Elements of Task, Job Andprofessional Satisfaction in the Language Industry: an Empirical Model

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ELEMENTS OF TASK, JOB, AND PROFESSIONAL SATISFACTION IN THE LANGUAGE INDUSTRY: AN EMPIRICAL MODEL

A dissertation submitted

to Kent State University in partial

fulfillment of the requirements for the

degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Mónica Rodríguez-Castro

December, 2011

Dissertation written by

Mónica Rodríguez-Castro

M.A., University of Wisconsin – Milwaukee, USA, 2007

B.A., Universidade de Vigo, Spain, 2004

Approved by

______, Chair, Doctoral Dissertation Committee Gregory M. Shreve

______, Members, Doctoral Dissertation Committee Keiran J. Dunne

______, Sue Ellen Wright

______, Marcia Zeng

______, Susan Roxburgh

Accepted by

______, Chair, Modern and Classical Language Studies Jennifer Larson

______, Dean, College of Arts and Sciences John R. D. Stalvey iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES ...... XI

LIST OF TABLES ...... XIV

DEDICATION...... XIX

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... XX

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1

1.1 Background ...... 1

1.1.1 Translation Profession – Main Trends ...... 1

1.1.2 Changes in Organizational Dynamics ...... 5

1.1.3 Work Environment...... 12

1.1.4 New Job and Task Expectations ...... 19

1.1.5 Professional Identity ...... 25

1.2 Statement of the Problem ...... 28

1.3 Purpose of this Study ...... 30

1.4 Review of Theoretical Framework ...... 30

1.5 Significance of this Study ...... 31

1.6 Research Questions ...... 33

1.7 Organization of this Study ...... 33

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 35

2.1 Introduction to the Concept of ‘Satisfaction’ ...... 35

2.2 Individual Aspects of Satisfaction ...... 37

2.2.1 Values ...... 37

2.2.2 Attitudes ...... 39

2.2.3 Traits ...... 40

2.2.4 Alignment of Values, Attitudes and Behaviors ...... 41

2.2.5 Influence of Attitudes over Behavior via Intentions ...... 41

2.2.6 Aproaches to the Individual and Job satisfaction ...... 43

2.3 Task Performance ...... 48

2.3.1 Self-efficacy ...... 48

2.3.2 Professional Skills and Intelligence ...... 49

2.4 Contextual Aspects of the Work Environment...... 51

2.4.1 Content Theories ...... 51

2.4.2 Process Theories ...... 58

2.4.3 Goal Setting Theories ...... 63

2.4.4 Influence of the Leadership School ...... 64

2.4.5 Influence of Job Redesign and Job Characteristics Theories ...... 66

2.4.6 Evolution of Organizational Dynamics ...... 67

2.4.6.1 Projectized Organizations ...... 70

2.4.6.2 Group or Team Dynamics and Leadership ...... 78

2.4.6.3 Virtual Leadership ...... 81

2.5 Professional Aspects of Satisfaction ...... 87

2.5.1 Social Recognition of a Profession ...... 88

2.5.2 Professionalism and Professional Status ...... 89

2.5.3 Professional Commitment and Professional Involvement ...... 89

2.5.4 Coaching and Retention ...... 92

2.6 Conclusions ...... 93

CHAPTER 3 TRANSLATOR SATISFACTION MODEL ...... 97

3.1 Composition of the Model ...... 97

3.2 Facets, Concepts, Factors and Variables–Operationalizations ...... 98

3.3 Theoretical Framework ...... 101

3.4 Model of Translator Satisfaction ...... 101

3.4.1 Facet of Task Satisfaction ...... 101

3.4.1.1 Self-efficacy ...... 105

3.4.1.2 Nature of the Task ...... 109

3.4.1.3 Job-Fit ...... 114

3.4.1.4 Self-fulfillment ...... 118

3.4.2 Facet of Job Satisfaction ...... 124

3.4.2.1 Individual-Job Fit ...... 126

3.4.2.2 Individual-Organization and Individual-Team Fit ...... 138

3.4.2.3 Individual-Upper Management Fit ...... 152

3.4.2.4 Individual-Client Relationship ...... 159

3.4.3 Facet of Professional Satisfaction ...... 162

3.4.3.1 Professional Profile ...... 162

3.4.3.2 (Perceived) Job Security ...... 176

3.4.3.3 Occupational Flexibility...... 178

3.4.3.4 Marketing ...... 178

3.4.3.5 Translator’s Self-concept ...... 181

3.4.3.6 Career Development ...... 184

3.4.3.7 Professional Reputation ...... 189

3.4.3.8 Mentoring ...... 192

3.4.3.9 Career Turnover ...... 194

3.5 Research Questions ...... 194

3.5.1 Descriptive Statistical Analysis ...... 195

3.5.2 Hypothesis Testing...... 199

3.5.3 Regression Analysis ...... 204

3.5.4 Correlation Analysis ...... 204

CHAPTER 4 METHODOLOGY ...... 206

4.1 Selection of Participants ...... 206

4.2 Instrument ...... 211

4.2.1Questionnaire Dessign ...... 215

4.3 Data Collection ...... 226

4.4 Data Analysis ...... 227

4.4.1 Basic Statistical Metrics ...... 228

4.4.2 Correlation ...... 229

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4.4.3 Linear Regression ...... 230

4.4.4 Hypothesis Testing...... 232

4.4.5 Qualitative Methods ...... 232

CHAPTER 5 SURVEY RESULTS AND ANALYSIS ...... 234

5.1 Descriptive Statistical Analysis ...... 235

5.1.1 Task Satisfaction ...... 235

5.1.1.1 Self-efficacy ...... 236

5.1.1.2 Nature of the Task ...... 237

5.1.1.3 Job Fit...... 238

5.1.1.4 Self-fulfillment ...... 241

5.1.2 Job Satisfaction ...... 243

5.1.2.1 Individual-Job Fit ...... 243

5.1.2.2 Individual-Organization Fit ...... 248

5.1.2.2.1 Individual-Team Fit ...... 248

5.1.2.2.1.1 Role of the PM (or Supervisor) ...... 248

5.1.2.2.1.2 Interpersonal Relationships ...... 252

5.1.2.2.1.3 Overall Satisfaction toward Virtual Teamwork .. 253

5.1.2.2.2 Individual-Upper Management Fit ...... 255

5.1.2.2.3 Individual-Client Relationship ...... 258

5.1.3 Professional Satisfaction ...... 259

5.1.3.1 Professional Profile ...... 259

5.1.3.1.1 Technical Expertise ...... 259

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5.1.3.1.2 Formal Education ...... 266

5.1.3.1.3 Professional Experience ...... 267

5.1.3.1.4 Specialization ...... 267

5.1.3.1.5 Professional and Communication Skills ...... 268

5.1.3.1.6 Job Security ...... 270

5.1.3.1.7 Occupational Flexibility ...... 271

5.1.3.1.8 Marketing ...... 271

5.1.3.2 Translator’s Self-concept ...... 272

5.1.3.3 Career development ...... 273

5.1.3.4 Professional Reputation ...... 275

5.1.3.5 Mentoring ...... 277

5.1.3.6 Career Turnover ...... 277

5.2 Hypothesis Testing ...... 278

5.2.1 Hypothesis Testing – Task Satisfaction ...... 279

5.2.2 Hypothesis Testing – Job Satisfaction ...... 289

5.2.3 Hypothesis Testing – Professional Satisfaction ...... 305

5.3 Regression Analysis ...... 318

5.3.1 Regression Analysis of Task Satisfaction ...... 319

5.3.2 Regression Analysis of Job Satisfaction ...... 322

5.3.3 Regression Analysis of Professional Satisfaction ...... 326

5.4 Correlation Analysis ...... 329

5.4.1 Correlation – Task Satisfaction ...... 330

5.4.2 Correlation – Job Satisfaction ...... 333

5.4.3 Correlation – Professional Satisfaction ...... 337

5.5 Qualitative Analysis ...... 341

CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS ...... 351

6.1 Summary of Results ...... 352

6.2 Discussion and Implications of this Study ...... 356

6.3 Contributions of this study ...... 374

6.4 Limitations of this study ...... 376

6.5 Recommendations for Further Research ...... 380

APPENDIX A SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE...... 382

APPENDIX B IRB DOCUMENTATION ...... 401

APPENDIX C REGRESSION MODELS ...... 405

GLOSSARY...... 408

REFERENCES ...... 412

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs...... 53

Figure 2.2. Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers...... 56

Figure 3.1. Main Components of the Model...... 98

Figure 3.2. Three Facets of Satisfaction...... 98

Figure 3.3. Example of Freelancer Tasks...... 103

Figure 3.4. Example of Tasks Performed in Two Work Environments ...... 103

Figure 3.5. Factors and Variables – Self-efficacy ...... 107

Figure 3.6. Factors and Variables – Nature of the Task...... 109

Figure 3.7. Factors and Variables – Job-Fit & Self-fulfillment...... 114

Figure 3.8. Factors and Variables – A Translator with Multiple Roles...... 125

Figure 3.9. Factors and Variables – Individual-Job Fit...... 127

Figure 3.10. Sub-concept, Factors & Variables – Individual-Team Fit...... 139

Figure 3.11. Factors and Variables – Interpersonal Relationships & Virtual Teams. .... 148

Figure 3.12. Factors and Variables – Individual-Upper Management Fit...... 153

Figure 3.13. Translation Workflow – ASTM F 2575 (2006) ...... 154

Figure 3.14. Factors and Variables – Individual-Client ...... 159

Figure 3.15. Factors and Variables – Professional Profile...... 163

Figure 3.16. Factors and Variables – Professional & Communication Skills...... 171

Figure 3.17. Factors and Variables – Job Security & Occupational Flexibility...... 177

Figure 3.18. Factors and Variables – Marketing...... 179

Figure 3.19. Factors and Variables – Self-concept ...... 182

Figure 3.20. Factors and Variables – Career Development...... 185

Figure 3.21. Factors and Variables – Involvement in the Profession...... 189

Figure 3.22. Factors and Variables – Professional Reputation, Mentoring&Turnover. . 189

Figure 5.1. Opportunities to choose new tasks or roles (23-3)...... 240

Figure 5.2. Multitasking (27-13)...... 241

Figure 5.3. Feedback on translation samples (23-10)...... 242

Figure 5.4. Requests for discounts (27-14) ...... 246

Figure 5.5. Task deadlines (23-12)...... 247

Figure 5.6. Deadlines are often too tight (25-18)...... 247

Figure 5.7. Appreciation or Performance Appraisal (27-5)...... 251

Figure 5.8. Supervision (27-4)...... 252

Figure 5.9. Virtual teams (26-2)...... 254

Figure 5.10. Teamwork stress (24-2)...... 254

Figure 5.11. Payment practices (27-9)...... 257

Figure 5.12. Payment terms (27-10)...... 258

Figure 5.13. Familiarity with CSV (20-1)...... 263

Figure 5.14. Familiarity with TMX (20-2)...... 263

Figure 5.15. Familiarity with TBX (20-3)...... 264

Figure 5.16. Familiarity with DITA (20-5)...... 265

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Figure 5.17. Terminology management skills (22-9)...... 265

Figure 5.18. Social recognition (36-11)...... 273

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1. Components of Attitudes (Adapted) ...... 40

Table 2.2. Herzberg’s Two-factor Theory (Adapted)...... 55

Table 2.3. Summary of Leadership Competences (Adapted)...... 81

Table 3.1. Annual salary of full-time in-house translators and subcontractors...... 131

Table 3.2. Annual salary of part-time in-house translators and subcontractors...... 132

Table 5.1. Survey Items – Task satisfaction – Self-efficacy ...... 236

Table 5.2. Survey Items – Task satisfaction – Nature of the Task ...... 238

Table 5.3. Survey Items – Task satisfaction – Job Fit ...... 239

Table 5.4. Survey Items – Task satisfaction – Self-fulfillment ...... 242

Table 5.5. Survey Items – Job satisfaction – Individual-Job fit ...... 244

Table 5.6. Survey Items – Job satisfaction – Role of the PM (or Supervisor)...... 249

Table 5.7. Survey Items – Job satisfaction – Interpersonal relationships ...... 253

Table 5.8. Survey Items – Job satisfaction – Virtual teams ...... 253

Table 5.9. Survey Items – Job satisfaction – Individual-Upper Management fit ...... 256

Table 5.10. Survey Items – Job satisfaction – Individual-Client Relationship ...... 259

Table 5.11. Survey Items – Professional satisfaction – Technical Expertise ...... 262

Table 5.12. Survey Items – Professional satisfaction – Formal Education ...... 266

Table 5.13. Survey Items – Professional satisfaction – Professional Experience ...... 267

Table 5.14. Survey Items – Professional satisfaction - Specialization ...... 268

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Table 5.15. Survey Items – Task satisfaction – Professional & communication skills ...... 269

Table 5.16. Survey Items – Professional satisfaction – Job security ...... 270

Table 5.17. Survey Items – Professional satisfaction – Occupational flexibility ...... 271

Table 5.18. Survey Items – Professional satisfaction - Marketing ...... 272

Table 5.19. Survey Items – Professional satisfaction – Professional Self-concept ...... 272

Table 5.20. Survey Items – Professional satisfaction – Career Development ...... 274

Table 5.21. Survey Items – Professional satisfaction – Professional Reputation ...... 276

Table 5.22. Survey Items – Professional satisfaction – Mentoring ...... 277

Table 5.23. Survey Items – Professional satisfaction – Career Turnover ...... 278

Table 5.24. t-test In house/Freelancers ...... 280

Table 5.25. t-test Expert/Novice ...... 281

Table 5.26. t-test Expert/Novice ...... 281

Table 5.27. t-test In-house/Freelancers ...... 282

Table 5.28. t-test In-house/Freelancers ...... 282

Table 5.29. t-test In-house/Freelancers ...... 283

Table 5.30. t-test Expert/Novice ...... 284

Table 5.31. t-test In-house/Freelancers ...... 284

Table 5.32. t-test Expert/Novice ...... 285

Table 5.33. t-test Expert/Novice ...... 286

Table 5.34. t-test Expert/Novice ...... 287

Table 5.35. t-test In-house/Freelancers ...... 288

Table 5.36. t-test Expert/Novice ...... 288

Table 5.37. t-test In-house/Freelancers ...... 289

Table 5.38. t-test In-house/Freelancers ...... 290

Table 5.39. t-test In-house/Freelancers ...... 290

Table 5.40. t-test Expert/Novice ...... 291

Table 5.41. t-test In-house/Freelancers ...... 291

Table 5.42. t-test Expert/Novice ...... 292

Table 5.43. t-test Expert/Novice ...... 292

Table 5.44. t-test In-house/Freelancers ...... 292

Table 5.45. t-test Expert/Novice ...... 293

Table 5.46. t-test In-house/Freelancers ...... 293

Table 5.47. t-test In-house/Freelancers ...... 294

Table 5.48. t-test In-house/Freelancers ...... 294

Table 5.49. t-test In-house/Freelancers ...... 294

Table 5.50. t-test In-house/Freelancers ...... 296

Table 5.51. t-test Expert/Novice ...... 297

Table 5.52. t-test In-house/Freelancers ...... 297

Table 5.53. t-test In-house/Freelancers ...... 298

Table 5.54. t-test In-house/Freelancers ...... 298

Table 5.55. t-test In-house/Freelancers ...... 299

Table 5.56. t-test Expert/Novice ...... 300

Table 5.57. t-test In-house/Freelancers ...... 300

Table 5.58. t-test Expert/Novice ...... 301

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Table 5.59. t-test In-house/Freelancers ...... 301

Table 5.60. t-test In-house/Freelancers ...... 302

Table 5.61. t-test Expert/Novice ...... 302

Table 5.62. t-test Expert/Novice ...... 303

Table 5.63. t-test In-house/Freelancers ...... 303

Table 5.64. t-test Expert/Novice ...... 304

Table 5.65. t-test In-house/Freelancers ...... 304

Table 5.66. t-test In-house/Freelancers ...... 306

Table 5.67. t-test Expert/Novice ...... 307

Table 5.68. t-test Expert/Novice ...... 308

Table 5.69. t-test Expert/Novice ...... 309

Table 5.70. t-test Expert/Novice ...... 310

Table 5.71. t-test In-house/Freelancers ...... 310

Table 5.72. t-test In-house/Freelancers ...... 311

Table 5.73. t-test Expert/novice ...... 311

Table 5.74. t-test Expert/Novice ...... 312

Table 5.75. t-test Expert/Novice ...... 314

Table 5.76. t-test Expert/Novice ...... 314

Table 5.77. t-test Expert/Novice ...... 315

Table 5.78. t-test Expert/Novice ...... 315

Table 5.79. t-test Expert/Novice ...... 316

Table 5.80. t-test Expert/Novice ...... 316

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Table 5.81. t-test Expert/Novice ...... 317

Table 5.82. t-test Expert/Novice ...... 318

Table 5.83. ANOVA – Regression – Task Satisfaction – 1...... 320

Table 5.84. ANOVA – Regression – Task Satisfaction – 2 ...... 321

Table 5.85. Regression Results – Task Satisfaction ...... 321

Table 5.86. ANOVA – Regression – Job Satisfaction – 1...... 323

Table 5.87. ANOVA – Regression – Job Satisfaction – 2 ...... 324

Table 5.88. Regression Results – Job Satisfaction ...... 325

Table 5.89. ANOVA – Regression – Professional Satisfaction – 1 ...... 327

Table 5.90. ANOVA – Regression – Professional Satisfaction – 2...... 328

Table 5.91. Regression Results – Professional Satisfaction ...... 328

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DEDICATION

To Sudhir:

Whose passion and commitment to lifelong learning inspires me.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my gratitude to my advisor Prof. Greg Shreve for mentoring me during this study. I would also like to acknowledge the support of Prof. Keiran Dunne for his help with the development of the instrument, and his great contribution to my further understanding of the industry. I would like to thank the members of my dissertation committee, Prof. Sue Ellen Wright, Prof. Marcia Zeng and Prof. Susan Roxburgh for reviewing my dissertation and offering valuable suggestions during the course of this work. Finally, I would like to thank the Department of Modern & Classical Language

Studies and the Institute for Applied Linguistics at Kent State University for financial support and help, as well as my fellow graduate students and all the translators who participated in the survey conducted as part of this study.

Mónica Rodríguez Castro

November 4, 2011, Kent

CHAPTER 1

Introduction

This dissertation presents a model of translator satisfaction along with an instrument and empirical data that can be used for the assessment of translator satisfaction in the language industry. A model for translator satisfaction consisting of three main facets

(task, job and professional) has been built in this study and is discussed in Chapter 3. The introduction of this dissertation presents the background of the current language industry, discusses the problem studied in this work, describes the role of the translator in the current industry, and discusses the purpose and significance of the dissertation. Many concepts have been adapted and adopted from other disciplines for this study, and these concepts are introduced in this chapter and operationally defined in the Glossary. A review of the theoretical framework is presented along with relevant literature pertaining to translator satisfaction. This chapter also discusses the purpose and significance of the study and the research reported in this dissertation.

1.1 Background

1.1.1 Translation Profession – Main Trends

Over the last two decades, the language industry (LI) has undergone a rapid transformation which has not only reshaped the evolution of the translation profession, but has also significantly affected the overall translation process and the organizational dynamics of the industry. Translation has evolved mainly as a result of the following 1 2

trends: globalization, the advent of the Internet and related technological changes, and outsourcing. These trends are interrelated and have subsequently led to organizational changes, new work environments, intercultural virtual labor forces and new workflow and lean management strategies.

The language industry has become a multibillion dollar business sector. Annual growth projections for the five-year period from 2010 to 2015 range from 10 to 13.15% and “estimates of the size of the LI range from EUR 8.5 billion to USD 23.3 billion, and as high as USD 30 billion” (Dunne 2011a). According to the European Union of

Associations of Translation Companies (EUATC), the estimated average annual growth rates range from 5 to 7.5% over the near future (Boucau 2006). Website localization (the translation and adaptation of websites) has emerged as the fastest growing segment of the

LI, with estimated revenues increasing from USD 640 million in 1999 to USD 1,162 million in 2004 (Boucau 2006). These figures demonstrate the growth and rapid expansion of the LI and underscore the pivotal role played by this industry in helping businesses to succeed in implementing global strategies and in penetrating new markets.

In other words, language service providers (LSPs) have enabled large corporations with worldwide business interests to extend their core competences by adding value to products, improving branding, enhancing customer satisfaction and increasing service quality (Gouadec 2007). As a result, the language industry is increasingly viewed by corporations as a key component of their globalization strategy, and the related processes of internationalization, localization, and translation (GILT) have been deemed necessary

processes for the successful adaptation of digital products and services to specific target audiences or locales.

The widespread geographical dispersion of economic activities and expansion of businesses across national borders has been greatly facilitated due to technological innovation and Internet technologies. These innovations have made it exponentially easier to create and share source language content, translation resources, and target- language files with clients, among language service providers, and between service providers and translators. Server-based systems, client-server software, authoring systems, and computer-assisted translation applications have played a dramatic role in the evolution of the LI.

With the growth of the Internet and the World Wide Web, and its widespread use for global marketing and customer service, the nature of a translation professional’s tasks and roles has drastically changed, in particular, source texts or inputs have become more heterogeneous, thus leading to a higher level of technical complexity for translation or localization. Consequently, new operating models and business processes, as well as professional translation processing and translation project management tools, have emerged and spread to all sectors of the LI, including active translation professionals.

Translation has been radically transformed from being considered an “art and craft,” in which translators perform small manageable individual jobs, to a full-fledged large volume and mass-production enterprise. Mass-production language processing methods have resulted in increased division of labor, specialization of skills, process standardization and the systematic reuse of language resources. Shortening the time to

market has become important for translation buyers to remain competitive, and this has been achieved by shortening the language project lifecycle, made possible by automating many language and project processes. A major trend in this regard has been the optimization of the translation process by leveraging repetitive content with translation memories and terminology management. More integrated translation workflows have also been facilitated by communications and project management software. However, these rapid changes have challenged translators, specifically active professionals without proper training on CAT tools or formal education in Translation Studies. This is because these rapid changes require them to continuously update their technical skills as well as adapt to the changing nature of the work environment.

Globalization and rapid technological changes have also resulted in new employment phenomena such as outsourcing, and further instigated changes in the way organizations work. For instance, virtual teams, remote work locations, project-based organizational structures and new methods of Internet-mediated communication have become widespread. Also, in an increasingly demanding industry, translators are facing globalization trends that expose them not only to broader markets, but also to broader competition.

Due to the emerging trends discussed in this section, a translation professional’s work environment and job profile have been significantly affected, influencing the level of satisfaction at work because of organizational changes, new team dynamics and new trends in the translation context. These trends have been further accentuated due to a gradual shift from traditional to projectized organizational structures. As a result, a

translator’s professional profile has not only become essentially more dynamic, but has also become increasingly characterized by a widely varied and more technically sophisticated skillset.

1.1.2 Changes in Organizational Dynamics

As a consequence of outsourcing, organizations have been adopting increasingly flexible structures as they strive to improve their business models (Turner 2009) so as to respond to rapidly changing business environments in order to gain or preserve a competitive advantage. These new business structures and models, specifically project- based models, emphasize open systems with groups or teams. They are flatter and more collaborative work environments. In contemporary project-based structures, specialized knowledge is accumulated and shared using diverse software and communication technologies—collectively, information technology (IT). Hence, IT is a key factor in today’s projectized business environment that is used by organizations in order to cope with rapid changes in the business environment.

Companies using translation services are focusing their efforts on enhancement of their products, services and business models by having a specialized labor force with diverse skillsets, knowledge and subject matter expertise. Successful companies ensure that they “accumulate in-house the core competences that confer a competitive advantage, while undertaking external core competences, and creating new product and service business models from knowledge integration” (Kodama 2). For instance, clients from the IT sector have been “transforming their traditionally hierarchical organization to flatter, speedier, and more flexible and horizontally-integrated structures based around

teams and projects” (ibid.). IT and software companies were some of the early adopters of project-based structures, providing an early impetus for the development of localization and the advent of the language industry. In other words, as client companies become more projectized, translation processes and workflows of the LSPs have been significantly impacted. One could make the case that LSPs become more project- oriented, at least partly, because they are interacting with more project-oriented companies.

Outsourcing has also led to organizational changes that may impact translator satisfaction in many ways. This can be evidenced from the changes in the way that language and translation work has been organized by LSPs over the last two decades.

Despite a wide recognition of the pros and cons, the outsourcing model has become a common business practice across the industry (Gouadec 2007) due to digitization and developments in IT, with more than 75% of the companies adopting the outsourcing model (Boucau 2006). The advent of the localization industry in the 1990s was most likely a major contributor to the adoption of the outsourcing model, as vendors added localization services to their core competences. Outsourcing became a viable option for acquiring new and relatively rare skilled translation human resources. Today “nearly 90% of companies outsource some or all of their translation and localization work” (DePalma

2008:1).

In an earlier era, when the volume of translation across the language industry was lower than it is now, and when Internet and advanced communication technologies were not so prevalent, translating onsite with in-house (or locally available) translators was

relatively common and in some cases the most practical, cost-effective solution. As the translation economic environment changed and translation volume (and demand) increased, new communication technologies made it possible to recruit translator resources that were not onsite or even in-country. Thus, outsourcing, subcontracting and working offsite became more and more predominant in the LI.

Within the subcontracting model, many LSPs manage a primarily “distributed” network of freelancers with a minimal number of salaried employees (consisting usually of project managers) and very little in-house staff. Because of the need for process centralization, project managers (PMs) mediate between the client and the project team, and assume supervisory responsibilities, making it more cost-effective to resort to subcontractors rather than investing in staff retention and training initiatives. Some ramifications of these practices are an increase in remote or “distance” working or teleworking, the use of more freelancers in a variety of contract modes, and more salaried translators or PMs working remotely or telecommuting. Due to these new organizational dynamics, the PM’s role in managing the translation process and the communication workflow become crucial for this study. In particular, it is because (1) this role is becoming increasingly critical in the current state of organization of most LSPs; and (2) the central role played by PMs in the organization relative to communication and workflow management (as the main mediator between upper management, language professionals and the end client). The PM has become a key component of the translator’s work environment. Therefore, the level of individual translator satisfaction can be expected to relate not just to team structure and organizational dynamics, but also

to level of satisfaction with the role and performance of the PM. The team of translators can, in turn, influence the job satisfaction of the PM.

