BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2016 / VOLUME 4 / ARTICLE Article

Transcending ‘Cold Intimacies’ in Veiko Õunpuu’s Works

EVA NÄRIPEA, National Archives of Estonia, Estonian Academy of Arts; email: [email protected]

EWA MAZIERSKA, University of Central Lancashire, United Kingdom; email: [email protected]

60 DOI: 10.1515/bsmr-2017-0004 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2016 / VOLUME 4 / ARTICLE ABSTRACT This article examines five films by Veiko Õunpuu, Estonia’s most renowned contemporary director – Empty (Tühirand, Estonia, 2006), Autumn Ball (Sügis- ball, Estonia, 2007), Temptations of St Tony (Püha Tõnu kiusamine, Estonia/Finland/Sweden, 2009), Free Range: Ballad on Approving of the World (Free Range: ballaad maailma heakskiitmisest, Estonia, 2013) and Roukli (Estonia, 2015), focusing on his representations of neoliberalism and especially its effect on the emotional and intimate lives of the characters. We argue that the characters of his films typically reject the conventional romance promoted by neoliberal discourses, including Hollywood cinema, yet this does not make them happy, but disoriented and restless. The repudiation of ‘emotional capitalism’ also pertains to the way Õunpuu’s films are conceived and executed. Most importantly, he resists the conventions of Hollywood cinema, including a classical script and happy ending, and also sets and shoots his films in peripheral places. Our main theoretical framework is the concept of ‘emotional capitalism’ as elaborated by Eva Illouz.

INTRODUCTION heakskiitmisest, Estonia, 2013) and Roukli Veiko Õunpuu has been directing films (Estonia, 2015). To our knowledge, this is for a decade, rising from an unknown the first attempt to discuss Õunpuu’s filmic ‘amateur’ to become an internationally oeuvre in its entirety. Aside from attempting renowned auteur. This article looks at his to shed some light on his approach to film- five cinematic works1 – Empty (Tühirand, making in general, we will analyse Õunpuu’s Estonia, 2006), Autumn Ball (Sügisball, works individually, by concentrating on Estonia, 2007), Temptations of St Tony (Püha representations of intimate relationships. Tõnu kiusamine, Estonia/Finland/Sweden, More often than not, the private affairs in 2009), Free Range: Ballad on Approving of these films tend to come across as lacking the World (Free Range: ballaad maailma affection. We suggest that this could be seen as Õunpuu’s critique of the political 1 True, for the sake of the comprehensiveness of and economic circumstances under which Õunpuu’s journey as an auteur one should not discard the characters of the films operate, most his version of Rainer Werner Fassbinder’s play Garbage, the City and Death, produced in Estonian at the NO99 importantly, the rampant neoliberalism that theatre in 2010. However, we decided to concentrate on dominates post-Soviet Estonian society. his screen works, not least because their reproducibility makes them accessible to wider audiences. Indeed, Õunpuu has never made a secret of

61 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2016 / VOLUME 4 / ARTICLE his intense dissatisfaction with the neolib- into exchange value, and in place eral regime, a discontent that is rooted in of the numberless indefeasible his strongly leftist worldview. A theoretical chartered freedoms, has set framework that aims to highlight the pitfalls up that single, unconscionable of the capitalist social formation from the freedom – free trade. [---] The leftist perspective also informs the follow- bourgeoisie has torn away from ing discussion. In particular, our starting the family its sentimental veil, point lies in Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels’ and has reduced family relation observations concerning the influence of to a mere money relation. (Marx, capitalism on family and emotional life, Engels 1988: 211–212) developed and modified by authors such as Catherine Hakim (2011) and especially This fragment declares that there is Eva Illouz (2007, 2012). To very briefly sum- no escape from the power of capitalism, marise the latter’s complex sociological even in the privacy of one’s home and body. study regarding the notable shifts in the The production of commodities affects the structure of intimate relationships over the production of subjectivities; the (macro) past century, Illouz proposes that capitalist ideology conditions individual (micro) institutions, technologies and discourses worldviews. Marx had a negative attitude have rationalised and commodified emo- to this situation, as he regarded capitalism tions and selfhood, which, in turn, has ‘con- as a deeply immoral system. tributed to creating a suffering self’ (Illouz Many authors have agreed with Marx’s 2007: 108–109). It is precisely these ‘suf- views that the capitalist economy and ide- fering selves’ that inhabit the very centre of ology influences the way people behave in Õunpuu’s cinematic universes, craving for their intimate relationships. However, not true emotional intimacy that keeps slipping everybody sees this as being a negative. In out of their reach. Honey Money, Catherine Hakim takes the capitalist status quo as given. Drawing on EROTIC CAPITAL, Pierre Bourdieu’s argument that the con- EMOTIONAL CAPITALISM cept of capital should be used to account AND THERAPEUTIC CULTURE for other human assets besides strictly In The Communist Manifesto Marx and economic ones, i.e. also the cultural and Engels observed that capital transforms social ones, Hakim introduces the concept every aspect of human life, including the of ‘erotic capital’. This is understood as ‘a most intimate one. combination of aesthetic, visual, physical, social and sexual attractiveness to other The bourgeoisie, wherever it has members of your society, and especially to got the upper hand, has put an members of the opposite sex, in all social end to all feudal, patriarchal, idyl- contexts’ (Hakim 2011: 17). Thus, erotic lic relations. It has pitilessly torn capital can be monetised and exchanged asunder the motley feudal ties for more tangible goods, such as money and that bound man to his ‘natural power. This commercialisation of the erotic superiors,’ and has left remaining has profound consequences for all strata no other nexus between man and of society. The rich can multiply their mon- man than naked self-interest, etary capital by using their erotic capital, than callous ‘cash payment.’ It for example, by wooing their clients, while has drowned the most heavenly the poor are sometimes in such a precari- ecstasies of religious fervor, of ous position that they have no other option chivalrous enthusiasm, of Phil- than to engage in sex work, often risking istine sentimentalism in the icy their health or even lives. Hakim’s theory is water of egotistical calculation. closely linked to neoliberalism, because, as It has resolved personal worth David Harvey argues, under this system any

62 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2016 / VOLUME 4 / ARTICLE kind of good can be turned into an instru- of origin for the modern, post-Victorian, self; ment of economic speculation (Harvey the ‘uneventful’ everyday life as the locus of 2005: 160–162). Yet, rather than lamenting that self, which resulted in the boundaries that eroticism and sex have a market value, between ‘normality’ and ‘pathology’ being which Marxists do, regarding money as an blurred and a new kind of normality being instrument of violence, Hakim’s principal posited; and, perhaps most importantly for interest is to discover how to make them this argument, the centrality of sexuality work better for those living under capital- as ‘a chiefly linguistic affair, something to ism. In his films, Õunpuu also observes the be achieved after a considerable amount commodification of human relationships, of conceptual clarification and verbaliza- caused or facilitated by capitalism, but like tion’ (Illouz 2007: 9). The importance of Marx, he sees this trend as de-humanising. verbalised communication deserves special While Marx observed the marketisa- attention in relation to Õunpuu, in particular tion of personal life, Eva Illouz noticed a in regard to his approach to the filmmaking seemingly opposing, but in fact comple- process to which we return below, but also mentary trend, namely capitalism becoming because his films appear to prioritise non- ‘emotional’. In her Cold Intimacies: The Mak- verbal modes of expression, such as space. ing of Emotional Capitalism, she argues that This is also why the following pages sum- the year 1909 can be considered a turning marise Illouz’s ideas about the significance point in American emotional culture. In of the verbal aspect of emotional capitalism 1909, Sigmund Freud gave five lectures at some length. on psychoanalysis at Clark University. The According to Illouz, the new emphasis lectures had a major impact on the forma- on the verbalisation of emotions affected tion of the ‘therapeutic emotional style’, a not only domestic/intimate relationships. It dominant force on the American (and, we also reshaped the workplace when clinical suggest, on the Western) cultural landscape psychologists, ‘many of whom were inspired throughout the 20th century (Illouz 2007: by Freudian psychodynamic views ... were 5ff) which was spread widely by films and mobilized by the corporation to help for- advice literature (Illouz 2007: 9). Illouz uses mulate needed guidelines for the new task the term ‘therapeutic emotional style’ of management’ – to increase productivity and facilitate discipline (Illouz 2007: 12). for ways in which twentieth-cen- In particular, Illouz cites the importance of tury culture became ‘preoccupied’ Elton Mayo, an Australian (self-assigned) with emotional life – its etiology psychologist, industrial researcher and and morphology – and devised organizational theorist, who conducted his specific ‘techniques’ – linguis- famous Hawthorne experiments between tic, scientific, interactional – to 1924 and 1927, which led him to conclude apprehend and manage these that ‘productivity increased if work relation- emotions. Modern emotional style ships contained care and attention to work- has been shaped mostly (albeit ers’ feelings’ (Illouz 2007: 12). As a result of not exclusively) by the language of Mayo’s work, the ‘languages’ of emotionality therapy which emerged in a rela- and productive efficiency started to inter- tively short period running from lace and influenced each other (Illouz 2007: the First World War to the Second 14). For managers and corporation owners, World War. (Illouz 2007: 6) this psychological discourse promised to increase profits and to neutralise class She cites several ‘key ideas and cultural struggles ‘by casting them in the benign motives’ (Illouz 2007: 7–9) of the ‘psychoan- language of emotions and personality’ alytical imagination’ that were crucial to the (Illouz 2007: 17). For workers, it carried making of the new ‘therapeutic’ emotional the promise of democracy and success life, such as the nuclear family as the point based on their personalities rather than

