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Resting Oxygen Consumption Rates in Divers Using Diver Propulsion Devices Adam J

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University of South Florida Scholar Commons Graduate Theses and Dissertations Graduate School 10-29-2008 Resting Oxygen Consumption Rates in Divers Using Diver Propulsion Devices Adam J. Smith University of South Florida Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd Part of the American Studies Commons Scholar Commons Citation Smith, Adam J., "Resting Oxygen Consumption Rates in Divers Using Diver Propulsion Devices" (2008). Graduate Theses and Dissertations. https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/502 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at Scholar Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Scholar Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. RestingOxygenConsumptionRatesinDiversUsingDiverPropulsionDevices by AdamJ.Smith Athesissubmittedinpartialfulfillment oftherequirementsforthedegreeof MasterofScienceinBiomedicalEngineering DepartmentofChemical&BiomedicalEngineering CollegeofEngineering UniversityofSouthFlorida MajorProfessor:WilliamE.LeeIII,Ph.D. JohnR.Clarke,Ph.D. RolandD.Shytle,Ph.D. DateofApproval: October29,2008 Keywords:OxygenConsumption,Diving,Rebreather,PropagationofError, InjectionRate,Nitrox,Semiclosed ©Copyright2008,AdamJ.Smith Dedication Thisthesisisdedicatedtomyfamilywhohavelovedandsupportedme throughoutmystudies.Iamblessedtohavesuchgreatrolemodelsasmy parents. Acknowledgments First,IwouldliketoexpressthedeepestofgratitudetoDr.JohnClarke. AfterbeginninganinternshipwiththeNavyExperimentalDivingUnit,Dr.Clarke familiarizedmewithhisexperimentandinvitedmetocontribute.Iwillalwaysbe gratefulforthehardworkheputintotheexperimentaldesignandforbringingme uptospeedondivingphysiology,asubjectwhichIknewverylittleaboutgoing intothisproject.Thisworkwouldhavenotbeenpossiblewithouthiscontinual advisementandsupport. Iwouldalsoliketothanktheothermembersofmycommittee,Drs.Bill LeeandDougShytle.Dr.LeehasalwaystakenthetimetomakesurethatI choosecourseswhichcomplimentmyresearchinterestsandstrengthenmy education.Dr.Shytlehiredmeashisresearchassistant.Notonlydidthis supportmyfinancialrequirements,buttheexperienceandknowledgegained hasalreadyproventobeparamounttomygraduateeducation. ThoseresponsiblefortheOfficeofNavalResearch:NavalResearch EnterpriseInternProgram(NREIP)shouldnotbeoverlooked.Thisisthe programwhichfundedmytriptotheNavyExperimentalDivingUnitinPanama CityBeach,FL.Ifitwerenotforthisprogram,Iwouldhaveneverhadthe opportunitytobeinvolvedinthisproject.EdLinsenmeyeristhecoordinatorof theNREIPprogramattheNavalSurfaceWarfareCenter.Becauseofhishard workanddedication,studentslikemehavetheopportunitytoexperience workingfortheDepartmentofDefense. TableofContents ListofFigures iii Abstract iv Chapter1Introduction 1 1.1MotivationforThesis 2 1.2Risks 3 1.3ContributionstotheField 6 1.4ThesisStructure 7 Chapter2TheoreticalFoundations 8 2.1DivingPhysiology 8 2.1.1GasLaws 8 2.2Rebreathers 11 2.3GoverningEquations 15 Chapter3MaterialsandMethods 17 3.1General 17 3.1.1DivexShadowExcursion 17 3.2ExperimentalDesign 18 3.3RebreatherModifications 18 3.4TestProcedures 20 3.5DataAnalysis 21 Chapter4Results 23 4.1CurveFits 23 4.1.1InitialCurveFit 24 4.1.2DriverCompilation 26 4.1.3PassengerCompilation 28 4.1.4TotalCompilation 29 4.2PropagationofError 31 i Chapter5Discussion 35 5.1CurveTrends 35 5.1.1Drivervs.Passenger 35 5.1.2NegativeSlope 38 5.2PropagationofError 39 5.3Limitations 39 Chapter6Conclusion 41 6.1Recommendation 41 6.2NextSteps 42 References 43 Appendices 45 AppendixA:DriverCurveFit–NumericSummary 46 AppendixB:PassengerCurveFit–NumericSummary 47 AppendixC:TotalCurveFit–NumericSummary 48 AppendixD:ComparisonofVariances 49 ii ListofFigures Figure1. SchematicofaSemiclosedRebreather 14 Figure2. DiveComputer 19 Figure3. CurveFitofTotalCompilationofDataFiles 25 Figure4. EstimatedDriverOxygenConsumptionRatevs.Time 27 Figure5. EstimatedPassengerOxygenConsumptionRatevs.Time 28 Figure6. EstimatedTotalOxygenConsumptionRatevs.Time 30 Figure7. SymbolicEvaluationofPartialDerivatives 32 Figure8. NumericEvaluationofPartialDerivatives 33 Figure9. PropagationofError 34 Figure10. Drivervs.PassengerComparison 37 iii RestingOxygenConsumptionRatesinDiversUsingDiverPropulsionDevices AdamJ.Smith ABSTRACT TheMarineCorpsSystemsCommanddocumentedmissionrequirements thatcannotbemetbycurrentrebreathers.Theyneedtoextenddivetimes withoutcompromisingthestealthandcompactdesignofexistingdevices.This canbeaccomplishedbyreducingthefreshgasflowrate.Thecurrentflowrate isadequatetosupportadiverinheavywork.However,thediverwillbeutilizing aDiverPropulsionDevice(DPD)duringalargeportionofthemissionin