Changes in LSP organizational structure and the translation workflow have presented a challenge to quality management. Maintaining or ensuring quality in today’s rapidly changing language industry becomes a central issue for LSPs. There is often a mismatch in expectations between translation buyers and LSPs. Generally, translation buyers or clients prioritize aspects such as branding, increasing customer loyalty, adherence to requirements and service quality. But they also demand higher speed and quick turnaround. Therefore, quality is sacrificed for speed in some segments (Kelly et al.

2008:11). Changing expectations toward quality can impact the translation process. New quality processes are often put into place to try to strike a balance between translation product quality and rapidly evolving client expectations, including shorter delivery times.

These new quality demands and processes complicate the work environment as well as the role of the translator, potentially impacting translator satisfaction.

Adoption of flexible and decentralized organizational structures among clients has increasingly led to the extensive subcontracting of language services to language industry companies. Translation is frequently subcontracted to an LSP, who may in turn subcontract to yet other language companies. The increasing use of subcontracting has sometimes led to difficulties with communication processes, which have been challenged to keep up with the evolution of the new and different demands associated with the increase in subcontracting. On the one hand, corporations rarely share their time and resources with subcontractors, and generally do not involve themselves, or share their

organizational vision with them. For instance, there are companies in the automotive industry that are committed to translation quality since quality in general is extremely important to their organizational culture. However, the extent of their cooperation with linguists or their commitment to shortening the translation project lifecycle is questionable. On the other hand, the lack of communication or misunderstanding during the communication process may affect the quality of service and constrain a potential long-term business relationship between the client and the LSP. Samuelsson-Brown

(2004) attributes the communication gap between the client and the LSP to: (a) the PM’s misunderstanding of project requirements from the client; (b) the client’s inadequate statement of requirements and a lack of detailed set of specifications by the PM (41); (c) the PM’s delivery of a product that does not meet client expectations; and (d) the client’s bias toward previous communication workflows. It could be argued that some of these communication gaps could be more easily bridged when translation is performed onsite and not subcontracted. Thus, these communication problems may become apparent as a consequence of the subcontractor model and may be further exacerbated when processes are not standardized, either on the client side or from the LSP (e.g., due to a lack of centralization).

Bass, an LSP owner, suggests a framework in an article published on

TranslationDirectory.com that enables assessment of the status of the relationship between an LSP and a buyer (e.g., new, emerging or established relationship) and equates the status with the level of review and amount of feedback provided to the end client. For instance, a suggested approach during the initiation of the relationship for first few (1-3)

projects could be providing a very detailed client review and feedback, with the translation being reviewed by a subject matter expert in the target locale. Guaranteeing quality to the end client builds a long-term business relationship and lays the foundation for an improved buyer-vendor relationship. The ideal solution to resolving the communication gap could emerge from constant collaboration between clients and vendors, ensuring process quality and process centralization, which in turn ensures customer satisfaction and high productivity. In this dissertation it is assumed that translator satisfaction can be significantly affected by the lack of standardized communication processes or by the lack of buyer-vendor collaboration, as discussed above. This communication gap will be discussed further in the model.

DePalma and Beninatto (2002) have outlined a list of pros and cons comparing onsite translation versus offsite translation. The authors highlight quality, process control and cost as the main advantages of in-house translation, and process cost and technology as the main cons of outsourced localization. The authors argue that translations done onsite (or in-house) allow for a better control and consistency in branding. In-house staff is more familiar with the products, quality expectations and generally shows a higher level of motivation to complete the work. In the case of outsourced translation, quality may not be closely controlled, the lack of consistency in branding may become apparent, and project management may be less effective (and inexperienced). With regards to process, in-house translation is usually completed in a more collaborative environment and allows for better leverage of translation assets. In-house translation is more cost- effective when the project is relatively small with fewer languages involved.

In the case of outsourcing, certain processes become more flexible and scalable, and outsourcing offers more flexibility in finding and recruiting expertise. With regards to technology, often both technology and processes are obsolete onsite, and upgrading to new technologies can be expensive because it requires new training and restructuring.

Conversely, outsourced translation often allows for technical innovation and use of state- of-the-art technologies without making significant investments. In-house translation generally involves high overhead and fixed costs, whereas outsourcing adds variable costs to translation and does not require any investment in specialized technical knowledge, allowing companies to focus on their core competences. Furthermore, many companies do not require in-house translators in full time capacity.

All the rapid changes in management processes and alterations in organizational structure and dynamics have an effect on the working professional. The literature shows that working professionals can evolve in their attitudes toward these changes. In the best- case scenario, they move from negative reactions (denial, shock, resistance to change) to acceptance and adoption of new business processes and integration into the new organization. In projectized organizations, the PM can play an important role in helping employees adapt to change by becoming instrumental in establishing a communication workflow that allows for interaction between upper management and team members in order to facilitate the successful passage of project teams through the transition process.

In increasingly virtual and distributed environments, PMs can enhance team cohesion and persuade team members to commit themselves to lifelong learning and advancement in the organization.

Professional abilities, personal characteristics, and communication skills play a key role in determining translators’ levels of tolerance for ambiguity or uncertainty and the need for control of the rapidly changing work situation. All these aspects can impact a professional’s reaction to constant change (and the consequences of change) in the work environment. Success in adapting to change may become a “satisfier” or a “dissatisfier,” an element that has a direct positive or negative impact on task satisfaction. Indeed, the level of satisfaction may also significantly depend on the perceived effectiveness of leadership that is implemented during periods of transition. Hence, leadership can also become a satisfier or a dissatisfier and will be further studied in the model.

1.1.3 Work Environment

Outsourcing has also resulted in rapid changes in organizational structures in the

LI that have led to new work modes, new models for collaborative work like virtual teams, and more communication channels. This has resulted in new team dynamics and a work environment characterized by a lack of interpersonal relationships, a lack of face- to-face communication, a lack of close supervision, and so on. As discussed in the previous section, translators may work onsite for a translation company or in a department of an organization, or they may work offsite or from home. Translator satisfaction can be significantly influenced by aspects that affect individual work environment and team dynamics.

Some estimates can be found in the literature, but it may be noted that there is little empirical data on the number of onsite or offsite translators active in the industry.

Some sources estimate around 300,000 translators worldwide (Gouadec 2007). The

EUATC estimated approximately 250,000 active professionals in 2005, while the Van

Dijk report estimated in 1997 that the number of translators and interpreters in Europe was 82,000. However it is unclear how this population is partitioned with respect to onsite versus offsite employment.

In the current work environment, PMs are generally salaried employees and represent a broad group that often works onsite for an LSP (although there is also an increasing trend toward outsourcing project management). Salaried translators may work both onsite and offsite for companies that process high translation volume. These individuals are bound to one employer and may offer a number of translation-related services. Such translators may work in the public or private sector.

“In-house translation departments are fully-fledged services within companies …

[that] have all the required information at hand … access to relevant resources … the authors of the material being translated, existing in-house documentation” (Gouadec 93).

Most translation departments have a project coordinator who serves as a supervisor and establishes specifications, deadlines and workload. Teamwork is expected to be more dynamic and integrated among in-house translators than in outsourced virtual teams.

Many small organizations may not even have a distinct translation department, with a worker from a specific department acting as a PM to oversee localization or translation tasks. For instance, bilingual administrative staff members are often asked to undertake translation tasks in addition to their administrative responsibilities. Such an organization may translate onsite, but if volume increases and the workload becomes excessive for in-house staff, it may resort to outsourcing. In such cases, process and

product quality varies with the individual project management skills of the person acting as the PM.

One result of more dynamic organizations and working environments is that multitasking, or more precisely the ability to perform multiple or a wide variety of tasks, becomes a more frequent aspect of a translator’s or a project manager’s job. Professionals may be assigned certain non-translation tasks (administrative, managerial, etc.) as their primary responsibility in one working situation; but in another situation, translation tasks may once again be the primary focus. A related phenomenon is what might be called

“multi-working.” In such cases an individual may work full time for an organization outside of the LI and subcontract either part time or full time for an LSP. For instance, a translator may have a full-time job as a teacher and a part-time job as a translator.

Another permutation of multi-working is a translator working onsite for an LSP and subcontracting for other LSPs.

Of all the translators working offsite, the two predominant groups are official salaried translators and subcontractors. In the first group, the employer supplies translation tools, software programs, etc., and the salaried employees have contractual obligations binding them to the company. The larger group of translators working offsite consists of independent subcontractors who may be sole proprietors or the owners of their own companies, with or without employees. This latter group generally consists of small companies that may also resort to further subcontracting for high volume projects. In fact, knowing the exact number of freelancers is difficult because translators are allowed to register themselves as freelancers or as sole proprietorships in a wide variety of ways,

with varying taxation obligations. In the 1970s, freelancers were a minority of the translator pool (Finlay 1971:30), but the EUATC estimates that freelancers now account for approximately 80% of the global translation market (Boucau 2005:28). Full-time freelancers comprised 45% of respondents to the ATA compensation survey in 2001,

46% in 2004 and 53% in 2006. Part-time freelancers comprised 34% of respondents in

2001, 33% in 2004 and 28% in 2006. Full-time in-house staff comprised 10% of respondents in 2001 and 11% in 2004. Part-time in-house staff comprised 5% of respondents in 2003 and 3% in 2004. In the case of translators who are sole proprietors, the same individual manages the business, provides the services, coordinates projects and works directly with the end client. In some cases, the owner may not perform the translation tasks (but subcontracts them) and instead focuses on marketing, sales and other business functions. Understanding freelance work is clearly an integral component of understanding translator satisfaction in the current language industry.

Levels of satisfaction may vary significantly as a result of requirements for the performance of multiple tasks, the amount of multiple-working, the specificities of the work environment, and depending on whether or not the translator is also a sole proprietor or business owner. For instance, a sole proprietor may show high levels of satisfaction in the aspects related to working with the end client, e.g., communication with the end client, but indicate a lower level of satisfaction on other service-related tasks, e.g., sales.

As can be seen from the statistics, most translators in today’s language industry are freelancers. It is important to note that schedule flexibility is one of the most

attractive features of freelancing. Translation attracts individuals for whom translation is a second job, or who prioritize a family-work balance, since freelancing allows them the flexibility to work full time or part time. In fact, many translators may prefer working on weekends to meet their wage expectations or to have more family time during the week.

Additionally, freelancers may be able to choose the workload they want to undertake and may not have (or want to have) a continuous stream of work. But when freelancers acquire a higher level of expertise, they can generally afford to choose with whom, and for whom, they want to work (e.g., well-planned LSPs only).

It can also be argued that the levels of translator satisfaction could be strongly influenced by the maturity level of the LSP (maturity of project management capability, stability and development of business processes, maturity of human resource principles, etc.). It could be assumed that major translation companies with mature business processes might have a significant positive impact on the overall industry in terms of establishing best practices in dealing with projects and teams in today’s new work environments. The assumption would be that a mature industry might develop approaches toward managing teams that could have a positive influence on translator satisfaction.

Since most members of such teams are freelancers, it would be logical to assume that some new best practices might be beneficial to that group.

However, there is some evidence that the actual practices of large LSPs have not always favored freelancers. Best practices, at least in this regard, have not emerged. As an example, a trend has been for large LSPs to achieve their desired profit margins by requesting discounts or by lowering the rates for subcontractors (Durban 2010; Nogueira

and Semolini 2011). In addition, large LSPs tend to monopolize specific big projects that require higher levels of technical expertise and specialization. Large multilingual vendors have been accused in the literature of “suggesting” discounted rates to smaller translation companies or freelancers, thus potentially damaging the position of freelancers and negatively influencing a primary potential determinant of their level of satisfaction: their income.

Due to extensive subcontracting in the LI, new teamwork models have become widespread across the industry. This is particularly applicable to high volume projects, where virtual teamwork reshapes group and team dynamics. Virtual teamwork not only demands new forms of project management leadership, but also demands new professional and communication skills from translators in order to communicate effectively with project stakeholders, via videoconferencing, email and other Internet- mediated technologies.

As project teams are made up of culturally diverse individuals with varying skill sets, the PM’s role is becoming more significant for successful project completion. The

PM not only needs to adopt a leadership style appropriate to the team’s individual personalities, but also needs to adjust communication and management processes based on cultural differences. For instance, team members may possess different levels of cultural intelligence, or may not be native speakers of English. Certain translators could be working remotely with minimal face-to-face interaction, an interaction mode which would be uncommon in their cultures. In these cases, the PM may have to create detailed task descriptions and establish a communication workflow that allows high levels of

virtual interaction. In addition, the PM may need to emphasize training resources or mentoring opportunities in order to ensure that a multicultural multi-location team comprehends shared goals, communicates effectively and delivers the product on time and on budget.

When working in outsourced teams, LSPs should adopt the collaborative translation model (Sargent and DePalma 2007:4). The PM sets up a project and checks the document against existing translation memories, then uploads material for translation, assigns resources to tasks (e.g., translators, consultants, client reviewers, DTP specialists), and finally monitors project progress to meet deadlines. However, CSA acknowledges that translators do not work synchronously in large projects, and an increasing trend toward proofreading one another’s work has been reported. The advantage of this approach is that some batches of the project can be delivered to the client before the deadline, thus accelerating the time to market. Additionally, such tasks as service and marketing may be replaced by a translation workflow management system that creates requests for proposals, monitors quality control, tracks progress, and handles invoicing, among other tasks, thus facilitating the project manager’s or the translator’s job by reducing some of the levels of management complexity.

LSPs vary in the efficacy of their business processes, organizational structure and workflow management based on their maturity levels. For example, the literature clearly states the benefits of terminology management, such as term extraction and term validation before the translation process starts. Some LSPs show a preference for rigorous terminology management up front, but others may opt not to perform it ahead of

time (or at all) due to a shortage of qualified terminologists and fear of a potential increase in project cost. The point is that the pattern of management decision-making can influence translators’ satisfaction. Translators’ perceptions of the quality of the company, the project and the project manager are influenced by their perceptions of how businesses are handled (it is structured, it is well-planned, etc.), whether there is matching of human resource skills to project requirements (e.g., team members are qualified and meet deadlines), and the LSP’s capability to adapt the translation workflow to project needs so as to successfully handle high volume projects with an increasing technical subject matter and terminological complexity.

1.1.4 New Job and Task Expectations

As a result of the aforementioned changes in the current translation profession, not only has the work environment evolved, but tasks associated with the profession have also been reshaped. In particular, the technical automation of tasks and changes in the translation or business processes have driven a greater need for technical skills among professional translators and created new professional roles with new skillsets and work expectations. In fact, all of these dramatic changes have occurred over a relatively short span of time.

Within the new work environments, new business and translation processes as well as new translation technologies have emerged and spread to all sectors of the LI.

Rapid change in the industry has had an impact on what translators need to know in order to function in the profession. In this regard, Neubert explains the impact of reshaping

translators’ “competence” because of the transformation observed in the translation industry:

a number of contextual features that, so to say, overlay the various individual ingredients of translating knowledge and skills … complexity is one aspect which distinguishes translation from practically all other academic professions. Another distinguisher is heterogeneity; translation requires skills that are usually very different from each other and which are not normally to be found in a traditional or even a modern university. (4)

The author highlights complexity and heterogeneity as the main characteristics of the modern translator’s emerging skillset. Neubert emphasizes the inherent difficulty of acquiring these skills in the university curriculum. Given the absence of widespread training opportunities outside of the university environment, the question of how such skills can be developed becomes a critical one.

In an era of widespread virtual communication, translators are required to possess a variety of new skills that are essential for successful online intercultural communication and collaboration. Some of these skills are summarized in the subsequent discussion and will be thoroughly explained in the model developed in Chapter 3.

Leadership skills, for instance, may be important in the LI’s new organizational structures. Goleman (1998) argues that individuals with strengths in three emotional competences—empathy, building relationships and communication—can respond better to other’s emotions and become more effective managers. Although leadership skills are more commonly explicitly sought in project managers and team leaders, the positive role that these skills can play in team dynamics makes them necessary for translation team members as well.

Flexibility and proactive behavior in understanding and improving the translation process are emerging as crucial skills that translators should learn. On one hand, flexibility contributes to team cohesion and improved dynamics. On the other hand, proactive behavior helps in anticipating risks or problems and in generating new ideas.

For instance, being proactive in reporting progress is a trait that project managers generally appreciate since it minimizes project risks (e.g., potentially missing a deadline).

This is just a brief list of some of the essential leadership skills that are very useful for translators, and will be integrated in the model.

Communication skills, as has been argued previously, are also a critical component of the modern translator’s skillset. These skills include the ability to inspire others, the ability to persuade others, the ability to be a listener and to produce clear and convincing messages (Goleman 2000). Using communication skills to handle conflict and cultivate interpersonal bonds and promote team-building behavior are also essential skills that individuals are expected to possess in order to establish professional business relationships within the team and with the broader organization. Communication and leadership skills are, of course, very closely linked and can contribute to the individual level of satisfaction toward team interactions.

As end clients started launching more sophisticated products with higher levels of technological innovation, new task requirements emerged. Since successful translation companies must continuously adapt their processes to meet client and industry requirements, this has resulted in a wave of job specialization in the language industry.

LSPs have been forced to change their recruitment practices and search for different

kinds of skillsets in their professional profiles. CSA’s research shows that the most sought-after segments among translation buyers are hardware, software, office equipment, networking, medical devices, security and web-only business (DePalma

2008:2). Scientific and technical translation is an example of a fast-growing domain which requires a high level of specialization. In particular, both medical devices and IT require high levels of specialized subject matter expertise. In the past, “technical translation has traditionally been regarded as the poor cousin of “real translation” (Byrne

2006:ix), but currently technical translation accounts for approximately 90% of the translation output per year worldwide (Kingscott 2002:247). The translation market remains quite fragmented, and “technical translation is one of the most significant employer of translators” (Byrne 2006:2).

Much of the translation content (and its format) in the current industry is determined by its mode of authoring or creation process as well as its mode of storage

(i.e., virtual repositories). In recent years, content management systems (CMS) have become essential in the authoring of source content. Moreover, when source content started being stored in web-based management systems and simultaneously translated into a number of target languages, global management systems (GMS) started being widely adopted to manage and automate multilingual translation or localization processes to meet simultaneous shipment requirements. With the increasing deployment of these online applications, the nature of localization projects (and tasks) has been radically transformed, and additional (and increasingly diverse) skills related to those applications are being sought from the localizer or the translator in order to accomplish specific tasks.

As a result, modern translators require new technical skills. The advent of the localization industry during the 1990s saw a sudden increase in project complexity

(specifically in website localization) and a radical transformation in the inputs and outputs received and delivered by translators. This further resulted in new technical skills, in addition to the aforementioned professional and communication skills, becoming part of the “expectations” of the professional job profile. In other words, not only is the content being translated becoming more specialized in today’s language industry, but the formats of the source texts or inputs have become more technically complex and heterogeneous, requiring a higher level of technical skill to work with. Even a basic localization project might consist of a software component, an online help file and a

“guide” for getting started. The process of localization might require several compilations, conversions, extractions, and debuggings in order to produce the required project deliverables.

These new business systems require an expanding variety of translation services from professionals and it has become imperative that translators acquire new skills to remain competitive (Rinsche/Portera-Zanotti 2009). This is because the inputs, the output expectations and the tools required to process the tasks have all changed. This increase in technical complexity has significantly modified the nature of the tasks as well as the work processes now found in work environments.

CAT tools in particular are a part of the complexity of the modern translator’s work environment. According to CSA, the application of CAT tools “automate repetitive tasks and thus substantially lessen the need for staff, increase the quality and freshness of

content, and decrease the chances of publishing dated or incorrect translations”

(2005:10). Unlike small translation companies that may have financial constraints on moving to adopt the latest CAT tools, CSA expects to see “mid-size and large agencies move toward providing a total package of off-premises managed service for the global content value chain” (2005:11). LSPs’ extended services will reach a point that will offer

“globally accessible centralized translation memory and termbases, application monitoring with full reporting capabilities, knowledge bases … and connectivity back into their customers’ corporate systems” (12). An extended and integrated buyer-vendor workflow system is expected to emerge, where such stakeholders as project managers, localizers, translators, sales representatives, subject matter experts as well as the PM on the client side can work together in a collaborative environment.

To summarize, these translation collaborative environments not only redefine the notion of virtual team and teamwork, they also require higher levels of specialization and computer literacy, as well as additional project management, communication and professional skills from translators. Nowadays, the industry requires a sophisticated translation labor force that can efficiently manage technology and that possesses a high level of subject matter expertise and strong cognitive and social skills in order to add value to the translation service. It is crucial for translators to have the necessary linguistic knowledge and the capability to simultaneously play multiple roles as cultural mediators with multilingual, computer and multidisciplinary expertise. Translators must understand client expectations and master new translation and localization business processes, as well as the tools necessary to execute them.

As has been argued, translators play several possible roles in the industry work environment, and these roles define the main characteristics of their professional profiles.

The classification of professionals is based on the nature of the tasks performed, domain and level of their specializations, that is, the expertise they possess in order to perform certain domain-specific tasks. Some roles and specializations are clearly identified as terminologists, media translators, subtitlers, multimedia translators, editors, proofreaders, etc., but most of these roles are generally included, especially by the general public, under the umbrella term “translator.” From project to project, translators may shift their roles and use different skillsets to suit the tasks necessary to complete the project. Given the modern translator’s multiplicity of roles and the dynamic complexity of the translator’s skillset, it is hard to clearly describe what it means to be a professional translator.

1.1.5 Professional Identity

The proposed model in this dissertation posits that the professional identity of a translator consists of professional self-concept, professional reputation, professional recognition and prestige. The professional self-concept integrates the individual professional profile with the role of the individual in the industry. The professional identity of translators has significantly evolved over the last three decades as a result of new job and task expectations that emerged from the changes in the work environment intertwined with changing organizational dynamics and teamwork models. As a consequence, a “translator” may need to perform tasks that require file or project management, terminology management, editing, proofreading, testing, desktop

publishing, etc., based on specific project requirements. Translators working in niche segments are very likely to be subject matter experts with a high level of technical knowledge. The profile of specialized translators can be very diverse and their versatility may range from mastering CAT tools, translation information and workflow management systems to technical writing. According to Schmitt (qtd. In Schäffner 2000), translators:

are experts for interlingual and intercultural communication, and assume full responsibility for their work. They have acquired the necessary professional expertise, above all linguistic, cultural and subject-area competence, and are equipped with suitable technological skills to meet the challenges of the market today and those to be expected in the coming years. (25)

Within this context, translators may perform service-related tasks such as sales, marketing or business, especially in case of sole proprietorships and consulting.

Translators may also perform authoring tasks in the L1 or L2. For instance, they may act as technical, business or creative writers, or they may contribute to the development of style guides and standards. When filling the role as editor, pre-editing, gisting and summarizing, précis writing and post-editing machine translations are the most common tasks they might perform. As desktop publishers, formatting, compilation, file conversions, etc. are very common tasks. Tasks that require even higher degrees of specialization such as voiceover, subtitling, transcription, quality control and quality assurance testing (e.g., cosmetic and functional testing), graphic localization, website localization, corpus management, and applied terminology management may also become part of the translator’s job profile and, hence, a component of the translator’s “set of roles” and emerging professional identity.

Even though the profession has become highly specialized and integral to the globalization process, the level of social recognition for the translation profession varies significantly from country to country. Generally, translation has a relatively low status in comparison to other professions (say, such as legal services or accounting) and is still considered to be in its infancy regarding professionalization. Many countries have been slow in recognizing the profession and sector: the “U.S., Canada and Mexico recognized translation as a distinct industrial sector in 1997 (US OMB 1997), followed by the

European Union in 2008” (Dunne 2011a). In North America, Canada was the first country to recognize the translation profession after the promulgation of Canada’s

Official Languages Act and Quebec’s French Language Charter in 1969. However, more and more associations worldwide have reinforced their efforts in promoting the visibility and importance of the profession.

Generally speaking, translators are highly qualified workers, and can accomplish a variety of tasks within a wide number of roles. Translators’ roles are fluid; they keep changing as the working environment and the nature of projects changes. This fluidity is a unique characteristic of the language industry not often shared with other professions.

However, the wide range of roles played, and skills required, does not necessarily equate with a high level of social recognition. The social perception of the translation profession is monolithic, i.e., it does not account for the dynamic and specialized nature of the profession. Translators do not enjoy the high professional status that their (relatively rare) skillsets deserve, and the fact that translation can be viewed as a commodity does not help improve their status, since price often gets prioritized over quality. One aspect of

translator satisfaction could arguably be satisfaction with the social recognition of the role(s) one plays. Since the professional recognition (or more likely, the lack thereof) is expected to affect satisfaction, aspects of professional satisfaction will be discussed in this study.

The IT revolution has enabled companies to access new markets and, with the help of LSPs in the language industry, to create a virtual global presence. The same IT revolution has altered the “tools of the trade” for LSPs and for translators. The translation profession has significantly evolved as a result of these changes in the language industry and the industry’s context of service. The advent of the above mentioned new trends has been responsible for dramatically altering the translation profession. Mary Snell-Hornby

(2000) has called the emerging profession of translation a “hybrid profession” because of its inherent interdisciplinarity, that is, its dependence not just on traditional language transfer skills, but on skills from a wide variety of related knowledge domains.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Recent developments in the language industry, as outlined in the background, have added complexity to any attempts to understand the translation profession. They have had a significant impact on the translator’s job, especially on the nature of the tasks performed, the skills required to perform them, and the organizational contexts in which they take place.

Ironically, all these changes, especially the expansion in the required skillset, do not necessarily correlate with a better income (or better benefits) and greater professional recognition. The dynamic nature of the language industry’s structure and the advent of

the subcontracting model have led to job insecurity and a lack of stable career path options.