63 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2016 / VOLUME 4 / ARTICLE their social status – that is, a certain kind We agree with neo-Marxian authors of equality, including in terms of gender such as David Harvey who have vividly (Illouz 2007: 17–18). However, this approach demonstrated that this brought about an obscured the fact that individual progress is ‘accumulation by dispossession’ (Harvey largely shaped by factors beyond personal 2005: 160–165), which basically signalled control, placing responsibility for failure on a (re)turn to 19th-century laissez-faire the individual. principles (that is, to the phase of ‘primitive’ Another important notion in this dis- or ‘original accumulation’ defined by Karl cussion is the concept of ‘communicative Marx, see Marx [1887] 1976: 873–876) in ethic’. This ‘cultural model’, as Illouz terms it, a radicalised form, severely curtailing the prescribes the linguistic model of commu- liberties and rights of the workforce, which nication as ‘a technology of self-manage- has certainly made them not happier, but ment relying extensively on language and on more miserable. Moreover, Harvey sug- the proper management of emotions’ (Illouz gests that ‘some of [the] most vicious and 2007: 19). The ultimate goal is to earn social inhumane manifestations [of accumulation recognition and achieve success (inside the of dispossession] are in the most vulner- corporation as well as in personal life), as able and degraded regions within uneven well as ‘to back up one’s sense of self and geographical development’ (Harvey 2003: identity’ (Illouz 2007: 21). 173) – an observation especially pertinent Illouz observes that in the workplace, in the context of a study of a peripheral cul- the therapeutic culture and communicative ture such as Estonia, which is characterised ethic, which blurred gender boundaries by by a striking degree of socio-geographical introducing and universalising the ‘feminine’ inequality. Yet despite the fact that we do attention to feelings, led to the ‘softening’ of not agree with Illouz regarding the problem the workplace, facilitating a sense of social of the increased happiness of the workers, and gender equality, even if failing to erase her idea of the increased importance of ‘the harsh and often brutal reality of the ‘communication’, especially in terms of ver- corporate world and of male domination of balisation, is significant for the discussion women’ (Illouz 2007: 23). of Õunpuu’s approach to filmmaking. While Illouz suggests that the subjec- David Harvey has also argued that the tion of workers to this kind of emotional process of neoliberalisation has deeply regime made wage-earners – from the affected not only the economic and profes- blue-collar labour force to the managerial sional realm, but also the ‘ways of life and class – somewhat happier and increased thought, reproductive activities ... and hab- their sense of empowerment, we argue its of the heart’ (Harvey 2005: 3). It is here that this shift to the therapeutic culture that Illouz’s take on the therapeutic culture has in fact resulted in the workers being becomes especially relevant. According to less likely to unite against their exploita- Illouz, in private life, the therapeutic culture, tion by the forces of capitalism (Mazierska shaped by discourses of psychology and 2015). Illouz’s conclusions are largely based second-wave feminism (incidentally, the on American corporate capitalism in the later part of which coincided with the rise early 20th century. However, by the turn of of neoliberalism), called for a modern ideal the millennium, the Western hemisphere of intimacy based on ‘equality, fairness, in general and Europe in particular had neutral procedures, emotional communica- also experienced the Fordist-Keynesian or tion, sexuality, overcoming and expressing embedded liberalist paradigm and the sub- 2 sequent post-Fordist neoliberal system. shattered with the outbreak of World War I and followed by more than twenty years of turmoil, both in economy and politics; regulated capitalism, also dubbed the era 2 For instance, Andrés Solimano defines four key of ‘shared prosperity’ or the ‘Bretton Woods system’ phases of capitalism (‘economic eras’) – liberal (1944–early 1970s); and neoliberal capitalism (laissez-faire) capitalism (1815–1914, including (mid-1970s – present, including neoliberal the first wave of globalisation beginning in ca. 1870), globalisation since the 1980s) (Solimano 2014: 3–5, 88).

64 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2016 / VOLUME 4 / ARTICLE hidden emotions, and centrality of linguis- nated by verbal overshadowing, a preva- tic self-expression’ (Illouz 2007: 29; our lence of language in the process of evalu- emphasis). Yet Illouz argues that, while the ation’ that ‘interferes with the processes of combined efforts of psychology and liberal visual and bodily evaluation and recogni- feminism ‘forcefully aimed to free intimate tion’; it is also prospective in the sense that relationships from the long shadow of the physical presence of a specific object is power and asymmetry’, their demand for yet to be experienced, and the ‘capacity to equality, fair procedures and the recognition idealize is diminished’ due to an abundance of women’s basic rights in fact resulted in ‘a of information (Illouz 2012: 229–232; our vast process of rationalization of intimate emphasis). relations’ (Illouz 2007: 30). This rationalisa- Therefore, most importantly the tion meant that ‘intimate life and emotions ‘therapeutic culture’ of emotional capital- are made into measurable and calculable ism depends primarily on an ethos of verbal objects, to be captured in quantitative communication, both in the workplace and statements’ (Illouz 2007: 32). In an effort to in intimate relations. Further facilitated by manage them, emotions are ‘locked’ into the explosive expansion of virtual spaces of literacy, and they become ‘definite discrete interaction, this has led to the rationalisa- entities ... trapped inside the self’, ‘objects tion of emotions and the loss of a sense of to be observed and manipulated’ as well irrational mystery that arises from tradi- as controlled (Illouz 2007: 33) both by indi- tional, deeply bodily matrices of contact. viduals and social factors. In addition, the We argue that the cinematic equivalent to communicative ethos demands that, in these processes can be found in the way order to be managed, emotions need to be that mainstream commercial filmmaking verbalised, expressed and discussed in an has become increasingly dependent on emotionally and linguistically neutral man- a certain representational system – one ner, which should guarantee the clarity of that has been thoroughly rationalised and meaning (Illouz 2007: 34–35). Ultimately, cleansed of potentially confusing ambigui- suggests Illouz, ‘relationships have been ties3 in the name of earning maximum prof- transformed into cognitive objects that its. The definite point of departure for all can be compared with each other and are films is the screenplay – a verbal blueprint susceptible to cost–benefit analysis’, into for ‘a story told with pictures’ (Field [1979] ‘objects that can be traded and exchanged’ 2005: 20). (Illouz 2007: 36). In Why Love Hurts, Illouz expands her REJECTION OF THE VERBAL discussion on the decisive impact of new Since Empty took Estonian audiences by technologies, primarily the Internet, on surprise in 2006, Õunpuu has never ceased contemporary intimate life and ‘roman- to express his utter dissatisfaction with tic imagination’. Particularly pertinent the usual toolkit of commercially-driven, to our discussion is her suggestion that mainstream narrative cinema that serves web-based technology ‘dis-embodies and the ‘quick-profit-oriented mentality’ of the textualizes encounters, linguistic exchange entertainment industry (Tuumalu 2009). In a being the means to produce psychologi- speech he wrote4 on the occasion of receiv- cal intimate knowledge’ (Illouz 2012: 228; ing the annual award from the Estonian our emphases). The ‘traditional’ (i.e. 19th- century) romantic imagination relied on the 3 Incidentally, Illouz contends that ‘[a]mbiguity is body, retrospective imagination (‘an imagi- pleasurable and consists of mixing two repertoires of known meanings ... Ambiguity is a property of erotic nation which tries to capture in absentia the play because its intent is to say without saying or to say sensory and bodily affects provoked by the several things at once, based on shared and implicit meanings. Ambiguity is playful and pleasurable real bodily presence of another’ [Illouz 2012: because it is a virtuoso way to play with social rules’ 229]), intuitive judgments and idealisation. (Illouz 2012: 193). 4 Delivered by Rain Tolk, one of the recurring stars in In contrast, ‘Internet imagination’ is ‘domi- Õunpuu’s films.

