's elephant

To begin we will quote on ancient oriental legend:

"Beyond Ghor there was a city. All its inhabitants were blind. A king with his entourage arrived nearby; he brought his army and camped in the desert. He had a mighty elephant, which he used in attack and to increase the people's awe.

The populace became anxious to learn about the elephant, and some sightless from among this blind community ran like fools to find it. Since they did not know even the form or shape of the elephant, they groped sightlessly, gathering information by touching some part of it. Each thought that he knew something, because he could feel a part.

When they returned to their fellow- citizens, eager groups clustered around them, anxious, misguidedly, to learn the truth from those who were themselves astray. They asked about the form, the shape, of the elephant, and they listened to all they were told.

The man whose hand had reached an ear said: "It is a large, rough thing, wide and broad, like a rug."

One who had felt its feet and legs said: "It is mighty and firm, like a pillar."

Each had felt one part out of many. Each had perceived it wrongly. No mind knew all: knowledge is not the - 84 -

companion of the blind. All imagined something, something incorrect. The created is not informed about divinity. There is no way in this science by means of the ordinary intellect." 49

This is our strongest criticism. The penitentiaries are stricken with one of the most serious illnesses of our times: opinionitis. Opinionitis is the obsession for 50 taking personal and subjective opinions to be the truth.

Opinion comes from the Greek doxa, a term which means belief, opinion, view. Doxa said Plato is nothing but an opinion inconsistent with truth. It is because sophists cultivate opinion (the probable, the more-or-less, impressions, and so on) instead of science (epistne) that

Plato's Socrates constantly castigates them. Thus, thanks to them and their disciples, he will be condemned to death.

The penitentiaries always have opinions on everything, answers for everything, theories on everything.

On the strength of incomparable daily experience of thousands Ii of singular facts, they imagine that the reality of a phenomenon, because it shows this or that characteristic, also explains the characteristic in question. This concretist empiricism results in frantic activism. - 85 -

For one thing, there is the constant invention of

endlessly qualified generalizations about every detail;

and for another, everyone feels obliged to add his word,

his point of view, in the hope that inductive quantification

- by itself - will permit the extrapolation necessary for

understanding. They forget or do not know that explanation

cannot be limited to a description of reality; explanation

is an ideal construction, a view transformed by creative

imagination and understanding. New habits of in-depth

analysis are necessary to overcome the artificiality of

the sociological approaches popular at this time.

c) Humanists and administrators

The most delicate of the remarks, however, concerns

the conception, the Weltanschauung of the authorities,

through which we see their view on education in general

and university education in particular. Weltanschauung is

at once a view of the world and a way of making sense of human life. Dilthey states that our conception and our

appreciation of life and the world change constantly like

the shadows of clouds floating over the countryside.

The religious person, the artist and the philosopher stand 1 1

- 86 -

out from common mortals, and even from geniuses in other areas, because they fix these moments in their memory, take note of their content and integrate the specific experiences into a general experience of life itself.

Thus they fulfil a function which is not only important for them, but for society as a whole. 51

Consciously or otherwise, this concept of the I/ world is not aimed primarily at a theoretical, speculative or contemplative goal. The synthesis it offers must help 1/ life, not only by ensuring our security but also by I/ providing rules of behaviour. Even a superficial examination clearly demonstrates that all philosophers of man I/ have based their morals, their wisdom, and their theories of values and action on their vision of the world. The I/ concept one has of the totality and essence of things logically governs, at least in itself, the meaning one 1/ attributes to existence. This remains true even for morals which are separated from metaphysics. I/

Contemporary value theories, for example those of Sartre and Polin, assume a certain view of man and the universe; they see man as a being whom God has I - 87 - not created, who is thrown into the world no one knows by

whom or why, as a being whose existence is simply a fact

and in no way a special and infinitely precious gift.

Owing nothing to anyone, unable to depend on any true

transcendence, man has no alternative but to find his

values by himself in complete autonomy and also in the

most complete abandonment, as Nietzche had already suspected.

Who will deny that this moral concept of the world logically

depends on a particular interpretation of human reality

and of its relationships to the world?

The same applies to those responsible for education

in the prisons. They have a theory or theories of action

based on a fixed view of man and the universe - some have

even professed their agreement with the death penalty.

As this fondness for action is based on an administrative,

bureaucratic and functional idea of man, it leads to a I pragmatism in which the need for sense and meaning is somehow suppressed. In our opinion, this is a serious

mistake. Because it does not answer the underlying

questions, the administrative view is alienating - and

alienation is what makes man a stranger to himself, to - 88 -

his own essential being. Does the idea of humanism need

to be reintroduced in training and developing penitentiary

personnel? Without a shadow of a doubt. If not, there

will be nothing to hope for in this absurd world, absurd

because it is reduced to the notion of utility as function.

As Marcel says, life in a world based on the notion of

utility is in danger of despair because in reality this 52 world is empty and rings hollow.

Conclusion

It is clear. There can only be two hypotheses on

university education in prison. They are irreconcilable.

1. Hypothesis A

This is the accessibility or multiversity hypothesis.

With no presuppositions other than traditional confidence

in education, with no objective other than a certain

official recognition; with no expectation other than the

hope of secondary benefits to the individual; with no

content other than the subject matter for each course; with no methodology other than self-teaching; this is the

hypothesis which is currently applied in the prisons. We

have attempted to show that it is inadequate and must be

replaced. -89 -

2. Hypothesis B

This is the hypothesis of education or• rehabilitation. Its premises are human dignity; its goal, human growth; its objectives, cognitive development, axiological maturity, as well as official accreditation; its content, a program centred on the

"humanities"; its methodology, individualized and group teaching. This hypothesis has been applied in Matsqui, in British Columbia, for seven years. It has produced significant results.

If they decide to keep things the way they are, the penitentiaries will be choosing accessibility. In this case it will not be necessary to make any major change in the current situation. For example, although changes in

"communications" arrangements between the administration and the university system are perhaps desirable, they will not change the "pith and substance" of the policy in effect. Any new fads or fashions in distance learning or

correspondence education that can be financial, would be

acceptable.

But if the penitentiaries opt for the rehabilitation hypothesis, radical changes will have to be contemplated. -90 -

In the expectation of such a shift, the following pages are an attempt to outline a theoretical and practical model for implementing a program of university education in prison. - 91 -

CHAPTER II

On University Education for Inmates: Recommendations

" Recommend what is possible', I am repeatedly told. It's as if I were told: 'Recommend what is already done; or, at least, recommend some good that will mix with existing evil.' In some cases, such desires are much more fanciful than mine; for in such an alloy, the good is spoiled and the evil remains."

J.J.Rousseau, Emile ou De l'éducation, Preface.

Introduction

We are not saying that we should start from scratch,

as if a university education program for inmates could or

should be entirely different from all others. In this

area, perhaps more than any other, the new is well grounded in the old. Nor are we saying that ours is the final word:

the foundations and application of a university program

should be the object of continued and increasingly

searching discussion. - 92-

To resist both of these temptations, we tried to

give the simplest answer possible to the following question:

what kind of university program would best meet the inmates'

needs? The proposals which we have advanced constitute our

answer to the question. The answer did not come easily.

It came after patient study of this complex situation, and

it is founded on an in-depth analysis of the subject which

takes into abcount its many aspects. This analysis event-

ually led us to favour the program which follows.

This program may not be the only one possible or

the most perfect, but it does provide, in our opinion, a

good solution to the problem at hand. Even if it is not

the one finally selected, we, for our part, will be well

satisfied if our program helps create a new attitude

regarding not only university education, but education in

general for all inmates.

I. The basic assumption: human dignity

At the beginning of our report we indicated that

the official motives for inmate education are surrounded by great uncertainty, an uncertainty that finds expression in ambiguous sentiments such as the following: either the I - 93 -

criminal is unlucky, the unfortunate victim of his crime,

or he is an absolute good-for-nothing, an unpardonable

and incorrigible delinquent. Of course, these opinions

are not universal, but they are nevertheless very present

in this environment, and play a key role in decision-making.

As a result, education is very often justified by pity.

Without wishing to start a debate, we feel that

it is necessary to resist this kind of reasoning, which

is not valid. The idea of pity stresses distance rather

than closeness, because, basically, it places the emphasis

on poverty, insufficiency and want. It is not because I the inmate lacks something that he has a right to education. Rather, it is because he has something that society

recognizes this right: that something is human dignity.

This is important. Without clear foundations,

without a consensus on the basis of the inmate's right to

education, no real, serious commitment is possible. It is

not a question of inventing a common explanation or a common

theoretical justification: the Western democracies and

the Moslem countries do not view human rights in the same

manner, yet most of them adhere to the human rights charter I - 94 -

with the greatest conviction.

With regard to the inmate's right to education,

our stand is based on two beliefs: a natural obligation 53 to do what is good, and human dignity.

i. The natural obligation to do what is good

Our era has had the privilege of recognizing the

sanctity of human rights. The heritage which it received

from the eighteenth century eventually led it to proclaim

that these rights were founded on the principle that man

is subject'to no other law than that of his own will and his own freedom. According to Kant, a person is subject

to no other laws than those which he lays down for himself -

(Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals). In other words, man must only "obey himself" (Jean-Jacques Rousseau),

for any law or constraint issuing from the world of nature would automatically destroy his freedom.

This is a generous view. Perhaps too generous.

Total independence for a human being would inevitably lead to many-sided conflicts. There is, in our opinion, a more fundamental view, the view that human rights are part of natural law, the same law which long ago formed - 95 -

the basis for Antigone's opposition to Creon. It is an

unwritten, unchanging law, which was not the result of a momentary whim: "No one knows its origin in time".

"Nor did I think your orders were so strong that you, a mortal man, could overrun the gods' unwritten and unfailing laws. Not now, nor yesterday's, they always live, and no one knows their origin in time. So not through fear of any man's proud spirit would I be likely to neglect these laws, draw on myself the gods' sure punishment."

(Sophocles, Antigone, II)

This natural law is therefore unwritten. It is

not equally easy for everyone to grasp; people do so in varying degrees, and here, as elsewhere, error is possible.

However, since we are human, this natural law is also a moral law, a moral obligation. We obey it or disobey it

freely, not by necessity. This law tells us that we should do good and avoid evil. In the more specific case of inmate education, this obligation to do good is nothing other than an obligation to practise brotherhood and charity. As a criminal, the inmate is an enemy, an enemy of humanity and - let us not delude ourselves - - 96 -

the natural reasons that led us to love our enemies are practically nonexistent. Only an appeal to higher principles can establish the full scope of this law.

Only the principle of duty toward one's brothers can instil in people the desire and willingness to do good even to those who do not deserve it: "If you love those who love you, are you doing anything exceptional?"

In short, if necessity alone were responsible for establishing the idea of right, man would surely economize on the notion of obligation. But in so doing, spiritual starvation would insue for man would thus be skimping, cheating on his conscience. ii. Human dignity

It is the hierarchy of values to which we subscribe that determines our concept of human dignity. According to the personalist view, each person should be considered to have an intrinsic value, that is, considered to be an end and never a means. The tragedy of many of today's world economic policies lies precisely in their refusal to acknowledge that the human being has value other than as an instrument of manual labour. There is within each person not a gratuitousness, but a secret, undefinablequality, a - 97 -

unique mystery which embodies this dignity. And, being persons, all human beings, however disgusting and depraved, whatever their sex, race, religious beliefs, political allegiance or social status, have this dignity.