Subcontractors are even expected to fund their own career development. As a result, the profession has seen high rates of turnover and the increasing adoption of translation as a “second” career or job. Furthermore, the subcontracting / outsourcing model does not easily accommodate training opportunities for the labor force since it is not often cost-effective and does not fit easily within the LI’s organizational structures.

The lack of career development and training opportunities aggravates the problem of the industry’s increasing need for robust and specialized skillsets. LSPs and clients expect to hire qualified translators who are readily available and capable of accomplishing a wide variety of tasks; yet no one knows where these capable individuals are to come from.

Thus, translators are under pressure, if they want to work professionally, to make time for their own career development and to continuously upgrade their technical and linguistic skills in order to ensure a continuous stream of work and income, and they must do so without any real support from the organizations that employ them.

All the developments discussed in the previous section have led to conditions that may potentially cause dissatisfaction (or satisfaction) among translators. Dissatisfaction may arise, for instance, from the changing characteristics of the work environment, dynamic nature of the job profile, poorly defined task expectations, poor leadership or management and weak professional identity among others.

Some of these conditions are external (or extrinsic) and affect the translator as a result of the work environment. Other conditions are intrinsic, and have to do with

translators’ perceptions, with their attitudes, values and personality characteristics. If the language industry is ever to take an informed look at its human capital, it needs to fully comprehend the intrinsic and extrinsic aspects that contribute to translator satisfaction and the way those aspects interact with one another. If the industry matures to the point that career development, employee retention, and management of turnover and attrition become organizational human resource goals, then translator satisfaction has to be understood in rigorous and comprehensive ways. That is one of the goals of this dissertation.

1.3 Purpose of this Study

The purpose of this study is: (1) to demonstrate how general non-translation- oriented concepts related to satisfaction at work can be used to explicate (2) a model of satisfaction relevant to the current language industry in order to identify intrinsic and extrinsic sources of translator satisfaction and, therefore (3) improve our understanding of satisfaction in the language industry.

Additionally, a goal of this study is to comprehend the differences in satisfaction or dissatisfaction between specific groups within the language industry, for instance, experts and novices or in-house staff and freelancers and part-timers and full-timers.

1.4 Review of Theoretical Framework

The core model of “translator satisfaction” focuses on capturing three essential facets of satisfaction: task satisfaction, job satisfaction and professional satisfaction. Each facet consists of numerous associated concepts. A concept is understood as a grouping

category that is classified into specific factors. These factors are operationalized and associated with variables that can be assessed in a quantitative way. The model of

“translator satisfaction” is intended to capture the key factors that induce feelings of satisfaction or dissatisfaction.

The core premises of the model are based on Herzberg’s two-factor theory (1959), which is used as the theoretical framework in this study. According to Herzberg, the causes of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction differ, the former being influenced by job content factors (defined as “motivators” by Herzberg) and the latter by job context factors or dissatisfiers (“hygiene”). The motivators from Herzberg’s model will be classified as satisfiers or intrinsic factors that contribute to task satisfaction with concepts such as achievement, recognition, growth and the task itself. In contrast, Herzberg’s hygiene factors (2000:9) are the primary demotivators that are associated with the job, or external factors that contribute predominantly to job dissatisfaction, with concepts like company policy and administration, poor working conditions, salary, status and job security. For the facet of professional satisfaction, new concepts are introduced that represent a combination of aspects found in the literature of satisfaction. The model introduced in this dissertation includes individual concepts of satisfaction that have been researched and tested in other disciplines such as organizational and industrial psychology, occupational psychology and management studies.

1.5 Significance of this Study

The literature review has uncovered no previous studies on satisfaction in the LI, and models from other disciplines have not been previously adapted or adopted to create

a model of translator satisfaction for the industry. As argued previously, understanding translator satisfaction is crucial, since translators are the key component of the language industry, an industry largely dependent on human capital, despite the heavy adoption of technological methods. Elements of satisfaction or dissatisfaction, widely studied in other disciplines in corporate environments, such as turnover, supervision, support (from supervision) and employee recognition have not been studied in the LI context and do not transfer directly, or even easily, to the LI context. This is because the current language industry is characterized by fluid project-based structures, with teams working in virtual environments and with a paucity of interpersonal relationships.

The model proposed in this study is expected to have direct implications for employers, managers, trainers, and recruiters within the language industry. The model can be used: (1) to identify opportunities to enhance satisfaction and motivation, (2) to improve human resources and management policies for building long-term relationships, mentoring systems, training approaches and labor force retention practices, (3) to provide a basis for educational tools and teaching materials that will allow translator trainers to reinforce and adjust their curricula to the current needs of the job market, and (4) for recommending best practices for operating in virtual collaborative environments. This study of satisfaction can also be used to potentially improve translator productivity, enhance customer satisfaction and reduce turnover. Furthermore, ensuring satisfaction among stakeholders can promote the feeling of trust and collaboration among workers and between the workers and the management, leading to team cohesion and efficiency in teamwork.

1.6 Research Questions

The general research questions that this study attempts to investigate are outlined below. These research questions will be thoroughly investigated using the model presented in Chapter 3:

 What are the key sources of task, job and professional satisfaction in the language

industry?

 What are the key predictors of task satisfaction in the language industry?

 What are the key predictors of job satisfaction in the language industry?

 What are the key predictors of professional satisfaction in the language industry?

 What are the relationships among the component factors of task, job and

professional satisfaction?

 What are the main differences with regards to the factors related to task, job and

professional satisfaction among the following populations: experts versus novices,

full-timers versus part-timers, and in-house salaried staff versus freelancers?

 What are the correlations, if any, between the component factors?

1.7 Organization of this Study

This dissertation is presented in six chapters. Chapter One includes a background and introduction to the study along with a statement of the problem, significance and purposes of the study. The primary research questions are also introduced in this chapter.

Chapter Two presents a review of the literature, including an overview of models of satisfaction in such disciplines as organizational and industrial psychology, and

management studies. It introduces and highlights key concepts adopted for the model.

Chapter Three describes the concepts, factors and variables associated with satisfaction, and then proposes a detailed model of translator satisfaction. Chapter Four outlines the nature of the survey instrument, the methodology used for data collection and post- processing of the data, as well as issues related to the selection of participants for the survey conducted for this study. Chapter Five lists the results and post-processing analysis for all three facets of satisfaction. Chapter Six summarizes the results, discusses the findings, and outlines the implications and limitations of this study. This chapter also lists suggestions for further research and presents overall conclusions that can be drawn from the findings.

CHAPTER 2

Literature Review

This chapter discusses the literature relevant to the evolution of the interdisciplinary concepts associated with satisfaction at a workplace. The historical evolution of the concepts behind satisfaction at work is outlined, the main theories that have been developed to understand satisfaction are presented and gaps in the theories are highlighted. The relevance of the reviewed literature to the study of translator satisfaction in the current language industry is also discussed.

Some scholars have framed their studies within the realm of industrial organizational psychology, while others have used human relationships and management approaches, and still others have based their studies on the behavioral and social sciences.

Job satisfaction has been defined in multiple ways, with the sources of satisfaction being very diverse and bound to the specific characteristics of certain work settings. The concept of job satisfaction may refer to the pleasure that an individual derives from the work itself, as well as to the contextual or organizational aspects that affect individual behavior at work. This literature review serves as a basis for the model proposed in subsequent chapters.

2.1 Introduction to the Concept of “Satisfaction”

The literature on satisfaction can be broadly classified as dealing with individual job satisfaction, group or team satisfaction and professional satisfaction. The discussion in this section is divided into these three main parts or facets. First, the aspects that affect 35 36

individual or personal satisfaction will be presented. Second, contextual and situational aspects that may affect individual behavior are explained, with a review of theories of motivation in work settings (including group and organizational components that affect satisfaction). Third, the main correlations of professional satisfaction are introduced. The three facets interact with one another in a complex manner, and the literature reveals conflicting arguments, ideas and results about the possible relationships among the sources of satisfaction or dissatisfaction. As Klein (1989) and Leonard et al. (1999) claim, the concept of satisfaction at work as studied in the field of organizational behavior is replete with “splintered and perplexing theories” of work motivation that only create conceptual clutter for researchers and confusion for practitioners.

The traditional models of (job) satisfaction or satisfaction at work explored only a limited number of factors that might affect satisfaction since the work environment was generally static and relatively simple (compared to the modern workplace). Early studies focused on a small number of external aspects such as incentives, supervision and working conditions, but recent studies have introduced new models with numerous new variables or factors that have enhanced our understanding of the sources of satisfaction at work. For the purposes of this study, concepts will be borrowed from other disciplines in order to develop a model that is expected to encompass the most common predictors of translator satisfaction. This approach introduces a novel paradigm in the field of translation studies, where these concepts have not been previously studied.

2.2 Individual Aspects of Job Satisfaction

Some studies have claimed that there are three main intrinsic concepts of (job) satisfaction that vary among individual workers: values, traits and attitudes. The inconsistent use of these terms as well as a lack of general agreement among scholars about the relation between values, traits, attitudes and overall behavior is evident in the literature. However, many leadership and motivation theories have been rooted in these basic concepts.

In this study, values, attitudes and traits are understood as hypothetical constructs that help in understanding and explaining an individual’s behavior. Values, attitudes and personality traits can be inferred from measurable responses in questionnaire items

(Ajzen 2005:3). However, it is important to note that two people may exhibit the same attitude, but different personality traits and different values; their responses thus may manifest in a completely different behavior.

2.2.1 Values

Values are defined as (a) concepts or beliefs, (b) pertaining to desirable end states or behaviors, (c) transcending specific situations, (d) guiding the selection or evaluation of behavior and events, and (e) ordered by relative importance (Schwartz and Bilsky

1987). Some scholars claim that values guide behavior only for certain people

(McClelland 1985); others argue that values guide behavior without exception (Allport

1961; Rokeach 1973; Bardi and Schwartz 2003). Empirical studies have found conclusive results that illustrate how values affect discrete behaviors (Schwartz 1996) or a specific domain of behaviors (Bond and Chi 1997).

Values influence an individual’s priorities, and “people may act in accordance with their values even when they do not consciously think about them.” (Bardi and

Schwartz 2003:1208) Schwartz’s value theory (1992) postulates ten values that were validated across twenty cultures. Schwartz also developed a circle of values that represent a motivational continuum. After replicating the structure of values in twenty countries, the author concluded that even though the level of relevance varies per individual, the structure of motivational conflicts and congruities is nearly universal.

Bardi and Schwartz argued that “norms for behavior in relevant groups pose an important situation pressure” (2003:1217), thus people who adhere to norms may show a self-reporting that is subject to normative pressure (ibid.). In other words, Schwartz’s findings on values and behavior suggest that values motivate behavior, but “the relationship between values and behavior is partly obscured by norms” (ibid.). Katzell et al. (1979) also studied the effect of values on behavior; they saw job satisfaction as a function of value fulfillment. The authors found that dissatisfaction results from a discrepancy between the level of the stimulus actually experienced and the extent to which it is valued. Furthermore, Locke (1976) viewed job satisfaction as resulting from the perception that a job fulfills or allows the fulfillment of a worker’s values. It may be concluded from these studies that people tend to be happier and more satisfied when their personal values are aligned with the values observed at the workplace.

A conflict may emerge when a conflict arises between an individual’s attitude and values. Sources of conflict may emerge from within the person, or between people, or between the worker and the organization. The literature suggests that interpersonal value

conflict can be mitigated by taking pride in characteristics such as integrity, virtue, honesty and generosity (Azar 2009). The concept of value congruence has highly influenced theories that have emerged over the last two decades pertaining to the study of person-culture fit. In addition, current theories of organizational behavior, leadership and management clearly emphasize the need for matching the individual’s needs with the cultural value system of the organization. In the language industry, interpersonal value conflict may arise among subcontractors, among employees, between employers and supervisors or between employees and managers. This necessitates further understanding of the variables related to work values that enhance work satisfaction.

2.2.2 Attitudes

Attitudes affect behavior in a manner that is different from values. Even though disagreements among scholars are found in the literature about the definition of attitude, most authors agree that an attitude is a learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner to an object, person, institution or event (Fishbein and

Ajzen 1975). Attitudes represent a response to an observable object or target, and are evaluative in nature, often determined by individual’s beliefs about the object. Attitude is

“typically viewed as a latent or underlying variable that is assumed to guide or influence behavior” (1975:8). Attitudes cannot be evaluated by direct observation about the object, but “have to be inferred from observed consistency in behaviors” (ibid.:8). Attitudes and values are generally in harmony, and values in particular are a general belief structure that influences behavior across all situations. However, attitudes reflect a response toward a particular situation, action or set of actions. Attitude is a multidimensional

construct consisting of cognition, affect, and conation, thereby possessing an effective, a cognitive and a behavioral component. Satisfaction itself can be seen as a general attitude toward work or work situations that has the cognitive, affective and conative elements listed above. Attitudes may be inferred from the various types of responses people exhibit in situations (see Table 2.1).

Table 2.1.

Components of Attitudes (Adapted).

Response mode Type of response Examples

Expressions of beliefs The belief that translators are well Verbal about attitude object paid

Cognitive Reactions to attitude Non-verbal Hiring a translator who is qualified object

Response mode Type of response Examples

Expressions of feelings Admiration, respect, appreciation, Verbal toward attitude object recognition

Affective Physiological reaction Non-verbal Any facial or bodily reaction to attitude object

Response mode Type of response Examples

Expressions of Inclinations, intentions, Verbal behavioral intentions commitments, etc.

Overt behaviors with Showing carelessness, not acting, Conative Non-verbal respect to attitude object not showing up, etc.

Source: Fishbein and Ajzen (1975:8).

2.2.3 Traits

A personality trait is defined as a characteristic of an individual that “exerts pervasive influence on a broad range of responses” (Ajzen 2005:84). In some cases, an individual’s response can be an indication of an underlying personality characteristic, but unlike attitudes, personality traits may not be as directly observable in any discrete

response. Traits are inferred over a broad set of behaviors and are thought to be a mental

“tendency” for an individual to respond or behave a certain way in certain types of situations. Traits have been used to categorize individuals into different personality types.

2.2.4 Alignment of Values, Attitudes and Behaviors

Festinger (1957) argued that individuals are motivated when their values (beliefs), attitudes and behaviors are aligned. The author studied psychological tensions that develop when they are not aligned, and developed a so-called Cognitive Dissonance theory. Cognitive Dissonance represents a psychological discomfort that people experience when their attitudes or beliefs conflict with their behaviors or surroundings

(Festinger 1957:9), leading to possible counterproductive behaviors in the workplace.

This approach has specific application to translation, because translators’ cultural backgrounds and experiences are generally so diverse that attitudes and behaviors can vary enormously, leading to a regular occurrence of uncomfortable or “dissonant” work situations. Effective project management and team leadership may be a critical factor in mitigating such situations.

2.2.5 Influence of Attitudes over Behavior via Intentions

Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) built on Festinger’s theory of Cognitive Dissonance and created a model that offers a link between attitudes and planned behavior or intention. As an example, in the literature of Occupational and Organizational

Psychology, turnover represents a widely studied concept that indicates the intention to quit because of dissatisfaction with work. Fishbein and Ajzen’s model presents three

interrelated determinants of an individual’s intention to exhibit a specific behavior. The first, attitude towards the behavior, refers to the degree to which a person has a positive or negative evaluation of the behavior. The second determinant is named as the subjective norm, with the individual behavior bound to and influenced by positive or negative social aspects of the behavioral situation. The third determinant explains how perceived behavioral control predicts behavior by relating the ease or difficulty of performing the behavior.

This model has been implemented by managers to influence behavioral change.

The main goal is to affect the three determinants of employees’ intentions to exhibit a specific behavior. For instance, an employee’s intent to quit could be influenced through various means such as a fluent employee-management communication, the organization’s culture, the content of training programs, the behavior of key employees and use of rewards programs.

In this study, behaviors are studied in a particular context or situation appropriate to the behavior in question, and turnover will be one of the concepts discussed in the study. The decision to quit a job may not only be affected by the individual’s general predispositions (values, attitudes, personality traits), but may also be heavily influenced by situational variables. However, it is also possible that situational variables may be moderated by specific effects of attitudes or personality traits. So a translator’s values, traits or attitudes may moderate the level of satisfaction in one situational context, for instance working onsite, but those same traits may not moderate satisfaction and any associated intentions (e.g., to quit a job) when working offsite or remotely.

2.2.6 Approaches to the Individual and Job Satisfaction

The traditional theories of (job) satisfaction have been historically related to the theories of work motivation, since motivation is considered to be one of the major aspects correlated with high intrinsic satisfaction and high performance. Both work motivation and job satisfaction have received a lot of attention in the research literature. In particular, the relationship between (job) satisfaction and performance has fascinated scholars for several decades. Work motivation has been consistently viewed, from the perspective of organizational behavior, as the foundation of effective management. The term motivation and the term satisfaction have been used interchangeably in the literature and have not always been used consistently. Satisfaction has been operationally defined in various ways depending on the nature of the study. Motivation has been used in the

Organizational Behavior and Industrial/Organizational psychology (abbr. OB and I/O) literature to refer to both satisfaction at work and a positive feeling about the performance of work tasks. However, in this study, motivation is defined as the “internal factors that impel action and external factors that can act as inducements to action” (Locke

2004:388).

Along similar lines, the internal pleasure that someone gains from a task is defined as the pleasure received from the nature of the job (Locke and Latham 2004).

Greek philosophers were early pioneers in understanding human satisfaction and motivation. The concept of hedonism represents the foundation of individual behavior toward prioritizing pleasure over pain. Vroom (1964) was one of the main scholars who questioned the validity of traditional hedonistic assumptions since they have not been

empirically tested, and since the “specification of the type of events that were pleasurable or painful, or even how these events could be determined for a particular individual … or how the source of pleasure or pain might be modified by experience” (1964:10) is not clear. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, studies of motivation attracted attention among psychologists and behavioral scientists, leading to the development of some models of motivation. In particular, behavioral scientists developed models of drive or reinforcement (Thorndike 1911; Hull 1943) to understand the relationship between work motivation and performance. Reinforcement models have since been reshaped, and adopted by the behavioral sciences and organizational psychology fields with an empirical approach.

Leadership models have also been closely linked to job satisfaction models. The underlying assumption is that the quality of leadership affects work performance and work satisfaction in both positive and negative ways. In other words, leaders are part of the context of work. We include leadership models here because of the important role project managers play in translation work settings.

Trait theories dominated leadership and management approaches during the 1940s and the 1950s.Trait theory posited that effective leaders share specific traits, postulating that leaders are born and cannot be made or trained. Advocates of trait theory believe that leaders have characteristics that the majority of workers do not possess. However, detractors suggest that measures for leadership skills lack validity, for instance, the ability to establish good relationships between individuals. Trait theory has also been criticized because it has not been able to clearly determine the specific traits that define a leader.

The lack of consensus among scholars has not made trait theory very popular among current theories of leadership, management and organizational behavior. Nevertheless, authors such as Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991, 1992) continued developing trait theory and proposed new skills that are commonly found in effective leaders: self-confidence, intelligence, technical knowledge, honesty and integrity, desire to learn and to persuade, drive and ambition. Additionally, Turner (2009) added such new traits as higher levels of problem solving ability, energy and initiative, self-confidence, perspective, communication and negotiating ability. For the purpose of this study, individual traits will be understood as concepts or factors that represent individual aspects of leadership, an inherent characteristic in a leader, which will be measured as a latent variable. It may be noted that there have been many periods in the evolution of the study of satisfaction in which scholars could not justify their findings based on group or social variables, and went back to trait or personality theories to find explanations for their findings.

Leadership theories are relevant for this study since they relate a PM’s leadership style with specific personality traits.

Some other current theories introduce individual-focused aspects to the study of satisfaction. These theories view work satisfaction as the interaction of certain individual cognitive states with situational/contextual aspects of work. These so-called self-theories or self-oriented theories have been proposed to explain individual behavior in different work settings. Of the most well-known self-theories, the following are worth mentioning: theory of the self-concept (Gecas 1982), self-representation theory (Schlenker 1985),

social identity theory (Stryker 2004), and self-efficacy theory (Bandura 1997). A summary of these theories is given below.

Each individual possesses a unique individual identity, self-perception or self- concept that establishes the individual as a distinct person. Gecas defines self-concept as

“the concept the individual has of himself as a physical, social, and spiritual or moral being” (ibid.). In other words, a set of attitudes the individual has toward the self. In addition, drawing from cross-cultural studies, Cooper and Thatcher (2010) distinguish between individual aspects (self-concept) and social identifications (how workers think of themselves in the organization). Self-concept and social identifications may also be bound to an individual’s culture or cultural background (Triandis 1994). This aspect has implications for managers and leaders working in and with multicultural teams.

Hofstede (1993) studies certain aspects of individual identity in the context of cultural differences, focusing on work situations that may differ from one country to another. Hofstede argues that management theories in the US “contain idiosyncrasies not necessarily shared by management elsewhere … : a stress on market processes, a stress on the individual, and a focus on managers rather than workers” (17). The author outlines four dimensions that differentiate people working for the same institution in different countries or individuals from different cultures. The first dimension is power distance or the degree of inequality that people consider normal in a certain country. The second dimension is individualism and represents the degree of individual preference for being part of a group or acting individually (ibid.:24). Its counterpart, collectivism, corresponds with low levels of individualism. The third dimension is masculinity/femininity and

indicates the extent to which such values as competition, assertiveness, quality of life, etc. prevail in the culture, which the author classifies as “masculine” or “feminine” features. Lastly, uncertainty avoidance is posited as a dimension that is associated with individual levels of tolerance toward structured or unstructured situations. It is, therefore, thought to be essential in crosscultural organizations that managers be able to account for these four dimensions in order to motivate people, exert effective leadership and show a positive influence on the employee’s performance.

Individuals usually behave or feel in ways consistent with their self-concept. A positive self-concept has also been associated with a higher level of self-esteem, positive self-evaluation, self-respect, and positive self-acceptance (Arthur 2007). Empirical studies (Deci and Ryan 1985) have also shown that high levels of self-esteem are related to higher levels of focus of control. These latter aspects drive a person to be inner- directed, and contribute to individuals feeling that they can set their own challenges and goals.

Social identification is a process by which individuals classify themselves into different social categories (Ashforth and Mael 1989). Social identification is related to the aspects of an individual’s self-concept that derive from the social categories to which the person perceives himself/herself as belonging (Tajfel and Turner 1985). The development of the self-concept is determined by the evolution of self-perceptions through social interaction, evolutionary processes of attitude formation (Ajzen and

Fishbein 1980) and the evolution of self-attribution. As the self-concept evolves, it becomes a source of intrinsic motivation or satisfaction. An individual is motivated to

maintain and enhance the internalized view of the self (Gecas 1982). Individuals also establish social and professional identities through involvement with and identification with social groups. This study is especially interested in the relationship between self- identification and teamwork, as well as with organizational and professional identification.

2.3 Task Performance

2.3.1 Self-efficacy

In this study, self-efficacy will be understood as an umbrella concept that includes self-perception, self-attribution, self-esteem and self-concept. Social cognition theory studies the relationships among these concepts. Empirical research on the effects of self- perception and self-esteem on satisfaction (Korman 1969) has presented mixed results, and the findings that support the relationship between self-esteem, self-perception and self-efficacy have not been conclusive. Nevertheless, Bandura’s (1982; 1995) research finds some links between self-efficacy and motivation for the kind of tasks that an individual chooses to engage in, and the amount of effort expended by an individual to achieve specific goals (Bandura and Cervone 1983). Most scholars agree that feelings of enhanced self-efficacy are related to high levels of intrinsic satisfaction, motivation, aspiration and enthusiasm. These theories can, therefore, be applied for motivating the labor force to work harder in order to achieve shared team goals. It is claimed that high levels of self-efficacy correspond with higher levels of metacognition, including metacognitive skills, metacognitive knowledge, self-regulation, and locus of control; thus

self-efficacy has implications for perceived feelings of task satisfaction and task performance.

Research by Stajkovic and Luthans (2003) further studied the relationship between self-efficacy and performance, concluding that task complexity and locus of control are key moderators in this relationship. Bandura (1986) and Locke (1977) have studied the role of feedback in motivation, arguing that the relationship between feedback and motivation is mediated by goals since goal commitment varies with individual values, incentives and the level of self-efficacy.

2.3.2 Professional Skills and Intelligence

The literature on leadership effectiveness has also investigated the role of professional skills on task performance. In particular, the relationship between task performance and intelligence have been studied by Chemers (2002) and Goleman (1995;

Cherniss and Goleman 2001). A positive relationship is observed between task performance and emotional intelligence, as well as social intelligence, self-awareness and self-regulation (Goleman 1998). In particular, Goleman identifies leaders as highly motivated individuals who exhibit high levels of technical knowledge, well-developed skills, and superior cognitive abilities—analytical reasoning and intellect. However, when the author quantified the correlation between technical skills and emotional intelligence, emotional intelligence was found to be twice as important.

From a management standpoint, understanding individual cognitive skills is crucial in order to set up processes in the workplace that increase task performance.

Individual differences in skill challenge the manager, the organization and the team.

“Variability among workers is substantial at all levels but increases dramatically with job complexity” (Seligman 1992). In addition, the growing diversity of the labor staff forces managers to better understand and accommodate individual skill differences. This study will not consider individual personalities in depth; however individual differences in abilities and skills among the workforce will be examined. In particular, initiative, planning, cultural intelligence, adaptability, flexibility, interpersonal and intercultural communication are some of the skills that will be discussed further in Chapter 3.

Leadership skills, developed cognitive abilities, and specialized professional/technical skills are, of course, crucial for knowledge workers who are becoming a key component of the current language industry. With an increase in virtual work environments, communication skills are also becoming essential (see 2.4.6.3). In today’s global economy, people-centered organizations are the essential builders of human and social capital. Human capital comprises the knowledge, competences and skills that are required in the labor force to produce economic value. Generally, these aspects are gained by investing in career development and education or via professional experience. On the other hand, social capital is the fostering of productive potential through relationships, good will, trust, and cooperative relationships. Social capital also adds economic value. Understanding the role of individual skills in building human and social capital is essential to organizational, team and professional success.