65 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2016 / VOLUME 4 / ARTICLE Society of Film Critics for Autumn Ball production was to a great extent financed in 2008, Õunpuu stated, by a crowdfunding campaign through Hooandja, an Estonian equivalent of The good people of the Estonian Kickstarter and only received some state Film Foundation should forget support for distribution. According to Õun- about the screenplays analysed puu, while not completely unscripted, he to death by brainy experts, the approached the shooting period ‘not as a meticulous storyboards and the process of the visual codification of the call for dull dramatic structures script, but as a creative test tube for mixing – this kind of risk management is the impulses of talented actresses/actors, nothing but repressive. We need divine accidents and an unrelenting desire more playfulness and ecstasy; we to speak about only what’s on our minds need creativity, freedom and the at the moment’ (Delfi 2014). Among other courage to risk. Give the cameras things, this blurring of borders between to madmen and cut them loose the roles (of director/screenwriter/actor) on the streets – the sober and the reveals his (and his collaborators’) desire to reliable have not justified them- eschew the chains of capitalist profession- selves. (Õunpuu 2008: 127) alism – a manifestation of alienated work as defined by Marx (1988: 74, 128–134; While Estonian film industry is heavily sub- Marx 1844). Not respecting the conven- sidised by public funding that is distributed tional division of labour is also a boldly by the aforementioned state-established ‘amateurish’ move, and as such, indicates non-profit institution (since 2013 called a desire to return to a non-specialised and the Estonian Film Institute), it is still domi- hence non-alienated form of work5. nated by the logic of neoliberal capitalism. Some have interpreted this act of The policy documents of both the Ministry diminishing the importance of the script as of Culture and the Estonian Film Institute a testimony of Õunpuu’s inability to produce envision, in language imbued with mer- a ‘proper’ screenplay. What is meant by cantile jargon, a local commercially driven ‘proper’ becomes evident in Andres Laasik’s cinematic ecology that will need less rather review of Temptations of St Tony. In Laasik’s than more state support in the future (see, opinion, the script of St Tony is unfit for e.g. Estonian Ministry of Culture 2012). filming as it rejects classical narrative for- Understandably, any allocation of public mulas (e.g. unity of action, dramatic conflict, funds needs to be based on transparent development of characters; Laasik 2009). criteria, and script evaluation is certainly Yet Õunpuu’s deep-seated distrust of those one. Yet this leaves little room for uncon- formulas – basically ‘latter-day schema- ventional working methods, such as those tizations of Aristotle’s account of tragedy’ increasingly practiced by Õunpuu. His films (Stam et al. 2015: 226) – and his repudia- have become more and more ‘unscripted’. tion of the conventions of Hollywood-esque Starting with two adaptations (Empty psychological realism (see, e.g., Teder 2009) and Autumn Ball both [loosely] based on can be seen as a counter-hegemonic move Mati Unt’s works), Õunpuu has moved against capitalism and its ‘therapeutic further away from the constraints of a pre- conceived script with each successive film (although, admittedly, never discarding the 5 As Marx famously put it: ‘In communist society, where nobody has one exclusive sphere of activity but script completely). The most radical in this each can be accomplished in any branch he wishes, respect is his latest film,Roukli , shot over a society regulates the general production and thus makes it possible for me to do one thing today and period of a few weeks at Õunpuu’s country another tomorrow, to hunt in the morning, fish in the house on the island of Saaremaa with a afternoon, rear cattle in the evening, criticize after group of actors who were, notably, also dinner, just as I have a mind, without ever becoming hunter, fisherman, shepherd or critic’ (Marx, Engels co-producers of the film. Significantly, the 1947: 22).

66 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2016 / VOLUME 4 / ARTICLE culture’ as defined by Illouz. In Õunpuu’s the notion of space appears to be highly own words, important for Õunpuu:

Indeed, I don’t particularly like the Cinema is, after all, a visual [conventional] narrative struc- medium and images can say a lot. ture, which seems to be the sole The way characters are composed domain of the Ego. The psycholo- in the filmic space, how they gism stemming from the pathetic relate to their surroundings – all story of a human being is small of this is information and these and trivial. Not insignificant! I’m arrangements can tell a story. I not a psychopath. Film simply feel much more at liberty in picto- offers room for so much more rial language than in the world than this. Losing oneself is much of a narrative, text-based story. more pleasant than constantly (Teder 2009) constructing oneself. I’m not really that interested in stories. I Õunpuu’s inclination to the visual, his inter- don’t know why. I watch films that est in world building and a certain mode of tell stories when I need a dose of ‘spatial expression’, is perhaps related to his escapism, and I need to escape background as a student of painting at the when I feel bad. I feel bad, in turn, Estonian Academy of Arts, which forms part when I do things I don’t want to of his variegated educational path. How- do. When I’m put under pressure ever, all in all, it fits well with his subversive and need to find a way out. This is frame of mind and his resistance to the cur- the function of this kind of films. rents of the heavily verbalised ‘therapeutic I’d like to delve deeper, to return to culture’. the initial cause and to do some- Õunpuu is mainly drawn to spatial thing about it, not just to let some peripheries – islands (Empty, Roukli), sub- protagonist to make an escapist urbs of various kinds (Autumn Ball, Temp- fuss with a story. There’s some- tations of St Tony), urban and industrial thing tragically infantile about wastelands (Autumn Ball, Temptations of that. (Varts 2015) St Tony, Free Range), semi-abandoned rural settings (Empty, Temptations of St Tony, Instead of ‘escapist’ stories shaped by Roukli). This predilection for the marginal neo-Aristotelian (see, e.g., Stam et al. 2015: can – and should – be interpreted as a 226ff) formulas, which he finds belittle ‘the critical comment on the consequences of spectator and her/his intelligence and abil- rampant neoliberalism; a comment that has ity to understand the world and reflect on it, global relevance, but works especially well apprehend it’ (Teder 2009), Õunpuu prefers in the Estonian context. After all, the extent to present situations (see Stam et al. 2015: to which the Estonian political discourse 2336), calling for cinema that functions as a has internalised and normalised the ten- ‘mystery in itself ... that opens doors rather ets of neoliberalism is rather astonishing than closes them’ and that invites specta- (see, e.g., Annist 2009; Åslund 2007: 306; tors into a filmic space the meaning of Bohle, Greskovits 2007; Leif et al. 2008; which remains elusive (Teder 2009). Indeed, Juuse, Kattel 2014). Õunpuu’s cinescapes have deservedly caught the attention of many Estonian film critics and scholars. 6 Jacques Rancière, arguing against Aristotle, writes Most significantly, an imposing number that ‘[l]ife is not about stories, about actions oriented of studies have been devoted to Autumn toward an end, but about situations open in every direction. Life has nothing to do with dramatic Ball, his feature debut (e.g. Sarapik, Viires progression, but is instead a long and continuous 2010; Laaniste, Torim 2010; Lige 2010/2011; movement made up of an infinity of micro-movements’ (Rancière 2006: 2). Näripea 2015). Filmed in Lasnamägi, the

67 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2016 / VOLUME 4 / ARTICLE largest residential area in Estonia built reserved as a privilege of men, and women during the Soviet era, Autumn Ball pre- were little more than objectified ‘instru- sents a striking spatial representation of ments of production’). True, Engels was also the post-Soviet neoliberal condition and of the opinion that ‘[t]he intense emotion is certainly one of the most vivid examples of individual sex love varies very much in of Estonian ‘cine-architecture’ of all times duration from one individual to another, (along with Peeter Urbla’s I’m Not a Tour- especially among men [sic!], and if affection ist, I Live Here [Ma pole turist, ma elan siin, definitely comes to an end or is supplanted Estonia, 1988]; see, e.g., Näripea 2003, by a new passionate love, separation is a 2010). Due to the great relevance of spatial benefit for both partners as well as for soci- categories in Õunpuu’s works, the following ety’ (Engels [1884] 2010: chap. II.4). discussion on interpersonal relationships Õunpuu, however, appears to have – especially those of an intimate nature – some severe doubts about the nuclear fam- portrayed in his films is closely linked to ily, as well as about the ethics of its repre- the analysis of the environments that the sentations in mainstream cinema: characters inhabit. In other words, there seems to be a connection between how the [Let’s take the common assump- characters feel and the kind of spatial envi- tion] that family is the pinnacle ronment they inhabit. or apogee of human aspirations Before embarking on an analysis of and accomplishments. This is intimate relationships in Õunpuu’s oeuvre an infantile dream; an idea of a in the light of Illouz’s understanding of ‘cold return to one’s childhood, except intimacies’, it is worth emphasising that that one’s role in it has changed. I Illouz’s study of ‘the condition of love’ is have watched a whole lot of Hol- derived ‘from the standpoint of women ... lywood films that revolve solely who opt largely for marriage, reproduction, around this goal. When one is to and middle-class lifestyles’ (Illouz 2012: observe this purposeful reinforce- 10). That is, she posits the nuclear family ment [of a common ‘truth’] for as the ‘norm’. Marx and Engels famously a little while, it starts to appear denounced the ‘the smug, evangelical ethically unacceptable and even mid-Victorian family’ (Hunt 2010), i.e. the repulsive. (Varts 2015) bourgeois marriage, as ‘a system of wives in common’ and called for the abolition of Õunpuu’s words suggest that watching a this community ‘of prostitution both public simplified and goal-driven version of inti- and private’ (Marx, Engels 1988: 228). They mate contact between a man and a woman also called for the abolition of ‘the open (which leads to marriage), as offered up by or concealed domestic slavery of the wife’ Hollywood cinema, made him suspicious or (Engels [1884] 2010: chap. II.4), but by no even hostile not only towards this cinema, means did they deny the human need for but also to the institutions it promotes, emotional and physical intimacy (ibid.: such as nuclear family and marriage, and 101–102; also Marx, Engels 1988: 211–212). perhaps even intimacy itself. It is worth In fact, it appears that they quite sincerely mentioning that learning about the ways mourned the loss of sentimentality in bour- and reasons that harmony and happiness geois familial relations (Marx, Engels 1988: has been sought in Western workplaces 212), yearned for ‘the chivalrous love of the by applying the techniques of Mayo and middle ages’, and highly valued the ‘firmest his followers might have a similar effect – loyalty’ of both – and equal – partners in distrust and even hostility towards such exclusive committed heterosexual relation- techniques that reduce the most intimate ships (see Engels [1884] 2010: chap. II.4; and individual emotions and behaviours to in contrast, they argued that, in bourgeois means of increasing capitalist profit. How- marriage, a polygamy of sorts had been ever, the question arises of whether Õunpuu