"Within the worst miser, the prostitute and the filthiest drunkard, there breathes a saintly and immortal soul."

(Claudel, Cantique de Palmyre)

Moreover, a person's dignity does not reside simply in his existence or occupation, but in his origin and ultimate destiny. Man is without doubt the most important being in the world, and the most important part of man is his soul. Man's soul transcends even man himself. As

Jung says:

"What is significant in psychic life is always below the horizon of consciousness, and when we speak of the spiritual problem of modern man we are dealing with things that are barely visible

- with the most intimate and

fragile things - win bowers that open in the night."

The questions of human existence are above and beyond any knowledge that we might have of human dignity.

If, in the final analysis, respect for human dignity means - 98-

acceptance of the fact that human beings are more than merely human, who among us is without dignity?

In short, a man, being human, should be educated because of the dignity of human nature. Because each being, each person is important, it would be a cosmic crime not to encourage that person to develop his potential.

Not to recognize the necessity of developing the individual's potentialities is to impoverish not only the person in question, but the entire universe.

The prohibition of murder is founded on and demanded by the principle of human dignity. The idea that the inmate's right to education should be respected is founded on the same principle.

2. The objectives

The term "rehabilitation" has been abused to such an extent that the correctional authorities hesitate to . use it. This is perhaps the reason why Douglas Ayers prefers the word "habilitation", which seems to have more accurate connotations. But we do not wish to get involved in an etymological argument. The important thing - everyone will agree - is to present the idea, not to pile definition upon I

Hi - 99 - definition. In other words, if the purpose of university

education is to rehabilitate, it does not matter what

words we use as long as their meaning is clear and

transparent to everyone.

First of all, in order to rehabilitate, we must

make personal growth the pivotal point of the educational

program. We must replace present attitudes and conditions

with attitudes and conditions that will stimulate the

development of the student-inmate's full human, individual

and collective potential. We must encourage the inmate

to assume his moral responsibilities.

Secondly, rehabilitation requires both a specific

and sufficiently detailed action plan and a driving idea

1 that will serve as its basis and inspiration. As we have

seen, correction through rehabilitation takes place at both

these levels of reality. It must be the result and

implementation of an idea, and at the same time it must

somehow be structured to suit the environment and meet the

conditions that govern the concrete application of the

educational program.

By making a critical analysis of the current

situation we have already begun to formulate amidea. - 100 -

We will now develop it by presenting the objectives of the program, which we will call for the moment a humanities program. Five objectives have been set forth:

i. the student must develop a critical mind;

ii. the student must learn to consider the moral significance of things;

iii. the student must be able to assess his Own internal development;

iv. the student must learn to master written and oral communication;

v. the student must develop an awareness of this cultural identity.

After describing each objective by means of specific indicators, we will comment on the deeper significance of each. i. The student must develop a critical mind

a) A critical mind enables a person to choose the best criteria to help him arrive at the truth.

b) A critical mind demands constant revision of a person's thinking, for every intellectual undertaking does not have the same demands or standards.

c) A critical mind requires mastery of certain basic skills, such as one's mother tongue, a sense of history and some knowledge of the various scientific approaches.

d) A critical mind recognizes the value, but also the limitations of scientific explanations. -101 -

e) A critical mind accepts as inevitable and attempts to answer the universal questions raised by reality as a whole.

f) A critical mind is not satisfied with processes and with the means of "learning how to learn", but strives for truth and meaning.

g) A critical mind can resist errors, contradictions, lies and unfounded opinions.

h) A critical mind implies a striving for rigour.

Comments

There is no need for us to point out the difficulty of meeting such an objective. For our purpose, we will limit'ourselves to stressing what we consider to be a fundamental idea: the giving of meaning to that which is.

"The faculty which distinguishes the active or intelligent being," says Rousseau, "is the ability to give a meaning to this little word - —is - which he pronounces every time he makes a judgment." (Emile ou De l'éducation, 1. IV).

However, in their primitive form, the values invoked and instilled by an education with a high axiological content are inconsistent and extremely inadequate, despite the fact that they are strongly imposed on man. The latter, in fact, must detach himself from them in order to understand them. A critical mind will enable the cognitive -102 -

function to establish this distance. However, to distance oneself from them does not mean to get away from them. On the contrary, this detachment must be seen as a drawing closer, for the role of a critical mind is precisely that: to see closely but from a detached viewpoint. Etymologically speaking, intelligence is the ability to read in or read within. Since the reading is done, as it were, from within, the person finds himself pierced or penetrated, and loses his opacity and density.

Thus, by its ability to take a detached viewpoint, the cognitive function expands the field of interest of the human psyche and at the same time ensures its grip on reality. Seeing reality with a critical eye allows him to exist at a much deeper level.

We will go farther than that. Although the critical mind, the cognitive function, allows the individual to gain a better understanding of the various levels of being, and although it allows the incoherent and the bewildering to become coherent and reassuring, it also has another effect which unquestionably towers above all the rest: the "humanization" of existence. Since, in the - 103 -

final analysis, the important thing is to give meaning

to one's life and a sense of purpose to one's existence

in the world by assuming responsibility with respect to

one's being, the critical man is engaged in taking a 1 position with respect to himself. The judgment is categorical. It breaks the chains which tied the human

being to the undifferentiated being, and man becomes man.

When the cognitive function or critical mind is brought

to bear in a more concrete manner, it reveals that, as a 1 being-in-the-world, man is neither of the world, that is, a product of this world, nor in the world, that is, a

being like other beings, a thing among other things. Thus

it does not establish an insurmountable barrier, an

unbridgeable gap, between man and the universe of which

he is an integral part. It simply frees him of his status

as "being there". The cognitive function enables man to 1 realize that being human transcends humanity. ii. The student must learn to consider the moral significance of things

a) The moral sense presupposes the ability to see the moral aspect of things, that is, the 1 specificity of what we call moral values. b) The moral sense leads to the emergence of a moral conscience, that is, an awareness of duty and moral obligations. - 104 -

c) The moral sense leads to tolerance of different moral codes, while avoiding extreme moral relativism.

d) The moral sense teaches one to exercise discernment when confronted with the diversity of moral opinions and not to be disconcerted by it.

e) The moral sense gives one courage to call evil what is evil and to call good only what is good. It prevents us from defining good in our own way and according to our own whims.

f) The moral sense leads to spiritual joy.

g) The moral sense also means that one is able to recognize fault and feel guilt.

Comments

There are two reasons which make this objectiye extremely important. First of all, because it is a moral value, the moral sense implies a total commitment of the whole person, and the contribution of all his energies and attitudes. Because it affects the person as a whole, the II moral sense demands that the total person act, at all times, in all circumstances and in spite of- all inclinations to the contrary, according to the highest principles. For example, a charitable person must not only struggle to surmount difficulties he might encounter in his respect for others, his contract with the underprivileged, his - 105 -

relations with children and so on. In terms of the moral

sense, therefore, an individual's commitment in a given

area of human activity presupposes an analogous commitment

in all related areas.

The questions of goodness and moral development

concern the person as a whole. The commitment is not, and

cannot be, a partial one.

Secondly, unlike the development of an intellectual

skill, which has a very distant, indirect and incomplete

effect on the development of the total person, the develop-

ment of the moral sense amounts to a development of moral

goodness, which affects the person as a whole. To give

with one's hand does not make for a "good hand", but for

a "good man". The sphere of moral values does not encompass

merely the sphere of the intellect, but also that of desires

and appetites, whereby man is led to consider the good as

more_than the object of intellectual enjoyment. The moral

sense is as it were incarnated in flesh and blood, and

operates at a visceral level in the individual. It is

this which makes it so difficult and demanding an objective, 1 especially for inmates. However, this is also what makes - 106 -

it so beneficial, for, in the case of inmates especially, a moral conversion is a much more difficult and painful process that an intellectual conversion, which can be mentally satisfying without altering a person's behaviour.

Only a moral conversion can bring about the conversion of the whole being.

The purpose of moral education, therefore, is not to produce persons capable of conforming to the morality of a group or a morality of "reason" but persons who are. morally whole, that is, capable of doing what they consider morally right. iii. The student must be able to assess his own internal development

a) The student is finally able to lead his life on the basis of carefully thought out and clearly defined values. This is the victory of the independent and disciplined self over outside forces.

b) The student is conscious of the discrepancy between reality and idealism, and of the difficulties involved in reconciling the two.

c) The student is capable of articulating with sufficient clarity the purpose, objectives and results of his actions.

d) The student is capable of realistically assessing the importance of his inner victories. - 107 -

e) The student is capable of identifying the major stumbling blocks to his advancement.

f) The student is conscious of the many complex factors which affect his plans, and learns to control his reactions as a result. Comments

This objective enables the individual to take

charge of his own development and undertake his own self-

actualization. It involves the conquest of true freedom

- inner freedom - and the development of personal discipline.

Freedom is "inner strength" writes Rollo May. It

is made up of strengths within ourselves which enable us

to stand our ground in spite of the confusion and bewilder- 55 ment which surround us. One of these strengths is our

ability to analyse and weigh what is good and what is not

so good in our cultural environment in order to either

accept it or reject it. Freedom of spirit makes us eager

to benefit from everyone's assistance. Another strength

concerns our effectivity. It consists in the ability to

retain control over the aspirations and desires which

surface in our consciousness. A third strength is our

ability to understand and accept our own limitations, those

imposed in a multitude of ways by a society which is forced 1 - 108 -

to multiply its laws and regulations, and those which result from the acceptance of a legitimately constituted authority. One last strength is our ability to realize what we are and what we wish to be.

Personal discipline can only come from within.

It is not an order that is received from the outside; it is an order that we learn to give ourselves. What

Maslow says of the young child can be said of any "self- disciplined personality":

"Research findings are rare but there is now available a large store of clinical and educational experience which allows us to make a reasonable guess that the young child needs not only gratification; he needs also to learn the limitations that the physical world puts upon his gratifications, and he has to learn that other human beings seek for gratifications, too, even his mother and father, je, they are not only means to his ends. This means control, delay, limits, renunciation, frustration- tolerance and discipline. Only to the self-disciplined and responsible person can we say, 'Do as you will, and it will probably be all right." 56 iv. The student must learn to master written and oral communication

a) The student knows the meaning of words and is able to explain the current usage of each. - 109 -

b) The student can express himself correctly, that is, clearly, precisely, with measured thought and in logical sequence.

c) The student is able to write rigorously constructed prose, each part of which is necessary for the comprehension of the whole.

d) The student is able to explain spoken or written words by means other than repetition.

e) The student is able to distinguish works of good quality from those which are third rate.

f) The student is able to write prose which is grammatically correct.

Comments

It is not necessary for us to stress the pre-eminent role of language in human communication. In a way, man . inhabits language. Bergson calls it the "immaterial body" and Sartre the "verbal body". "I am language," says the latter, and adds the following:

"The speaker is immersed in language, engulfed by words . . he manipulates them from within and feels them as he feels his own body." 57

In another sense, language projects us outside ourselves, toward other objects, and exposes us to reality.