question.Theassumption,then,isthatthisportionofthemissionwillnotrequire “hardwork”.Thus,anewfreshgasflowratecanbeestablishedwhichis sufficienttosustainaMarinediverusingaDPDbutisconservativeenoughto extendthedurationofthedive. Thisexperimentwasdesignedformannedtestingoftherebreathersin suchawaytoestablishtheaverageoxygenconsumptionratefordiversusinga DPD.MarinediverswerefittedwithaDivexShadowExcursion(DSE)rebreather modifiedwithaDraegerC8APO 2monitorcoupledwithaDeltaPVR3dive computer.TheDSEisasemiclosed-circuitunderwaterbreathingapparatusthat providesaconstantflowofmixedgascontainingoxygenandnitrogenorhelium tothediver.Thepartialpressureofoxygen(PO 2)anddiverdepthwere iv monitoredandrecordedatten-secondintervals.TheNavyExperimentalDiving UnithasdevelopedandtestedacomputationalalgorithmthatusesthePO 2and depthtocomputetheoxygenconsumptionrate. Twotechniqueswereemployedtoestimatetheerrorinthisapproach: curvefittingandpropagationoferror.Thesemethodsaredetailedandthe resultsarepresented.Theyshowthatthefreshgasflowratecanbesafely reducedwhilethediverisutilizingtheDPD,whichconsequently,willsubstantially increasethedivetimeallowedbythedevice. v Chapter1 Introduction UnitedStatesMarineCorpsCombatantDiversaretrainedtoperform mainlyreconnaissanceandraidtypemissions.Thesedivershaveproventobe paramountinthesetypesofmilitaryapplications.Manyofthemissionsrequire theUSMCCombatantDiverstoremainundetectedbytheenemy.They accomplishthisbyutilizingrebreatherswhich,dependingonthetype,either greatlyreduceoreliminatebubblesfrombeingemittedintothewaterand revealingtheirlocation.Untilrecently,theyhavebeenabletosuccessfully completetheirmissionsbyutilizingtheMK25OxygenRebreather. However,theMarineCorpsSystemCommandhassincedocumenteda missionrequirementthatcannotbemetbythecurrentrebreatherinuse.They intendtoreplacetheirinventorywithamulti-purpose,O 2closed-circuitornitrox semiclosed-circuitrebreathernamedtheEnhancedUnderwaterBreathing Apparatus(EUBA).Previously,theNavyExperimentalDivingUnitwasaskedto reviewwhethertherigswouldmeetthemissionprofile.ThreeUBA’sunderwent testingtodetermineiftheycouldmeetthemissionprofile.Itwasdiscovered that,undertheircurrentconfigurations,noneofthedevicescouldmeetthe missionprofile.However,ifproperlyreconfigured,alloftheUBAscouldmeet 1 themissionrequirements(Clarke2007).OneoftheseUBAs,theDivexShadow Excursion(DSE),wasselectedforuseduringthisthesis. Themissionprofilerequiresthat,duringalargeportionofthedive,the diverswillbepropelledbyaDiverPropulsionDevice(DPD).ADPDisavehicle whichcantransporttwodiversunderwaterand,asaresult,allowthemtotravel longerdistances,deliverincreasedpayloads,minimizefatigue,andmaximize endurance(McCarter2005).Therefore,becausethediverswillbeusingaDPD, theywillactuallybeperformingverylightwork.Thishighlightsthekey assumptionthatwouldpermittheextensionofthetotaldivetimeallowedbythe DSE(inordertomeettheUSMCmissionrequirements).Thisassumptionisthat whilethediversarebeingtowedbyaDPD,theiroxygenconsumptionrateis similarinmagnitudetothepreviouslydocumentedrestingoxygenconsumption rate.Thisassumptionhadtobetestedandverified.Consequently,thisstudy wasdesignedinsuchawayastoprovideconfirmatorymeasurementsofoxygen consumptionratesduringthetowedportionofthemission. 1.1MotivationforThesis TheUnitedStatesMilitaryutilizesrebreathersforunderwater reconnaissanceandraidmissions.Thereareadvantagestotheuseof rebreathersoverconventionalopen-circuitscubarigs.Theyofferbettergas efficiencyandnear-silentoperationwithfewtonobubbles(dependingonthe typeofrebreather).However,themissioncapabilitiesarelimitedbythedive 2 timeofferedbythedevice.Semiclosedrebreathers,liketheonesconventionally usedbythemilitary,haveaconstantfreshgasflowrate.Thisflowrateis generallysetat6.0L/min.Thishasbeenshowntomeettheoxygendemandsof ahardworkingdiverwithacommonnitroxgasmixture(60%oxygen,40% nitrogen).Therehavebeenseveralreportsthatshowthat3.0L/ministhe maximumoxygenconsumptionrate(Nuckols,Clarkeetal.1998).Unfortunately, amissionrequirementisunabletobemetduetothelimiteddivetimethatthis, all-encompassing,freshgasflowrateoffers.TheNavyExperimentalDivingUnit wastaskedtotestsolutionstothisproblem. 1.2Risks Aswithallmannedexperiments,therewerehealthriskswhichhadtobe carefullyconsidered.Allnecessaryprecautionsweretakentominimizepotential healthrisks.MarineCombatantdiverswererequiredtouseanunderwater breathingapparatus(UBA)whichwasnewtotheUnitedStatesMilitary.Even thoughtheDivexShadowExcursionhadnotyetbeencertifiedforusebythe military,ithadbeenusedbytheBritishRoyalMarinesandthefollowingNavies asaSpecialOperationsUBA:Britain(SAS),Norway,Australia,andGermany. Therefore,theDSE’ssafetyhasbeenwelldocumented. TheDSEwastestedinsemiclosedmodewithconstantnitroxgasflow. Aswithallrebreathers,thereisalimittohowdeepthedivercansafelygo.This
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