68 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2016 / VOLUME 4 / ARTICLE in his films merely offers a critique of ‘Hol- pade. Mati’s feelings for Helina have cooled, lywood sentimentality’ and the mobilisation only to be reignited, even if somewhat reluc- of intimate life to fulfil capitalist goals or tantly and disdainfully, by Eduard’s amorous whether he also proposes a positive alter- advances towards her. To make his unfaith- native for emotions, as a means of achiev- ful wife jealous, Mati has started an affair ing individual self-fulfilment and creating a with Marina, one of his painting students. better, i.e. socialist society, or is suggesting After sleeping with Marina in a hay barn that an emotion-free life can be fulfilling. seemly somewhere near Eduard’s cottage, In this respect, our first observation is Mati asks Helina for a divorce, announc- that the lack of intimacy is not represented ing, clearly half-heartedly, that he is now as positive in his films. Secondly, in this in love with Marina. This prompts Helina to quote he speaks from a position of ‘power’, reconsider her already planned future with since he is a man and thus in a better situa- Eduard. Disappointed by this turn of events, tion than women in the regime of ‘emotional Eduard drops Mati and Helina at a small capitalism’, especially those women seeking airport where, in yet another twist, Mati – due to either ‘inherent’ biological drive or escapes through a bathroom window. social pressure – long-term commitment. At several points in the film, the men Ultimately, it is not particularly produc- repeat that it is up to Helina to choose tive to look for definitive alternatives to or between them, but she is apparently strug- escape routes from this regime. Rather, the gling to make up her mind. At the same characters of Õunpuu’s works, as well as time, Helina’s hesitation and inability to their relationships, only offer subjective, decide between the two men reflects although by no means ideologically neutral, Illouz’s above-cited idea that the modern reflections on the situation of men and intimate order of emotional capitalism has women in the age of neoliberal capitalism, turned relationships ‘into cognitive objects here and now. Yet, somewhat paradoxically, that can be compared with each other and they also appear to be, both individually and are susceptible to cost–benefit analysis’ collectively, embodiments or expressions (Illouz 2007: 36). On the other hand, Illouz of certain (open-ended) threads of thought proposes that this kind of indecision is a and not representations of actual, or imag- consequence of modern sexual freedom, ined, men and women, thereby encouraging unconstrained by ‘the shackles of moral the spectators to contemplate and apply regulation’ (Illouz 2012: 60). She also sug- their own frames of reference for further gests that ‘sexual freedom is similar to reflection. economic freedom in that it implicitly organizes and even legitimizes inequalities’ A MATTER OF CHOICE: (ibid.: 61), emphasising, importantly, that EMPTY AND AUTUMN BALL ‘commitment phobia ... appears to be ... a Empty, a screen version of Mati Unt’s short male prerogative’ (ibid.: 68). This asymmetry, story of the same title (1971), revolves observes Illouz, typically causes more mis- around entangled axes of desire and heart- ery to women (who are under the pressure ache, break-ups and reunions. Mati, an of their ‘fertility window’) than to men (who ‘intellectual’7, his wife Helina, and the violin- are far less affected by this and are gener- ist Eduard, her new eye-candy (and possibly ally more reluctant to settle down), and Mati’s friend), end up in Eduard’s seaside consequently cements male domination summer cottage for a weekend, after Mati over women. In Empty, however, both men, has maneuvered himself out of his teaching but especially Eduard, seem to have few if obligations in order to join Helina’s esca- any commitment issues – Mati is already married to Helina and Eduard is clearly 7 He could be a writer, as in Unt’s (autobiographical) devastated by not having the future he had text, or an artist, as suggested by his teaching job arranged (so much so that towards the end with painting students, as well as by one of the commentators of the film (Hõbemägi 2006). of the film he gloomily states, ‘This is the

69 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2016 / VOLUME 4 / ARTICLE end’). Marina also appears to be quite non- Eduard’s car breaks down on an isolated chalant about the outcome of her affair with road surrounded by wild hayfields. Dispir- Mati. Yet Mati’s escape at the end of the ited by yet another setback, Eduard takes film suggests that, ultimately, Helina is not his violin and a bottle of wine from the boot in control of the situation. And perhaps, the of his car, hands the bottle and a corkscrew sole purpose of Mati’s actions throughout to Mati, walks away from the couple, and the film has been revenge for her unfaith- starts playing a melancholy tune on his fulness. Still, the bottom line is that all violin, while Mati and Helina share the wine. characters end up alone – and miserable, The next shot shows Mati standing with one might add. the bottle in the foreground, while Helina On one hand, the particular situation is hunkering down next to the broken car, in which these characters find themselves and Eduard is playing the violin a little reflects Õunpuu’s rejection of the Hollywood further down the road. (Figure 1) The static scenario in which the character ultimately shot lingers, creating time for the audi- completes the ‘Oedipal trajectory’, by find- ence to take in the distance between the ing a new love at the end of the story, after characters. The depth of the image and the suffering romantic disappointment at the expanse of space separating the characters beginning due to betrayal or the death of are enhanced by the use of a wide-angle a loved one. At the same time, the film’s lens. At the same time, the frame ties the conclusion points to the director’s struggle trio together, emphasising the impossibility to provide a viable alternative – viable in of escaping this uncomfortable situation. In a sense of being satisfactory for his char- fact, a sense of discomfort permeates the acters and also for the viewers, especially entire filmscape – the spaciousness and for those used to mainstream Hollywood emptiness of the seaside comes across as cinema. agoraphobic, especially if one is to take into On the other hand, and perhaps more account Mati Unt’s statement that he finds importantly, their sense of isolation has a summer as a season ‘objectionable, even social dimension, one that pertains not only repulsive’ (Kaus 2006). A sense of anxiety is to the particular characters inhabiting the further evoked by the frequently overcast filmic space, but to a more general human sky that blocks the optimistic undertones condition. As Donald Tomberg has aptly so often accompanying the summery set- summarised, tings in Estonian cinema. In our opinion, the film can be read not They are in a situation where only as a comment on romantic isolation everyone is alone, yet where but also as an illustration of the contem- being alone is impossible. The porary human condition – of the effects of relationships ... do not move in the regime of extreme, yet illusionary, indi- ‘straight lines’ in relation to each vidualism, which atomises the society and other; rather, the field lines are increases suffering, individually and collec- constantly shifting and thus the tively. While Mati Unt’s Empty was written relationships change within a under decisively different socio-political single network. In this case, love conditions, and Õunpuu does a brilliant cannot be separated from assert- job in evoking the atmosphere of the early ing oneself. (Tomberg 2006: 96) 1970s (Eduard’s Soviet-made car, the cos- tumes and hairstyles of the characters, and The fundamental sense of isolation – as especially the unmistakably epochal mous- well as the impossibility of severing all ties taches), the film is manifestly contemporary with the (social) webs that surround them in its broader connotations. – becomes particularly clear in a scene, Autumn Ball offers an entire gallery or more precisely, a single shot toward the of lonely characters, irrespective of their end of the film. On the way to the airport, relationship status. Opting for a multi-

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FIGURE 1. Mati (Rain Tolk), Helina (Maarja Jakobson) and Eduard (Taavi Eelmaa) in Empty.