Language confronts us with the unfamiliar. Through it we are thrust into the world, into the company of other people, - 110 -

into the middle of their struggles, dramas, joys and deceits. However, since language is rooted in our consciousness and is our responsibility, it is only what we make of it, and we are what we say. As Plato so aptly put it, "our words are the pathways of hope". (Philebus, 40a)

The word is not a symbol like other symbols, said the ancients. It is the symbol of man. v. The student must develop an awareness of his cultural identity

a) The student recognizes the value of the past and the need for historical consciousness.

b) The student learns to discover his responsibility as a citizen and his role in the community.

c) The student discovers the richness of his culture and its contributions to the artistic, scientific, political and spiritual world.

d) The student acknowledges that he has a responsibility with respect to the needs of others.

e) The student learns that the future of humanity depends on the quality of his present actions.

Comments

This objective has several important components.

We would like to stress two of them: a necessary recognition of history and an awareness of others. -111-

The present state of human civilization can be explained, to a great extent, by its heritance from the past. This is not to say that it is a carbon copy or a repetition of the past, or a "re-enactment of past experience", to borrow the expression used by R.G.

Collingwood, but that it is rooted in the past. An awareness of the past, of time and of history, is in itself an awareness of man, an awareness of the "human past". As Marrou says:

"By this we mean behaviour which is immediately understood and intuitively grasped; actions, ideas and feelings; also all of man's works - the material and spiritual creations of his societies and civilizations - works through which we are able to understand their creator; in short, the past of man as man, of man who has already become man . . . ." 58

A man's education is not complete as long as he does not know what the past - his past - can and must mean to him today. A window on the past is not only a window on ancient man, but on man in general, on men of all ages.

However, we should also be concerned with integration into a community of people living today. -112 -

What better way of reaching this objective than by cultivating a sense of obligation toward the needs of others? The advantage of using this idea as the basis of socialization is that in addition to confronting us directly with today's major and most complex social problems - those related to human rights and justice, the balance of power, and conflicts of interest - it forces us to descend from the world of abstractions and respond to people's needs in a concrete way. In other words, it brings us closer to our fellow man. It enables us to strive for the common good of different collectivities and groups without recourse to selfish and economic motives.

The results are guaranteed by the joint forces of justice and love, for what we are seeking is a brotherly world in which each person-is aware of his obligations toward others.

Peace is not the cause of a brotherly community; it is rather its result.

Now that the objectives have been clearly stated, we must ask ourselves what type of program will best enable us to reach them. This is the subject which we propose to examine next. - 113 -

3. The content

After explaining the reasons for its choice, the

"Report to the Solicitor General of Canada Concerning the

Educational Program of The canadian Corrections System"

recommends that the "humanities" receive special emphasis

in the educational policy of the correctional system:

"The 'liberal' quality of prison instruction in all settings and at all levels must be strengthened, with the appropriate resources and opportunities for instructors to develop proper skills and attitudes. It should apply to all educational programs. Instruction in liberal studies should be extended at all levels within education Rrograms in penitentiary settings." 5e

We will go one step further, and devote the entire

content of our university education program to "liberal

studies". Ours will be a humanities program.

i. A difficult choice

The debate opposing the defenders and critics of

"liberal studies" has been going on for a long time.

For example, T.H.Huxley led an epoch-making attack against

"classical" education. His sharp criticism was founded

on two convictions: - 114 -

"The first is, that neither the discipline nor the subject-matter of classical education is of such direct value to the student of physical science as to justify the expenditure of valuable time upon either: and the second is, that for the purpose of attaining real culture, an exclusively scientific education is at least as effectual as an exclusively literary education."

(Science and Culture, 1880)

The response was violent, as can be seen from this counterattack by the equally famous Matthew Arnold, the great representative of English literature at the end of the nineteenth century:

"If then there is to be separation and option between humane letters on the one hand, and the natural sciences on the other, the great majority of mankind, all who have not exceptional and overpowering aptitudes for the study of nature, would do well, I cannot but think, to choose to be educated in humane letters rather than in the natural sciences."

(Literature and Science, 1882)

Herbert Spencer approached the question differently.

Rejecting the utopian ideas of Comenius and Rousseau, the famous disciple of Darwin stated that most important - 115 -

educational question was not "How do we help each

individual child?", but "What knowledge is it absolutely necessary for the child to have?". He answered his own question by saying that the child needed a "scientific

education", a specialized education. Bertrand Russell, the well'known philosopher and mathematician, in turn re-examined the non-utilitarian advantages of education and culture, and concluded that a utilitarian education was dangerous and narrow. Although a partisan of the scientific method, like Spencer, he none the less rejected the idea that a technical and specialized education was 60 superior to a "liberal arts" education.

Efforts at reconciliation were equally forceful.

Witness those of John Burroughs, a contemporary of the

Arnold-Huxley debate, in Science and Literature, and those of C. P. Snow in The Two Cultures and the Scientific

Revolntion. No more needs to be said here. The purpose of our reminder is to point out clearly the extent to which the question is still difficult to answer and open to debate.

Nevertheless, it would be good to know the position of our own government authorities on the subject, especially - 116 -

in relation to the daily conduct of educational activities.

Normally, official direôtives would only serve to encourage our efforts.

It must be admitted, however, that since the submission of the Parent Report, with its "scientific",

"multifaceted" and "renewed" humanism, the Department of

Education has not had much success in clarifying the situation. Terms such as "general culture", "general education" and "basic education" have proliferated and succeeded one another, but the doubts and questions still remain. P.E.Gingras' reaction to the report Le collège is typical:

"The concept of a basic education which does not correspond to a general education at the secondary level is not . . . easy to pin down . . . . Do we provide a basic education comprising a certain number of general areas of knowledge, such as literature and the arts, history, sciences and mathematics, social and philosophical analysis and foreign languages and literature? Or do we provide a basic education by setting goals such as, 'a person with a basic education must be able to take a critical approach to the ways of understanding the world, society and man'; 'he must be fully conscious of the external realities of the world - 117 -

in which he must live'; 'he must be able to understand society's moral standards and abide by them'; and he must decide to increase one of his fields of knowledge'? . . . . The debate remains open."61

In short, neither the Livre vert, nor Le collège, nor L'école québécoise add anything to the broad generalizations found in the Parent Report on personal development.

In a sense, they only repeat what has already been said; so much so that Grand'Maison was able to say that the

Livre vert adopted a "neutral position" on the philosophy of education. We would go further and say that the reason why education in Quebec has fallen into the trap of specialization and "specialism" is its piecemeal view of man. It is suffering from the saine ill that Friedman detected in the workplace: the problem of "fragmented man"

- intellectual fragmentation, emotional fragmentation, and religl_ous and spiritual fragmentation. The era of total- itarian dogmas in education has been replaced by the era of the taxonomy of educational objectives.

We will therefore seek to defend our preference for a humanities program in another manner. - 118 -

ii. Motives

Let us begin by listening to the voice of experience, which, in several instances, is the voice of success. The opinion of Tony Parlett is clear and representative:

"The psychologists, the sociologists and the anthropologists that we've had in to teach prisoners have been absolute flops. The only ones that 62 could really manage are the humanists."

Before commenting on this position, let us first try to dispel the myth of specialized "employability", the first obstacle to a general education for inmates. According to this school of thought, which at the moment holds great sway in the correctional environment and has considerable influence in the planning of new institutions in Quebec, immediate preparation for the job market constitutes the best way of reintegrating the inmate into society. Yet there is no clear evidence of this. We have demonstrated elsewhere - as has been done by others long before us - that, theoretically, there is no definite causal relationship between the development of a skill and its exercise; or between the acquisition of knowledge and its application.

The presence of an idea is not the only prerequisite to - 119 -

action. Appetite and affectivity must also come into play. More specifically, American studies have demonstrated that "employability" does not necessarily lead to a 63 decrease in recidivism. Astonishing as it may seem, this is true not only for industrial production, but also for technical and professional training. With regard to both employment and readaptation, the evidence is far from 64 conclusive.

It is now easier to understand why many North

American companies (and companies in some Eastern countries) prefer their employees to have a "general education" rather than a highly specialized one. The argument is that a well- educated individual who has a strong set of values, good manners and an alert and creative mind, will always be able not only to perform his duties, but to perfect his skills, adapt and progress.

It was this principle which inspired George Beto, former director of the Texas Corrections Service, to emphasize the role of education rather than production in prisons. The educated inmates seemed less prone to recidivism: - 120 -

"A study revealed that comparatively few of the inmates who received a high school diploma while in prison were numbered among the recidivists . . . . Another study revealed that rarely has a man returned to us who has earned a minimum of twelve semester hours of college work while in prison". 65

Here again, it is not just any subject that should be taught. George Beto personally told us that it was the

"humanities" which should be given priference in terms of content.

He is not alone in emphasizing such a program.

Parlett, Ayers and Sullivan have demonstrated that inmate education based on "liberal" or "humanist" studies brought about perceptual and emotional changes, changes which led 66 to the development of a more sensitive moral conscience.

This moral dimension seems particularly significant with regard to the effects attributed to an educational program based on the humanities:

"It is our contention that an educational program without a strong orientation toward moral education would end up doing just that . . . simply creating more intelligent criminals."67 - 121 -

68 Following Kohlberg's footsteps, Ayers also states that this type of teaching helps develop "analytic 69 problem-solving skills". Duguid takes Ayers' idea and develops it further:

"The academic course offerings are the core of the program and the chief deus ex machina for furthering the cognitive development which is its base justification. Most scholars in this field agree that the fields of history (or social studies in general) and literature are the most effective in enhancing reasoning ability." 70

Furthermore, liberal education provides an opportunity for axiological confrontation. If it is true, as we saw above, that the inmate suffers from impulsiveness, from axiological egocentrism, then surely what would best meet his needs would be values that were either contrary to or different from his. This is one of the primary objectives in the humanities.

"These effects seem to be attributable to humanities and social science courses with instructors who challenge students by confronting them with their assumptions and by providing opportunities to discuss ethical, social and political issues0" 71

A humanities program accustoms the critical thinker to examining not only the world of inanimate or abstract - 122 -

things, but also the world of the "self" and the "other".

"Data collected during individual interviews with prisoners indicate that college and university courses in the humanities and, to a lesser extent, in the social sciences, appear to give prisoners new insights into who they are and what they may become. This is particularly so when the courses require deep concentration and a willingness to deal with abstract thought." 72

Also:

"Such courses can also help to develop analytic problem-solving skills and promote a better understanding of society's institutions and the individual's role in them." 73

To summarize, if the humanities contribute to cognitive development and the formation of conscience, if they encourage questioning of the place of man in society and his relations with others, then they undoubtedly help man to assume his humanity. "The question of what it is to be a man, of what it is to be fully human", wrote

Wayne C. Booth, "is the question at the heart of liberal 74 education." The humanities therefore do not try to reduce man to a single human type. They are interested in 75 man in all his diversity. According to Krishnamurti, -123 -

true education is not acquiring knowledge and cataloguing

facts, but seeing life as a totality. The mission of the

humanities is to open a window on man, on all types of

human beings, past and present, to awaken our awareness

of man, so that we may become men in the full sense of the

word. Through man of other ages and other civilizations

we see man in general, and through man in general we seek

to recognize or create our own humanity. The humanities

are therefore not an end in themselves, but provide

particularly appropriate and commendable access to man in

general, a way of discovering ourselves. In short in a

truly humanist education, we do not know what man is, we

do not have a particular and absolute kind of human in mind.