2.4 Contextual Aspects of the Work Environment

Theories of satisfaction at a workplace, as traditionally understood, have been divided by Campbell et al. (1970) into two main categories: content theories and process theories. Both these theories gained popularity during the 1950s and 1960s, and have had an enormous impact on models and theories of employee satisfaction and leadership studies during the 1990s. On the one hand, content theories study the aspects that influence satisfaction at work, traditionally named job satisfaction, or an individual’s feeling towards the job. However, these studies excluded the relationship between the individual and the work setting. On the other hand, process theories are more dynamic and address the ways in which variables such as needs, values and attitudes interact with the characteristics of the job and work setting to affect employee satisfaction.

The most commonly used content theories are Maslow’s needs hierarchy theory and Herzberg’s two-factor theory, which will be discussed below. These frameworks provide the theoretical foundation for the model developed in this study. In addition, process theories such as expectation, equity, needs/value fulfillment, goal setting, and leadership theories will be explained in the subsequent section.

2.4.1 Content Theories

During the 1940s, McClelland conducted a study to examine the relationship between individual needs and behavior. McClelland’s work is well-known for his pioneering research on the need for achievement and proposes that people who show a need for achievement desire to accomplish tasks with higher levels of complexity. They desire more feedback on successes and weaknesses than lower achievers and prefer to

have performance appraisals based on their effort. They show a marked preference for working on challenging tasks (Murray 1938). McClelland also argued that people show a need for affiliation: love, social interaction and social relationships. Individuals with a high need for affiliation avoid conflict, negative feedback, and confrontations. The author described a third type of need, calling it the need for power, which expresses itself in the need for teaching, coaching, influencing or encouraging others to achieve success. These needs reflect personality traits that are commonly found in effective managers and should be addressed during leadership selection processes or training sessions focused on career development (McClelland 1985).

Alderfer (1969) also developed a theory of human needs in the 1960s. According to Alderfer, there are three main sets of needs that influence behavior: existence, relatedness and growth (ERG). ERG theory is somewhat similar to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, addressing physiological needs, the desire to have social activities, the desire to grow as a human being, and the use of individual resources to achieve the highest potential. ERG theory has provided useful insights for managers customizing reward and appraisal programs for employees.

In 1954, Maslow proposed the Needs Hierarchy Theory and the Principle of

Prepotency. This theory was tested on neurotic individuals and subsequently used to explain human motivation. Maslow concluded that lower order needs must be fulfilled before higher order needs are taken into account. Motivation was postulated to result from achieving five needs which are arranged in a prepotency hierarchy as indicated in the pyramid in Fig. 2.1. After basic physiological, safety and love needs are satisfied,

esteem needs emerge, after which an individual develops self-actualization needs.

Maslow’s theory has not been devised as a theory of job motivation (Grunenberg 1979) and has not been empirically tested. However, Maslow’s principles have been used to understand employee needs and motivation, and to comprehend motivators for people from different sections of society, with different levels of education, where individuals may have different expectations of what a job should offer. Maslow’s principles have also been instrumental in developing workplace motivational programs focused on loyalty and recognition.

Creativity, problem solving, acceptance • Self-actualization of facts, lack of prejudice, growth

Self-esteem, confidence, achievement, • Esteem respect

Friendship, family, company • Love/Belonging

Employment, health, resources, morality, • Safety property

Breathing, food, water, sleep, excretion • Physiological

Fig. 2.1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Adapted). Source: Maslow (1954).

Maslow’s theory of motivation is crucial for this study since it has key managerial implications. In order to satisfy workers’ needs, it is important to understand the role of the self-concept (self-actualization and esteem categories) in both experts and novices in

order that processes for fostering interpersonal relationships based on confidence and trust, among other potential motivators, can be developed and implemented.

Herzberg published The Motivation to Work in 1959, where the author developed the two-factor theory. Highly influenced by Maslow’s need hierarchy, the author showed his disagreement with previous job satisfaction theories and specifically with the human relations movement. According to Herzberg, satisfaction is not the opposite of dissatisfaction, but a continuum. The causes of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are distinct, the former being influenced by job content factors (named as “motivators” by the author) or satisfiers, which if present in the work environment serve to remove the impediments to positive job attitudes, and the latter by job context factors (named as

“hygiene” by the author) or external factors that trigger no job satisfaction. When motivators are absent, hygiene factors don’t lead to dissatisfaction, but may constrain the level of satisfaction that can be achieved. Motivators allow the individual to grow psychologically, cognitively and professionally (1966:81) and are associated with the content or nature of tasks such as recognition for achievement, characteristics of the task, responsibility, and growth or advancement. By contrast, aspects associated with the situational context such as company policies, administrative policies, supervision, salary, working conditions, etc. were classified as hygiene factors by Herzberg (see Table 2.2).

Table 2.2.

Herzberg’s Two-factor Theory (Adapted).

Factors associated with no Factors associated with satisfaction satisfaction (intrinsic characteristics) (extrinsic characteristics) Salary Recognition for achievement Interpersonal relations with superiors Advancement Interpersonal relations with coworkers Work itself Technical aspects of supervision Responsibility Company policy Career opportunities Working conditions Source: Herzberg (1959:81).

Hygiene factors may also contribute to job satisfaction, and certain motivators may contribute to dissatisfaction (1959:131). In fact, Maslow and Herzberg agreed that the fulfillment of lower order needs does not result in true satisfaction and that only the fulfillment of higher order needs (mostly self-actualization, growth, advancement, etc.) brings true satisfaction.

Moreover, Herzberg argued that it is only when hygiene factors, such as pay, are adequate that an individual can begin to structure a job so that other motivators can begin to play an effective role in building satisfaction with the work environment. In summary, one of Herzberg’s biggest contributions to the understanding of organizational behavior lies in highlighting the role of intrinsic aspects of the job, and the impact that the nature of the job itself (i.e., the set of tasks performed) has on overall influence on levels of satisfaction at work. Herzberg’s widely-implemented framework will be adopted in this study, and the concepts will be refined for the proposed model in Chapter 3.

A strong criticism of Herzberg’s theory has been based on the lack of a representative sample supporting the theory. No generalized conclusions can be made about his work because a relatively small sample population consisting of engineers and accountants was used for the study. Researchers have also criticized the way Herzberg interpreted the results obtained from his so-called “critical incident technique.” For example, one of the criticisms claims that salary could count as a satisfier or a dissatisfier whereas recognition clearly counts as a dissatisfier (1968:56-57). Some scholars (King

1970; Gardner 1977) have pointed out that this theory is often ambiguous (see Fig. 2.2).

1,844 factors on the job that led to extreme dissatisfaction 1,753 factors on the job that led to extreme satisfaction 50% 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50% Percentage frequency

All factors contributing All factors contributing Achievement to job dissatisfaction to job satisfaction Recognition 69 Hygiene 19 Work itself 31 Motivators 81 Ratio and Responsibility 80% 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80% percent Advancement Growth Company policy & administration Supervision Relationship with supervisor Work conditions Salary Relationship with peers Personal life Relationship with subordinates Status Security

Fig. 2.2. Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers. Adapted from Herzberg (1959:81).

Also, Herzberg equated hygiene seekers with poor adjustment, when there are many tasks which may not require psychological growth and individuals may just stay in the current working setting because of money, benefits, etc. Furthermore, individual

cultural background may affect someone’s decision to quit, and there could be many variables that might not be clearly associated with poor adjustment. Herzberg is one of the most fervent proponents of intrinsic motivation, emphasizing the limitations and constraints of external rewards and punishments, commonly known as the “KITA approach” (Herzberg 1959:50). Herzberg proposed that people should be motivated through the work itself, through job enrichment, postulating that a job is motivational if it is intrinsically challenging and contributes to self-actualization and cognitive growth.

Another strong criticism of Herzberg’s theory is that some ideas are linked with mental health issues. For instance, the author indicated that a lack of self-esteem may be a major factor in neurosis, resulting in neurotics failing to cope with hygiene factors.

Regardless of all the criticism, many research studies have been based on Herzberg’s theory, using the concepts of hygiene factors (dissatisfiers) and motivators (satisfiers).

Specifically, Herzberg is credited with the introduction of concepts of job enrichment, such as increasing worker responsibility, developing work modules for assembly-line jobs, worker autonomy, recognition of job accomplishment and increasing worker participation in decision making.

There are two main reasons for choosing Herzberg’s two-factor theory as the conceptual framework for the model used in this study. First, Herzberg’s approach has been widely adopted in different studies with successful results. Second, Herzberg’s approach integrates principles from personnel management and includes approaches derived from organizational theory, industrial engineering and the behavioral sciences.

However, “motivation-hygiene theory claims the same angle as industrial engineering,

but for opposite goals. Rather than rationalizing the work to increase efficiency, the theory suggests that work be enriched to bring about effective utilization of personnel.

Such a systemic attempt to motivate employees by manipulating the motivator factors is just beginning” (1968:59).

This study is specifically interested in implementing the intrinsic and extrinsic aspects of motivation from Herzberg’s theory, exploring the concept of job enrichment and the need for professional growth. Current complex working relationships and conditions for translators in a globalized era require a fresh understanding of the sources of motivation, including those that are intrinsic to the individual, and those that derive from an individual’s relationship to the tasks that are performed. The need to motivate by implementing intrinsic methods becomes crucial in the search for developing human capital in the language industry.

2.4.2 Process Theories

Process theories view satisfaction and work motivation from a dynamic perspective that links human behavior and motivation with group and social processes found in the workplace. During the 1920s, many models of satisfaction and motivation from a behavioral standpoint emerged. Hoppock (1935) suggested that job satisfaction could be understood as a dependent variable studied as a function of demographic variables. According to the author, job satisfaction could only be studied as an indivisible whole suggesting that there may be many components within job satisfaction, but that the number of components could vary from person to person. Critics rejected the validity of understanding job satisfaction as a holistic category and proposed instead that

decomposing and then measuring aspects of job satisfaction would provide more insight into work satisfaction.

Münsterber (1863-1916) was one of the early pioneers in transferring theoretical models of (job) satisfaction from psychology to OB, I/O and occupational psychology.

His experimental research presented new approaches to match the skills of new workers with an organization’s needs. The intent was to influence employee attitudes by understanding individual needs in order to enhance productivity. Münsterber studied military personnel selection, equipment design and product packaging in order to match workers with appropriate tasks. Münsterber’s general approach received great recognition and was widely implemented across many industries until the 1940s.

Another significant contributor to the understanding of satisfaction and behavior in the workplace, Taylor (1911), conducted innovative research at the Bethlehem steel works that is considered to be seminal in the understanding of the principles of scientific management. Taylor investigated the role of salary, mechanical redesign, and workplace layout on an individual’s job performance to find the “one best way” of accomplishing a task. Taylor’s research led to the concept of ergonomics, and his approaches to increasing productivity via improved manufacturing techniques, operating efficiency and constant rewards was widely accepted at the peak of the industrialization period.

In opposition to the “one best way” to achieve high productivity levels, during the

1930s the Human Relations Movement gained popularity as the result of the legalization of union-management collective bargaining in the US in 1935. Behavioral scientists and managers who conducted research in factories began to move toward the “human side” of

the production chain, seeking an improvement in human relations and working conditions. One of the most renowned studies, led by Mayo (1933), was conducted at the

Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company. Mayo’s work was critical in understanding the role of interpersonal relations, group interactions, the role of norms and individual recognition, with his work being widely acknowledged by social psychologists and human relations movements at that time. Mayo followed Taylor’s approach and emphasized the modification of working conditions (e.g., workplace illumination, room temperature, etc.) in order to achieve higher productivity. Hawthorne researchers found that short breaks improved worker motivation and decreased employee turnover rates but they could not show that social variables (e.g., a friendly atmosphere) led to a higher level of satisfaction. Nevertheless, the Hawthorne studies established Mayo as a pioneer of the human relations movement, leading to an emphasis on the need to look at personal and emotional requirements of individuals in order to boost morale and satisfaction

(1933). Mayo’s work eventually led to the study of motivation from a psychological standpoint (Viteles 1953; Maier 1955), establishing concepts such as supervision, goal, incentive and job attitudes, although most of these concepts were not assigned a consistent definition at that time (Vroom 1964:4).

Researchers in the late 1950s started investigating the influence of organizational behavior on individual work behavior. McGregor (1960) published The Human Side of

Enterprise proposing two different sets of assumptions about people at work. The first set of assumptions, named Theory X, was pessimistic and negative; the author believed that this was the general feeling of how managers viewed employees. The second set of

assumptions was called Theory Y and represented a positive interpretation of human nature. Employees would improve performance if they were viewed as creative, committed, self-directed and responsible. Although McGregor’s Theory Y contributed to establishing a more humane work environment, the main criticism against the Human

Relations Movement was the unproven assumption that a satisfied worker is a hard- working or productive worker. Decades of research has not shown that a positive correlation between high levels of job satisfaction and high levels of performance can be demonstrated conclusively.

Adams’ Equity Theory (1965) proposed a model of satisfaction at work that claimed people craved fairness and justice in social encounters. It was postulated that a feeling of inequality or lack of justice in the workplace affects an individual’s motivation to behave in a certain manner. Adams focused on the fact that a worker’s ratio of outcomes (bonus, benefits, autonomy, more participation in decision making, etc.) to inputs (education, skills, age, effort, etc.) is often compared with a coworker’s outcome- to-input ratio. Thus, a higher level of satisfaction at work comes from how fairly treated an individual feels relative to coworkers. If ratios are equal, the result is job satisfaction, but if a worker expects equity that is not attained, the result is job dissatisfaction. Adams’

Equity Theory has been widely recognized for introducing the concept of equity sensitivity, proposing that reducing negative inequity is essential for increasing motivation and job satisfaction.

The 1970s are considered the golden age of process theories. Using Lewin’s

(1938) and Tolman’s (1959) early research, Vroom (1964) proposed the Valence-

Instrumentality-Expectancy Theory (abbr. VIE) in his book Work and Motivation. Vroom formulated a mathematical model that can be used to predict motivation and behavior.

Anticipated job satisfaction is the “valence” or importance of the job, which in turn is a function of the valences of other outcomes and the “instrumentality” of the job in achieving those outcomes. VIE posits that a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectancy that the act will be followed by a given consequence (or outcome), and on the attractiveness of that consequence to the actor (1964:17-18). VIE also posits that the effort to be expended to achieve the outcome is an important variable.

Vroom’s work concluded that the attractiveness of a particular task and the effort invested in it varies with the extent of value outcome expected by a worker.

Supervision, the work group, job content, wages, promotional opportunities and hours of work, in this same order of priority were also found to correlate with satisfaction

(Vroom 1964:105). Vroom’s model has been criticized since there is no general consensus on the methodologies for testing the theory. Detractors have added that measuring expectancy, instrumentality, and valence is a daunting task, and the validity of the scales has not been proven. Principles borrowed from VIE have been integrated in emerging models of cross-cultural influences on work motivation (Triandis 1995). In this study, some concepts from VIE are used since the expectancy model has implications for managers and organizations with culturally diverse teams, where managers can provide support and coaching on performance outcomes.

2.4.3 Goal Setting Theories

Since the 1960s, goal setting theories have emerged in the area of industrial/organizational psychology, as scholars have become interested in understanding the sources of satisfaction related to task performance. Locke (1968; 1996) defined a goal as what an individual is trying to accomplish and investigated the ideas that goal specificity, goal difficulty, and goal commitment are essential to understanding task performance. The author emphasized that self-set goals and self-efficacy are the most immediate motivators that positively affect other motivators. A shift in Locke’s research can clearly be observed with goals and task self-confidence replacing needs and values as the main motivators. In 2002, Locke and Latham proposed a formal theory of goal setting. The authors studied the relationship between goals (what individuals want to achieve) and self-efficacy (what they actually do). Goal setting theories are considered to be the foundation of “management by objective” (MBO) programs widely used in various industries (Steers and Shapiro 2004).

According to Locke and Latham (2006), goals direct attention, effort, and action toward goal-relevant actions, and goals foster the application of task decision making and action plans. “Feelings of success in the workplace occur to the extent that people see that they are able to grow and meet job challenges by pursuing and attaining goals that are important and meaningful” (2006:265). In addition, goals, in conjunction with self- efficacy or task-specific confidence (Bandura 1997) partially mediate the effect of other aspects such as personality traits, feedback, participation in decision making, job autonomy, and monetary incentives (Locke et al. 2006:265). The authors conclude that

the key moderators of goal setting are (a) feedback, because it is necessary for people to track progress; (b) commitment to the (shared) goal, which is enhanced by the level of self-efficacy; (c) task complexity, and (d) situational constraints. Thus, such concepts as feedback, autonomy, complexity and monetary incentives are borrowed from goal setting theories to be further developed in the model (Chapter 3).

2.4.4 Influence of the Leadership School

Models from leadership theory have provided crucial insights into understanding the role of the project manager and the relationships between PM and team and PM and upper management. Leadership studies have focused on defining skills that are essential for managers or project coordinators; these skills are relevant for the broader translation labor force as well, especially due to the requirements of current work environments in the LI. Studies in leadership have developed frameworks to investigate management practices in order to better understand the role of a leader in determining the task performance of subordinates and fellow team members.

Over the last six decades, six main schools of thought have dominated leadership theory (Handy 1982; Dulewicz and Higgs 2005): the trait school, the style or behavioral school, the contingency school, the visionary school, the emotional intelligence school and finally the competency school. In addition, Barnard (1938) associated emotional and managerial functions, and argued that guidance, directing, and delegating tasks are cognitive tasks that correlate with higher levels of satisfaction among team members.

These functions were subsequently studied in transactional theories of leadership. The

following discussion focuses on those schools that introduced concepts most central to the current study: the style school and the contingency school.

The 1960s saw the emergence of the style school, with proponents positing that effective leaders can be developed as a means to increase the satisfaction and performance of workers (Hersey and Blanchard 1988). This school of thought emphasized that effective leaders show a concern for production, people and relationships, appreciate the involvement of the team in decision making, involve the entire team in decision making, use authority accurately, and clearly differentiate between flexibility and the application of rules.

In the late 1960s and 1970s, the contingency school (Fiedler 1967; House 1971) became quite influential, making an enormous contribution to the “one size fits all” strategy with the main aim of comprehending leadership effectiveness according to the specifics of work situations. Fiedler (1967) suggested different leadership styles based on the “favorability” of the situation. The level of favorability is established by the leader- follower relationship, the level of trust, the clarity of task instructions and the concept of position power. Frame (1987) further developed four contingent leadership styles for project management at different stages of the project life cycle and with different team structures. For example, during the design phase, a more democratic leadership style was suggested, with team members expected to work on several tasks simultaneously and in collaboration. However, during the execution phase, an autocratic style was preferred, consisting of a task-based team, composed so that each person worked on a separate task.

The implementation of different leadership styles by project managers during the stages

of the translation process could perhaps increase performance and improve interpersonal

“on-the-job” relationships in the language industry.

2.4.5 Influence of Job Redesign and Job Characteristics Theories

In the late 1980s, the correlation between work adjustment, job redesign and satisfaction at work began to attract interest among scholars. Many studies found correlations between specific job performance features and job satisfaction. Loher et al.

(1985) found job satisfaction to correlate well with: (a) task identity (completing a clear and identifiable piece of work); (b) task significance (the degree to which the job has an impact on the lives of others); (c) skill variety; (d) autonomy (the degree to which the job provides freedom and independence), and (e) feedback (the extent to which information about job effectiveness is available).

Many authors studied the satisfaction-performance relationship during this period, concluding that a satisfied employee is generally a productive employee. Research also demonstrated a small to modest correlation of job satisfaction with job performance

(Iaffaldino and Muchinsky 1985; Judge et al. 2001). A job characteristics model

(DeSantis and Durst 1996) was also developed during this period to study the impact of specific aspects of a job or task on the level of satisfaction. Such concepts as employee morale, feeling of cognitive growth, level of commitment, rewards, incentives, and process regulation were included in the model. Hackman and Oldham (1980) outlined several job characteristics that appeared to contribute to performance and enhance job satisfaction. For instance, the authors argued that some tasks are better designed for individuals while others are better suited for group work. The authors concluded that

many tasks at work should be redesigned for groups, and group dynamics should be modified based on the nature of a task. The authors identified four key sources of satisfaction: compensation, benefits, job security and family/work balance. Hackman and

Oldham concluded that a job can be restructured so that it can be a source of intrinsic motivation. They argued that their model could be implemented in situations of vertical loading, commonly observed in jobs where more responsibility is added to a position,

“stacking” new responsibilities on top of older ones. This model also identified task identity, skill variety, task significance, autonomy and feedback as core job aspects. This study adopts some of the elements of Hackman and Oldham’s model into our proposed model of translator satisfaction (Chapter 3).

Another study on work adjustment conducted by Dawis and Lofquist (1984) proposed a model in which job satisfaction/dissatisfaction acted like a “thermostat” in work behavior, e.g., it was a controlling mechanism for many other aspects of work performance. Wright and Davis (2003) further explored the relationship between work context and job characteristics, and the authors concluded that job characteristics need to be modified so that individual values are aligned with organizational and group goals.

Some of the ideas discussed above will be incorporated into the facets of task and job satisfaction developed as part of the model introduced in the next chapter.

2.4.6 Evolution of Organizational Dynamics

The late 1980s and 1990s saw the emergence of the Total Quality Management movement (TQM), with the goals of improving quality of products, raising the quality of services, reshaping business processes and improving human resource management

practices. TQM has subsequently had an enormous impact on the language industry as well. TQM aimed at customer satisfaction through an integrated system of tools, techniques, and training focused on the continuous improvement of organizational processes. Deming (1986) was a pioneer of the quality revolution in Japan after World

War II and adopted techniques of statistical process control for improving product quality, emphasizing that process control guarantees product quality. Deming’s approach to the management of human resources can be summarized as follows: (a) build teamwork and mutual respect, substituting competition among individuals and among departments with cooperation, and enhance participation in decision making; (b) institute formal training in statistical process control measures and teamwork; (c) emphasize doing things right the first time to eliminate costly rework, “ceasing dependence on mass inspection”; (d) focus on continuous process improvement; (e) eliminate fear so the labor force will feel encouraged to ask questions and offer suggestions (e.g., also listen and learn from employees and customers); (f) encourage cooperative leadership, motivating and managing people to improve the system; (g) break down barriers between departments, and (h) eliminate numerical quotas. There has been some criticism of TQM, for instance Zemke (1992) criticized TQM referring to a report authored by Ozan et al.

(1992), a partner at Ernst & Young, who highlights many of the TQM’s drawbacks and concludes that although many managers did their TQM homework, offered training, formed teams, very few positive results were achieved. Ozan (ibid.) basically argued that

TQM “overloaded” managers with change, and this was why few benefits came from adopting the approach. Indeed, TQM has had a significant influence on management

practices for the last three decades, including the language industry, with specific implications on process workflow, communication workflow as well as human resource management (ASTM F 2575, 2006).

While Deming’s philosophy advocates making human resources a key component of organizational success, and implementing quality processes to ensure product quality, it can be argued that the language industry has generally struggled to prioritize the translation labor force and enhance the quality of translation processes. For instance, cooperative leadership and training have become more common in the LI, but a great disparity can be observed among LSPs in high, medium and low maturity scales. Even though some LSPs have successfully become ISO 9001 certified, other LSPs have not standardized such crucial processes as communication workflow, teamwork building and the translation workflow itself. Translators are required to deliver quality products and services, but often the “materials” or source texts they receive are inherently flawed, and fixing the source texts demands costly rework before starting the translation process.

Quality processes that reach upstream into the source text authoring processes are often talked about, but not often implemented. Further, the level of translator participation in the development of quality processes is not common, and commitment to process improvement is observed only among those LSPs that prioritize ISO 9001 best practices.

During the 1990s, a perceptible decline in research in the fields of satisfaction at work can be observed. This decade was also marked by a continued replication of research frameworks from the 1960s and 1970s, especially in the fields of organizational redesign and team dynamics. Dramatic changes in the workplace were observed during

this period due to a revolution in information and communication technology. These technological changes transformed organizations and spurred new business models, but no new approaches to job satisfaction arose to address these new developments.

2.4.6.1 Projectized Organizations

Technological change over the last two decades forced organizations to adapt to new challenges in order to innovate and offer competitive products and services to meet emerging customer needs. Organizationally, many companies started to adopt a project- based model for organizing their labor force. Hierarchical structures were increasingly modified by adopting, for instance, collaborative, teamwork principles that created smaller, flatter “team-based” organizations. As a result of technological change the organization of the labor force, particularly in the LI, began to transform. The notion of the team became very important, although the adoption of project structures and teams was accompanied by other changes.

Teams are defining the notion of hierarchy, as well as traditional power distributions. In addition, a trend toward short-term employment, interdependencies between group members, time as the main variable of performance measurement, increasing existence of conflicts, increasingly transitory career development, etc. require new management approaches. The use of contingent workers is on the rise. (Steers et al. 2004:383)

In “The Coming of the New Organization” (1988), Drucker studied three major evolutionary phases in the development of modern organizational structures. The first period was concerned with the development of the core concepts of business ownership and management. The second period was focused on command-and-control issues in organizations, with an emphasis on processes such as decentralization and personnel

management. The command-and-control structure was marked by a highly hierarchical, departmentalized and divided labor force. Now, as current business trends

(globalization), information technology developments and communication methods move the economy in unexpected new directions, Drucker argued that many businesses, especially those outside of manufacturing, will become primarily organizations of knowledge specialists. The author mentioned that economic trends, innovation and demographics will demand this shift, and the organization of the future will be

“composed largely of specialists who direct and discipline their own performance through organized feedback from colleagues, customers, and headquarters” (3).

Drucker claimed that the shift towards these new structures would coincide with a reduced number of management layers and a flatter structure with task-focused teams (5).

Drucker also emphasized that specialists will appreciate the existence of professional career development opportunities at work, and that the organization will “have to accept, indeed foster, the pride and professionalism of its specialists” as a motivational tool (9), in order to support attainment of performance goals.