71 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2016 / VOLUME 4 / ARTICLE protagonist structure in his debut feature defined through her partner/husband – we could be seen as yet another of Õunpuu’s never learn her name or, for that matter, her strategies to rebel against the dominant occupation. Mrs Maurer’s husband is an rules of screenwriting, as perpetuated architect, apparently in his thirties (just like in popular handbooks on the topic, for his wife), who has rather unconventionally, example by Syd Field ([1979] 2005). While considering his social standing, chosen to this is certainly true, it is also important to live in a generally disreputable part of the keep in mind that multi-protagonist nar- city9. This is an act of ‘practicing humility’, he ratives have always existed in cinema and, explains to the amusement of his ‘friends’, over the past 25 years, they have become a group of young and trendy architects and increasingly popular (although not domi- designers. Mrs Maurer is obviously less nant) even in mainstream cinema (see, e.g., than happy about her husband’s choice, Bordwell 2008: 191; del Mar Azcona 2010). sobbing at one point that the people in the Interestingly, Mariá del Mar Azcona sug- neighbourhood intimidate her. Specifically, gests that this increased fascination with she had seen a man with a rotting hand, multi-protagonist narratives can be seen ‘drinking cologne and smelling of piss’ and as an articulation of ‘some of the dimen- she feared she might catch ‘some hor- sions of contemporary desire’, an echo of rible disease from them’. Significantly, the the modern romantic regime characterised Maurers live in a sophisticated, sparsely by ‘crises of the institution of marriage’, furnished apartment that is located in a the ‘deterioration of such concepts as new building, with windows that reveal monogamy and sexual exclusivity’, the ‘pro- the reality of the slowly dilapidating Soviet liferation of sexual options’ and ‘such new ‘blocks’, which seem like a distant vista that cultural notions as sexual liberation, serial is reduced to a decorative picture of the monogamy, confluent love’ (del Mar Azcona ‘post-communist condition‘. It provides an 2010: 6–7).8 Indeed, in Autumn Ball one can ornamental backdrop for Maurer’s cynicism observe a wide range of amorous encoun- towards ‘bourgeois cosiness and warmth’, ters, including glimpses of the delight- as well as towards his colleagues, the fully tender moments of a newborn affair agents of a commodified ‘creative industry’. (between Mati and Jaana), the contemptu- (Figure 2) Yet Maurer himself is part of this ous tedium of a stale cohabitation (Maurer same system, professionally and socially, and his wife), and outright sexual perversion reaping the benefits of the newly estab- (Kaski’s paedophilia). However, on the whole lished neoliberal regime that include a high the film, while peppered with small alleviat- income and considerable social prestige. ing doses of comedy, conveys sombre notes Moreover, his relationship with his environ- of social desolation and the lack of true ment is extremely insincere – he is only an intimacy that is only redeemed to a mod- observer, not an active participant. Indeed, est extent in the (open) ending when Jaana Maurer comes across as an unsympathetic returns to Mati. character – just as his critical assessments Here we will concentrate on a triangle of the neoliberal ‘culture industry’ as well of characters and their relationships – as its agents and values sound like empty Maurer, his wife, and Theo. The woman is mannerisms, he also fails to be sincere, vul- nerable and emotional in his intimate life. His wife observes quite accurately that he 8 This pertains especially to the post-communist period in the former Eastern Bloc, as the sexual is ‘like some Bergman character, not even liberation experienced in the West in the 1960s did human anymore’, a ‘tiny little man suffering not occur to the same degree in socialist countries until the political upheavals of the late 1980s and early 1990s. For example, Estonian statistics show that the 9 For the local audiences, it is clearly recognisable as number of marriages is in deep decline compared to the Lasnamägi, the last and, some might add, most Soviet period. In 2015, there were 30% fewer unattractive, Soviet housing estate (see for more detail marriages than in 1991 (https://statistikaamet. Laaniste, Torim 2010); for the international spectators, wordpress.com/2016/08/19/uks-statistiline-paev- it functions as a signifier of a generic ‘post-communist 1991-ja-2015-aastal/). Eastern Europe’.

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FIGURE 2. Maurer (Juhan Ulfsak) and his wife (Tiina Tauraite) in Autumn Ball. FIGURE 3. Maurer’s wife and Theo (Taavi Eelmaa).

73 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2016 / VOLUME 4 / ARTICLE because of your God’s silence, squirming 2012: 72–73). Hence, while Theo is unable within his personal black and white world’. to get the upper hand in his professional Meanwhile, Theo is in many respects life, his sexual seriality provides a way for the complete opposite of Maurer. He works him to boost his ego and find validation in as a doorman10 at a somewhat shabby his intimate life. Notably, Theo’s encounter establishment called Mirage (sic!), which with Mrs Maurer starts off as dozens of serves as a conference venue during the day his earlier liaisons – he picks her up after and a restaurant-nightclub at night. He lives she has had a serious quarrel with Maurer in a dingy one-room flat in a block of Soviet at the Mirage. But in the morning, things high-rises. At work he has to put up with are different for Theo; he does his best drunken customers and his cocky young to tidy up his place, serves her fried eggs manager who suggests that, in addition to for breakfast, makes awkward jokes and looking after the cloakroom, he should also seems to have forgotten all about his sex take up janitorial duties – a proposal that journal. In stark contrast to his earlier post- Theo finds very much humiliating. On the coital behaviour, which is characterised by bright(er) side, Mirage is the perfect place detachment or fake intellectualism, he now for Theo to pursue his ‘hobby’ – picking up dares to cautiously reveal himself. Yet later women for one-night stands. He even has a when Theo and Mrs Maurer are eating at little black notebook for keeping track of his a nearby burger joint, the insurmountable erotic conquests, with over 200 entries and social, economic and cultural gap between counting, complete with the zodiac signs of them becomes obvious. (Figure 3) As Theo his lovers. Theo’s behaviour complies with enthusiastically explains his aspirations Illouz’s analysis of serial sexuality. Citing for starting his own business, namely the Francis Fukuyama, Illouz considers serial rental of ship containers for construction sexuality/polygamy as a dominant feature waste and garbage (‘Think about how much of modern ‘sexual fields’. Serial polygamy construction takes place in this town. Think that used to be reserved for a small group about how much construction waste it of the most powerful men became acces- leaves. I’m not going to be a doorman all my sible to ‘many rather ordinary men’ after the life!’), Mrs Maurer loses her appetite, par- 1950s (Fukuyama 2000 in Illouz 2012: 72). dons herself swiftly and leaves, refusing to The shift occurred due to the ‘autono- give Theo her phone number. At this point, mization of the sexual sphere from moral the extent to which emotions have become regulation and from formal class endogamy’ subject to a consumerist and ‘hyperrational’ that gave men, independent of their socio- cost–benefit analysis, ‘rational deliberation economic status, the opportunity to have and the desire to maximize utilities and commitment-free and unpaid sex with well-being’ (Illouz 2012: 91) is very clear. multiple women. Yet, sex retained its con- Although Theo might be able to fulfil Mrs notative links to power, which is why serial Maurer’s emotional and sexual needs, and sexuality has become a symbol of status in the longer run, even provide her with all for men – a ‘victory over other men’ – as the material comforts, he will never rise to well as an expression of ‘their authority a social and cultural position that is com- and their autonomy’. This autonomy and parable to the one her husband enjoys. And control requires emotional detachment – a so Mrs Maurer returns home to her partner ‘metaphor for masculine autonomy’ (Illouz bored with her ‘dry skin and cold eyes’. In the end, the film’s sympathies decidedly lie with the Theos of this world, which is 10 An important aspect for understanding his condition is the fact that doormen (or porters) used to belong to perhaps particularly evident in a later scene the privileged service sector during the Soviet period, where Theo beats up a ‘great actor and together with shop-assistants and bartenders, who were well-paid, well-connected and generally of director’ who is wreaking drunken havoc at relatively high social standing. Their importance and the Mirage, and doing so with increasing prestige declined rapidly after the collapse of the Soviet system and the onslaught of capitalism. contempt after learning that the director

74 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2016 / VOLUME 4 / ARTICLE specialises in relationship comedies. Theo’s dream, rather than in material reality, while act of pure, passionate, primitive rage is others are liminal. The inclusion of these miles away from Maurer’s sophisticated, unrealistic inserts might signify the impor- but impotent cynicism, and leaves little tance the director attaches to non-verbal doubt about where the film’s (ideological) communication, to sensing rather than affinities and antipathies lie – with the dis- understanding. However, despite his inten- possessed and genuine passion in all walks tions, we might try to explain the film, plac- of life; and not with conformism, sterile ing greater importance on the parts taking intellectualism or neoliberal collaborators. place in the material world rather than in a Notably, Illouz deems the cooling of passion dream. and emotional intensity to be ‘an important Temptations of St Tony can be cultural loss’ (Illouz 2012: 245). described as a travel film if not as a road movie. First, these travels are literal as Tony IN SEARCH OF A NEW PATH: travels by car and later by foot through TEMPTATIONS OF ST TONY Estonia. They are also metaphorical, as he Both Empty and Autumn Ball had been encounters different cultures, in differ- loose adaptations of Mati Unt’s literary ent periods of Estonian history, as well as works. looks into its future. The ‘story’ begins when In contrast, Temptations of St Tony the protagonist, the manager of a factory was conceived by Õunpuu himself. Maybe (until it is closed down) attends his father’s this is why this film best reflects his views funeral somewhere in the countryside. Tony on the world in which he lives11 and the role leads the funeral procession, carrying a cinema should play in it. At the same time, it cross and participates in a meal attended reveals that rejecting ‘therapeutic capital- by his deceased father’s friends, but stays ism’ does not necessarily mean embracing silent, which signifies his distance from the socialist values or creating a better world. culture to which his father (and possibly It could just lead to confusion. Ironically, mother) belonged. We can presume that this point is made at the beginning of the this culture was based on tradition, a close film, which opens with a passage from family and neighbourly ties, as well as rela- Dante: ‘Midway upon the journey of our life tive isolation from the metropolitan centre. I found myself within a forest dark, for the It managed to withstand state socialism straightway pathway had been lost.’ These and is holding out against the pressures of words ostensibly refer to the position of neoliberalism, but its power is diminished, Tony, the film’s protagonist, but can also be given that the funeral procession is small regarded as referring to the filmmaker who, and the people following the coffin are all in this film, takes another step away from old. mainstream cinema into unknown territory. With his flashy, western car and wear- Making sense of this film is difficult and ing a white coat against the dark clothes of this may be because it is comprised of situ- the other funeral guests, Tony is an outsider ations, and does not have a coherent story in this society and he leaves as soon as the with a sense of progression. The connection funeral is over. The visual and aural style between the episodes is often tenuous, and suggests that the director is also an out- we are thrown into one situation without the sider to this culture. The first shot shows us previous one being concluded. Moreover, a hole in a wall, through which we observe some of the episodes belong in the realm of the procession. Moreover, we get only fragments of the dialogue rather than any 11 In fact, the film could be interpreted as a series of coherent talk. Some time later Tony and his eloquent ‘audiovisual adaptations’ of Marx’s ideas, such wife are attending a performance of Uncle as the inherent cannibalism of capitalism (see, Marx [1887] 1976: 484–485; Harvey 2003: 148), which finds Vanya (Дядя Ваня, 1897) by Anton Chekhov, several vivid parallels in the film, e.g. Tony gobbling where one of the actors, who is also Tony’s up pieces of Nadezhda’s lifeless body, or ‘the meat factory’ specialised in dismembering people. acquaintance, says that ‘the peasants are