It is a question of man in all his mystery. "Know thyself"

and "become what you are" are not reducible to a previously

defined model.

Finally, a humanities program has the ultimate

advantage of placing the teaching of values at the centre

of the educational program. What are our writers talking

about if not values when they indicate that the humanities make it possible to discuss the great ethical, political - 124 -

and social issues? Educating or training man is precisely teaching him values, the great human values; it is seeking those lines of force capable of inspiring man's life and the educational goals of society. It is because they deal essentially with values that the humanities require a continual re-examination of what constitutes a meaningful human value. What more is required?

4. The student

There are things we know about the inmate from direct observation. There are others we can know through comparison or analogy. In the following paragraphs we wish to point out the pedagogical requirements from some of these observations. i. A need for higher standards

To educate is to "bring up", that is to demand, to make feasible the greatest possible self-actualization, bdth as a person and as a participant in life and in community service. Is this always true? Is it true for the inmate? People generally suspect that he is deficient at the intellectual level and that he can only participate in education with fairly low and undemanding standards. -125 -

Tony Parlett disagrees:

"People often tell me that my scheme of things does not work because the majority of prisoners are too unintelligent to partake of high level courses. To this I respond: nonsense; most of them can be exposed to high level education." 76

With an impressive battery of references to support him, he adds that the inmate is capable and desirous of participating in demanding educational activities. Every- thing depends on the teacher's attitudes, the syllabus and the course content. With the result that our "expectations" of the inmate literally condition his performance.

The idea is not new. In 1948 Robert K. Merton 77 expressed it in his theory of "self-fulfilling prophecy".

It was taken up again by Rosenthal and Jacobson in 78 Pygmalion in the Classroom. While recognizing a certain weakness in this "environmental" argument, one can still say that it is in demanding more, rather than less, that significant results have been achieved with inmates. In 79 the opinion of Douglas Ayers and Stephen Duguid the inmates themselves are the first to reject poor quality courses, teaching and teachers. Some experiments with PPO are - 126-

particularly revealing. When left on their own, students

work more slowly or simply abandon their courses. * Similar

results have been observed in individualized teaching

where the fact of being on his own, that is, without

stimulus, quickly produces a lessening of motivation.

A similar effect is seen in the case of part-time study.

On a part-time basis, how can you be demanding and at the

same time encourage human growth?

The crisis in penitentiary education is also a

crisis with regard to the quality of education, a crisis

of excellence or standards. The solution is not easy.

Nothing is more difficult than to restore or raise the

desire for excellence when it is not strong. In this area,

administrative measures are necessary but at the same time

insufficient. Excellence cannot be promoted unless there

is a firm determination to do so. The pursuit of

excellence must therefore be strongly re-emphasized in the

educational program, this being one of the most important ways of making the program more demanding.

Standards are infectious. They are lowered by

imitation. Fortunately, they can also be raised in the same way. - 127-

ii. Ability to read, desire to learn 80 In a recent study, Waksman, Silverman and Weber tried out Feuerstein's method of assessing the inmate's cognitive potential (LPAD, "Learning Potential Assessment

Device"). The aim of this research was to determine whether the inmates with poor scholastic performance really had a significantly lower cognitive potential than inmates with average or higher performance. What is surprising in their research is the use made of the LPAD.

"The LPAD focuses on the assessment of cognitive potential instead of the products of prior learning as is the case with existing diagnostic procedures. Furthermore, the theoretical basis for the LPAD essentially rejects the notion of learning disability in favour of one which suggests that very low functioning individuals have hidden learning potential which has not been developed but which can be actualized through a direct teaching process." 81

Note that the starting point for the assessment was not to attempt to measure the degree of the inmate's backwardness, or to examine the causes or nature of his learning difficulties. On the contrary, what was sought were the aptitudes that the inmate already had and what had to be - 128 -

done to improve them. More surprising still is the fact that the results showed that there was a significant cognitive potential which had remained untapped until the time of the experiment. More important for our study, the authors admit that they would have failed if they had followed traditional evaluation methods, which measure scholastic achievement rather than learning potential or the likelihood of change and improvement through learning.

"Intelligence tests and educational attainment measures would provide a score or a grade level which would reveal little or no information as to the individual's ability to learn . . . . Using these tests to assess the intellectual potential of penitentiary inmates who had only 3-5 years of formal education would automatically place them at an inferior educational level."82

If the philosophy behind this important study is accepted without question, certain conclusions are inevitable with regard to student admission criteria for the humanities program. The first is that we cannot keep the usual method of classifying inmates, at least on the 1 learning level. A school or college leaving certificate is no longer an unequivocal criterion. That seems obvious. - 129-

But what criteria can be used? The task is not easy.

As we emphasized above, the current linear view of adult education requires that individual growth be defined in terms of scholastic achievement, that is, education through levels, rather than inner maturity.

In our opinion, this outlook and state of affairs must be changed through more flexible admission standards in the pilot project. Although a college education is a sign of achievement, we cannot make it an obligatory requirement. Basing ourselves on the Matsqui experiment in which mature students are accepted, we should like to use only the two following criteria: (i) the ability to read with ease, which includes expressing oneself correctly;

(ii) the desire to learn, which includes evidence of good faith - a moral contract through which the inmate undertakes to complete the first session creditably. We will indicate further on how this recommendation can be implemented.

We are aware that this measure will appear naive to some, unacceptable to many. If it is implemented, many beliefs and habits are in danger of being shaken. One question alone can put an end to the discussion: does this - 130 -

measure not have as much chance of rehabilitating the inmate as any other presently in effect? The answer is self-evident. There are, of course, the CEGEPs which in principle are already supposed to be doing what is proposed here; we are not experts in community college matters and we were not given a mandate to examine this question. However, we feel that we should say something about this important issue.

The anticipated objection can be stated in the following way: "Why recommend the creation of a university program when an important part of its function should be performed by the community colleges?" For two reasons.

First, we are not convinced that the CEGEPs really believe in the idea of general education. Although the activities offered by the various CEGEPs working with the penitentiaries appear on the whole to be of good quality, they seem to us to be inspired by the same philosophy as other educational activities: accessibility, individualized teaching and linear adult education. In other words, people enrol in the CEGEP to obtain a college diploma. Personal growth and rehabilitation are seen more as highly desirable by- products than as primary objectives. il 1 - 131 - II Secondly, what is proposed here is more than

community college level education. It is a program aimed

at personal rehabilitation, but through courses with a

specifically university level content. Furthermore, the

reCognized accreditation will be that of a university

degree. The difference is not only in level but in nature.

Lastly, we must point out a final argument which

seems important in several respects. In order to avoid

the traditional strait jacket of progression through

successive levels (primary, secondary, community college,

university), the universities have now relaxed their

admission standards. From now on, three are enough: to

be 22 or over, to have some experience and to possess a

minimum of pertinent knowledge. This applies particularly

to subjects requiring prerequisite knowledge such as

mathematics for someone who wants to enrol in physcis.

For our humanities program, it will be necessary to read

with ease and be able to express oneself correctly..

On this new basis, all the current philosophy for

college education in the penitentiaries could also be

•1 reviewed and possibly revised. From our point of view, - 132 -

the fact that it serves to facilitate access to the pilot

program, already represents great progress.

5. The teacher

It is not our role to define the characteristics

of the ideal teacher. We would rather indicate certain

features, both negative and positive, pointed out by

inmates who have already taken university courses.

First the criticisms. The comments are varied,

of course, and the dissatisfaction is not always expressed

in the same way. However, there are a certain number of

constants. For example, the authoritarian, rigid,

dogmatic teacher, devoid of flexibility, is not appreciated.

Neither is the teacher who puts exclusive and one-sided

emphasis on satisfying the spontaneous wishes of the

students to the detriment of the need for rigour and

continuity in the work. The teacher who preaches

scientific neutrality or who hides behind the pretext of

axiological non-involvement is no more acceptable than

the professional indoctrinator who tries to appeal to

appetite rather than intellect. To summarize: paradoxical as it may seem, the inmate-student, even if - 133 -

he fears him, respects the demanding teacher who has

both substance and flair.

What does having substance and flair mean? We know

and yet we do not know. The humanist that Tony Parlett is

talking about cannot be ordered up by computer or mass-

produced. Basically, a good teacher cannot be defined.

It is perhaps in his students' thoughts, actions and

feelings that the answer must be sought.

Does the teacher need to have special training before entering the penitentiaries? We think not. He is not asked to do "unusual" teaching. Let him be correctly

informed of the goals, the program and the special needs of the inmates, the "atmosphere" of the surroundings and that is enough. If he is a good teacher, he will adapt without difficulty because a good teacher is.capable of imparting his knowledge to anyone, anytime, anywhere.

The humanist teacher speaks to them as persrons rather than inmates, and academic achievements and marks scarcely interest him.

"Be patient, then, and sympathetic with the type of mind that cuts a poor figure in examinations. It may in the long examination which life - 134 -

sets us, come out in the end in better shape than the glib and ready reproducer, its passions being deeper, its purposes more worthy, its combining power less commonplace, and its total mental output consequently more important".

(William James, Talks to Teachers).

6. Evaluation

As we mentioned above, there seems never to have been an official evaluation, properly so called, of the different experiments in university education in the penitentiaries. This is perhaps owing to the small number of "courses" given, to the type of teaching preferred

(individualized), to the lack of objectives or general criteria, or to negligence pure and simple. As a result, we know very little about the results of the various experiments, their goals, their assumptions, their content, their duration, the number of inmate participants, the teaching staff,- the cost, the universities' interests, and above all, their effect on the inmates involved.

To ensure the survival of this experimental program, or at least to have a realistic idea of its value, it is therefore absolutely essential to plan an evaluation in order to establish the degree to which the - 135 -

objectives are met and also to diagnose the problems which might relate to its structure or operation. It is quite clear that the government authorities directly responsible for the humanities degree program will have to decide on the future of the program almost solely on the basis of the recommendations in the evaluation report.

As evaluation of the program is aimed at improving its quality and assessing its suitability, it cannot be left to chance or conceived in a haphazard fashion. It must be founded on solid and recognized theory and if possible have had a chance to be applied. The method we propose meets both these conditions. i. A recognized approach to evaluation

Seen from a decision-making perspective, that is, not in abstractions but in terms of concrete decisions based on results obtained, the evaluative approach we propose makes use of the theories of Ralph Tyler, Lee Cronbach, 83 Michael Seriven, Robert Stake and Daniel Stufflebeam.