The movement from mass-production and consumption, observed for most of the

20th century, to the knowledge-based economy of the 21st century has led to a reliance on specific talents and specialized knowledge for the development of effective business strategies for product and service delivery. The heavy reliance on specialized talent and knowledge has necessitated the integration of knowledge from multiple areas or departments within the organization (onsite), but has also brought about an increasing reliance on external sources of knowledge. Companies are seeking a competitive

advantage by developing core competences in-house while hiring specific talent from external sources in order to support new products and services.

This is especially true for the language industry which has seen drastic changes in markets and technologies in a very short period of time. Flexible and autonomous project-based organizations were widely adopted in the LI, since they “are optimal organizational structures to integrate knowledge both within and outside the company, and to generate business models for new products and services” (Kodama 2007; Graham and Randall 2004). Project-based organizations “generate results in response to specific client demands by structuring projects around temporary assemblies of in-house specialist staff and executing business within a fixed time limit” (Kodama 3). Generally, project- based organizations adopt a temporary organizational structure and combine ad-hoc resources to execute specific tasks.

Since the nature of a project itself is temporary, it has been observed that knowledge within an existing assembly of staff knowledge resources may not suffice, and thus the sharing and/or transfer of knowledge between departments and external organizations often becomes necessary. From a satisfaction point of view, such temporary and ad hoc organizational structures may be problematic because although they cause strong interdependence between departments, they also bring about decentralization (DeFillippi 2001, Keegan and Turner 2001). Project members often come from different areas of specialization, who have never worked together, with different priorities which makes it difficult to establish shared understandings or a common knowledge base (Kodama 2007). In other words, projectized work environments

bring along with them new work conditions that have been ill-studied in the work satisfaction literature. Any new models of job, task or professional satisfaction have to take account of the organizational change the LI is currently undergoing.

Organizations today need to have inherent flexibility in order to cope with a dynamic and a constantly changing environment. According to Chemers (2002),

“organizational prosperity (or even survival) depends on the appropriate balance between

… stability and change” (Reprinted in Ott et al.:115). This does not mean that the organizational entity ceases to exist since “to be effective, an organization … must develop a system of rules, norms, and standards that provide the internal order, reliability, and predictability necessary to address recurrent and routine events. However, because organizations exist within a dynamic environment, they must develop the systems and strategies that foster the sensitivity and flexibility that make it possible to respond to novel challenges” (ibid.:115). These new “dynamic” systems and strategies, however, affect today’s knowledge workers and their feelings of satisfaction in ways we don’t really understand yet, although some scholars have begun to address the issue.

The most contemporary approaches to leadership, for instance, reflect models that emphasize the dynamic relationships between the individual and the work environment

(Sternberg 1988; Chemers 2002), suggest that leaders in dynamic work environments should reshape the situation or the environment, and establish interactions so that the individuals who work for them have a better fit for that particular environment.

Organizational effectiveness in dynamic work environments is therefore directly proportional to leadership effectiveness. Chemers (115) emphasized that leaders must

help teams accomplish the tasks on which the organization’s internal stability and external adaptability depend. A leader, therefore, must exhibit (a) the ability to foster the trust and loyalty of the followers; (b) the ability to motivate teams, and (c) the ability to apply team resources to tasks. Chemers’ insights are especially useful in this study because the proposed model explicitly argues that the project manager plays a critical role in the satisfaction levels of other team members. In addition, because project managers are themselves a major new factor in the organization of the industry, understanding their role helps us understand how they develop their own feelings of satisfaction.

The three traits Chemers discusses have been emphasized as the “true aspects” of leadership because they cannot be “bought” by tangible or material inducements or other positive incentives (48-50). Aspects such as loyalty, responsibility, capacity, general alertness, comprehensiveness of interest, flexibility and courage are characteristics that are generally hard to teach, train or foster because they seem to depend on combinations of innate characteristics, or qualities developed through long periods of previous experience. Specialized or technical abilities, by contrast, can be developed with training or education. Chemers (2002) and Hollander (1958) presented findings from laboratory and field studies showing that “when a leader is seen as competent in the task-related domain and committed to the group’s core values, followers are willing to give the leader greater latitude of action and authority” (Chemers 116). These task-related skills provide the basics to move project teams towards goal accomplishment and “the loyalty to group values fosters the assurance that the goal pursued by the leader will be one that serves the

collective interests of the group” (ibid.). We can see quite directly how the abilities and characteristics of the PM become central to any approach to understanding satisfaction in the LI.

On a side note, creating value is seen as another important role of leadership at all levels. Value is created by acting to leverage a company’s position in a business array.

Companies in the same array may share the same goals or objectives, or they may have formal relationships. Leaders, especially at the executive level, need to act quickly to protect a company’s position in the market. For instance, the literature shows that quick reaction times enable a firm to operate on the global stage quickly, moving products, transferring capital and hiring labor from cheaper locations. Strategic speed enables a company to quickly construct portfolios of activities with the sets of returns offsetting and reducing the sets of risk. Conversely, even though speed is an essential variable that adds value to a company, it can also be argued that speed has to be balanced against scope, cost, quality and resources for creating competitive advantage (Dunne 2011c).

Hence, strategic speed on the client side has impacted the LI dramatically.

Strategic speed on the client side most often translates to tighter deadlines for the language industry vendor. As these demands move down to the project level there are significant constraints on project time windows and therefore, finally, for the translator’s work schedule and the time allotted for tasks. So, in addition to increasing projectization, the new environment for the language industry places new time constraints and pressures on both translators and project managers. These are very immediate factors that can influence satisfaction.

The motivation of an individual to join and then stay in an organization, and the motivation to adjust to the organization to meet organizational goals has been widely studied (Barnard 1938), although these concepts have not been studied in the context of the language industry, where concepts such as organizational citizenship behavior, organizational culture, and organizational commitment may be critical in understanding motivation.

Sets of individual-level factors such as approach to performance appraisal, intention to quit, turnover and absenteeism have been investigated, and their impact on organizational outcomes such as productivity, efficiency, costs, customer satisfaction and unit-level turnover have been demonstrated (Hausknecht et al. 2011, 2009; Kackmar

2006). Organizational culture has also been found to be a driver of worker attitude and level of performance. For instance, employees were found to be more satisfied and committed to organizations with clan cultures (Hartnell et al. 2011), with their feelings of belonging resulting in higher satisfaction. Workers also prefer organizations that offer a higher level of flexibility over stability and control (ibid.). Organizational culture has also been related to organizational effectiveness since having an organizational culture often differentiates a company and provides a competitive advantage. Presence of an organizational culture has also been associated with higher satisfaction in companies with market cultures. However none of these factors has ever been specifically studied in the language industry context.

One of the most commonly studied relationships in organizational dynamics is the correlation between satisfaction and productivity (or high levels of performance). As

stated earlier, empirical research has failed to support the hypothesis that job satisfaction has a direct impact on productivity (Iaffaldamo and Muchinsky 1985; Katz and Kahn

1978). However, a positive correlation has been established between job satisfaction and employee retention, as well as increasing a feeling of belonging to the organization and commitment by decreasing turnover and absenteeism (Farrell and Stamm 1988; Spector

1997), thereby indirectly enhancing productivity. The literature on retention and job satisfaction is of great interest to the language industry because the development, recruitment and “stability” of the human resources of the industry (translators) are critical issues in the development of the industry.

Organizational change, including what we can call the “industrialization of services” that we see in the language industry (increasing corporatization) has resulted in an evolution of the traditional concepts of workplace. Work settings are becoming increasingly complex, and it is rare to see a whole business process carried out and completed by the same individual. This is due to the increasingly complex nature of the work that is carried out in projects. The complex nature of, for instance, localization tasks, has resulted in previously unknown levels of task specialization, division of labor and diversity of roles. While specialization of roles in the language industry has allowed organizations to make a more systematic use of professional skills and knowledge with the ultimate aim of increasing performance by delivering products in shorter periods of time, it has also resulted in teams with very heterogeneous roles. The division of labor in projects has resulted in bringing together teams based on the specialized tasks that they perform. This means, for instance, that they may be geographically dispersed in so-called

“virtual teams.” Such team structures require new communication channels and management infrastructures if the quality of work is to be maintained. This rapid evolution in group dynamics has created new conditions and challenges for ensuring satisfaction in the work place. Shifts in group or team dynamics have been one of the primary trends in the LI in the past two decades, so understanding this issue is critical to understanding the modern translator’s new work environment. We argue that the dynamics of teams in LI settings cannot be understood in isolation from the teams’ leaders: the project managers.

2.4.6.2 Group or Team Dynamics and Leadership

Leadership theories from the social psychology have dealt with two important questions: how one becomes a leader to begin with (Mann 1959; Bass 1960), and how one becomes an effective leader and thus can enhance group performance. Even though both questions are critical for understanding the relationship between the PM and the team in the LI, the second question can be used to gain insights into the aspects related to leadership effectiveness. For the purposes of this study, leadership in team work has been defined as “a process of social influence in which a person is able to enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task” (Chemers 1997:1), the keywords being, “social process,” “influence” and “task-orientedness.” A leader plans, directs, sets standards, and controls the work of … team members, … establishes considerations such as mutual trust, respect, friendship among group members (Ott et al.

2003:33-34). Once again, it can be seen how leaders are critical to understanding how the work environment relates to worker satisfaction.

However, in addition to leadership, individual work behavior has a direct impact on teamwork relationships and dynamic interactions. Individual work behavior is intrinsically associated with collective social processes, and has been studied by researchers leading to the development of the inter-group theory. One of the main proponents of this theory, Alderfer (1987), borrowed the principles of the inter-group theory in order to comprehend problematic issues in individual, interpersonal, group and organizational relations. Cox (1993) examined the cultural perspectives that can challenge and affect organizations. The author identified specific sources of conflict among culture identity groups in order to understand how inter-group conflict affects overall organizational variables, and suggested new approaches to resolve inter-group conflict.

An interesting finding reported by Fiedler and Leister (1977) suggested that knowledge and experience may not have much impact on a team’s success unless there is a leader who is in control and who directs the tasks of subordinates. The Contingency

Model of leadership effectiveness strongly supports the hypothesis that the level of team effectiveness depends on deliberate attempts by the leader to match leadership style with situational factors. As discussed above, adapting a management leadership style to the needs and personality traits of each team member has been positively correlated with individual productivity in tasks (Halpin 1957; House 1971), but some of the results from these studies could not be supported by future research.

Four main leadership styles have emerged from these studies: telling, selling, participating, and delegating, with the suggestion that a different style should be used

based on the level of maturity, “When a work group is not mature enough to assume a task; a leader should be high in initiation (task) and low in consideration (relationship) behavior to help the group understand what is required of them … When a group is mature, the leader should be high in consideration (relationship) and low in initiation … because the group is able to complete the task without much guidance” (34). Hersey and

Blanchard (1969) proposed a Managerial Grid which establishes task and relationship dimensions of leadership. This grid has been widely implemented in management development programs (1969; Reprinted in Otto et al.:57).

However, in the early 1990s the emotional intelligence school of thought became increasingly popular, proposing that the emotional response of a leader is more important than the level of intelligence. Goleman et al. (2002) suggested six styles of leadership to be used in situations that require long-term vision (visionary, commanding, affiliative, democratic, pacesetting, coaching). These styles foster resonance among team members and improve team performance, thus a balance between the style and the situational particularities becomes essential.

Since the late 1990s, researchers from the competency school have attempted to identify the competencies of effective leaders, studying factors related to knowledge, skills and personal characteristics that also serve as the foundation for many of the concepts used in the model developed in this study. This school of thought posits that leaders are not born but can be trained and developed. The definition of competence not only covers personal traits and emotional intelligence (EQ), but also involves problem-

solving ability and management skills. Successful team performance is associated with the appropriate alignment of individual leadership skills among team members.

In order to define the types of competences that impact leadership performance this study borrows Dulewicz and Higgs’s model (2005) consisting of cognitive, emotional, behavioral and motivational competences. Dulewicz and Higgs described fifteen leadership competences, and their findings suggest that EQ, managerial competences and IQ account for 36%, 16% and 27% of leadership performance respectively with EQ considered the most important one, as can be seen in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3.

Summary of Leadership Competences. Adapted from Dulewicz and Higgs’s model (2005).

7 emotional intelligence 3 intellectual 7 managerial competencies (EQ) competencies (IQ) competences (MQ) Self-awareness Critical analysis and Engaging Emotional resilience judgment communication Motivation Vision Managing resources Sensitivity Strategic perspective Empowering Influence Developing Intuitiveness Achieving Conscientiousness

2.4.6.3 Virtual Leadership

Team performance and team members’ satisfaction in non-virtual groups has been shown in the literature to be actively influenced by leadership (Bass 1990; Hackman

1990). However, studying the shift from traditional leadership to virtual leadership is in its infancy (Janson 2010). A virtual team is understood as “a collection of individuals who are geographically and/or organizationally or otherwise dispersed and who collaborate via communication and information technologies in order to accomplish a

specific goal” (Zigurs 2003:340). Examples of the most common advantages of virtual teams are the ability to access highly qualified and skilled individuals regardless of location, endowing a team with flexibility and quick responsiveness. Even though a virtual team may not have any face-to-face interaction, some authors (Zigurs 2003;

Power 2003/2004) acknowledge the value of some physical meeting to develop trust and interpersonal relationships. Trust between team members in a virtual environment has proven to be a link between leadership and performance (Jung and Avolio 2000), and can be a substitute for close physical supervision. Some of the factors that contribute to the effectiveness of virtual leadership are role clarification, mentoring, effective communication, perceived support and harmony (Kayworth and Leidner 2002). In addition, the literature shows that leading virtual teams that consist of culturally diverse members poses significant challenges for organizations (Kirkman et al. 2002).

Traditional teams have usually implemented vertical leadership with a leader who guides and directs the activities of team members. This is almost impossible in a virtual team where the role of the leader becomes more that of a facilitator or someone who empowers the team (Manz and Sims 2001). Unlike in traditional models of leadership, empowering the team is also a challenge in the new working settings of the virtual organization. The person in charge of the team operates as locus of control, organizes tasks, and matches skills and resources to the needs of the project and the team (Pearce

2004). In addition, since virtual teams can consist of highly qualified professionals, the leader may not have all the necessary skills and competences (Pearce 2004) required to perform the supervisory tasks that required by the position of leadership.

According to Pauleen (2003), it is more difficult for the team leader to get information about team processes, manage team dynamics, ensure communication flow and build cohesion and cooperation between the team members in a virtual environment.

When a team leader is unable to exert leadership, withdrawal of team member engagement, frustration and renunciation of decision-making responsibility are commonly observed (Yeatts and Hyten 1998). Therefore, as a virtual team grows, shared leadership seems to be the best approach in order to guarantee team stability. Shared leadership in teams entails widely sharing power and influence requiring members’ involvement in the leadership of the group (Pearce 2004). In a workplace that is increasingly geographically and culturally dispersed, a shared leadership approach may facilitate knowledge creation by allowing information to flow more freely between team members in a more timely and clear manner (Bligh et al. 2006). However, shared leadership runs the risk of disrupting the flow of communication.

Pearce (2004) conducted a longitudinal study to determine the differences between vertical and virtual teams. It was found that shared leadership is a better predictor of team outcomes than vertical leadership. For example, shared leadership was found to favor team potency, social integration, problem solving quality and perceived effectiveness. In the LI, a project manager can often choose between shared leadership and vertical leadership. The PM is a virtual leader of diverse teams, and it is often observed that team members are given high levels of empowerment. It is also been claimed that freelance translators, an important source of human capital in the LI, accept or reject projects on the basis of the leadership skills exhibited by a PM. Thus one can see

that many of the issues explored in this section have pertinence to the model developed in

Chapter 3, in particular to the facet of translator job satisfaction.

However, shared leadership is a relatively new concept referring to multiple leaders seeking out and taking responsibility for different leadership functions and assuming complementary roles (Barry 1991). The literature on shared leadership particularly discusses the challenges for such leadership in online environments. For example, trust building in virtual communities is found to be problematic. Raja et al.

(2006) suggested that trust can be built in both virtual and co-located environments if the members are willing to work together, with good communication and strong leadership.

In fact, most scholars agree that trust among members can be built if members take different roles at different times, since that provides the advantage of ensuring the sharing of expertise and skills between members.

This study assumes that a manager is generally empowered to use organizational resources as and when necessary to further team goals. The study also assumes that a leader will seek to effectively exercise influence and be persuasive whenever required.

Barnard (1966) explained that, in order to pursue effective leadership, the functions of executives are to: (a) provide a system of communication and maintain a centralized system; (b) promote the securing of essential services and efforts from individuals, specialization, tasks, etc., and (c) formulate and define the goals of an organization, delegating and assigning responsibility.

With regards to team effectiveness, Carte and King (2010) add that “clearly establishing performance goals [sic] motivates desired behaviors, and it has been found

that without these teams tend to spend excessive time on lower priority activities” (64).

Teams without a clear understanding of their assigned tasks are clearly doomed to be less effective. Recent research (Kayworth and Leidner 2002) suggests that managers who provide detailed task descriptions and clearly divide tasks between team members tend to have better performing teams. Given the highly specialized task structure of the modern translation workflow, this role of the project manager can assumed to be critical.

A crucial problem often encountered with virtual teams is that organizations fail to leverage communication and effective training to enable active participation. As a result, virtual teams often lack the feeling of belonging to the organization. The most effective way to make virtual team members part of the organization is by continuously involving them in the decision-making process. Carte and King’s study (2010) reported that managers and workers have different opinions on communication effectiveness.

Participants in the survey believed that their communication was less effective but pointed out defects with organizational communication processes as well. Participants felt that they were the last ones to know about organizational changes with little instruction on how to cope up with them. Electronic manuals and training methods were found to somewhat mitigate these feelings of organizational isolation.

The authors also interviewed managers and team members for their study, observing that managers felt that the primary function was to monitor virtual team progress, act as a resource to the team and communicate expectations. Their results suggest broad support for the use of sophisticated technology for communication and reiterate the significance of communication in team dynamics. Interestingly, “while high

performing team members did not credit team leadership for their team’s higher performance, nearly all lower performing team members reported a lack of communication and/or poor relations between themselves and their manager” (67). The results from this study suggest that the lack of team leadership is mainly observed on the

PM side due to poor relationships and poor communication flows.

Communication skills become extremely important in the virtual context for effective leadership. Barge and Hirokawa (1989) proposed the need for “communication competency” as an essential component of leadership effectiveness, with technology competency being closely related to communication competence in a virtual environment. Managers, therefore, must master an assortment of communication and collaboration technologies in order to facilitate effective communication. However, very little existing research is available in this area of study (Carte and King 2001: 63). It can, however, be argued that these skills are extremely important for project managers as well as translators in today’s new LI work environments. Communication-related factors could be expected to have a significant influence on perceptions of satisfaction.

In the language industry, leadership and managerial skills are becoming extremely important especially for project managers (in LSPs) and sole proprietors, because of a lack of streamlined process control. Project managers, acting as e-leaders, need to possess all the necessary managerial and leadership skills discussed in this section in order to deal with extremely diverse virtual teams and an increasingly complex technological environment. As discussed earlier, the rapid evolution of IT has resulted in a high level of process complexity and translation volume. This rapid transformation has challenged the

LI to adapt its business models. The LI has had to innovate translation processes, and adapt translation workflow. This has brought about the decentralization of certain processes and workflows (e.g., outsourcing), but has also necessitated recruiting and retention of team members with the required skillset necessary to maintain labor requirements. All this is taking place in dynamic and evolving team and project structures.

Thus, traditional organizational structures have been shaken and replaced by new mechanisms of supervision and control. The principles of shared leadership that have emerged need to be implemented so as to guarantee team cohesion, with project managers taking the lead in matching the skills of team members with specific tasks.

Self-directed virtual teams with high levels of professional and communication skills are becoming all the more necessary in the language industry in order to meet ever tighter budget and time constraints.

2.5 Professional Aspects of Satisfaction

The onset of the new millennium has seen the emergence of Knowledge

Management as an important field of study, with specific emphasis on individual growth and a timely sharing of valuable knowledge. The advent of decentralized organizational structures requires employees to use their initiative and be proactive (Campbell 2000).

Moreover, with constant change and the increasing flow of digital information, translators are expected to be potentially successful leaders (whether they occupy a project manager role or not, many of them are sole proprietors). Thus one of their key attributes is expected to be a lifelong commitment to learning and continuous training.

Even though translators are highly qualified workers, and active translators often possess a significant number of years of professional experience, the translation profession is not very highly recognized and usually struggles to command a high level of social and professional prestige.

Professional aspects of satisfaction have been overlooked in the literature of translation studies, thus important concepts such as social recognition of the profession, professional status, professional commitment, mentoring, and involvement in the profession are introduced in this section. New concepts such as professional identification, recognition, professional pride, etc. are operationalized for the purpose of this study and further developed in the model (Chapter 3).

2.5.1 Social Recognition of a Profession

Sociological studies have considered the “essence of a profession” (Freidson

1994:24) as the basis of professional privilege (Larson 1977; Freidson 1994:81), as well as economic and societal status (MacDonald 1998). Freidson and Larson agreed on defining the process of professionalization more specifically as a “market project” in which professionals engage to create and control a market for their professional expertise

(skills and knowledge) as the means of securing their social privileged and economic position (Larson 1977). Whereas personal identity or the self-concept is about differentiating oneself from others, social identity is defined as “that part of an individual’s self-concept which derives from his knowledge of his membership in a social group (or groups) together with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership” (Tajfel 1982, quot. in Ashmore et al. 2001:6).

2.5.2 Professionalism and Professional Status

Boyt et al. (2001) tested a model of job satisfaction that predicts whether rewards for professional behavior enhance professionalism. The authors clarified that, unlike professional status, which is inferred from the achievement of degrees or certification within a profession, professionalism is hard to identify and measure. Professionalism

“consists of the attitudes … one possesses toward one’s profession” (322). Hall (1968) and Snizek (1972) also investigated the concept of professionalism and outlined five characteristics: (1) autonomy; (2) involvement in professional associations; (3) belief in public service or understanding that the whole society benefits from the profession; (4) identification with the domain, and (5) highly specialized workers’ beliefs in self- regulation. The authors studied the relationships among these concepts and concluded that these five professional motivators should be integrated in a reward system, since they positively correlate with satisfaction.

2.5.3 Professional Commitment and Professional Involvement

Professional organizations, institutions or work groups are considered the basis of professional privilege (Ashforth and Mael 1989; Hogg and Terry 2000). Professional groups play a pivotal role in the formation of social identity (Hogg and Terry 2000). To remain active and successful, professional organizations try to exercise control over access to education, training, and professional labor markets (McDonald 1999:163). They accomplish this by controlling knowledge, vocational training or accreditation and certifications (Daniels and Johansen 1985). These mechanisms drive a profession’s

legitimacy (Freidson 1994), and reshape the behavior, action and identity of individual professionals.

The driver of professional classification is the individual’s need to achieve a social self-concept and a sense of self-esteem (Operario and Fiske 1999). Cognitive strategies are the foundation for social comparison and social evaluation of the group status of members who belong to the same profession, and professional identity is one of the multiple social identities that an individual may hold (Hotho 2008:729).

“Socialization into the professional community provides a sense of stability, belonging, and values, and it reduces ambiguity. Professional identity clearly fulfills the status need driving social identity ascriptions” (ibid.).

The terms professional commitment, occupational and career commitment have been used interchangeably in the literature. Professional commitment is the primary term due to work on the concept of professional values (Larson 1977). For instance, Aranya et al. (1982) studied organizational commitment as a function of professional commitment, and a positive relationship was found between the two variables. Recent research supports a three-dimensional construct of professional commitment that is similar to the one for organizational commitment. According to Mayer et al. (1993), the level of an individual’s involvement or participation in an occupation might significantly vary with the level of priority given to professional commitment. For instance, an individual who is committed may actively engage in developments in the occupation (e.g., by subscribing to journals or attending/presenting at conferences) and may join or actively participate in representative associations. Individuals who have a strong continuance commitment may

not be involved themselves in occupational activities but continue with membership

(Mayer et al. 1993). Scholars agree that professional commitment is an even stronger determinant of turnover than commitment to the organization and work (Mueller et al.

1992). Lacking professional commitment has been found to be associated with an intention to leave the profession (Bedeian et al. 1991; Cohen 1998).

Professional involvement is also considered to be a source of professional satisfaction. Professional involvement helps a person to acquire current knowledge, upgrade skills, and contribute to the profession. Involvement in the profession contributes to professional growth and personal growth (Mortensen and Fullmer 2002). Satisfied employees generally show a higher level of professional satisfaction and “seek higher skill development, more stimulating jobs, and larger workloads, and desire more job responsibility and involvement” (ibid.:1452).

However, very few available studies explore the relationship between professional satisfaction and job satisfaction. Mortensen and Fullmer selected a random sample of

2,600 registered dietitians and ninety-two percent of respondents indicated a high level of satisfaction. The authors outlined the key characteristics of professional satisfaction as: being mentored, being a mentor, self-assessed high professional involvement, full-time employment, high annual income, and increased hours worked per week (2002:1452).

Burke (2001) and Burke and McKeen (1995) focused on the motivators of professional satisfaction of managerial and professional women. It was found that support and encouragement, training and development, and challenging jobs were the main contributors to high levels of professional satisfaction in the early stages of their careers.

Armstrong-Stassen and Cameron (2005) chose senior professionals for their study and found out that both professional and managerial women show a higher level of career satisfaction when they perceive organizational support. The authors emphasized that women in professional positions “reported significantly less organizational support, more hierarchical and job content plateauing, and less career satisfaction than women in managerial positions” (211). It was suggested that fostering professional satisfaction can be achieved by creating challenging tasks that allow professional women to “extend their abilities and knowledge in performing their job, and have an opportunity to learn and grow in their job, … these older managerial and professional women are less interested in advancing to a higher level and are more interested in what their job has to offer” (212).

Several studies establish a clear correlation between traits and career satisfaction

(Boudreau et al. 2001; Lounsbury et al. 2003). A survey published by the American

Sociological Association (2006) indicates that professional characteristics such as “more job time doing research,” autonomy and feedback and challenging projects are seen as predictors of increasing satisfaction scores. By contrast, highly qualified professionals have shown lower job satisfaction because they expect a higher return for their education investment after graduation (Vollmer and Kinney 1955). Overqualified employees indicate a higher level of dissatisfaction when they do not feel they are at the right occupational level.