75 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2016 / VOLUME 4 / ARTICLE all alike; they are stupid and live in dirt’. It ‘emotional capitalism’, as conveyed in her is difficult not to also attribute this opinion aforementioned observation that ‘relation- to Tony, although Õunpuu’s protagonist is ships have been transformed into cognitive beyond verbalising such an opinion. objects that can be compared with each From the funeral Tony heads home, other and are susceptible to cost–benefit but on his way, he kills a dog and drags the analysis’, into ‘objects that can be traded dead animal into the wood where he finds and exchanged’ (Illouz 2007: 36). hands that have been cut off. He reports It is the men who initiate and regulate this to the local police who, instead of hav- the ‘wife-swapping’, while the women are ing him take them to what looks like a crime the passive recipients. This is reflected in scene, treat him like a criminal, locking the discomfort on the faces of the women at him up and threatening him with torture. the party. Unlike the other men, Tony shows This attitude harks back to the Soviet era, no enthusiasm for this sort of sexual enter- when the authorities routinely did not dif- tainment. However, he does not engage in a ferentiate between the victims, witnesses discussion about this practice, but remains and criminals, everybody was treated with taciturn. His silence, as well as his mechan- suspicion, and was even born guilty. Luckily ical, zombie-like dancing, contrasted with Tony is spared his punishment because the the grotesquely expressive dancing of the inspector learns that a woman the police other men, betrays his distaste for the ideas have been looking for has been found, only expressed by the other guests and their to escape again. Later we learn that the behaviour. Again, a scene from Uncle Vanya woman, Nadezhda, works as a sex slave in provides a key to Tony’s behaviour, as the a brothel. It seems that police are collud- character in the play expresses his dislike ing with her masters and captors in their of the educated folk who are obsessed with search for her. This suggests that the post- self-analysis and try to label and measure communist apparatus of power shares the everything they experience. However, by worst characteristics of the old regime: pro- staying silent Tony deprives himself of any tecting crooks and punishing victims. Tony, agency and tacitly condones the proposed however, helps the young woman to escape. wife-swapping. Back home, Tony attends a party, which When Tony is eventually alone with his indicates that a different culture from the wife, she has a nightmare, followed by an one into which Tony was born is flourish- attack of hysteria. Tony suggests that she ing in Estonia – one of neoliberalism and see a therapist, to which she responds with ‘emotional capitalism’, as defined by Illouz. a sneer, accusing him of wasting the best All the partygoers represent Estonia’s years of her life. It is not difficult to guess affluent middle class, as is suggested by that she is suffering since Tony does not the villa where the party takes place, the love or care for her. She would like her hus- clothes worn by the guests, especially the band, rather than a specialist, to deal with women, and the fact that they all arrive in her unhappiness. Hence, while it appears cars. The relationship between the guests is that Tony is contemptuous of the ‘therapeu- blatantly patriarchal, with the wives looking tic culture’, flourishing among the Estonian after their husbands who are drinking too middle class, in his marital life he is unable much. Moreover, at some point, one guest to offer an alternative. The remaining mentions the practice of wife-swapping as scenes with Tony and his wife show that a means of improving the quality of marital their marriage is in crisis, with husband life, illustrating his ‘analysis’ with statistics and wife accusing each other of neglecting in order to demonstrate how the lives of their house and their child. (Figure 4) As different categories of couples improve we witness Tony’s estrangement from his thanks to practicing this form of adultery. wife, we also observe his growing interest in This brings to mind Illouz’s claim regard- Nadezhda. (Figure 5) He keeps meeting the ing the rationalisation of erotic life under Russian girl throughout the film, including

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FIGURE 4. Tony (Taavi Eelmaa), his wife (Tiina Tauraite) and their daughter (Liis Lepik) in Temptations of St Tony. FIGURE 5. Tony and Nadezhda (Ravshana Kurkova). FIGURE 6. Tony burying the dog.

77 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2016 / VOLUME 4 / ARTICLE at the gates of the factory where her father reduced to a bunch of organs, but he man- works and which Tony is forced to shut ages to escape from the ‘hospital’ where it down, due its being unprofitable. The bru- happens. tality of this act, practically unimaginable Õunpuu also takes issue with the rela- during the times of state socialism, shows tionship between animals and humans and that neoliberalism, while claiming that it with human beastliness by including a motif cares about workers’ emotions, is in fact of a black dog that reappears in the narra- concerned about them only when it boosts tive and Tony’s life almost as frequently as productivity. And it discards their emotions, Nadezhda. First, Tony kills a dog in his car when the workers are unable to produce and carries him (or her) to the woods to be enough profit. The ‘factory gate’ episode is buried. Later he encounters another (live) a reference to the time when state social- dog resembling the one he killed, and takes ism and Fordism ruled in Estonia. As with him home. Tony is very attached to this the rural life, this culture did not disappear animal (as he will later become attached entirely but is at mercy of the forces of neo- to Nadezhda). His wife objects, perhaps liberalism. in this way conveying her jealousy of Tony If Temptations of St Tony was a main- directing his affection away from her. At the stream film, we would expect Tony to ‘save’ end of the film, the dog is killed, perhaps Nadezhda and complete his ‘Oedipal tra- by Tony’s wife, and the protagonist again jectory’ by marrying her. Such an outcome carries the dog to the wilderness to bury would also justify the title of the film. How- him. However, this time Tony comes across ever, in Temptations of St Tony this does not as an animal mourning the death of his happen; Nadezhda and Tony always part, companion. He talks to the dog, but we do despite his reciprocated erotic interest in not hear his words, which might suggest her and his willingness to help her. Their that they are uttered in a language inac- final encounter is at Das Goldene Zeitalter cessible to humans. Tony also produces a (The Golden Times), a kinky nightclub-cum- trail of saliva when carrying the dog and brothel, where women are offered to men lying next to him. Although the excessive at auction – a more radical practice than salivating might be caused by his crying, it wife-swapping and a step closer to total resembles the behaviour of a dog. Paradoxi- patriarchal rule. Tony tries to escape with cally, when mourning the death of the dog, Nadezhda, but he is put in a cage, and has the previously impassive Tony is at his most to see how his beloved is abused by her expressive and human – maybe because on captors and eventually commits suicide by this occasion he is showing his emotions smashing her head with a brick. without expecting to be rewarded for it. This As we have suggested, the film is episode is particularly touching as it takes peppered with criticism of contemporary place in winter, which renders Tony’s actions sexual and other behaviour, and marked by almost heroic. (Figure 6) rationalisation and self-analysis. Ironically, Õunpuu demonstrates that such behaviour CHOOSING LIFE: conceals the utter abuse and exploitation FREE RANGE AND ROUKLI of the weak by the strong, even reducing the Echoing the patterns of the seasonal cycle, weak to an animal-like existence, to living the hedonistic summer of Empty, the mel- like bodies without souls. The apex of this ancholy autumn of Autumn Ball and the attitude is the practice of sawing (living) despondent winter of Temptations of St people into parts, perhaps to have their Tony were followed by the hopeful spring organs sold – a not so veiled reference to of Free Range. While poking some serious the fact that people in the poorest Eastern tongue-in-cheek fun at the stereotypical European countries, such as Romania or representations of youth as ‘the spring of Moldova, actually sell their organs out of life’, Free Range appears to communicate sheer poverty. Tony himself is meant to be a rather sincerely optimistic take on the