Tyler's approach, however, runs the risk of over-simplifying the program, emphasizes the results at the expense of the process and pays little attention to the inherent value of the objectives. Cronbach's approach does not take the human - 136 -

element into account. Seriven's gives excessive importance

to documents and card indexes and poses methodological

problems in estimating and determining the validity of the

evaluator's judgments. Therefore, the approach we selected

combines the common characteristics of Stake's and

Stufflebeam's approaches.

According to Stake, evaluation basically consists

of describing and assessing an educational program by means

of a formal investigation involving the various people

concerned. Seen from this viewpoint, the evaluator's

role is therefore to collect, analyse and interpret the

descriptive and evaluative data for the program in question.

. The main object of the evaluation is to provide educators

with a better understanding of the educational program

under consideration. To this end, evaluation must include

examination of the aims and priorities of the program and

identification of the areas of weakness or strength.

This information is then communicated to the various

people involved in the program. Afterwards an evaluation

of the program may be made with reference to absolute or

relative standards. - - 137 -

Stufflebeam views evaluation as a process of determining, collecting and transmitting information which can be used by decision-making in the program in question. Seen from this angle, the role of evaluation

is to provide pertinent information to the decision- makers (in this case, the government authorities directly responsible for the humanities program), and to make judgments on the various paths of action open to them. In other words, it is not a question merely of making one or two recommendations, but of taking a stand, pointing out and explainirig the best decision to take.

However, the evaluator must, in every case, try to be as explicit as possible about the value system underlying each of the judgments made.

These definitions of evaluation both agree on the relationship which exists between evaluating and decision-making, as well as on the need to consider the importance given to the various elements of the program by those involved in it.

Moreover, the two definitions appear to be based on the assumption that the institution in which the teaching - 138 -

takes place is in a constant state of flux and that this

change is the result of two forcés, one within the

institution (pressure to attain the objectives of the

system) and the other outside the institution (cultural,

administrative, social and other pressures). The

operational task of the institutional system is therefore

to develop strategies to respond to these two forces;

evaluation helps to formulate and implement these strategies.

In addition to the organizational elements of the

Stake and Stufflebeam approaches, we have also adopted

various epistemic features. In these approaches,

evaluation is seen as enabling all those involved in a program to obtain a coherent view of the program as a whole as well as of its individual components; as a result,

the evaluative activities must not only describe the program, but also identify the internal frame of reference of those involved and make them aware of it. II Having identified the characteristics of Stake ! and Stufflebeam's approaches, we must now develop a model for our own evaluative approach. But since the evaluator hired, should this be the case, will have primary

I 1 - 139 -

responsibility for defining the components of the model, we shall content ourselves here with defining its two major dimensions. It will be more useful for us to deal with the practical side of the evaluation, which will be done after describing the model.

The two dimensions of the model are: the program and the methodology.

The program

This dimension is based on the simplified notion of what constitutes a system, that is, a set of elements 84 interrelated in terms of a common goal. In a closed system, these elements are input, process and output.

However, as an on-the-spot evaluation deals with a subject (program) which reacts with the environment

(characteristic of an open system), we must also take a fourth element into account, namely the environment. This component enables the program to be adjusted according to both internal and external requests and expectations.

It should be noted that input, process and output correspond respectively to Stake's concepts of antecedent, transaction and result. By antecedent is meant any -140 -

condition existing prior to the program's activities which might have a bearing on the results. There are direct antecedents which include factors essential to the operation of the program and indirect antecedents including factors which, although not essential to the operation of the program, seem relevant to the achievement of the program's aims. For example, the identification, history, management structure and description of the program, its placement in the university system, its resources and the number of students.

By transaction is meant all the educational activities undertaken within the program and requiring the use of resources. Of the three categories, this is the most dynamic becauSe of the data it covers. For example, drawing up the syllabus, planning the content of each course, extra-curricular learning activities, student- teacher interaction, student interaction, supervision of students, teaching methods, (lectures, seminars, programmed teaching, practical work, team-teaching and so on).

By result is meant all the identifiable effects on the antecedents and transactions after their interaction. - 141 -

For example, proficiency achieved (knowledge, aptitudes, attitudes), student, teacher and administrator satisfaction, credits obtained, marks given, drop-out rate (type and reason for withdrawal).

The environment aspect includes all external factors changes in which can affect the system and which can in turn be affected by changes in the system itself.

Examples of environmental elements are value systems, government policy (Department of Education), union pressure, directives from Ottawa, budget restrictions and so on.

The methodology

For each of the three main components of the program dimension of the model (antecedents, transactions, results) the evaluator must obtain descriptive data consisting of the intentions expressed and the observations made; and evaluative data in the form of standards used and judgments made.

By "intentions" we mean the expectations expressed by the various people involved in the program, in terms of goals, objectives or results, as well as the interpretation - 142 -

of these expectations by these same people. The evaluator must try to obtain from the people involved a list, in order of priority, indicating everything that they feel can be done within the program.

By "observations" we mean the data which indicate what is actually happening within the program or is seen as happening by the people involved.

Before gathering the intention and observation data, the evaluator must decide on the indicators to be given particular weight, the sources to be used in gathering the data as well as the techniques used to do so. Besides direct and personal observation, the evaluator may use such techniques as interviews, check lists, inventories and questionnaires of all kinds.

By "standard" we mean the desirable or at least acceptable level which a criterion must reach to be used as a model for a reality or to judge it, as the case may 85 be. We would define criteria as being the differential effects of an organized process: effects which influence one another and which are not exclusive. Both parties concerned - the university and the penitentiary - should participate in establishing the criteria.

II - 143 -

At the "judgment" stage, the evaluator must first identify

the judgments made by the various people involved in the

program on the descriptive data, basing themselves on their

ow'n standards. Then the evaluator must decide which set

of standards should be used; hence the need to assign a

weight to each set of standards, and to decide how much

attention to pay to each group of standards identified.

Finally, assessment of the indicators of a program

can be done with reference either to an ideal representation

of what the program should be like in the view of an

individual or a group, or to what exists in other programs.

- ii. Stages in the evaluative process

The evaluative process in the humanities program must be as simple and as flexible as possible, particularly with respect to the means used for systematic collection of data. The need for this flexibility stems from the fact

that the evaluator must realize that the overall view of

the program which will develop during the evaluative process will primarily be the result of interactions between himself,

the people involved and the program environment. Thus, before choosing measurement techniques or thinking up new - 144 -

ones, the evaluator must familiarize himself with the

features of the educational situation under study and

know exactly what the people involved in the program

want.

The evaluator must also be aware that the people

involved at various levels of the program will perhaps

not be unanimous as to the indicators they consider

important or as to the method of gathering the appropriate

data. He must therefore begin by finding out the concerns

of the principals involved and by establishing the issues

of greatest concern to the people who are directly or

indirectly involved in the program.

In short, the evaluator's role, at the beginning

of the evaluative process, will therefore be to decide

in conjunction with the various people responsible for

the program (the project co-ordinator and the government

official) what objectives, problems, - procedures, categories

of people and phenomena he should concentrate on.

Naturally, the elements outlined above concern the

assumptions and objectives (and their indicators). The content, the material and pedagogical organization and -145 -

so on, should constitute an initial bank of basic data.

Then, as the evaluative process continues, the evaluator will reveal the nature of and reasons for his actions.

Those responsible for the operation of the program can then make a critical examination of the evaluator's activities and, if suitable, suggest the most appropriate steps. This last comment is basically a precaution, since because the evaluation must be done in a very short period of time, it must be assumed that important changes are both very unlikely and undesirable.

The evaluation committee

A small evaluation committee should be formed to carry out all the activities related to the evaluation of the humanities program. This committee will be composed of three people, one of whom should be chosen because of his specific knowledge of and recognized ability in program evaluation. The second member will be the experimental project co-ordinator who will act as chairman of the committee, as the person ultimately responsible for the committee's final report. It is he who will be answerable to the government authorities for the -146 - 1

committee's activities. The third member will be a penitentiary employee, preferably the government counterpart in terms of level of responsibility.

Besides encouraging and co-ordinating the

various evaluation activities, at the end of the program

evaluation the committee will have the responsibility of making one of the three following recommendations and for

justifying their choice:

- the program may be continued as it stands;

- the program should be changed but may be continued;

- the program should be abolished.

What is crucial here is the justification of the option the committee chooses. The final recommendation 1 cannot be neutral. Since the evaluation, as we said above, relates to the decision-making process, the committee is

responsible for explaining, justifying and clarifying

its recommendation on clear and well-defined grounds. It must inform the decision-makers of the concrete 1 nature and scope - the practical implications - of the particular recommendation made. On this basis the principal decision-maker (in this case the government - 147 -

official whose "yes" or "no" can be taken as a formal decision, a vertiable diktat, in so far as implementation of the recommendation is concerned) must be expected a priori to have great confidence in the evaluation committee's report, and to undertake in advance to follow the course of action indicated to him as being the best one. The committee's mandate will be for three weeks, the three weeks immediately following the experimental term.

Evaluation criteria

The evaluation criteria which will be used during the process must be established at the beginning. This involves three operations.

First, the evaluation committee must provide a list of evaluation criteria showing as far as possible all facets of a humanities program. As examples we can suggest the following criteria:

- the quality of teaching and learning;

- the quality of the teaching staff;

- the program's contribution to the penitentiary environment;

-the scope and originality of the program; - 148 -

- the potential of the program;

- the cost of the program;

- its compatibility with the functions of the institution.

In presenting the proposed criteria, the committee should attempt to describe them with specific indicators. By way of example, we might mention those listed above for each of the objectives. For other components of the reality evaluated, for example the program's cost or potential, the list of criteria must be as broad as possible in order to cover all the indicators.

Secondly, the committee must arrange to identify at the most five main criteria. Ideally this identification would be made by the main government decision-maker or decision-makers. However, as it might not be easy or practical to reach those responsible for such a choice, it should be expected that the evaluation committee may have to decide on the five criteria by itself, after consultation.

Thirdly, if the government authorities agree to participate in the weighting stage, the procedure will consist of two steps. First, the evaluation committee will - 149 -

establish a preliminary minimum weighting for the five criteria chosen by allocating a total of twenty points.

For example:

- the quality of teaching and learning 6

- the quality of the teaching staff 4

- the scope and originality of the program 3

- the potential of the program 4

- the program's contribution to the penitentiary environment 3 20

Then the authorities will be asked to complete this weighting by assigning five additional points based on their personal choice. For example, they may wish to emphasize the quality of teaching and learning by giving it two points, the quality of the teaching staff by giving it two points and the program's potential by giving it one point. The total weighting of the five criteria would then be as follows:

- the quality of teaching and learning 8

- the quality of the teaching staff 6

- the scope and originality of the program 3

- the potential of the program 5 -150 -

- the program's contribution to the penitentiary environnent 3 25

Thus the three most important criteria for evaluating the humanities program would be, in order, the quality of teaching and learning, the quality of the teaching staff, and the program's potential.

For the gathering of data, the stage which should follow the establishment of criteria and identification of indicators, it is again the responsibility of the evaluation committee to propose the necessary techniques.