2.5.4 Coaching and Retention

Retaining talent is becoming a priority in the “knowledge industries.” Therefore, commitment to life-long learning, training, coaching and mentoring are becoming

essential elements of talent retention policies. Coaching and mentoring have been studied as effective retention strategies (Pritchard 2007; Mattox II et al. 2005; Strong 2009), and results suggest that not only do these strategies improve performance but they also decrease turnover. Feedback has been found useful for coaching purposes as well as being an intrinsic motivator. Coaching is known to improve interpersonal relationships and increase overall satisfaction. Providing coaching, mentoring and other mechanisms for developing the talent pool are a significant challenge in the LI, in particular for freelancers, the main source of human capital.

Freelancers often lack of time for career development and to be involved in the profession. Freelancers may be interested in attending and presenting at conferences, but it may not be feasible due to budgetary and time constraints, especially due to the lack of organizational support. As stated above, this remains a significant problem for the LI and improving these opportunities may have a positive effect on satisfaction.

As discussed in Chapter 1, the language industry has been in a state of constant change and evolution and in its preliminary stages toward professionalization; thus efforts to improve the current situation become necessary to increase the level of professionalization by establishing best practices of human resource management and talent retention.

2.6 Conclusions

This chapter has presented an overview of research conducted over the last five decades relevant to the study of satisfaction at work. It includes a discussion of the relevant leadership literature, reflecting its importance to understanding the central role of

the project manager in today’s language industry. This chapter also discussed specific models and concepts that will provide the theoretical underpinnings for the model of translator satisfaction to be proposed in the next chapter. In particular, Herzberg’s two- factor theory, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, and some theories of intrinsic motivation that were discussed in this chapter will be used to develop the model. Task performance and concepts outside OB and I/O psychology were also discussed in this chapter in order to seek possible predictors that would lead to a better understanding of satisfaction.

Leadership theories discussed in the literature have focused on trait theory, transactional and transformative approaches. These theories are of particular interest because of their relevance to project management in the LI, and to the highly professionalized nature of the labor force. Most of the research on leadership is based on existing theories from the behavioral sciences and applied psychology; but new research is focusing on emerging management approaches in order to gain a better understanding of the contemporary workplace. The discussion focuses on new models of leadership that may help in explaining some aspects of task satisfaction in the virtual team configurations currently predominant in the LI.

The increasing prevalence of virtual organizations, flat organizational structures and the emergence of virtual project teams have led to a significant change in organizational and group dynamics. These new structures challenge conventional understandings of the relationship between satisfaction and the work environment and between employer, organization and employee.

As the traditional employee-supervisor relationship becomes less common, there is an urgent need to understand new interactions and new sources of satisfaction at work.

For instance, conventional performance appraisal is a valuable attribute of the traditional employee-supervisor relationship, but it may need to be redefined in the context of virtual work environments where the supervisor functions as an e-leader, virtually coordinating team interactions and workflow. The discussion on leadership theories in this chapter provided insights into possible ways for improving virtual team performance through more appropriate and effective supervising methods in emerging work environments.

The main sources of motivation investigated in management studies, psychology and sociology have identified both individual needs factors and work environment factors as predictors of satisfaction. Dissatisfaction emerges when there is an asymmetry between individual expectations and needs and what a job actually offers. Many aspects of work satisfaction have been presented in this chapter acknowledging the need for such a balance. While various studies concur about work factors that are sources of satisfaction, some of these factors do not transfer directly to the LI. Specifically, process standardization, performance appraisal and promotions may not be implemented or observed in the work setting of a translation company or under the subcontracting paradigm.

New work environments are very dynamic and diverse, characterized by a need for constant adaptation. This can lead to the translator being linked to more than one work environment simultaneously, with completely different workflows in each, and the sources of satisfaction or dissatisfaction may drastically differ from one work

environment to another. Likewise, the sources of intrinsic satisfaction may vary radically from the sources of extrinsic satisfaction. Unlike intrinsic motivators that produce pleasure from a task or characteristics inherent to the individual, the level of satisfaction derived from external factors, commonly emanating from the work environment, are expected to be sources of unhappiness. For this reason, clearly differentiating intrinsic sources of satisfaction from the aspects related to the context in which the translation is produced becomes crucial in the quest to understand the elements of translator satisfaction. This distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivators will enhance the understanding of the predictors that contribute to satisfaction (or the lack thereof) in the wide variety of LI work environments, and will be conceptualized in a new model in

Chapter 3.

Lastly, elements of satisfaction related to the profession are expected to vary with the strength of professional self-concept. In other words, satisfaction is expected to depend on how a translator views himself or herself as a professional, and on how society at large perceives the profession.

CHAPTER 3

Translator Satisfaction Model

This chapter focuses on presenting a model of translator satisfaction that describes the elements of satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Herzberg’s two-factor theory is utilized as the theoretical framework for the model since it encompasses most of the key aspects of intrinsic and extrinsic sources of satisfaction. Some concepts in this chapter are borrowed from Maslow’s theory and intrinsic motivation theories so as to integrate the various aspects more completely and add explanatory capability to the model.

3.1 Composition of the Model

A model, according to Kaplan (1964), represents the “embodiment of a structural analogy” (266). “Any system A is a model of a system B if the study of A is useful for the understanding of B without regard to any direct or indirect causal connection between

A and B” (Kaplan 263). The model of satisfaction proposed here is a system that accounts for the multiple aspects of satisfaction related to current work environments in the language industry. The model as proposed in this chapter is a hypothetical construct, e.g., it proposes elements of satisfaction and relationships between those elements that can be assessed quantitatively for validity using statistical methods. Analysis of the results will lead to modifications of the model.

The proposed model consists of the following major components: (1) facets; (2) concepts; (3) factors; and (4) variables, as shown in Fig. 3.1.

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Fig 3.1. Main Components of the Model.

Each facet consists of a grouping of concepts, and each concept aggregates factors that are hypothesized to belong together. Empirical testing can assess the validity of the aggregation (that is, does the grouping cohere empirically?).

3.2 Facets, Concepts, Factors and Variables—Operationalizations

Translator Satisfaction

Professional Task Satisfaction Job Satisfaction Satisfaction

Self-efficacy Individual-job fit Professional Profile

Task Scope Nature of the job Technical expertise Task Description Workload Formal education Remuneration Professional experience Deadlines Nature of the task Specialization Balance work/personal life Task Complexity Prof. & Comm. skills Individual-organization fit … Job Security

Job-fit Role of the PM Occupational flexibility Interpersonal relationships Self-fulfillment Self-concept Individual-upper management fit Career development

Fig. 3.2. Three Facets of Satisfaction.

Each facet of satisfaction is composed in this study as a hypothesized meta- grouping, consisting of interrelated concepts. These facets capture the individual affective and cognitive stance toward the tasks, toward the work environment and toward the profession.

A concept, according to Kaplan (1964), is “a rule of judging or acting, a prescription for organizing the materials of experience so as to be able to go on about a specific business” (46). The main role of scientific concepts is to “mark the categories which will tell us more about the subject matter than any other categorical sets” (52). A scientifically valid concept “should identify properties which are causes or ‘sure marks’ of many other properties and this requirement is formulated as calling for statistical analysis of relationships rather than strict causal connections” (51). Each concept in this model aggregates related properties, which are henceforth called “factors.” The concept is a hypothetical construct, predicting that certain factors act or interact in an empirically meaningful way and are statistically measurable. For instance, the facet of task satisfaction contains the concept of nature of the task with task complexity and novelty of the task as component factors.

A factor is operationally defined as one of the interrelated properties of the concept. This study intends to determine which specific factors of a particular concept are co-related. As a simple example, for the concept of remuneration, the corresponding factors are fringe benefits, rush fee, salary, bonus, incentives and rewards.

A variable is operationally defined as a unit in the survey instrument (e.g., a question) that allows for the measurement or assignment of value to a specific factor. The

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variables included in the model measure the discrete factors of the concepts studied and assess the strength of their relationships, thus allowing for the creation of a higher-order model. As a simple example, the concept of remuneration has the factor salary which can be measured by the variable represented by the response to a survey question about salary amount.

The model proposed in this study has not been previously proposed or tested, and there is no existing or available empirical data for many of the concepts and factors proposed used in this model. Therefore, this study functions at least partly to assess the operational and hypothetical definitions for the formal concepts in order to determine the existence and inter-relationship (coherence) of the factors proposed as constituents. Once the predictive relationships for the factors are tested by quantitative analysis, they may be regrouped into more valid concepts. That is to say, the hypothesis will be modified.

As indicated, the possible relationships among concepts and between factors in concepts are stated as hypotheses. These hypotheses are tested statistically using t-tests with further analysis using linear regression as well as correlation. Since the existence of a relationship may not be proven conclusively, one of the goals of this study is to demonstrate the existence of predictive relationships at several levels. This has been done by evaluating: (a) interactions between variables in order to validate factors; (b) relationships between factors in order to validate their membership in proposed concepts;

(c) relationships between concepts (and sub-concepts) in order to understand their role in a facet, and (d) relationships between the facets that allow the creation of a holistic

“translator satisfaction” model.

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3.3 Theoretical Framework

The model of translator satisfaction captures individual, group and professional aspects of satisfaction. Following Herzberg’s (1959) widely-implemented framework a distinction is clearly established between intrinsic and extrinsic sources or motivators of satisfaction, and the intrinsic-extrinsic distinction is extended and incorporated into the three different facets of satisfaction discussed in the study.

Key intrinsic motivators are included in the facet of task satisfaction and professional satisfaction, specifically, achievement, possibility of growth, recognition and the nature of the work itself are ranked as the top sources of intrinsic motivation for workers. Conversely, extrinsic aspects of satisfaction are divided into group, organizational and professional dynamics and included in job satisfaction. Instances of external factors that tend not to correlate with job satisfaction in Herzberg’s framework, such as interpersonal relationships with supervision, salary or administration, are integrated in the facet of job satisfaction.

Lastly, the facet of professional satisfaction consists of intrinsic as well as extrinsic aspects, and is based on principles of self-concept and professional identity

(Triandis 1989; Bandura 1986; Kihlstrom and Cantor 1984).

3.4 Model of Translator Satisfaction

3.4.1 Facet of Task Satisfaction

Task satisfaction is operationally defined as the feeling of success or happiness experienced by a worker during performance or upon completion of a task (Fisher 1980).

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Task satisfaction derives from an attitude, value or trait intrinsic to the individual interacting with the progress and completion of the task.

Tasks are understood as activities or as components of work effort with a clearly defined duration from start-to-end date (Adapted from PMBOK® Guide). Tasks are sets of routine activities at a particular point in time during the enactment of a role. The most common tasks in the language industry are: (a) translation (general and specialized); (b) editing, post-editing, gisting, summarizing, précis writing); (c) proofreading; (d) terminology management (source and target languages); (e) project management

(initiation, scope management, planning, execution, risk management, delivery, invoicing, etc.); (f) desktop publishing (formatting, compilations, conversions, etc.); and

(g) service-related tasks (consulting, marketing, sales, recruitment, accounting, etc.). In some fields of specialization such as IT, localization or multimedia domains, quality control, quality assurance, cosmetic testing, functional testing of applications (or web content or online help), authoring in the source or target language (technical writing, business writing, development of style guides), dubbing, subtitling, transcription, and voiceover are also examples of common tasks.

The translator performs his or her tasks in the context of a role assignment, e.g., when assigned a specific part or parts to play in a project or other translation work context. For instance, a translator may be a freelancer performing tasks such as terminology management, translation, editing, or proofreading (see Fig. 3.3).

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Terminology Management Freelancer Editing Translation

Proofreading

Fig. 3.3. Example of Freelancer Tasks.

The role of a translator, working either onsite or offsite, is mostly related to a set of commonly associated tasks that characterize it. Individuals generally perform most of these tasks over the course of a particular sequence of work; this is what makes them routine. In this field, performing tasks more or less in parallel is called “multitasking.”

An individual may have a full-time job that is language-related but outside the translation work context, for instance teaching. His or her main tasks in the instructor role are student advising and grading (see Fig. 3.4).

Translator Terminology Management Freelancing Student Teaching Translation Advising

Proofreading Grading Editing Consulting

Fig. 3.4. Example of Tasks Performed in Two Work Environments.

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Another possible scenario is that an individual may perform several different types of tasks that are not normally associated (e.g., both translation and project management tasks) because he or she assumes different roles, as may be the case with a translator who may is also the project manager in a big project.

Task satisfaction can be considered a psychological construct that is intrinsically tied to individual perceptions, often incorporating an emotional reaction and possibly a cognitive appraisal of the specific tasks that compose the work associated with a role.

The level of task satisfaction varies quite strongly as a function of the perceived attitude toward a task as well as the associated “feeling of knowing” (FOK) the task, also referred to as task familiarity or task awareness. Feeling of knowing is a metacognitive phenomenon that is known to affect the evaluation of task satisfaction (Koriat 1993;

Metcalfe et al. 1993).

In the model, the facet of task satisfaction will be assessed with an index that comprises aspects of satisfaction related to a translator’s level of expertise and specialization, years of experience, technical expertise and formal education (translation- related or translation as the second profession), as these are expected to be associated with increased FOK. Task satisfaction is also studied as the attitude expressed towards factors such as terminological complexity, novel tasks and the perceived ability of an individual to perform a wide variety of tasks. These factors are related in the concept of self-efficacy.

The facet of task satisfaction consists of the following concepts:

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3.4.1.1 Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy, simply stated, is a self-assessment of capabilities and of the power to influence outcomes and goals associated with the tasks being performed. Efficacy beliefs regulate human behavior through four major processes: cognition, motivation, affection and selection (Bandura 1995). The impact of efficacy beliefs on cognition is related to higher performance self-appraisal, stronger goal challenges, higher task commitment (Locke and Latham 1990), higher levels of analytic thinking, and higher metacognitive regulatory processing. Perceived self-efficacy in exercising control over task stressors also plays a central role in anxiety arousal (Bandura 1991). Bandura (1995) summarizes the relationship between self-efficacy and selection, asserting that people with low levels of self-efficacy “shy away from difficult tasks, which they view as personal threats. They have low aspirations and weak commitment to the goals they choose to pursue … In contrast, a strong sense of efficacy enhances human accomplishment” (11).

The literature on metacognition may help explain some aspects of self-efficacy, especially a translator’s feeling of understanding or knowing. Metacognition can result in the application of efficient strategies such as monitoring or control in the successful rendering of a translated text for a target audience (see declarative, procedural and conditional knowledge in Shreve 2009). As part of metacognitive processing, the “feeling of knowing” (FOK) refers to an individual’s judgment about the degree of accuracy for recognizing and predicting one’s knowledge (Dunlosky and Bjork 2008). According to

Douthitt and Aiello (2001), self-regulation, participation and control over monitoring

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may lead to increased task satisfaction. Mason and Griffin (2002:299) emphasize the importance of combining task-specific factors (familiarity, challenge, variety, opportunity for feedback) with procedural skills to enhance task satisfaction. FOK grows as task familiarity and awareness grow and includes a deeper understanding of the specific nature of tasks (see task scope and task description below).

Shreve (2002) discusses the role of metacognitive development in successful task completion, arguing that a translator develops metacognitive knowledge and patterns of useful cues for successful problem solving during the acquisition history. The author emphasizes that those patterns “enable the recognition of successful task completion” to a greater extent in experts, but also in novices (2002:162). Different levels of metacognition are intrinsically associated with the “expertise effect.” With hours of deliberate practice, metacognitive knowledge and regulation can be progressively developed (Shreve 2009; Angelone and Shreve 2010).

Therefore, as translators develop proficiency, they also develop task awareness, including a growing understanding of task scope and task description. It is important to mention that novices often manifest a feeling of overconfidence in task completion.

Kruger and Dunning (1999) argue that the “unskilled” face a tougher inference problem which explains their lack of cognitive ability and they add that “[the] double curse of being unskilled and unaware that induces the unskilled to dramatically overestimate their expertise” (726).

In the proposed model, levels of self-efficacy are expected to vary between professionals and novices since levels of metacognitive knowledge vary. The two groups

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have different levels of task familiarity, and novices are expected to indicate higher task dissatisfaction in this regard.

Self-efficacy comprises the following factors (see Fig. 3.5 for factors and variables):

Your understanding of the scope of a task before undertaking the task [Q23-7] Task scope Speed I am too slow [Q24-21]

Knowledge of CAT tools is essential Self-efficacy to meet my deadlines [Q24-10] Deadlines I feel that deadlines do not compromise quality [Q24-12] Clarity of task description [Q22-3] My subject matter expertise helps Task description me meet deadlines [Q24-9] Task description shows accurate nature of the work [Q25-15]

Fig. 3.5. Factors and Variables – Self-efficacy.

3.4.1.1.1 Task Scope

Deliberate practice plays a key role in a translator’s attitude toward task scope as and task description. The more projects the translator is involved in, the greater the variety of task scopes and descriptions he or she has experienced.

Even though task scope and task descriptions vary from project to project, hours of practice and years of experience contribute to a higher level of accuracy in problem solving and greater comprehension of the pragmatics of translation task completion. It is generally assumed that experienced translators have greater task awareness, and this means they understand the task scope: the range of discrete activities included in the task and how long they might take.

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The factor of task scope (or more precisely attitude toward the scope) is measured by the following survey items (refer to Fig.3.5):

 Understanding of the scope of a task before undertaking the task  Feeling of being too slow  Knowledge of CAT tools and their role in meeting deadlines  Feeling that deadlines do not compromise quality  Subject matter expertise helping in meeting deadlines

3.4.1.1.2 Task Description

Experts are expected to have a higher level of satisfaction derived from self- efficacy due to a broader, and more accurate, understanding of task scope. Experts are also expected to possess the necessary skills to complete tasks quickly without requiring an elaborate task description. They should already have a detailed understanding of the general parameters of the task. That is to say, they should understand the general situation surrounding the task, the “brief” for the task, the nature of the inputs, the expectations for the outputs, the tools that could and should be used, etc. and have a greater tolerance for unclear or inaccurate task descriptions. The factor of task description is measured by the following survey items (see Fig.3.5):

 Clarity of task description  Task description shows the accurate nature of the work Self-efficacy and task familiarity will also be measured as a function of specialization, terminological as well as technical complexity, level of familiarity with

CAT tools and years of experience (crucial factors of the facet of professional satisfaction, see Section 3.4.3).

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3.4.1.2 Nature of the Task

The literature on satisfaction has recognized the concept of the nature of the task

(or the work itself) among the major motivators observed in workers. Herzberg (1959) found that the work itself, responsibility and advancement are strong intrinsic motivators, adding that, “frequently cited desiderata were creative or challenging work, varied work, and an opportunity to do a job completely from the beginning to end” (61). The concept of nature of the task comprises the following factors (outlined in Fig. 3.6):

Types of tasks (or services provided) [Q11] Quality of the source text Tasks performed [Q22-4]

Type of tasks involved [Q22-5] Tasks of your specialization [Q23-4]

Terminological Terminological complexity [Q23-5] complexity stresses me out [Q25-17] Nature of the Expertise task Level of specialization Task complexity (see Professional Working on challenging effect satisfaction) and complex tasks [Q23-2] Level of technical expertise (see professional satisfaction)

Ability to perform a wide Variety of tasks variety of tasks [Q23-6]

Opportunity to choose new Novelty of the task tasks [Q23-3]

Fig. 3.6. Factors and Variables – Nature of the Task.

3.4.1.2.1 Tasks Performed

Translation is categorized as either general or specialized. General translation covers the translation of content that may not belong to an area of specialization, requiring a lower level of subject matter expertise. Generalist translators may not deal with highly technical documents, and they touch “all kinds of subject areas” and “rarely deal with large-scale translation projects” (Gouadec 2007:27). In-house translators are

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often generalists and deal with a wide variety of text types. By contrast, specialized translators usually work in highly technical fields or domains that require a high level of subject matter expertise to complete their task and which generally involve a high level of technical and terminological complexity. Technical knowledge is necessary for specialized translators, but the required level of technical knowledge expected from generalists has also been increasing.

Most of participants in this study belong to the most common areas of specialization: technical translation, commercial translation, financial translation, legal translation, IT and software translation, multimedia translation, etc. Specialized translators who have established their reputation in a subject matter domain are generally offered bigger projects (i.e., higher volume, higher income, constant stream of work) and often undertake higher workloads than generalists. Highly specialized translators are expected to exhibit higher task satisfaction, since they enjoy the challenges presented by complexity and the pleasure in undertaking tasks directly related to their field of specialization. The factor of tasks performed is measured with the following survey items

(see Fig.3.6):

 Types of tasks (or services provided)  Type of tasks involved  Quality of the source text  Tasks of your specialization It may be noted that experts and novices may interpret the quality of the source text differently, especially in specialized domains.

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3.4.1.2.2 Task Complexity

Tasks vary in complexity, ranging from general translation that addresses a general audience to specialized translation, belonging to a highly scientific or technical domain that allows communication between subject matter experts. Complex tasks may require advanced knowledge and skills in order to deal with terminological complexity and domain specific usage. As a result, factors such as technical expertise, specialization and terminological complexity could be seen as intrinsically related to a translator’s perceived feeling of task satisfaction.

It is expected that freelancers with a lower level of technical knowledge and/or a lack of specialization will exhibit lower task and job satisfaction with more complex tasks. Freelancers may lack skills that are necessary for completing more complex tasks, and that lack of skill is expected to be manifested in a low level of satisfaction with remuneration. Participants with a higher level of technical knowledge are expected to be more satisfied with their own skills, and they are expected to be familiar with highly complex source files (possibly for localization projects), and have higher incomes. By contrast, in-house translators are expected to show a lower level of technical expertise since they may deal with more basic file formats. Terminological and technical complexity may be dissatisfiers for professionals without a higher degree in Translation

Studies or without proper training on CAT tools, which can be manifested in a lower level of task satisfaction.

High-need achievers are known to enjoy challenge, complexity and task variety, since the nature of the task becomes an intrinsic motivator; otherwise they feel bored,

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demotivated and dissatisfied. By contrast, novices may not enjoy task variety, complexity and challenge, since they have different expectations and needs, and may not have the flexibility to choose or reject projects due to income pressures. The factor of task complexity is measured with the following survey items (see Fig.3.6):

 Terminological complexity  Terminological complexity stresses me out  Working on challenging and complex tasks

For this factor, the “expertise effect” is expected to reveal a significant difference in the level of satisfaction between experts and novices. Novices are expected to express concern about the quality of the source, about terminological complexity, and they may not indicate a positive attitude toward challenge. In fact, this may be a demotivator for novices in many instances. As a result, experts are expected to show a higher level of satisfaction relative to the complexity of tasks.

3.4.1.2.3 Variety of Tasks

The literature suggests that workers generally opt for having a variety of tasks in their work. This led Herzberg to propose that redesigning tasks is a potential solution to promote workers’ “creativity” and avoid monotony. It is important to note that the variety of tasks observed in the language industry is very broad, due to the multiplicity of roles that can be assumed in the translation work context. For instance, the task variety associated with a professional playing the role of a terminologist is very different from the task variety associated with the role of a project manager. The specialization and complexity attached to each task in the current language industry makes task variety an

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important aspect of translator satisfaction. The factor for variety of tasks is assessed with the following survey item:

 Ability to perform a wide variety of tasks

3.4.1.2.4 Novelty of the Task

The factor associated with novelty of the task (the task is new) has not received any attention in the literature of translation studies. Some translators become demotivated from translating all day performing the same task over and over. They may assume several new part-time roles in order to keep up their interest in the translation work

(Robinson 1997). Some professionals may get tired of the repetitiveness of their jobs, translating the same text type in the same area of specialization. It is possible especially as translators develop expertise that they may actively seek out different kinds of texts or work in different domains. Novelty may become a source of intrinsic satisfaction. A new task represents a new challenge, and it provides the opportunity to acquire new skills and complete new tasks successfully.

Depending on the level of the individual’s declarative, procedural and conditional knowledge, a translator’s attitude toward novelty and challenge is expected to vary drastically between experts and novices. Novelty could be a dissatisfier for novices and a satisfier for experts. In fact, novices may refrain from taking the risk of accepting new tasks and challenges that might require more time (and result in a decrease in productivity). The factor of novelty of the task will be directly related to the need for self- actualization, and it is measured with the following survey item (see Fig.3.6):

 Opportunity to choose new tasks

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3.4.1.3 Job-fit

The concept of job fit is broadly defined as the compatibility between an individual and the work setting. The models from job fit theories have been very useful for human resource management in order to reshape retention strategies and enhance employee involvement by reinforcing self-fulfillment motivators.

The concept of job fit consists of the factors discussed below (see Fig. 3.7 for factors and variables).

I take pride in my work [Q25-2]

Task pride Improve the overall quality of the project [Q24-4]

I feel I make a great contribution to the team [Q24-6] Job-fit

Opportunity to choose new tasks or roles [Q23-3]

Task variety Multitasking [Q27-13]

Level of empowerment allowed [Q22-6] Ocuppational level and responsiblity Responsibilities associated with my role (Q26-8)

I take initiative to learn [Q25-1] Allowance to take inititiative Empowerment given in tasks [Q22-6]

Task autonomy Level of autonomy given to make decisions [Q23-1]

Completing a complex project successfully motivates me [Q24-18] Growth Self-actualization Knowing that I have outstanding Motivation achievement or offers motivates me [Q24-17] ‘being the best’ Self-fullfillment Receiving constant feedback [Q26-9] Opportunities to learn Feedback at work Feedback on translation samples[Q23-10]

Task appreciation or Appreciation or performance acknowledgement appraisal [Q27-5]

Fig. 3.7. Factors and Variables – Job-fit & Self-fulfillment.

3.4.1.3.1 Task Pride

Job fit reflects an individual affective orientation that demonstrates “I do what I like” or task pride. Translators may be happy with the tasks they accomplish and feel

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very proud of the fact that they do what they like and what they are good at. Translators may enjoy producing a new text as it gives them a strong feeling of ownership and pride.