78 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2016 / VOLUME 4 / ARTICLE prospect of coming to terms with the world, efforts to find a more ‘reasonable’ source especially in comparison with the previous of income (as opposed to being an aspiring Temptations of St Tony. writer without any social benefits). Having In contrast to Empty and Autumn Ball, been laid off from the newspaper, he tries and similarly to Temptations of St Tony, his hand as a warehouse worker, perhaps Free Range focuses on a single protago- ‘practicing humility’ in his own way, or nist – only this time the focus shifts from searching for a job that would entail as lit- the middle-class, middle-aged, mid-level tle contact as possible with the conformist manager Tony to young Fred, an aspiring bourgeoisie.13 He also has a fling with his writer who is struggling with the idea of ex-girlfriend, who dumped Fred for a Ger- ‘settling (down)’, both in economic and inti- man guy (‘Baron von Hardon’ in Fred’s sar- mate sense. The film opens with a scene castic words) but has now returned home. in the editorial office of a newspaper, with While the girl seems to be enthusiastic the editor-in-chief raging over Fred’s latest about taking up where they left off, Fred’s piece – notably a review of Terence Mal- initial fascination quickly cools and he goes ick’s Tree of Life. The editor quotes Fred’s back to Susanna. article: ‘Faggoty, faggoty, faggoty garden, In the light of Illouz’s study, Fred’s ini- faggoty mother in the faggoty light. Faggoty tial behaviour can be diagnosed as a case American family drama. Faggoty God, why of ‘commitment phobia’. According to Illouz, did you take my kid away?’ and proceeds to commitment phobia is one of the main fire him on the spot. Apart from an appar- features of emotional capitalism and its ent reference to Õunpuu’s own assessment ‘emotional organization’ is directly related of Hollywood cinema12 (even in the case of to ‘the social conditions and the cognitive such a critically acclaimed manifestation), modes through which people make choices the sequence frames Fred as a young rebel, and bind themselves to others’ (Illouz 2012: in tune with the long-established cinematic 71). Illouz argues that men in this modern tradition of non-conformist male adoles- day and age are able to rely on only them- cents refusing to comply with the social selves to make a comfortable living (in com- conventions, rules and limits. parison to the Victorian era when a dowry Arriving home, Fred’s girlfriend could play an important part in achieving Susanna (and the only offspring of Fred’s this state), and that, especially since the former boss, the editor-in-chief) surprises 1970s, they have been able to choose their him with the news that she is pregnant and mates from a considerably larger pool, in intends to keep the child. The rest of the comparison with women who are confined film observes Fred’s attempts at adapt- by their fertile age (assuming that having ing to his new situation and ends with his children is a priority for these women). This ‘approval of the world’, i.e. with him taking creates an unequal situation where men responsibility for the life of his unborn child. can afford to postpone commitment, and His journey towards this decision includes instead practice emotionally detached repeated episodes of self-destructive par- serial sexuality, and in turn, ‘control the tying, with Fred and his friends consuming terms in the sexual bargain’ (Illouz 2012: large quantities of alcohol, dancing and 77–78). Thus, considering the fact that ‘cool throwing up in derelict surroundings, listen- individuality’ is one of the dominant fea- ing to 70s’ hippie rock and behaving in an tures of the experience of love in neoliberal utterly anti-intellectual manner. In addi- capitalism, Fred’s choice to overcome his tion, Fred makes somewhat half-hearted commitment phobia and settle down with Susanna can, paradoxically, be seen not as

12 Õunpuu’s choice to use 16mm film stock, which has been traditionally reserved for non-theatrical, 13 At this point, it is also important to keep in mind the low-budget and amateur filmmaking, is also important Soviet tradition of dissident intellectuals forced to in this respect, betraying a desire to distance his work menial positions such as stokers or night-time from the mainstream. custodians at lower-level instutions.

79 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2016 / VOLUME 4 / ARTICLE an act of bourgeois conformism but rather studies at university and got a job. as a sign of resistance to a certain facet For four years I was a family man. of the capitalist ecology, although the film I did it. I paid my debt to society. does not make it entirely clear whether Fred was motivated by instrumental aspects Hence the film escapes the musty trap of (Susanna’s affluent family has connections Hollywood-style never-ending marital bliss that could help him pursue his career as a suggesting that Fred’s sense of familial writer) or affective factors (his feelings for responsibility might not be everlasting, if he Susanna). It is equally possible that Fred’s is anything like his father (and he clearly is, decision was stimulated by youthful ideal- or at least was). ism. Perhaps having witnessed the sheer At the same time, the last scene of misery of Susanna’s parents (especially her Free Range leads to believe that Fred might mother who consumes excessive amounts not follow in his father’s footsteps. The of wine and even attempts to take her own scene is set in the ruins of a house at the life because of her husband’s infidelity seashore, a roofless skeleton with plaster and utter cynicism), Fred is trying to save crumbling from its windowless walls and Susanna from having to bring up their child grass growing where floors once existed. in this toxic environment. This reading is Apart from demonstrating the intentional further encouraged by the images of a white rejection of yet another clichéd trope of horse against blue sky in the final shot of mainstream romantic cinema – a house the film. Accompanied by Neil Diamond’s with a ‘white picket fence’ as a symbol of ‘Glory Road’, these images seem to sug- the trivial ‘happily ever after’ – this choice gest that Fred can be compared to a heroic of setting suggests the possibility of build- Prince Charming, coming to the rescue ing a different future on the ruins of the of his beautiful bride and exchanging the past. (Figure 7) In general, the youngsters excitements of the ‘glory road’ for the tran- in the film tend to inhabit spaces relatively quillity of domesticity. Although certainly untouched by the capitalist economy – stereotypical in its devices and perhaps deserted industrial wastelands and build- even saccharine in tone, this finale comes ings, neglected beaches, unkempt studios, across as refreshing in its sense of sincere, outmoded bars – reflecting the social although open-ended, hopefulness. situation and mindset of the adolescents Notably, towards the end of the film who are unwilling to join the capitalist Fred picks up a denim jacket that some- roller-coaster, even in its ‘intellectual’ mani- one has left near the garbage bins outside festations. Indeed, Free Range appears to his house. This is a reference to an earlier strike the same chords as Autumn Ball in scene in the film where Fred’s father its stark contrast between the conform- explains how he cleaned up his act before ist and bohemian intellectual class. The Fred was born: former is represented by Susanna’s father, the editor-in-chief, who lives in a suburban Your mom was still pregnant with villa, filled with antique furniture, sophis- you. I was on my way home, from ticated pieces of art and crystal tableware drinking, probably. What else. I (Figure 8); the books in his office are neatly crossed the street and suddenly arranged on shelves, with an almost mili- saw this sports jacket. Just a tary sense of orderliness. This stands in regular jacket, you know? I didn’t complete contrast to Fred’s father’s envi- think anything of it. Not my style rons – a tiny apartment in a shabby wooden at all. But I stopped. I don’t know house, crammed with chaotic piles of books. why. I thought, here I am now, me (Figure 9) In fact, the second part of the and this jacket. And I knew it was film’s title,Ballad on Approving of the World, a sign. I put it on. I went home is borrowed from Bertolt Brecht’s poem wearing it. Then I completed my of the same title. Brecht’s poem is about

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FIGURE 7. Fred (Lauri Lagle) and Susanna (Jaanika Arum) in Free Range. FIGURE 8. Fred and Susanna at a dinner party at Susanna’s parents’ (Roman Baskin and Rita Raave) villa. FIGURE 9. Fred’s father’s (Peeter Volkonski) place.

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FIGURE 10. Jan (Juhan Ulfsak) in Roukli. Publicity still. FIGURE 11. Marina (Mirtel Pohla) in Roukli. Publicity still.

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FIGURE 12. Eeva (Eva Klemets) in Roukli. Publicity still. FIGURE 13. Villu (Peeter Raudsepp) in Roukli. Publicity still.