Since the choice of techniques will depend on the criteria selected and hence on the indicators which define these criteria at the operational level, this means that identification of the indicators constitutes an operation crucial to the choice of techniques. This project already contains examples of indicators in the section on objectives. They will be necessary for each of the realities evaluated. It will be the role of the evaluation specialist in particular to provide the other members of the committee with information on this question. - 151 -

Finally with regard more specifically to the

techniques for gathering the data, they will depend on

the kind of data to be gathered. For data of a morphologic

and quantitative nature, one could go straight to

information cards and administrative documents. As this

is a pilot program, this information will not be difficult

to obtain. For data on qualitative indicators

(intentions, needs, opinions and so on) the committee 86 might refer to Fontaine's questionnaires, to the Perpe

test (already validated in Quebec universities) and to

the DELPHI method.

As the experimental humanities program will in

some ways be "checked" on the spot, and since the

experiment will be particularly significant in that it 1 will take all the main factors into account (number of students, timetables, teaching, content and so on) a well-

executed evaluation should be able to give an accurate

idea of its value. Thanks mainly to the evaluation, the

decision-makers will be in a position to choose the best

option for the future. - 152 -

7. Organization

If the project for a humanities and social

science program is to be taken seriously, that is,

considered as a continuing need in the penitentiary

system, it must not become merely a fad, one of a number

of experiments that are being tried. Serious matters

require time. The program should be gradually, not hastily, implemented. Makeshift solutions should be

avoided as much as possible.

With this in mind, we envisaged a well-planned

and well-organized pilot session. The following section

is intended as a description of the basic elements of

such an experiment. It does not attempt to be exhaustive:

one cannot anticipate every factor. What is important

is that it takes the main variables into account. For

in assessing the future of such a program, its "official"

continuity, everything will depend on the results of the

evaluation of the pilot project. In order to provide

an accurate description, the evaluation must be based on

a knowledge of the major factors involved. We will now

describe these major factors. -153 -

i. The administrative aspect

Under this heading, there are four factors to be

considered: the university, the prison, the budget and

the schedule.

a) The university

There is more to creating a new university

program than just the desire to do so. Starting a short

time ago, all applications for new programs now have to

be submitted to the Council of Universities. The process

is long and complicated. Fortunately, we do not have to

follow this difficult procedure: the program proposed

here is more a rearrangement than a beginning from square

one. It involves grouping together a set of thirty

courses of three credits each - such as literature,

history, philosophy, anthropology, sociology and psychology - whose combined content would-seem to be

able to meet the intended objectives. Any self-respecting

university cannot but show interest in such a project.

On the one hand, it meets the needs of a specific

clientele - as is already being done for such groups as policemen, nurses and athletics instructors; on the -154 -

other hand, it can pride itself on the fact that it offers a proper university education. Obviously, there are various ways of proceeding. One efficient suggestion would be to enrol inmates in courses selected from among those offered by the university while explaining to university officials the rehabiiitative goals of the project and initiating discussions related to its development. According to our schedule, this stage would occur in November and December 1979, in other words, immediately before courses begin in January 1980.

Responsibility for arranging this would be assumed by the project co-ordinator, as we will explain later.

Two criteria could guide penitentiaries in selecting a university: the suitability of services offered and distance. With respect to the first criterion, it should be understood that a university that agrees to participate must be one which subscribes to the program's goals and philosophy as described in this report and which is able to offer corresponding services: enrolment, accreditation, and permission for three professors to give courses in the penitentiary and for 1 I - 155 -

one professor to co-ordinate the program. All these

professors would be paid by the penitentiary. With

respect to the second criterion, if possible, a

university should be selected which is not so far away

that distance would be a major problem. For this reason

and for reasons of administrative efficiency and economy,

Laval University would thus be excluded, the universities

in the Montreal area preferable and the University of

Sherbrooke and the University of Quebec at Trois-Rivières

acceptable. These two criteria, together with the

choice of program co-ordinator, are the determining

factors in the decision to be made by the penitentiary.

Enrolment

The enrolment of the first students should be

regarded in a way as setting a seal on the commitment

made by both partners - the university and the penitentiary.

As three courses, identified and announced in advance,

will be offered during this test session, the registrar

will enrol the participating inmates in the normal fashion.

The fees will duly be paid by the penitentiary.

1 -156 -

Implementation

The program will be implemented in two stages.

During the first, in November and December 1979, the program co-ordinator will contact the participating university, present the main components of the project, decide - with the university - on courses to be selected, meet professors, ensure that facilities are prepared and basic textbooks are purchased and, above all, introduce the project to the inmates who have volunteered. During the second stage, from January to April 1980, the actual project will be carried out, followed by the period of evaluation. b) The penitentiary •

A number of criteria have to be considered in selecting a penitentiary which could carry out the project.

It is next to impossible to meet all of these criteria since some of them are mutually exclusive or contradictory.

For example, facilities are needed whose physical arrangement is conducive to study and concentration, taking into account noise level, atmosphere, lighting, ventilation and so on. As well, the institution should be one where -157 -

there is a minimum rate of mobility, in other words, few transfers. As it happens, the institutions which meet the first criterion, such as Cowansville and the Federal

Training Centre, always have an exceedingly high turnover rate. On the other hand, the penitentiaries that are able to provide some stability in inmate population, such as maximum institutions, are, "environmentally" speaking, less well-equipped to handle the type of program proposed. Thus it is necessary to make compromises, provided, of course, that the project itself is not compromised.

As the most important factor remains student participation, we have selected Archambault. If it were not for its persistently high mobility rate, Leclerc would have been the preferred location because of its atmosphere: its clas-sroom area seems to offer a greater possibility of psychological separation from the rest of the penitentiary.

But if certain conditions are met, it is possible to manage with Archambault. We feel that a single, well-designed location would be sufficient for -158 - the three essential functions: teaching, studying and 1 educational and administrative supervision (see Table D).

TABLE D

A multi-purpose room

Co-ordinator's Study area I and

office classroom

movable screen

L-A L-B

Mornings are set aside for research and individual study. Thus space L-B is used as a study area. But as the program co-ordinator is also on the premises every morning, Monday through Friday, space L-A is reserved for him within the large room and separated from it by a movable screen. This physical arrangement makes it 1 - 159 -

possible to provide the student with educational supervision. Purely administrative matters, telephone calls and clerical tasks could be handled in the principal's office. Regarding use of the room during the afternoon, few conflicts would arise. It would be used for teaching during three of the five periods of the week and for studying during the other two. Two problems remain to be resolved: typing and supervision of the two afternoons when inmates would be studying but neither professors nor the co-ordinator would be present. If necessary, for security reasons, the principal could be asked to perform some supervisory duties. Typing - which creates noise - could be done at a prearranged time during the week, during spare periods set aside for student dialogue and newspaper activities, optional seminars, music, theatre and so forth. Area L-B should accomodate between ten and fifteen students.

The program co-ordinator

The main person responsible for the operation of the program is the program co-ordinator. In a way, -160 -

everything - education and administration - depends on him. He must be carefully chosen. The following is a description of what he should be and what he should do in ternis of the project.

An experienced scholar, a seasoned teacher and a "humanist", he must possess the qualities of both a theoretician and a practitioner. With respect to human qualities, he must be able to make compromises without accepting defeat or mediocrity, and must be capable of a deep commitment to the project. In short, he should be a true professional who has the courage to take up a difficult challenge.

He has numerous tasks and heavy responsibilities.

The more obvious of these are as follows:

- As the person in overall charge, he is responsible for planning and implementing the humanities and social sciences program in accordance with the spirit of the recommendations contained in this report. He will have the task of explaining the penitentiary's intentions to the university and handling implementation procedures.

He will think of, anticipate, plan and organize everything. -161 -

Without his ongoing involvement, there can be no rehabilitation-oriented university program capable of bringing about basic, lasting and general changes in the present situation. We have no hesitation in saying that the selection of a co-ordinator is the most pressing and important task which must be undertaken by penitentiary authorities in the launching of the project.

- One of his first responsibilities will be to participate in the introduction of the program to future students. After he becomes familiar with the major themes of this report, he will help present the information to government officials. As a logical outcome of the process, he will participate in the selection of students.

- During the session, he will provide the students with educational supervision; this will involve answering questions related to academic work, stimulating discussion, encouraging intellectual exchange and suggest- ing extra-curricular activities such as theatre and journalism. As both adviser and facilitator, one of his first concerns is to meet the learning needs of students.

A more mundane task is to see to the group's internal - 162 -

rules; for example, the students might have a code of behaviour related to silence in the study area, cleanliness of the premises, language, punctuality, quality of work and so on.

- The co-ordinator will act as the professors' colleague and facilitator. He will assist in the distribution of course syllabuses, ensure that books arrive on time and that teaching and audio-visual materials are in good condition. As a dual intermediary, that is, between the professor and the university and the professor and the penitentiary, he will be at a crossroads, functioning as a focus, a point of convergence for resolving all issues and problems, from distributing examination results to settling expense accounts which are in arrears, to arranging weekend passes (for professors who would like to have meetings with students) or dealing with security problems.

- The co-ordinator will act as chairman of the evaluation committee, whose work will be carried out during the three weeks immediately following the end of the test session. As the future of the program will - 163 -

depend on the recommendations to be contained in the evaluation report, it is obvious that preparations should be detailed and the final report carefully written.

The selection of the evaluation specialist for the committee is an extremely important task which must be carried out well before the evaluation period.

- During the test session, the co-ordinator is responsible for ensuring continuity. It will be his responsibility not only to hold periodical meetings with penitentiary authorities to inform them of progress but also to plan for the continuation of the project as a full-time undertaking: program title, organization, course content, library, summer courses, final evaluation, prospectus, financing and administrative agreement.

In short, even before his evaluation, he must assume that the project will be successful and ensure its continuation.

Through the appointment of the program co-ordinator, it will be possible not only to determine the seriousness of the penitentiary's intentions, but also to assess beforehand the results of the project. - 164 -

ii. The pedagogical aspect

Instruction is the basis of the program. We

consider that our treatment of this question in the

previous part of this report is adequate for the moment.

We will limit ourselves here to dealing with its purely

organizational,aspects.

a) Courses

During the test session, three courses will be

offered which will be mandatory for all students. For

obvious reasons, we cannot choose course titles in advance;

however, it is possible to indicate the preferred areas.

For example, an ancient literature course, such as Greek

theatre, a non-contemporary history course and a course

such as introductory psychology, philosophy or sociology.

What is important is that their content, made known

initially through the syllabus, should contribute to the

achievement of the program's goals.

A good start is half the battle. Although the

courses and their syllabuses are the same as those for regular students, it is clear that utmost care must be taken when they are being introduced into penitentiaries. - 165 -

It is not only the lives of a handful of volunteers that are affected but also those of all the inmates who might participate in the future. b) Students

Ideally, there should be a minimum of twelve and a maximum of fifteen students. The applicants, all volunteers and all enroled on a full-time basis, would be selected according to the criteria previously mentioned.

In the event of too many applications for enrolment, it would be the penitentiary's responsibility to set standards making it possible to equitably limit the number enroled to fifteen. Table E represents a possible example of a student's timetable over a five-day week. - 166 -

TABLE E

Example of a Timetable

Mon. Tues. Wed. Thurs. Fri.