For example, literary translators see their names on the cover page of a book and feel that they are the co-creators of a piece of art. The factor of task pride or feeling of ownership represents a key intrinsic motivator obtained from the nature of the task itself

(challenging or very easy) that provides the translator a sense of pride in the task that is accomplished. It is possible that such aspects as the translator’s professional identity, perception of public image and reputation are correlated with this factor. Additionally, translators can derive feelings of task pride through their individual contributions to the success of a project or team effort. The factor of task pride will be measured with the following survey items (see Fig.3.7):

 I take pride in my work  I improve the overall quality of the project  I feel I make a great contribution to the team

3.4.1.3.2 Task Variety

Task variety reappears as a component of the concept of job fit. Here it represents a perceived individual feeling of possessing a wide range of skills necessary for the successful completion of a broad range of tasks. Skill variety is considered to have a strong correlation with satisfaction (Van der Berg and Feij 2003; Loher et al. 1985).

Hackman and Oldham (1980) investigated the relationship between the level or strength of “growth need” and task variety. For those with strong growth needs, the correlation between satisfaction with personal growth and task variety was 0.55, for those with weak higher order needs it was 0.33. If professionals have a high need for growth, specific job

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characteristics—skill variety, task significance, autonomy and feedback—lead to psychological conditions that increase intrinsic motivation, performance and overall satisfaction (Hackman and Oldham 1980). Additionally, research suggests that workers who are exposed to a wide variety of tasks experience enhanced satisfaction since they can apply their skills to an array of new challenges (Stimson and Johson 1977). Thus, motivation at work can derive from using a wide variety of skills in multiple tasks. The factor of task variety is measured by the following survey items (see Fig.3.7):

 Opportunity to choose new tasks or roles  Multitasking

3.4.1.3.3 Occupational Level and Responsibility

Occupational level is another factor that belongs to the concept of job fit, and it is believed that the higher the status level of the occupation, the greater the satisfaction

(Vroom 1964). The factor of occupational level and responsibility will be studied as a function of task autonomy, based on years of experience (calculated as the sum of hours an individual works per year), technical expertise, specialization, services offered and annual volume of work. A higher occupational status is expected to correspond with a higher level of responsibility.

Generally, experts are expected to show a higher level of satisfaction toward the factor of occupational level and responsibility since their understanding of the subject matter is much broader compared to novices, thus allowing them to undertake more responsibilities. This factor is measured with the following survey items (see Fig.3.7):

 Level of empowerment allowed  Responsibilities associated with my role

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3.4.1.3.4 Allowance to Take Initiative

The factor of allowance to take initiative will be investigated as a function of years of experience. Allowance to take initiative will also be understood as an intrinsic attitude that demonstrates an inherent desire to know or do more. It is particularly important to understand individual initiative, because that is a motivator to learn new tasks or new processes. This is significant in the current dynamic work environment since it represents an attitude that helps professionals to deal with constant change in the industry.

Taking initiative is one of the major characteristics of proactive behavior. The extent to which translators are allowed to take initiative varies with their work setting, group dynamics and years of experience in the position. In-house translators may need the coordinator’s approval whereas sole proprietors can possibly take initiative without any restrictions. Freelancers generally seek approval from project management, but PMs often appreciate translators taking initiative. The factor of allowance to take initiative is assessed with the following survey item:

 I take initiative to learn

3.4.1.3.5 Task Autonomy

Task autonomy represents “the degree to which the job provides substantial freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used” (Hackman and Oldham 79). The degree of autonomy varies with the level of empowerment given to the translator. When workers are given autonomy, their task identity or task pride is enhanced and they understand that

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the task outcome depends on their own efforts, initiatives and decisions. “As autonomy increases, individuals tend to feel more personal responsibility for successes and failures”

(ibid.). Herzberg (1959) adds that responsibility ranks high in the list of intrinsic motivators, and translators mention that “being allowed to work without supervision, being responsible for one’s own efforts, being given responsibility for the work of others, and being given a new kind of job, with new responsibilities” are crucial sources of task satisfaction. Besides, Hackman and Oldham understood task autonomy as one of the main aspects of making workers participative and increasing worker involvement.

According to Gouadec, an autonomous translator is a translator whose translations do not require editing. Autonomy “is a matter of skill (positively) or cost (when there is no other choice because there is no money for revision)” (108). Thus, this will reinforce the idea that experts are not only expected to possess superior skills, but they are also expected to enjoy a higher degree of autonomy in their tasks. It is important to understand the level of autonomy given to translators in order to make decisions, and the role of autonomy in improving task satisfaction. Since translators in the language industry generally enjoy high levels of task autonomy, they are expected to demonstrate a high level of satisfaction, although experts may show relatively higher levels of satisfaction.

The factor of task autonomy is assessed with the following survey item:

 Level of autonomy given to make decisions

3.4.1.4 Self-fulfillment

Theories of self-fulfillment posit that people exhibit a positive job attitude when their individual needs are satisfied (Locke 1976). Particularly in the language industry,

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the need for professional growth and continuous motivation are crucial. Translators want to feel that they learn from the task, and they often aim at being “the best translators” so that they can differentiate themselves from competitors.

The superordinate concept of self-fulfillment consists of the following sub- concepts (see also Fig. 3.7):

3.4.1.4.1 Self-actualization

The term self-actualization was coined by Goldstein and was defined by Maslow as “the desire of self-fulfillments, namely, to the tendency for [an individual] to become actualized in what he is potentially” (382). Herzberg (1959) argued that self-actualization should be ranked first among the positive job attitudes that cause the highest level of satisfaction among workers. The sub-concept of self-actualization represents a desire that may be associated with the wish of being better or wanting greater abilities. In the proposed model, the sub-concept of self-actualization comprises the factor of growth and motivation for achievement.

3.4.1.4.1.1 Growth

Growth need strength (GNS) has proven to be a key moderator of several aspects of satisfaction. GNS is defined as “the strength of the respondent’s desire to obtain

‘growth’ satisfaction from his or her work” (Hackman and Oldham 163). GNS has been shown to be a key moderator of individual relationships (Fried and Ferris 1987), of individual preferences for the need to grow, how people want to be praised, and feedback seeking behavior. “For jobs high in motivating potential … people who have sufficient knowledge and skills to perform well will experience substantially positive feelings as a

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result of their work activities” (84). By contrast, unskilled workers or translators just learning the profession may not perform well, and may be frustrated and unhappy,

“precisely because the job ‘counts’ for them and they do poorly at it” (ibid.), e.g., they don’t feel that they are growing in their capabilities.

People with a strong need for personal accomplishment, for developing themselves, for knowing more and for understanding more, have strong “growth needs”

(Hackman and Oldham 85). People with high growth needs also respond positively to new changes in the job or to opportunities for job enrichment.

Motivation for achievement is the strength of an individual’s desire to excel, to succeed in difficult tasks, and to do better than the other workers. According to Herzberg

(1959), successful completion of a task, seeking solutions to problems and seeing the results of one’s work are good examples of achievement (45). High need achievers constantly seek success, and reject tasks that may be boring or too easy. They gain intrinsic motivation from project completion, especially challenging projects with highly technical inputs and outputs or projects with tight deadlines (Steers and Porter 1991). The factor of growth is measured with the following survey items (see Fig.3.7):

 Completing a complex project successfully motivates me  Knowing that I have outstanding offers motivates me

For the purpose of this study, it is assumed that motivation associated with achievement or growth is higher among experts, compared to novices. Thus, experts are expected to demonstrate a higher level of satisfaction as a result, for instance, of having outstanding offers and completing complex projects successfully.

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3.4.1.4.2 Opportunities to Learn at Work

Opportunities to learn at work may not apply very directly to the language industry. It can be argued that only those LSPs with high maturity levels or a high level of commitment to continuous process improvement can afford to offer opportunities to learn at work by investing in lifelong learning for employees. Opportunities to learn at work are mostly offered to in-house translators or salaried employees. The sub-concept of opportunities to learn at work involves mainly the factor of feedback (see also Fig. 3.7).

3.4.1.4.2.1 Feedback

Several studies in other disciplines have shown the impact of feedback on shaping attitudes. Most research on feedback focuses on feedback provided after task completion, to comment on performance or to offer clarification. Ammons (1956) concluded that feedback (defined as knowledge of performance) generally enhances learning and motivation. Kluger and DeNisi (1996) presented an overview of the literature regarding the positive effects of feedback on performance, and demonstrated that feedback could adversely affect performance, e.g., when negative feedback is repeatedly received.

Feedback is considered as one of the best predictors of satisfaction (Lambert and

Durand 1975) and has been investigated as an intrinsic motivator. High achievers are known to seek more feedback compared with low achievers. Locke and Latham’s goal setting theory states that feedback can lead to setting of goals, thus setting higher or complex goals may lead to better performance (Locke and Latham 1990). Most of the literature on feedback seeking behavior shows a positive correlation between higher levels of performance and feedback seeking preferences (Klich and Feldman 1992).

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According to McDowell (2008), feedback is the opportunity for novices to see

“where they went wrong” (240). Thus, beginners tend not to actively seek feedback on their own work, “simply accepting whatever,” and in most cases they prefer not to actually discuss their work as they find it threatening and uncomfortable. Unlike novices, experts view feedback as an opportunity to learn, to grow cognitively, or an opportunity for self-actualization, and they seek it constantly.

Freelancers argue that feedback, good or bad, provides a better understanding of requirements for new translations (Durban 2010:212). McKay, a well-known ATA certified translator gets direct feedback from the editor. However, after the document is delivered to the client,

the feedback flow normally ends there; a client will sometimes offer a sound bite assessment of a translation — “it was great, just what we needed” or “could you make the tone a little more casual?” or something along those lines, but my sense is that very few translators received detailed feedback from their clients.

However, when the translator works for an LSP,

… although it’s not a good practice, there are some agencies that don’t proofread the translations they receive at all, they simply forward them to the end client and assume that the translator has done an excellent job. … A second category of agencies are those that have their translations proofread by someone who reads the target language but may or may not read the source language. Finally, there are some high-quality agencies that have their translations reviewed by a second translator working in the same language combination as the person who did the translation; very quality-conscious agencies might even have these two people collaborate … In all cases, agencies may or may not send the translator any feedback that they get from the end client .… These various feedback models raise a few questions.

The above listed passages suggest that feedback is rarely provided, or may be provided only upon request. It can be stated that only those translation companies that follow quality standards may have a feedback process in place. Translators may request

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feedback, but it is uncertain if they will receive it, unless it is negative feedback. For the purpose of this study, it is expected that experts show higher levels of satisfaction about receiving feedback than novices. However, it is also likely that translators will show indifference toward feedback.

Receiving constant feedback is not included among common practice; thus, it is likely that translators do not see feedback as an opportunity to learn because feedback is mostly provided in translation samples and during client review. Nevertheless, feedback will be triangulated with the leadership skills of PMs and the maturity level of an LSP in order to identify patterns in companies that generally provide feedback. The factor of feedback is measured with the following survey items (see also Fig.3.7):

 Receiving constant feedback  Feedback on translation samples

3.4.1.4.3 Task Appreciation or Acknowledgement

The factor of task appreciation or acknowledgement is understood as the opportunity to receive an expression of positive appraisal after successful task completion. Christopher Lee (2006) proposes that constant feedback can be used as a form of appraisal that “directs performance and promotes a healthier supervisor- employee relationship” (111). The author expands on the differences between feedback and appraisal, defining feedback as information and appraisal as a judgment or assessment. “Feedback is an immediate, ongoing activity that is not contingent on anything else. Appraisal is event-based and usually occurs on a designated interval.”

(112).

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Recognition for task performance is necessary for employees with a high need for growth. Such employees with a high need for growth indicate that being recognized after performing specific job tasks leads to psychological conditions resulting in an increased motivation, performance, and satisfaction (Hackman and Oldham 1980), or as Herzberg quotes an employee’s first reaction to recognition, the “biggest thing was the personal satisfaction with the job done and then a pat on the back,” (61). Recognition may come from various sources: supervisors, team members, project manager, the end client, a coordinator, etc. However, virtual communication in the language industry does not allow for a physical “pat on the back” and any gesture of recognition or performance appraisal tends to become the exception rather than the rule. The literature shows that recognizing task performance is strongly correlated with a high level of satisfaction, and a simple act of verbal or written recognition of “specific achievements can act as a kind of partial reinforcement” (Herzberg 69). In this study appreciation will be studied indirectly as a component of leadership (mainly in the role of the PM). The level of satisfaction associated with performance appraisal is expected to vary between onsite translators and freelancers, since supervisors have more opportunities to assess onsite translators.

The factor of task appreciation is measured with the following survey item (see

Fig. 3.7):

 Appreciation or performance appraisal

3.4.2 Facet of Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction represents an individual’s emotional feeling or overall impression toward the “whole” of a set of tasks performed in any work environment(s) over a longer

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period of time. In this sense a job is seen as a temporal experience of a routinely associated set of tasks accomplished in a particular work context or setting. In this study, job satisfaction is an individual affective reaction that reflects how the individual feels about the combination of routine tasks done alone (sole proprietorship without employees) or integrated within a social work network (team). The literature suggests that job satisfaction levels may be linked to the influence of aspects from the social network on individual needs. It is also possible that an individual may work simultaneously in multiple work environments and play the same role in all of them. By contrast, it is also possible that the same individual plays various roles in one work environment or works in several settings simultaneously. Thus, the perceived feeling of job satisfaction may represent the sum of feelings in several work settings and the undertaking of various roles in those settings, as depicted in Fig. 3.8.

T T Job 1

T Job 2

T T

Fig. 3.8. A Translator with Multiple Roles.

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Of course, it is also possible that a translator is satisfied while working in one social network (say, Job 1 in Fig. 3.8) but dissatisfied in a different situation (say, Job 2 in Fig. 3.8). Some sources of satisfaction and dissatisfaction studied in the literature of satisfaction overlap between the facets of task and job satisfaction. In this study, a clear distinction is made between the two categories.

The facet of job satisfaction in this model will exclusively refer to the concepts and factors relating to external or extrinsic sources of satisfaction. Thus, the facet of job satisfaction will address the predictors of satisfaction and dissatisfaction related to the job and its work environment, including the organizational and team context and dynamics.

As indicated, the facet of job satisfaction mainly focuses on the extrinsic aspects, focusing mainly on the individual-job fit relation and the relationship between the individual and the organization.

Because job satisfaction is heavily bound up with work context, the aspects that contribute to satisfaction and dissatisfaction vary between translators working onsite or remotely. Likewise, organizational and team dynamics affect the levels of satisfaction of translators working onsite and those working as freelancers or sole proprietors.

The concepts for the facet of job satisfaction will be discussed in the following sections.

3.4.2.1 Individual-Job Fit

Individual-job fit focuses on the extent to which external sources of satisfaction or dissatisfaction meet individual expectations or needs that a professional has regarding his or job. When individual needs and expectations are aligned with what the job actually

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offers, then the perceived feeling of work satisfaction increases. The factors for the concept of individual-job fit are illustrated in Fig. 3.9 and are listed below.

My job is stressful [Q25-5]

Nature of the Working overtime or Flexible schedule [Q24-14] job weekends [Q29]

Policies for working remotely [27-12]

Manageable workload Having a continuous per year [Q24-15] stream of work [Q23-11] Workload Hours per week [Q6]

Individual-job fit Number of words per day [Q7]

Average income (Q13) On-site vs. Off-site I feel I get paid fairly [Q24-20] Expertise effect Reimbursement Rates or salary [Q27-8] or remuneration Part-time vs. Full-time Opportunities for salary Monetary incentives [Q27-6] or pay increase (Q27-15)

Request for discounts [27-14]

Deadlines are often too tight [Q25-18] Deadlines

Task deadlines [Q23-12]

Balance work/ Balance between work and personal life personal life [Q27-11]

Individual- Job turnover [Q45], organization fit [Q50]

Fig. 3.9. Factors and Variables – Individual-Job Fit.

3.4.2.1.1 Nature of the Job

As briefly discussed in the background section and the literature review of this study, the “job” of a translator has changed radically over the last two decades. These changes have been all the more acute for freelancers or translators working offsite.

Salaried in-house translators generally work onsite, and although the nature of their job has changed over the years, they are not typically required to possess a high degree of specialization or technical expertise. Generally, in-house translators work in a hierarchical structure, having a supervisor or a project coordinator with a regular

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schedule. The project coordinator reports to the management and the translators are subject to evolving organizational as well team dynamics.

By contrast, freelancers follow the independent contractor model, and may be the owners of their business, may or may not have employees, and work directly with the client, generally working remotely. Freelancers may subcontract for LSPs as full-timers or may have a full-time in-house job (or another profession) or may be freelancing as part-timers. Freelancers working for LSPs are affected by team dynamics, and may be subject to the organizational dynamics of the end client or the LSP.

Current trends in the language industry allow translators to work from home, but this does not necessarily lead to a flexible schedule. According to WorldatWork, the number of US employees working remotely at least one day per month increased by 39 % in two years, from approximately 12.4 million in 2006 to 17.2 million in 2008. However, in 2010, this number decreased; this may be attributed to higher unemployment and higher levels of anxiety over job security. Overall, the literature conveys a very optimistic picture of teleworking and working from home. However, the main problems with teleworking in the language industry are apparent in virtual teams, particularly due to problems with leadership and communication breakdowns. In online discussions on the proZ.com platform, translators seem to agree that translation is becoming a stressful job with poor working conditions, and with characteristics such as working overtime and over weekends becoming widespread across the industry. The level of satisfaction is expected to vary with (a) the localization maturity level of the company for whom the translator works or subcontracts; (b) workload, and (c) advantages or constraints related

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to working onsite and offsite. The factor of nature of the job is measured with the following survey items (see Fig.3.9):

 My job is stressful  Flexible schedule  Working overtime or weekends  Policies for working remotely 3.4.2.1.2 Workload

The amount of workload can be significantly influenced by the work environment. Conversely, salaried employees are not responsible for finding new clients or new projects since their employer sets up a continuous stream of work, unless they are also performing service- or sale-related tasks. Freelance translators, on the other hand, may not have a steady workload since they may be building their client portfolios, they may not have built a sales capacity, or they may be establishing contacts so as to market themselves to more clients and increase their workload to a level where their business becomes sustainable.

Like other industries, the language industry goes through cycles of high and low volumes of work during the year and also during changing business cycles. Working for

LSPs provides a translator with a higher level of security during periods of low work volume. McKay (2006) argues that adapting to changing cycles may be “more of a psychological skill than a business one” but translators are advised to learn to anticipate the ups and downs of the market.

Nevertheless, as translators build long-term business relationships, they make themselves indispensable for some tasks or specific types of projects, which increases their volume of work. Experienced translators are expected to have a higher volume of

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work and a continuous stream of work, whereas part-timers and novices find it hard to maintain a continuous stream of work. An expertise effect is expected to modify individual responses, with the workload (and the job itself) being a source of stress for novices or translators working directly with clients. However, translators with a high level of technical knowledge and higher education in translation studies are not expected to be intimidated by workload. It is likely that novices will show lower levels of satisfaction with their stream of work. The factor of workload is measured with the ensuing survey items (see Fig. 3.9):

 Manageable workload per year  Having a continuous stream of work  Hours per week  Number of words per day 3.4.2.1.3 Reimbursement or Remuneration

The factor of reimbursement or remuneration refers to compensation or monetary incentives received from accomplishing tasks in a specific work environment. Salary can be understood as a satisfier as well as a dissatisfier. Herzberg argues that it is closer to being a dissatisfier, “when salary occurred as a factor in the lows, it revolved around the unfairness … of the wage system within the company,” i.e., payment policies, but salary was considered a satisfier when it is studied as a function of achievement or advancement, as a form of recognition, “it meant more than money; it meant a job well done; it meant the individual was progressing in his work” (83).

Some of the characteristics of a salaried in-house translator are job security, a monthly paycheck, a continuous stream of work, health and fringe benefits, and no need to build a client portfolio. Salaries of in-house translators vary from one institution to

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another, but in-house translators in government agencies or international financial institutions may earn up to USD 70,000 (McKay 23). The ATA surveys have reported that translators in government institutions earned USD 41,456 (2001); USD 41,588

(2003, median USD 36,000); USD 54,305 (2004) and USD 59,924 (2006). Based on the results of three compensation surveys conducted by the ATA, business owners and independent contractors working full-time emerge as the groups with the highest income.

However, full-time employees and independent contractors seem to be at a similar income level (see Table 3.1). Table 3.1 lists the average and median annual incomes of in-house and independent contractors from 2001 to 2006, with the change in income from the previous period listed in parenthesis as a percentage.

Table 3.1.

Annual salary of full-time in-house translators and subcontractors.

Category 2001 2003 2004 2006 54,341 58,147 59,472 Full-time Average income (USD) 51,024 translators (+6.5 %) (+7 %) (+2.2%) in-house Median income (USD) 48,100 50,000 54,340

Full-time 55,296 54,207 60,423 Average income (USD) 51,905 translators (+6.5 %) (-1.9 %) (+11.5%) independent contractors Median income (USD) 48,000 40,000 53,020

Source: ATA Translation and Interpreting Compensation Survey.

In the case of part-timers, an in-house employee working part time generally seems to have a higher annual income compared to an independent contractor working part-time (see Table 3.2). It may be noted that the annual incomes of part-timers can

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change significantly from one year to another, as can be observed from the percentages in

Table 3.2. This may be attributed to the nature of a part-timer’s job.

Table 3.2.

Annual salary of part-time in-house translators and subcontractors.

Category 2001 2003 2004 2006 Average income 20,724 18,083 24,304 20,219 Part-time (USD) (+2.5 %) (-12.7 %) (+34.4%) translators Median income in-house 20,000 13,000 12,000 (USD) Average income 16,331 20,513 22,935 Part-time 16,228 translators (USD) (+0.6 %) (+25.6 %) (+ 11.8%) independent Median income 10,000 13,000 13,000 contractors (USD) Source: ATA Translation and Interpreting Compensation Survey.

Additionally, the occupational employment and wages for translators and interpreters published by the U.S. Department of Labor (USDL) in May 2010 indicates an average annual income of USD 49,790, but this study does not distinguish between full-timers and part-timers.

Localizers or specialized translators that show mastery in uncommon source file formats seem to have a higher income, an estimated average of $60,000, according to the

UN (P-2/P-3) salary range, and as per Beninatto and DePalma’s 2007 report on wages.

Rates vary per country and per language pair, and the key to earning more lies in increasing the level of specialization, improving business productivity, applying regular rate increases and carefully selecting the client portfolio.

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Tang et al. (2000) argued that earning more money only has an indirect effect on employee retention, stating that money is an influential aspect only when a worker’s level of satisfaction is low. Most researchers agree that salaries and reimbursements that are used as monetary incentives are not in themselves sufficient sources of satisfaction to guarantee retention and prevent turnover.

Additionally, bad monetary incentive plans lead to indifference, and good incentive plans require a clear definition of outcomes. Individuals must be ready to perform difficult and challenging tasks and they should be motived to reach high performance based on specific goals (Locke 2004:130). Locke suggests that bonuses for success should be given when the individuals reach those well-established difficult goals

(130). Furthermore, the author recommends that bonuses should be based on goals and well defined metrics of performance (Locke 131).

It is expected that experts and in-house employees will exhibit a higher level of satisfaction in the perceived feeling of being paid fairly. Monetary incentives may be plausible only to experts working in-house. Novices are expected to indicate dissatisfaction with salaries and rates. Freelancers are expected to be dissatisfied with request for discounts, which seems to be an emerging trend in the language industry. This factor is measured with the following survey items (see Fig. 3.9):

 Average income  I feel I get paid fairly  Rates or salary  Monetary incentives  Opportunities for salary or rate increase  Requests for discounts

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3.4.2.1.4 Deadlines

Deadlines have to be seen within the framework of project management process quality. Even though process quality will be discussed with the factors related to stakeholder satisfaction, it is important to state that process quality results from a combination of strategies related to successful project management, specifically planning and project coordination to bring projects in on time. Therefore, project management is a key component for successful project completion. Analysis of the variables—cost, quality and time—in the “triangle of objectives” (Lock 2007), makes it apparent that the three elements are intertwined. Sometimes management decisions are made by emphasizing one or two of these three variables at the expense of the remaining one(s). Thus in this trade-off decision, if time to market is prioritized, quality may suffer; or, conversely, costs and/or deadlines may have to be stretched in order to enhance quality. See Dunne

(2011b) for an in-depth discussion on the interdependence between cost, quality and time.

Boorman, chief marketing officer at SDL, was interviewed in the portal Babelport

(2007), and clearly summarized the need for translators to meet deadlines,

in an age of global business, it’s unacceptable that translation issues are still causing such significant delays … As product lifecycles get shorter and launches become increasingly frequent, speed to market is everything and delays will continue to result in huge revenue loss … A lethargic approach to language simply won’t work.

Deadlines are rarely negotiated with the client since speed to market is of paramount importance, and there is a consensus among practitioners that deadlines are getting tighter. Thus, high levels of dissatisfaction are expected from most translators vis-

à-vis deadlines. Delivering a translation on time without sacrificing quality requires a

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particular emphasis on process-based quality management and continuous process improvement (e.g., as suggested by ISO 9000 family of standards), having specific guidelines in place for workflow optimization and coordination. Since the maturity level of an LSP as well as the maturity of a client can vary radically, the level of satisfaction toward deadlines is expected to fluctuate based on the role of the PM, the individual translators’ level of expertise (e.g., professional experience and technical expertise that allows for process automation) and survey items such as client does not understand the translation process and processes are systematized, which will be correlated with the data gathered on deadlines. The following survey items will assess the factor of deadlines

(see Fig. 3.9):

 Deadlines are often too tight  Task deadlines 3.4.2.1.5 Balance between Work and Personal Life

Based on the ATA compensation survey (2003), females constitute 65% of translation professionals. Even though there is an increasing number of husbands and wives active in the workplace (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2005a), “the family domain is still dominated by women, at least in terms of hours worked” (Livingston and Judge

2008:207; Bittman and Bianchi 2004). Karatepe et al. (2006) studied work-family conflict, and correlated emotional exhaustion with intrinsic motivation. The author concluded that work-family conflict increased the feeling of emotional exhaustion and decreased satisfaction at work. Results suggest that high levels of intrinsic motivation result in high levels of performance and satisfaction, but emotional exhaustion has a significantly negative effect on satisfaction.