83 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2016 / VOLUME 4 / ARTICLE people who collaborated with the fascist in the dialogue of one of Õunpuu’s earlier regime and the title is meant to be ironical. films, the director himself might actually In an interview, Õunpuu draws a parallel agree with such an assessment. Indeed, between fascism and today’s global market there is much that connects Roukli with the economy, which with its drive to universal- work of these better-known auteurs, such ity and extensiveness resembles a younger as a location in an austere northern land- brother of fascism to him (Toomela 2013). scape during a (short) summer, as well as a The sympathies of Free Range, just as in motif of an approaching apocalypse and its Autumn Ball, clearly lie with non-conformist effect on artists and intellectuals. On this intellectuals, such as Fred’s father, who occasion the apocalypse takes a form of an are in both films aligned with the blue- unspecified war, which is raging in Europe in collar working class, suggesting that they near future. A group of young artists, com- share a situation of dispossession under prised of two couples, Jan and his ex-wife the conditions of neoliberal capitalism. or ex-girlfriend Marina, and Villu and Eeva, Although Fred’s own character was sharply who is Jan’s sister, are hiding on a farm renounced14 by a number of Estonian critics near a desolate stretch of coastline. (Fig- for his erratic behaviour, his ‘unpleasant’, ure 10–13) Staying together allows them ‘infantile’ character (e.g. Laasik 2013, Adorf to discuss the old subject of the meaning 2013, Luks 2013) and his abominable treat- of life. Each of the four people seems to ment of Susanna (e.g. Tomberg 2013), we have a different stance on this issue. Jan, agree with Õunpuu’s assessment that even who is cast as the main character, adopts though Fred is ‘self-centred, confident of a nihilistic posture. When Marina suggests his ingenuity’ and somewhat puerile in his to him that he should occupy himself with belief of romantic freedom, he is also ulti- writing, he replies that the only thing he mately a positive character ‘in his concern can write is his own obituary. Later he also for not only himself but also the world at says that his goal is ‘to desire nothing else large, dedicated to such values as freedom, than to desire nothing’. Not only does he honesty, solidarity, equality and eventu- prefer nothingness over ‘something-ness’, ally even responsibility’ (Laaniste 2013). he also mocks Marina when she unpacks Not insignificantly, the union of Fred and her paints and brushes, with the intention Susanna, coming from the opposite ‘shores’ of resuming her work and proclaims that art of the intellectual divide, signals that it should be an expression of one’s ‘soul’. Jan’s might be possible for the young Freds of nihilism and cynicism might be a result of this world to come to terms with the limits his expectation that the end of the human- posed by socioeconomic realities without ity is approaching, as signalled by the noise completely abandoning their ideals, or of low-flying military planes. It could also being forced into literal or metaphorical be caused by his internal, personal crisis. solitude. While being contemptuous about his own Of all films Õunpuu has completed life, he is also critical of others, accusing his so far, Roukli attracted the least sympa- sister and her husband of staying together thetic reviews, with some critics accusing for pragmatic reasons, rather than for love. the director of creating an unintentional While Jan chooses not to choose, his parody of a Scandinavian arthouse film in sister Eeva reacts to the war by focusing on the vein of Ingmar Bergman and Lars von ordinary tasks. She is the most active of the Trier (Dalton 2015). Given that, as we have four characters, always doing something already indicated, Bergman is mentioned around the house, such as getting firewood to make a fire, carrying water or tending the wounds of their unexpected visitors. Moreo- 14 It is important to again keep in mind that the protagonist as the ‘main object of audience ver, in contrast to the other characters, identification’ (Bordwell 1985: 157) is one of the pillars who are interested in esoteric issues, Eeva of the Hollywood narrative system, which Õunpuu decisively rejects. refuses to discuss them, perhaps knowing

84 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2016 / VOLUME 4 / ARTICLE that engaging in psychology or philosophy of the film, Jan becomes a kind of ‘secular will not solve any problems, and only cause Christian martyr’ when he volunteers to be people more misery. In a telling episode, taken to Peedu, a mysterious ‘warlord’, and when Marina asks her if she is happy, Eeva risks being tortured or killed by him. This replies that she learnt not to ask such act could be regarded as a consequence of questions and that she needs to fetch Jan’s disrespect for human life. However, some water. Of all characters depicted by in our view it reflects on his willingness to Õunpuu, Eeva most emphatically rejects the save the lives of the others by sacrificing his ‘therapeutic culture’, yet she does so, not by own. adopting cynicism, but through activism. In The war and the discovery of wounded this way she harks back to earlier, pre-mod- men on the property where the four char- ern times when people lacked discursive acters live can be read as a metaphor or tools to analyse their emotions, and relics metonymy of the ‘war on terror’ and the of which can be perhaps found in the rural subsequent refugee crisis, which befell communities among ‘simple’, uneducated Europe around the time that the film was people, whom the director presented in his made. The influx of refugees divided Europe, earlier film. However, Eeva chooses not to with liberals and leftists being identified analyse her emotions not due to a lack of with a pro-refugee stance, while hostility sophistication, but most likely because she to refugees was seen as the position of the is aware that therapy never ends and ulti- right-wing parties and uneducated masses mately does not help the sufferers. although in reality the situation is more Eeva’s husband Villu also comes complex. Õunpuu seems to broadly sup- across as more active than Jan, as he bus- port this stand by showing that the group ies himself cutting wood and exercising his allows the refugees to stay and tends their athletic body. He is also the only person in wounds. Their arrival is even welcomed by the group who shows any interest in reli- Jan who on this occasion regains some of gion, reading the Bible and quoting from it. his energy. As previously mentioned, Villu However, this does not bring him any moral is the only person who is openly hostile to enlightenment as he is unable to make refugees. sense of the Bible stories. Villu’s study of In line with the reading of war by the Bible could be regarded also as a prag- authors such as Paul Virilio (Virilio 1989; matic move, given that he later admits that Virilio, Lotringer 1983), Roukli proposes that musicians in Estonia only make money by every war is ultimately a global war; it is writing sacral music. Moreover, when two impossible for anybody to shy away from refugees are discovered in their house, he its consequences. This is demonstrated is the only one who chooses not to help first by Jan and Marina being threatened them, preferring to regard the wounds and by an emissary of Peedu, a local warlord, deprivation they have suffered as being the or maybe a simple crook, responsible for result of squabbling between people with wounding the two refugees and eventually whom artists have nothing in common. Sub- capturing Jan. Hence, while suggesting that sequently Jan also reveals his lack of faith the victims of wars should be helped, it also in religion, yet in his case this is coupled points out that such help can result in a with a desire to live according to Christian serious risk of retaliation. values. Ultimately, the film reveals a scepti- The society presented in Roukli is less cism towards Christianity or any other form divided by the gender lines than Õunpuu’s of religion as a means of redemption or earlier films. However, Marina, with her finding the meaning of life (not surprising, admission that she joined her ex-boyfriend given that Estonia is regarded as one of the Jan because she had ‘nowhere to go’, brings most secular countries in the world), while to mind women from Õunpuu’s earlier films, also admitting that the lack of religious such as Tony’s wife, who also had nowhere faith leads to an inner void. Towards the end to go, at least not without risking social and

85 BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2016 / VOLUME 4 / ARTICLE economical setbacks. Also, as in Tempta- about the human condition under the neo- tions of St Tony, the landscape is both liberal regime (of emotional capitalism). And seductive and menacing. It is a place where just like Illouz, Õunpuu does not set out to one can escape the war (it is admittedly explicitly say what has to be done differ- safer than the city, which is captured in the ently, or, to put it differently – how to save course of the narrative), but it can also be the world. In fact, in an interview recorded frightening and one risks punishment at the with him for the documentary Film of 60 hands of contemporary ‘partisans’, or crooks Seconds of Solitude in Year Zero (2011, taking advantage of the chaos caused Estonia, directed by Mark Raidpere), he by war. As in Temptations of St Tony, we decisively abstains from such an ambition. also see a dog to which the protagonist is Furthermore, human relationships, includ- attached. However, Jan is simply fond of his ing, and perhaps especially, those of an dog, and does not try to communicate with intimate nature in Õunpuu’s films are rep- him on a deeper level or seeking redemp- resentations/embodiments of economic/ tion through becoming (like) an animal. That social relationships of which he is openly said, nature is still a source of hope in the critical. It appears that what he wants to film, as shown in the episode with a candle- say is that changing these relationships is lit night party, where small birds are stroked difficult – if not impossible – for individuals by the humans and then fly away; or the since the broader socioeconomic ecosys- walk in a forest, where the camera follows tem keeps overriding their efforts. And even a slithering snake for a considerable time. if the only apparent, or easiest, way out is Such episodes underscore the fact that by to escape, the question arises – where to? engaging in war people risk not only their Õunpuu does not answer this question, own lives, but also those of their animal but shows us characters trying to do so ‘brothers and sisters’. by becoming isolated and self-contained, seeking intimacy with another person, CONCLUSION accepting (even if grudgingly or after some The writings of Eva Illouz suggest that the deliberation) commitments towards close workings of ‘emotional capitalism’ have ones, martyrdom and communing with often made people (women more than nature. Although none of these means men) miserable in love due to the complex comes across as completely original, all interplay of various modern/capitalist together point to a remarkable effort to institutions, discourses and practices, even escape from the clutches of neoliberalism. if some of those institutions, discourses and practices are themselves progressive in a certain sense. However, Illouz does not propose that emotionally satisfactory intimacy has been completely lost, or that it is impossible to achieve it. But she also does not say how to be(come) happy in love. Quite the contrary, in the epilogue to Why Love Hurts, Illouz clearly states that she intentionally abstains from giving any instructions, which would only add to the burden of the tyranny of the ‘therapeutic culture’ (Illouz 2012: 238). Similarly, Õunpuu does not reject love or intimacy – or, for that matter, the human need for it – in his films; in our opinion, his films actually betray his romantic nature. At the same time, his films are not ‘about’ love; they are, if anything,

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