Supervision Supervision Supervision Supervision Supervision

(Co-ordinator) (Co-ordinator) (Co-ordinator) (Co-ordinator) (Co-ordinator) ara

and and and and and

Study Study Optional Study Optional activities activities

Pm Course Study Course Study Course -167 -

Each participating student will be required to enter into a sort of moral contract in which he undertakes to work as hard as possible during the entire project, to follow and observe all instructions and, above all, to remain in the program until the end of the term. A violation of the contract could lead to automatic cancellation of the session for the entire group. The student must understand very clearly that his responsibility is not something that accompanies the diploma. It forms the very basis of his university involvement right from the start.

At the outset, the co-ordinator will inform the student about his rights and obligations. With respect to rights, he will be entitled to give his opinion on the professor's evaluation method and criteria, for example through access to appeal procedures for rereading of marks and so forth. As for obligations, they will be the same as those for any university student: high quality work, punctuality, handing in assignments on time, proper language and behaviour and so on. -168 -

The basic textbooks will be provided by the penitentiary. Reference books will be borrowed from the library of the participating university. The co-ordinator, in conjunction with the students and professors, will prepare a simple loan application procedure.

The inmate will be treated as a regular student.

The conduct expected of him will be that of a student. c) Professors

From an organizational point of view, nothing special will be required of the professor. In the first meeting, he will explain his objectives and present the course syllabus. He will introduce his teaching procedure and his evaluation method and provide a list of mandatory and recommended readings.

For all activities involved in the project, he may count on the availability of the program co-ordinator. iii. Budget

Education is expensive. If the usual funding methods are used, one almost has to acknowledge that the cost of a university program for inmates would be prohibitive. - 169 -

Last year, the Laval University library purchased 2,995

books in the area of humanities and social sciences for 1 undergraduate programs at a cost of $48,000. We feel that a change of approach is necessary here. For purposes

of financing a program such as the one discussed in this

report, it is not possible to anticipate all expenditures

and then ask the government to provide the appropriate

budgetary envelope. Although universities are reluctant

to tell us how much the expenditures for a project such

as this one would amount to (they would like more details

before committing themselves), we must expect the worst.

Representatives of the University of Victoria, British

Columbia, who are involved at Matsqui, suggested that we

make an estimate in the order of $100,000. We shall

offer three suggestions concerning the budget.

First, do not determine the total cost of the

project at this time. The primary reason for this is

that it would mean proceeding according to traditional

methods and we know in advance the nature of the over-

high costs. Further, the necessary alternate means of

financing are yet to be found. The most important thing

is to ensure that the project is well launched., -170 -

Secondly, prepare the budgets with full knowledge of the facts, that is, while the project is under way.

Once it is in progress, the project will reveal all its secrets, which will have at least two advantages in terms of financing. On the one hand, this will enable the co-ordinator to make more realistic predictions. On the other hand, the more important aspect is that as the project develops, it will provide arguments which will be useful or necessary for seeking and making use of secondary sources of funding, such as various foundations. 1 In our viea, there are four preferred sources: the

federal government, the provincial government, private

foundations and the university or universities involved.

Thirdly, use money already set aside for this study. It is possible to conduct the test session using

funds already available. One should take advantage of them. The estimates we have prepared take this factor into account (see Table F).

1 - 171 -

TABLE F

Budget

1. Enrolment of students: 15 X $50 $ 750.00

This amount should cover only administrative costs.

2. Co-ordinator

a) Salary: January to April 5,000.00

b) Travel, accommodation, meals, etc (if from the outside) (Inial) 5,000.00

c) Implementation: November 15 to December 15: Salary 1,000.00 Expenses 500.00

3. Professors

a) Salaries: 3 X $2,000 6,000.00

b) Expenses: 3 X $600 1,800.00

4. Books: required reading 1,500.00

5. Evaluator: April: Salary 1,000.00 Expenses 500.00

6. Miscellaneous: 2,000.00

TOTAL $25,050.00

- 172 -

iv. Schedule

We thought that it would be useful to summarize

the project's major stages in order to highlight the

main points. The schedule format is suitable for this

purpose.

- August 31, 1979 Submission of the report of a study carried out on a plan for university education for inmates.

- September 1-30 Consideration of the report by penitentiary officials.

- October 1-31 Proposals and counter-proposals. Decision-making. Hiring of program co-ordinator.

-.November 15- December 15 First phase of implementation by program co-ordinator; contact with universities, selection of a university, preparation of host institution, selection of students, selection of three courses, purchasing of books.

- January-April 1980 Second phase of implementation: the test session itself.

- April 1980 Evaluation of program. — 173 -

8. The agreement

It is the responsibility of the program

co-ordinator to explore the different ways in which an

agreement may be reached between the participating

university and the penitentiary. The following may

serve as a model or guide:

AGREEMENT REGARDING A BA PROGRAM IN THE HUMANITIES

AGREEMENT BETWEEN:

THE UNIVERSITY, a legally constituted corporation located

at , here represented by

duly authorized under the statues of the corporation;

hereinafter called the "UNIVERSITY"

AND

ARCHAMBAULT INSTITUTION (or the federal government?)

hereinafter called the "INSTITUTION" - 174 -

ARTICLE 1 THE AIM OF THE AGREEMENT

1.01 This agreement defines the respective and reciprocal responsibilities of the University and Archambault Institution with regard to the management of the program.

ARTICLE 2 DEFINITION OF TERMS

2.01 For the purposes of this agreement, the following terms and expressions shall be defined as indicated:

a) "'University": University of X

h) "Institution": Archambault Institution

c) "Executive Committee": Executive Committee of the University of X

d) "Studies Committee": Studies Committee of the University of X

e) "Professor": any person employed by the University as a full-time, gueàt, substitute or part-time professor.

f) "Program": The University of X BA program in the humanities approved by the Study Committee.

ARTICLE 3 PROGRAM MANAGEMENT

3.01 The program shall be managed by a joint committee comprising two University representatives and two Institution representatives. This committee shall be chaired by the Dean of Undergraduate Studies or his representative. - 175 -

3.02 The University and Institution representatives on this oommittee shall be designated annually by letter from the University and Institution authorities respectively.

ARTICLE 4 RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE UNIVERSITY

4.01 The set of courses leading to the required ninety credits shall be the academic responsibility of the University.

4.02 The University undertakes to provide admission and enrolment forms, and any information useful to students wishing to enrol officially in one or more courses offered within the framework of this program.

4.03 When the program is completed, the University undertakes to give each duly enroled student who has satisfied all the program requirements, a university file and an arts degree in the humanities.

4.04 The University undertakes to give a course when there is a sufficient enrolment.

4.05 The University shall provide the necessary teaching staff for each of the activities offered under the program.

ARTICLE 5 JOINT RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE UNIVERSITY AND THE INSTITUTION

5.01 The University and the Institution shall jointly participate in promoting this program.

5.02 The Institution may, through the joint committee, and in accordance with the relative regulations, suggest the assignment - 176 -

of lecturers to give the courses offered under this program.

ARTICLE 6 RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE INSTITUTION

6.01 The Institution, through its representatives, shall organize consultation meetings with the students, with a view to informing the joint committee of the options the students would like to see on the timetable, their suggestions as to scheduling (day, time) and any other suggestions or requests submitted.

6.02 The Institution shall provide the required premises for each course on the program.

ARTICLE 7 TERMS OF REFERENCE, OBJECTIVES, ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS, TEACHING REGULATIONS, PROGRAM DESCRIPTION

7.01 The terms of reference of the joint committee, the program objectives, the admission requirements, the teaching regulations in effect, shall be those explicitly outlined in the relevant document approved by the Studies Committee of the University of X.

7.02 The detailed description of the program is the one explicitly given in the relevant document approved by the Studies Committee of the University of X.

ARTICLE 8 RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE

8.01 The joint committee may make to the Executive Committee of the University and the Executive Committee of the Institution any - 177 -

recommendation aimed at modifying by common agreement any of the preceding clauses, excepting clauses directly related to the program.

ARTICLE 9 DURATION OF AGREEMENT

9.01 The present agreement shall come into effect on the date of signature by both parties and shall remain in effect for a period of three years.

THE PARTIES HERETO HAVE SIGNED at this day of , 1979.

UNIVERSITY OF X

By:

ARCHAMBAULT INSTITUTION

By:

By: -178 -

REFERENCE

1. The University of Victoria has offered a university program in the prison environment, based on the humanities and social sciences, since 1972. Matsqui Institution in Abbotsford has participated in the experiment since 1973.

2. Messrs.Roma Bertrand, René Rousseau, Douglas K.Grif fin and Lucien Morin were present at the meeting.

3. "The macroscope is not like other tools. It is a symbolic instrument, made up of a set of methods and techniques borrowed from various disciplines . . . . (The macroscopic approach) is based on a global approach to the problems or systems under study and concentrates on the interaction between their elements." Translated from a quotation by Joel de Rosnay, Le Macroscope, Paris, Seuil, 1975, pp.15-17.

4. Loosely based, in the sense of having the institution participate in the "control, evaluation and analysis" of the situation. See OECD, Les indicateurs de résultats des systèmes d'enseignement, Paris, OECD, 1973; H.L.Hodgkinson et al. Improving and Assessing Performance: Evaluation in Higher Education, Centre for Research and Development in Higher Education, Berkeley, California, University of California, 1975; RE.Gingras and M.Girard. L'analyse institutionnelle: s'évaluer pour évoluer, Montreal, CADRE, 1975.

5. By "regional planning" we mean a document entitled "Planification et prévision 1980-81" and on which two dates appear: 1978-79. André Rivard "L'Ecole en prison" in Le grain de sel, Direction générale de l'éducation des adultes, MEQ, vol. 2, Dec 1978. As for "reception centre", there are two documents, the first entitled "L'orientation en milieu carcéral" and the second "Programme d'éducation et de formation dans les institutions pénitentiaires" prepared by the orientation department of the Regional Reception Centre. -179 -

6. See "Project de formation universitaire pour détenus", Gaétan Tremblay and Suzanne Bouchard, UQAM, 1979.

7. This viewpoint has worldwide endorsement through such organizations as UNESCO, OECD and the European Culture Foundation.

8. Deschooling Society, Harper & Row, N.Y, 1970. The figures are ours.

9. Carl Rogers, Freedom to Learn, Charles E.Merrill, Columbus, Ohio, 1969, p.84.

10. Ibid, p.113.

11. "Education and Training for Inmates, National Objectives", Canadian Penitentiary Service, November 1977, p.6.

12. "The Role of Federal Corrections in Canada", Ministry of the Solicitor General, 1977, p.57..

13. "The Purpose of Correctional Education", Education and Training Division, Correctional Service of Canada, June 22, 1979.

14. Introduction à la pédagogie, Paris, PUF, 1967, p.4. The author adds: "Any action on a child or a man always implies a goal or at least a direction".

15. Jacques Maritain, Education at the Crossroads, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1949, c1943, p.2.

16. The Genius of American Education, N.Y., Vintage Books, 1965.

17. Livre vert sur l'enseignement primaire et secondaire, fall 1977. L'école québécoise. Enoncé de politique et plan d'action, 1978; Le Collège. Rapport sur l'état et les besoins de l'enseignement collégial, 1975; Commission d'étude sur les universités, 1979. - 180 -

18. See "The Tricycle Approach to Goal Identification and Assessment in Correction Education", Donald S. Campbell, paper presented at CSSE meeting, Saskatoon, 1 June, 1979.

