Malevitas, Isias (2015) The formation of Byzantine views on Muslims during the 'Dark Century' (ca. 650‐ca.750). PhD thesis. SOAS University of London. http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/29809 Copyright © and Moral Rights for this thesis are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners. A copy can be downloaded for personal non‐commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder/s. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. When referring to this thesis, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given e.g. AUTHOR (year of submission) "Full thesis title", name of the School or Department, PhD Thesis, pagination. THE FORMATION OF BYZANTINE VIEWS ON MUSLIMS DURING THE ‘DARK CENTURY’ (ca. 650-ca. 750) ILIAS MALEVITIS Thesis submitted for the degree of PhD 2015 Department of History SOAS, University of London 2 Abstract Byzantine-Muslim relations have long attracted the interest of scholars, mainly through the study of political-military events and polemic-theological attitudes. Recently, with the growth of interest in the rise of Islam and its place in the Late Antique Mediterranean world and culture, academic discussions have started to pay attention to a variety of issues and broaden their perspectives through inter-disciplinary approaches and ideas. The aim of this study is to discuss Byzantine views about the Muslims and the impact that the rise of Islam had upon the formation of these views in Christian thought (in the Byzantine and Middle Eastern areas), during the Byzantine ‘dark century’ (beginning of 7th c.-ca. 750). This period, which actually coincides with the rise of Islam, the formation of the Umayyad Caliphate and its fall (750), has rightfully been considered as transitional for both the Byzantine Empire and for the formation of Islam and Islamic policies. Furthermore, shortly after this period, both Islam and the Byzantine attitudes against it became defined and solidified in forms that have long persisted. A characteristic of this era is the paucity of contemporary historiographical sources (because of the recession of classical historiography in Byzantium and not fully understood causes in the Muslim word). Nevertheless, recent scholarship has drawn attention to a number of alternative sources, including a number of texts often preserved in later ones, which have survived from the period under review here. Some of these texts are the main focus of this thesis. We ask how far they enable us to explore the development of Byzantine attitudes towards the Islamic challenge, and the impact of the latter upon them, as reflected in the politics and attitudes of the imperial centre in Constantinople and those of the Melkite Christians of the Middle East (who were attached to the Byzantine Church). We hope thus to throw some light on this ‘silent’ period which saw the formation of the relationship between the Byzantine and Muslim Empires. 3 Acknowledgments I have been fortunate to have Professor G. R. Hawting as supervisor for this thesis. Throughout all my years of study I owe gratitude to him not only for his guidance and support, but also for his kind advice and inspiration. I actually owe the work itself, first and foremost, to his great patience. I would like also to thank Professor K. Hirschler for his administrative help, during the various stages of my study. The financial support of I.K.Y. (Greek State Scholarship Foundation) was of vital importance for the completion of this work. Although I have benefitted from many other people, I would especially like to mention here T. Sklavenitis, Research Director at the National Research Foundation, Athens, K. Takirtakoglou, my sister Georgia, and my dear friend Margarita for all their help and support. Last, but not least, the love and encouragement of my son kept me going all these years. I would like to dedicate this work to my wife Lemonia for her support, love and patience. 4 Contents Introduction ..................................................................................................... 8 1. Pre-Islamic Arabs as viewed by the Byzantines: the origins of Byzantine preconceptions ............................................................................. 20 1. 1. Graeco-Roman background ................................................................. 20 1. 2. The image of the pre-Islamic Arabs in the Byzantine sources ............ 25 1. 3. Concepts, prejudices and stereotypes: Analysis of the Sources .......... 35 2. The emergence of Islam and the first Byzantine reactions .................... 43 2. 1. Introduction ......................................................................................... 43 2. 2. The Byzantine ‘symbolic universe’ ..................................................... 46 2. 3. Historical frame ................................................................................... 50 2. 4. Doctrina Jacobi nuper baptizati .......................................................... 57 2. 5. Maximus the Confessor (d. 662) ......................................................... 65 2. 6. Sophronius, patriarch of Jerusalem (d. ca. 639) .................................. 71 2. 7. Sixty Martyrs of Gaza (d. 638) ............................................................ 80 2. 8. Anastasius Sinaite (d. ca. 700) ............................................................ 83 2. 9. Miracles of St. George ......................................................................... 90 2. 10. Greek Papyri ...................................................................................... 92 2. 11. Conclusions ....................................................................................... 93 3. Apocalyptic responses to the Muslim challenge ................................... 108 3. 1. Introduction ....................................................................................... 108 3. 2. Ps. Methodius .................................................................................... 113 3. 3. Wars of propaganda amidst apocalyptic crisis .................................. 127 3. 4. Constantinople in the apocalyptic tradition ....................................... 130 3. 5. Muslim apocalyptic and eschatological expectations ....................... 134 4. Constantinople’s response to the Islamic challenge ............................. 138 4. 1. Introduction ....................................................................................... 138 4. 2. Islamic challenge and Byzantine views ............................................. 140 4. 3. Apocalyptic expectations meet pragmatism ...................................... 142 4. 4. Leo’s Ecloga ...................................................................................... 151 4. 5. Leo and ʿUmar’s Correspondence ..................................................... 158 4. 6. Byzantine Iconoclasm, Islamic Iconophobia, and the Melkite Christians ................................................................................................... 170 4. 7. Conclusions ....................................................................................... 190 5. The Melkites’ response to Islam............................................................. 196 5. 1. The Christian ‘Melkite’ community in the ‘World of Islam’ ............ 196 5. 2. Polemics: Defining the other and instructing the self ....................... 201 5. 3. John of Damascus and the ‘Heresy of the Ishmaelites’ ..................... 204 5. 4. Kosmas of Jerusalem and hymnography ........................................... 219 5. 5. John’s “Dialexis Sarakenou kai Christianou” ................................... 224 5. 6. Christians turn to Arabic: The linguistic change of the Melkite community ................................................................................................. 236 5. 7. On the Triune Nature of God: The earliest Arabic Christian apologetic text ............................................................................................................. 238 5. 8. Summary ........................................................................................... 242 Conclusions .................................................................................................. 244 Appendix ...................................................................................................... 247 Anti-Judaic Treatises in the seventh century .............................................. 247 Research Bibliography ................................................................................ 260 5 ABBREVIATIONS AB Analecta Bollandiana (Brussels 1882-) AJS Association for Jewish Studies Review AS Acta Sanctorum BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research BF Byzantinische Forschungen BHG F. Halkin, Bibliotheca Hagiographica Graeca (Brussels 19573) BMGS Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies BNJ Byzantinisch -Neugriechische Jahrbücher BS Byzantinoslavica BSOAS Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies BZ Byzantinische Zeitschrift CCSG Corpus Christianorum, series Graeca (Turnhout, 1971-) CFHB Corpus Fontium Historiae Byzantinae CM Classica et Medievalia CPG Clavis Patrum Graecorum, ed. M. Geerard & F. Glorie (Turnhout, 1974–87) CSCO Corpus Scriptorum