19. "On the Place of Values Education in the Prisons", Lucien Morin, paper presented at CSSE meeting, Saskatoon, June, 1979, p.20.

20. See the works of Louis Lavelle, René Le Senne, Max Scheler, Maurice Nédoncelle, E.Mounier, G.Madinier, G.Bastide, Nicolas Berdiaeff, Jean Lacroix, and others.

21. Personne et amour, Paris, Seuil, 1956, p.25.

22. Man's Search for Meaning, N.Y" Kangaroo Book, 1977, pp. 58-59.

23. The Idea of a University, N.Y" Longmans Green and Co, 1947, pp.9 to 129.

24. Jacques Barzun, The House of Intellect, N.Y., Harper, 1959.

25. For the Playfair anecdote see Eric Ashby, Technology and the Academics, N.Y" Macmillan, 1958, p.58. For details on "civic universities", see W.H.Amytage, Civic Universities, Benn, 1955.

26. See for example, Abraham Flexner, University, American, English, German, N.Y., Oxford University Press, 1968.

27. The Uses of the University, N.Y" Harper Torchbooks, . 1963, pp. 4-19.

28. See the works of Marcel Mauss, Lucien Lévy-Bruhl, Margaret Mead, Claude Lévi-Strauss, and others.

29. See Karl Jaspers, La situation spirituelle de notre époque, Paris, Desclée de Brouwer, 1951.

30. L'Université en question, Paris, Payot, 1964, p.84. - 181 -

31. See Yochelson, S. and Samenow, Sq The Criminal Personality, vol.I-II, J.Aronson, 1976. M.Waksman, H.Silverman, K.Wiker, "Assessing the Learning Potential of Penitentiary Inmates, An Application of Feuerstein's Learning Potential Assessment Device", Ottawa, 1979.

32. Yochelson and Samenow, op. cit. vol. I, p.25.

' II 33. Ibid, vol. II, p.7.

34. Quoted in Waksman et al, op.cit., pp. 7-8. 35. See for example, J. Douglas Ayers, "Perspective on Education in Prison", paper prepared for CSSE meeting, Saskatoon, June, 1979; Tony Parlett, "Some Theoretical Aspects of Correctional Education", paper prepared for CSSE meeting, Saskatoon, June, 1979 and "Initial Paper Delivered to Massachusetts Department of Corrections", September, 1976; Stephen Duguid, "The University in Prison: Moral Education and the Alternative Community", paper presented at CSSE meeting, Saskatoon, June, 1979.

36. Douglas Ayers, op.cit., p.3.

37. For a development of the question, see Lucien Morin, "On the Place of Values Education in the Prisons", op.cit.

38. The Child's Construction of Reality, trans Margaret Cook, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1976, c 1954, p.352.

39. Ibid, p.354.

40. Jean Piaget, The Language and Thought of the Child, trans Marjorie & Ruth Gabain, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1967, c 1959, pp.268 & 271.

41. "Invited Paper Delivered to Massachusetts . ."I op.cit., p.5. - 182 -

42. The Moral Judgment of the Child, trans Marjorie Gabain, New York, Free Press, 1965.

43. Lawrence Kohlberg, "Stages of moral development as a basis for moral education", in Beck, C., Crittenden, B.S.and Sullivan, E.V. ed Moral Education: Interdisciplinary Approaches, Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 1971, pp.86-88.

44. See Parlett, T.A.A.et al "Development of Morality in Prisoners", The Teaching of Values in Canadian Education, Yearbook of the CSSE, June, 1975.

45. See "Stages of moral development . . .", op.cit.

46. "Punishment and Reason in Rehabilitating the Offender", in "The Prison Journal", Spring/Summer 1978, p.44.

47. Douglas K.Griffin, "Canada's Prisons - Who Are The Bad Guys?", April, 1978, p.22.

48. "Post-Secondary Education in a Prison", "Theory and Praxis", November 1978, p.7.

49. I dries Shah, Tales of the Dervishes, N.Y, E.P. Dutton, 1970, pp. 25-26.

50. Lucien Morin, Les Charlatans de la nouvelle pédagogie, Paris, PUF, 1973, p. 9.

51. Dilthey, Le monde de l'esprit, t I, Paris, Aubier, 1946, p.379.

52. Gabriel Marcel, L'homme problématique, Paris, Aubier, 1964, p.180.

53. For further development of the question, see our working paper "Inmate Right to Education", pp.36-40 in "Report to the Solicitor General of Canada concerning the Educational Program of the Canadian Corrections System", OISE, February, 1979. 183 -

54. C.G.Jung, Modern Man in Search of a Soul, New York, Harcourt, Brace & World Inc, pp. 218-9.

55. R.May, Man's Search for Himself, N.Y., Delta Book, 1953, p.160 sq.

56. A.Maslow, Toward a Psychology of Being, New York, D.Van Nostrand Company, 1968, pp.163-4.

57. See Bergson, L'Evolution créatrice, Paris, PUF, 1969, p.287, Sartre, Situations II, Paris, Gallimard, p.65; see also L'etre et le néant, Merleau-Ponty, Phénoménologie de la perception and Heidegger, Lettre sur l'humanisme.

58. H.I.Marrou, De la connaissance historique, Paris, Seuil, 1962, pp.34-35.

59. "Report to the Solicitor General of Canada . . .", op.cit., Recommendation 27, p.79-80.

60. See Spencer, Education: Intellectual, Moral and Physical, chapter I and Russell, In Praise of Idleness and Other Essays.

61. "Les réactions au rapport Le Collège", CSE, Juillet, 1978, p.44.

62. L'école enfirouâpée, Ottawa, Stanké, 1978, p.117.

62. In address to "OISE Review of Penitentiary Education and Training", June, 1978, p.22.

63. R.Taggart, The Prison of Unemployment, Baltimore, J. Hopkins University Press, 1972, pp.39-54.

64. See D.Lipton, R.Martinson and J. Wilks, The Effectiveness of Correctional Treatment, N.Y. Praeger, 1975; and W.W.Wilms, Public and Proprietary Vocational Training: A Study of Effectiveness, Centre for Research and Development in Higher Education, University of California, Berkeley, 1974. - 184 -

65. G.Beto, "A Philosophy of Corrections", in The Journal of Correctional Education, 1970, pp. 17-20.

66. Parlett, T.A.A.et al, op.cit.

67. Stephen Duguid, "The University in Prison . . op.cit, p.3.

68. Kohlberg, "The Cognitive Developmental Approach to Moral Education", Phi Delta Keppan, 56 (10), 1975.

69. Douglas Ayers, "Perspective on Education in Prisons", op.cit., p.14.

70. Stephen Duguid, "Post-Secondary Education . . .", op.cit., p.5.

71. Douglas Ayers, "Perspective . . ." , op. cit., p. 8.

72. Douglas Ayers, "Observations on Educational Program in Penal Institutions in the United States", August, 1975, p.2.

73. Douglas Ayers, "Perspective . . .", op.cit., p.14.

74. W.C.Booth, "Is there Any Knowledge that a Man Must Have?", in W.C.Booth, The Knowledge Most Worth Having. University of Chicago Press, 1967.

75. Krishnamurti, De l'éducation, Paris, Touzot, p.6.

76. Tony Parlett, "Invited Paper . . .", op.cit., p.2.

77. "The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy", in Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure, N.Y;, Free Press, 1957.

78. Pygmalion in the Classroom, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968.

79. Douglas Ayers, "Perspective . . .", op. cite, Stephen Duguid, "The University . . .", op.cit. - 185 -

80. M.Waksman et al, "Assessing the Learning Potential . . .", op.cit.

81. Ibid, p. 2.

82. Ibid, p. 51.

83. See Robert Stake, L'évaluation des programmes d'enseignement, CRIE, OECD, Paris, 1976, Guide d'évaluation des programmes d'enseignement de premier cycle, UQTR, 1978.

84. C.W. Churchman, The Systems Approach, N.Y., Dell, 1968, p.11.

85. Jacques Desautels, Liste des éléments qu'il importe de considérer en vue d'une évaluation de programme, UQ, 1976.

86. France Fontaine, Elaboration d'un programme d'évaluation de l'enseignement, Un de Montréal, Service pédagogique, 1975. - 186 -

CONSULTATIONS

André Adan, Professor, University of Quebec at Trois-Rivières, (research).

Douglas Ayers, Professor, University of Victoria, Program Co-ordinator, Mats qui.

Blaise Balmer, Professor, University of Quebec at Trois-Rivières.

Philippe Bergeron, Director, Planning Service, University of Quebec, (Quebec City).

Roma Bertrand, Executive Regional Director, CSC.

Michel Boileau, Director of Studies, Leclerc Institution, CSC.

Raoul Cantin, Regional Administrator, Inmate Training and Employment, CSC.

Martin Chevarie, Supervisor, Professional Training, Archambault Institution, CSC.

Paul Henri Ccité, Regional Specialist, Training and Employment, CSC.

Pierre Decelles, Vice-President, Planning, University of Quebec, (Quebec City).

Colette de Troy, Faculty of Continuing Education, University of Montreal.

Stephen Duguid, Resident co-ordinator, Matsqui.

John Fiset, Co-ordinator of Teacher Training and Certification, Concordia University.

Jacques Fournier, Téléuniversité. - 187 -

Lucien Garceau, Director of Studies, Federal Training Centre, CSC.

Fernand Gauthier, Faculty of Continuing Education, University of Montreal.

Arthur Girardot, Assistant Director, Education and Training, Cowansville, CSC.

Douglas Griffin, Chief, Academic Edlication, CSC, Ottawa.

Thérèse Hart, Department of Education Sciences, University of Quebec at Trois-Rivières.

Suzanne Lafleur, Faculty of Arts, University of Ottawa.

Jacques Lalancette, Director of Studiesi Càwansville, CSC.

Philippe Lemay, Humanities and Social Sciences Collection, Library, Laval University.

J. P. Lupien, Director, Cowànsville Institution, CSC.

Denis Morency, Secretariat, University of'Quebec, (Quebec City).

Robert Faquin, Assistant Director, Education and Training, Leclerc Institution, CSC.

Tony Parlett, Regional Co-ordinator, Education and Training, BC, CSC.

Michel Pichette, Continuing Education Service, UQAM.

P. A.Quintin, Director, Educational Development Service, UQTR.

Kenneth Randam, Director of Studies, Archambault Institution, CSC.

Grant Regalguto, Registrar's Office, University of Quebec, (Quebec City). SOL.GEN CANADA LIB/D BL 01 11 PM° 0000024411I

- 188-

Ginette Ribes, Professor, Faculty of Arts, CEGEP, Trois-Rivières.

René Rousseau, Assistant Director, Education and Training, Federal Training Centre, CSC. Renée Théberge, Molson Foundation, Montreal.

Normand Wiener, Vice-Dean, Teacher Education, UQAM.

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DATE ISSUED TO

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