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Relative to satisfaction influenced by the balance of work and personal life, working onsite and offsite are expected to influence the responses of survey participants.

Generally, translators and freelancers (salaried or not) are happy with working from home or remotely, since they “experience greater job satisfaction and less stress” (McKay

11). From a woman’s standpoint, “you will be able to structure your work day around your peak energy times and your family’s needs, rather than your employer’s policies”

(ibid.). Generally working from home is associated with an improved quality of life and can enhance productivity. A study conducted by Kate Lister, main investigator of the

International Telework Association and Council (ITAC), concludes that workers who telecommute “are … desperate to find a balance between work and life … if you want to compete in the race for talent, you need to add it to your bag of tricks … telecommuting offers a better work-life balance, improves morale, increases productivity and saves money” (WorldatWork online).

In this study, it is of particular interest to know if respondents who indicate a lower level of satisfaction with this factor attribute their dissatisfaction to internal (e.g., personal trait or individual circumstances) or external aspects, maybe friction from individual-team interactions or lack of policies in place in the work environment to deal with the new challenges of remote work. It is expected that a high percentage of translators is satisfied with the balance between family and work that remote work offers.

The factor of balance between work and personal life is measured with the following survey item (see Fig. 3.9):

 Balance between work and personal life

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3.4.2.1.6 Job Turnover

The factor of job turnover has received significant attention in the literature.

Herzberg (1959) acknowledged that there are multiple interpretations of turnover. As a multifaceted construct, various aspects may affect the intention of leaving the job.

Various causal models of turnover have been put forward (Mobley et al. 1979), in all of which low job satisfaction emerges as one of the basic predictors. Intention to quit predicts turnover, which in turn is related to low job satisfaction, and a mismatch between individual needs and job characteristics (Hulin and Smith 1964).

A simplistic approach has been taken in this study, since this concept is complex and may not transfer directly to the language industry. While traditional notions of turnover may apply to in-house translators, the notion dies not transfer as directly to freelancers. Freelancers can quit performing a particular task or switch a role to express a rejection of a business relationship with a client, or with an LSP, or to show interest in undertaking new tasks or new roles. Because freelancers are such a large segment of the current translation workforce, this study uses an indirect measure of job satisfaction in combination with a more direct one (assessing overall satisfaction with the current job).

The survey conducted as part of this work poses a question to determine whether translators feel that they are likely to find a new job right away since their professional profiles place them well in the job market. Novices may not be as optimistic as experts and experienced translators. The factor of job turnover is measured with the following survey items (see Fig. 3.9):

 Probability of finding a new job if I leave the current one

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 Overall satisfaction toward the current job

3.4.2.2 Individual-Organization and Individual-Team Fit

Individual-organization fit is understood as the superordinate concept that consists of the following sub-concepts: individual-team fit, individual-upper management fit and individual-client fit. Each sub-concept contains its own factors, and corresponding indices that measure each factor (see Fig. 3.10).

The sub-concept individual-team fit is studied in order to understand the fit between an individual and the team. Specifically, this subsection also focuses on such aspects related to the project manager as the main mediator in team member interaction: individual satisfaction with professional and communication skills of other team members; individual skills and project requirement fit; forms of performance appreciation and support from project management; supervision and potential satisfiers that may increase worker’s involvement. The sub-concept of individual-team fit can be further divided into the role of the project manager, interpersonal relationships and overall experience of working with virtual teams.

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I like when PM controls flow of Uncontrolled communication communication [Q25-12] of team members [Q27-17]

Communication with team members [Q22-11]

Communication Clarity of task description [Q22-3] workflow Individual PM influences upper PM is good at convincing -team fit management or client [Q32] me [Q25-4]

Matching the Professional skills of Quality of the work from other skills of team team members [Q26-7] team members [Q22-12] Skill-project members to Individual- requirement project organization fit Preference of working with PMs that fit requirements match skills of team members [Q25-10] Role of [Q23-8] the PM/ supervisor PM shows appreciation [Q27-5]

Appreciation My voice is heard within the team [Q24-1]

Reiteration of preference to assign me to the project [Q25-9] Expertise Involvement I choose the team [Q24-3] effect

Reference materials [Q26-5] Company’s maturity Support level Help with troubleshootings [Q22-2] On-site vs. Off-site Individual- Effective supervision Close supervision Supervision upper [Q27-3] [Q27-4] management fit Team Rapport and relationships Dynamic team members with team members [Q26-10] collaboration [Q26-1] Interpersonal relationships Relationship with PM/Team coordinator or PM [Q26-11]

Team members’ flexibility Team members’ flexibility to Flexibility with schedules [Q26-3] multitask [Q27-1] Individual-client Overall experience of working with virtual teams [Q26-2] Team work stresses me out [Q24-2]

Fig. 3.10. Sub-concept, Factors & Variables – Individual-team fit.

3.4.2.2.1 Role of the PM (or supervisor)

The role of the PM or supervisor is critical in team interaction. As the literature suggests, PMs can have a great impact on the performance of the team by facilitating team interaction as a channel of communication. The PM becomes the representative figure of organizational culture, the transmitter of the company’s values and mission to team members and stakeholders. A PM’s efforts regarding improving interpersonal relationships may result in workers showing a higher level of appreciation and respect toward the PM, improving the overall work ethic, honesty and integrity when operating in virtual teams (Aronson et al. 2003).

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The critical factor, however, is “managing stakeholders’ expectations through ongoing communication” (Stoeller 2004:3). Often project managers are in charge of establishing policies and providing guidelines on how the flow of communication should happen, via which specific channels and who reports to whom and when. Even though the company may not have a communication process (or specific guidelines) in place, it is common that PMs are blamed for communication misunderstandings or breakdowns among stakeholders involved in the translation workflow.

Team members express satisfaction if the team successfully completes the project

(Hare et al. 1994). Hanna and Wilson (1991) concluded that team satisfaction in a projectized business structure comes from (a) team members’ perceptions concerning freedom to participate in the team (expectations); (b) team progress toward goals (task functions); (c) a sense of belonging to the team (networking functions) and (d) the leadership in the team.

Satisfaction with leadership (ability to define and to solve and to interact) is a function of how well the project is managed (ability to plan and to organize how work gets done). A strong correlation is expected to evolve, in which perceived satisfaction with the leader increases with well-planned and executed project management. In this study, the individual level of satisfaction with communication workflow, with the PM’s efforts for matching individual translation skills with project requirements, with performance appreciation and initiative for labor force participation, with supervision and translators’ perceived feeling of support from the PM are the main factors of satisfaction to be focused vis-à-vis the role of the project manager (see Fig. 3.10).

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3.4.2.2.1.1 Communication Workflow

Relative to the role of the PM, one of the most important predictors of satisfaction is leadership in interpersonal communications. Leadership skills facilitate communication among members in social interaction, and team cohesion achieved through communication motivates people to complete projects on time and on budget (Skansi

2000). Individual levels of communication and professional skills play a crucial role on the PM’s side, but if high levels of emotional, cultural and social intelligence are observed in all team members, this also facilitates team interactions and team communications.

As discussed in the literature review, virtual team interaction is challenging and requires control over the flow of communication. In the absence of an effective PM, translators are challenged to communicate successfully in a professional manner with all stakeholders including upper management and clients. Since each translation company has its own processes in place, with specific controls over communication, translator responses to the questions associated with this factor will vary significantly. For instance, it is expected that companies with higher maturity levels already have processes in place to handle communication misunderstandings between team members, as well as with the end client. The following survey items are used to measure the factor of communication workflow:

 Communication with team members  I like when PM controls flow of communication  Uncontrolled communication of team members (numerous emails circulating without copying the PM)  Clarity of task description

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 PM is good at convincing me  PM influences upper management or client

3.4.2.2.1.2 Skill-Project Requirement Fit

Project management is defined as the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities in order to meet project requirements (PMBOK® Guide).

Project management is accomplished through the use of the processes such as: initiating, planning, executing, controlling, and closing. Thus, a PM is involved in resource deployment for each phase of the project process. Resource deployment often occurs at two levels. First, each member of the team has to be in control of his or her own resources, such as intelligence, task understanding, skills, technical expertise, etc.

Second, individual resources must be integrated and coordinated so that they can be applied to the task environment. The PM exhibits leadership skills in the way self- deployment and team deployment are matched based on project requirements. Success in resource deployment results in higher levels of task commitment, increasing feeling of team trust, higher team cohesion and effective and dynamic collaborations. Therefore, matching the right skills to project requirements is a key source of satisfaction or dissatisfaction based on the mediating effect of the role of the PM.

It is expected that in-house translators show a higher level of satisfaction with the factor of skill-project requirement fit than freelancers. Both novices and experts are expected to derive satisfaction when skills and projects are well integrated, but experts may be more aware of the problems when integration has failed. The factor of skill- project requirement fit is assessed by the following survey items (see Fig. 3.10):

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 PM matches skills of team members to project requirements  Professional skills of team members  Quality of the work from other team members  Preference of working with PMs that match skills of team members

3.4.2.2.1.3 Performance Appreciation

The factor of performance appreciation is related to task appreciation.

Performance appreciation represents the efforts of a PM or a coordinator to motivate the team. Generally, in a constantly changing work environment, the PM becomes responsible for motivating workers to achieve continuous career development so that they can keep up with task requirements. Collin (2009) argues that besides the relationship between work-related identity and learning, PMs can contribute to an increasing level of organizational commitment from the worker, thus enhancing worker involvement.

Stoeller (2004) emphasizes that PMs should possess communication and coaching skills to achieve these goals. These skills are often ignored, but the author asserts that for successful project completion, the PM is responsible for “maintain[ing] energy in the project team, and to foster creativity among the team members … a good PM needs to be a coach to a team” (3, emphasis in original). This can be done by providing feedback and other forms of appreciation or appraisal for positive task performance.

Meyer et al. (1965) acknowledge that most managers agree that “the idea of performance appraisal is good. They feel that a man should know where he stands and … the manager should discuss an appraisal of his performance periodically” (167). The authors investigated performance appraisal at General Electric and argued that performance appraisal should be preceded by clearly set goals. Worker participation in

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goal-setting was seen to yield improved performance (174). Meyer et al. concluded that the traditional annual appraisal is ineffective and should be replaced by daily coaching activities. It was also suggested that feedback should be immediate in order to be effective, with an agreement on goals between the leader and the follower (179).

Levels of expression of performance appreciation probably vary with an LSP’s level of business maturity. For instance, there is an increasing trend from LSPs with low maturity to have a PM assign a translator to a project and then expect them to accept a discounted rate. PMs working for companies with higher maturity may attempt to negotiate with upper management and increase efforts to respect the translator’s rates.

The following survey items assess the factor of performance appreciation:

 PM shows appreciation  My voice is heard within the team  Reiteration of preference to assign me to the project at a lower rate

3.4.2.2.1.4 Worker Involvement in Team

Growth Need Strength theories suggest that high performers and low performers view a task, level of autonomy and supervision very differently, and their perception impacts their level of task and job involvement. Griffin’s (1981) findings suggest that subordinates with high Growth Need Strength are considered to be motivated by challenging, difficult and unstructured tasks. Moreover, people with a high growth need often indicate their desire for increasing levels of complexity and higher levels of control over tasks, and by implication the functioning of the team. Thus, experts are expected to demand more autonomy in their job contexts than novices, and will expect to be involved in team and project decision making to greater extents.

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Generally in the LI, freelancers have the freedom to choose tasks or services they want to provide, so the chosen tasks are expected to be intrinsic motivators which may not be an option for onsite translators. A way of giving autonomy to translators to increase their involvement, which may work in onsite and offsite work environments, is allowing workers to select their own teams and choose team partners e.g., their favorite editors, proofreaders, terminologists. This source of satisfaction is applicable to freelancers but may not apply to onsite translators. The factor of worker involvement is measured with the following survey item:

 I choose the team 3.4.2.2.1.5 Support from Project Management

This factor involves the PM’s ability to provide direct assistance in the performance of the job. For instance, when the PM provides reference materials or helps directly with software troubleshooting. Direct assistance is often critical in facilitating task completion on time and on budget. For instance, the PM may provide terminological databases and translation memories from previous projects. Levels of satisfaction are expected to vary with translators working onsite or freelancing with regards to direct PM support. The factor of support from project management is measured by the following survey items (see Fig. 3.10):

 Reference materials  Help with troubleshooting

3.4.2.2.1.6 Supervision

Guidance from the leader (PM or coordinator) is necessary for the follower or team member to meet project requirements. However, there are mixed opinions on how

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much guidance or supervision must be provided. Chemers (2002:117) argues that too little direction might make the task overtly ambiguous and difficult. Conversely, too much direction does not allow for autonomy or even creativity. Supporters of path-goal theory (House 1996) posit that there are two general categories of behavior on the leader’s side: (1) structuring, i.e., giving instructions and providing direction, task-related feedback; (2) consideration, such as providing emotional support, and constructive arguments, etc. The author adds that leader-structuring behavior results in a higher level of satisfaction by creating a positive effect on subordinate morale and performance, whenever feedback actually contributes to goal attainment. If the subordinate interprets task instructions as redundant, structuring behavior will be understood as overtly close supervision or monitoring, a form of pressure, not allowing for individual autonomy.

Thus, an effective leader is in charge of assessing how much structuring and control is necessary and useful, and when close supervision becomes necessary for tracking purposes. Close supervision may take place onsite, but under the subcontracting model, translators are expected to report progress themselves and supervision is less direct.

Often, close supervision is tracked with the aid of technology via workflow management systems. Effective supervision is closely related to the PM’s role and understanding of the translation process, with such leadership characteristics as exerting effective supervisory roles becoming crucial sources of intrinsic motivation (Deci and Ryan 1985;

Hackman and Oldham 1976). Kouzes and Posner (1987) emphasize that good interpersonal relationships emerge when a leader (a) provides the follower with a supervisory context that is motivational allowing him/her to be more effective; (b)

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provides guidance with an accurate judgment of the followers’ needs and expectations, and (c) establishes a relationship that is transparent, fair and equitable (Chemers 2002).

It is expected that novices view supervision as part of their learning process and supervision does not result in a lower satisfaction. However, only effective supervision may be well-accepted among experienced professionals. Experienced professionals are not very receptive to criticism and tend to disagree with their assessors because being a supervisor/assessor does not necessarily correlate with higher task awareness or more years of experience (Robinson 1997). The factor of supervision is measured by the following survey items (see Fig. 3.10):

 Effective supervision  Close supervision

3.4.2.2.2 Interpersonal Relationships

In addition to the role of the PM, the sub-concept of interpersonal relationships among team members is also crucial for successful project completion and for the creation of a dynamic collaborative work environment onsite or offsite. Interpersonal relationships are affected by organizational processes, organizational cultures, work setting and working relationships, which have recently evolved due to the extensive use of e-mail, e-management, e-leadership, virtual teams, and virtual organizations.

Research on intergroup relations explains that the main properties of groups are

(Alderfer 1987:253): (a) group boundaries, both physical and psychological; (b) power differences and the degree of discrepancies among members of the group, and (c) leadership behavior affecting intergroup behavior in specific situations. Generally, research shows a positive correlation of high productivity and high morale with a

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supervisor’s role, the closeness of supervision and effective feedback, quality of support and a high level of group cohesiveness.

In addition, effective group work is associated with increased social capital.

Social capital yields results when individuals build strong and trusting relationships, leading to collaborative behavior. Trust also increases task commitment and performance.

Moreover, social networks allow the individual to be well-connected and have a broader scope of contacts, which may result in higher income or higher job security. The sub- concept of interpersonal relationships consists of the factors discussed below (see Fig.

3.11).

Team Rapport and relationships Dynamic team members with team members [Q26-10] collaboration [Q26-1] Interpersonal relationships Relationship with PM/Team coordinator or PM [Q26-11]

Team members’ flexibility Team members’ flexibility to Flexibility with schedules [Q26-3] multitask [Q27-1]

Overall experience of working with virtual teams [Q26-2] Team work stresses me out [Q24-2]

Fig. 3.11. Factors and Variables – Interpersonal Relationships & Virtual Teams.

3.4.2.2.2.1 Relationships between Team Members

Transformational leadership theories have argued that relationship and trust building proceeds through increasing channels of communication. It is assumed that if a

PM talks to the team, he or she will understand the worker’s concerns and be able to address individual needs. By contrast, Goleman (1998) argues that self-regulation is an essential aspect that allows an individual to build successful relationships. Self-regulated individuals are reasonable, and they are able to create an environment of trust and fairness. People who can control their emotions also have a higher propensity for

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thoughtfulness and reflection, and these traits are crucial in virtual team cohesion. In particular, Goleman highlights the role of self-awareness. People with a high level of self-awareness can identify the extent to which feelings affect the team as well as themselves. For example, tight deadlines are not an issue for individuals with high levels of self-awareness because they will implement time management strategies and plan accordingly.

Turner (2009) explains that project teams require different types of maintenance at different stages. Usually teams follow five phases: forming, storming, norming, performing and mourning (85-86). For instance, during storming a team starts working together on understanding and achieving shared vision. During this phase, conflict management is essential to avoid a decrease in motivation. In all of these phases of virtual teams, relationships built through communication, trust, cohesion and goal clarity are critical aspects of team satisfaction (ibid. 89).

“Over the past decade, most organizations have begun using global virtual teams; they are particularly prevalent in the translation industry” (Stoeller 2011:289), this is specifically applicable to freelancers and salaried employees working remotely in the language industry. Translators in virtual teams rarely experience face-to-face interaction because of the high cost of travel (Stoeller 292), and the use of email and such teleworking tools as GoToMeeting, Adobe Acrobat Connect, VOIP are the most common modes of communication (ibid. 291), thus the traditional channels for building trust, team cohesion and dynamic relationships are constrained. Even though rapport and relationships with team members is a widely-studied variable in the literature that

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correlates with job satisfaction, it is acknowledged that team members in the LI may not be provided with the opportunity to meet other team members, thus the survey data may show that interpersonal relationships are almost nonexistent. The survey items for the factor of relationship between team members are as follows:

 Rapport and relationships with team members  Dynamic team collaboration

3.4.2.2.2.2 Relationship between the PM and Team Members

In the LI, virtual teams can consist of individuals from different cultures; the multicultural composition usually necessitates greater efforts from the PM to ensure successful interpersonal relationship building. The PM becomes an important, if not critical, mediator of relationships. Unlike freelancers, onsite translators may have more opportunities to develop rapport and stronger interpersonal relationships with supervisors, relationships which enhance group dynamics. They may attend social gatherings and develop a feeling of trust toward one another that reinforces team cohesion. The survey item for this factor is (see Fig. 3.11):

 Relationship with coordinator or PM

3.4.2.2.2.3 Flexibility of Team Members

Flexibility has become a necessary professional skill that translators must possess.

The lack of flexibility in any team member impacts team cohesion and relationships, thus potentially increasing dissatisfaction. For instance, if a translator does not meet the schedule for delivery, the project’s critical path is modified, impacting the schedule of the following task and, consequently, the schedule of other team members. It may make it

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necessary for other team members to multitask or to assume a greater workload (e.g., more words to translate in a shorter span of time). If team members are not flexible, the business relationship between the individual and the LSP, as well as the relationship between the LSP and the end client can also be significantly affected. The factor of flexibility of team members is measured by the following survey items (see Fig. 3.11):

 Team member’s flexibility with schedules  Team members’ flexibility to multitask

3.4.2.2.3 Overall Experience with Virtual Teamwork

Experience with virtual teamwork is a measure of previous experience in the virtual group. The greater the level of experience, the more comfortable the team member is assumed to be with the work context. However, the literature highlights that such challenges as “risk of communication breakdowns due to geographical distance, language, cultural, and time differences, and the risk of loss of trust and/or shared vision due to cultural differences” (Stoeller 2011:293) indeed require a dedicated management in order to ensure successful global virtual team interaction. Higher levels of satisfaction with team interactions and comfort in virtual teams are assumed to correlate with higher satisfaction levels. In the statistical analysis this measure is important because: (1) it represents a form of indirect measurement that will be useful to triangulate or correlate variables of interest, and (2) provides a means for benchmarking satisfaction levels. The factor of overall experience with teamwork is measured with the following survey items

(see Fig. 3.11):

 Overall experience of working with virtual teams  Teamwork stresses me out

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3.4.2.3 Individual-Upper Management Fit

This sub-concept investigates the main sources of satisfaction or dissatisfaction that are influenced by organizational dynamics related to upper management on the LSP side or (sometimes) involving the end client. The individual translator is generally impacted by upper management in the form of formal business and workflow management processes. These policies are communicated and supervised via the actions of the project manager.

In this regard, such policies and processes are expected to vary in effectiveness and clarity dependent on the maturity level of the LSP or end client. The more effective and clear the processes, the greater the level of satisfaction derived from this source is expected to be. Administrative practices, including pay policies, are also included in this sub-concept. Individual-upper management fit consists of a grouping of the factors discussed below (see Fig. 3.12).

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Misunderstandings are Individual- Processes are solved quickly [Q24-5] team fit Workflow systematized [Q24-7] management and Specific process to deal with business processes misunderstandings [Q26-4] Management procedures and policies [Q27-7]

Localization Client does not understand the maturity levels translation process [Q25-13] Individual-upper management fit LSPs I work with solve misunderstandings with client smoothly [Q24-16]

Role of the PM/ PM shows little interest in changing the process [Q25-7] supervisor

PM has the ability to change the process [Q25-8]

Pay practices [27-9]

Administration Payments Pay terms [27-10]

Onsite vs. Offsite Direct relationship with clients [Q22-8] Communication and relationship Continuous and respectful relationship [Q24-13] Individual-client Client review [Q22-7]

Client Clients expect too much [Q24-22] involvement

Receiving answers to my questions about client’s expectations or deliverables [Q26-6]

Fig. 3.12. Factors and Variables – Individual-Upper Management Fit.

3.4.2.3.1 Workflow Management and Business Processes

The factor of workflow management and business processes consists of various issues that impact stakeholder satisfaction, including quality control and quality assurance management. Workflow management is understood in this study as the overall approach adopted by a translation company to handle the entire translation process, and business processes, with the adoption of systems of practice that favor the functions of project management such as planning, execution, etc. (Turner 2005).

As per ASTM F 2575, as shown in Fig. 3.13, the translation supply chain consists of the following stakeholders: (a) end user, (b) requester, (c) project manager, (d) translator, (f) editor, etc. However, the roles and the sequences may vary from one LSP to another.

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Requester

QA/QC Scoping

Final Formatting/ Specifications Compilation Agreement

Terminology Proofreading Management

Editing Translation

Fig. 3.13. Translation Workflow – Adapted from ASTM F 2575 (2006).

Wright (2006) states that the ISO 9001 family of standards is process oriented and provides specific guidelines and requirements that are applicable to TQM systems in general. The author asserts that CEN BTTF 138 project also provides “criteria for setting up a certification system for corporate translation service providers” (259), providing suggestions for incorporation of successful business practices among stakeholders, specifically applicable to the LI. In addition, the author adds that:

other features of the ISO 9000 approach are very relevant to typical translation environment. End-item final editing is augmented by careful process control at all steps in a project. Controlled, capable processes are designed to catch non- conformant product early in the production chain in order to eliminate the need for later rework, to increase efficiency, and to decrease the risk of downstream consequences due to proliferation of discrepant product (256).

From the project management perspective, Dunne (2011b) proposes a customer- focused quality management approach (rooted in the ISO 9001 family of standards) as a

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potential solution for the LI to move beyond the traditional end-item inspection approach.

The author asserts that a “customer-focused, Agile approach to quality management in translation and localization projects increases the likelihood that the deliverables will conform to the specification, be deemed fit for the intended use, and satisfy the client.”

(183). Established processes to deal with client consultation, client acceptance and communication (Pinto and Slevin 1988), for instance, as well as the ability to handle conflicts and information (Lechler 1998) are some key factor of business success. Lastly,

Porskrog (2008:30) summarizes the factors that could ensure smooth project execution and includes the notion of “well established processes” to manage projects (see also

Cooke-Davies 2001; Andersen et al. 2003).

This model assumes that the more formal business processes and effective workflows of ISO certified companies will have a positive effect on levels of translator satisfaction. An expertise effect may influence the level of individual satisfaction with workflow management. Experts and experienced translators with a higher occupational status are expected to show higher levels of satisfaction with workflow management and business processes since they can afford to accept and reject projects, choose with whom they want to work, and possibly select their teams. It is expected that translators with higher satisfaction relative to the factor of role of the PM (in the individual-team fit concept) also manifest a higher level of satisfaction relative to the survey items that measure the factor of workflow management and business processes:

 Processes are systematized  Misunderstandings are solved quickly  Specific processes exist to deal with misunderstandings

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 Management procedures and policies are in place

3.4.2.3.2 Localization Maturity Levels

At this point it is important to emphasize that workflow management efficacy varies significantly with the localization maturity level of a company. Research conducted by CSA defines the Localization Maturity Model (LMM) as an approach to assess and document “the behaviors, processes, and activities that constitute defined, managed, and repeatable best practices” (2006:1). The LMM serves to “improve and appraise a firm’s ability to perform the functions required in that arena” (6). CSA outlines a model that presents three negative stages of immaturity and four main stages of maturity that companies pass through before they can successfully localize their products for target audiences (7). The first phase is reactive, when there are few defined processes.

The second phase is referred to as repeatable, meaning that some management processes have been established and formalized such as tracking cost, schedule and functionality.

The third phase is managed, when the company has a process in place for documenting, standardizing, integrating and centralizing the project across the board. Companies that reach this level are large software and IT companies or automotive manufacturers. The fourth phase is optimized. At this stage, companies have gathered data and metrics and have also established detailed processes for communication, quality, and efficiency.

Finally, transparent companies have internalized the concept of localization, and their products exhibit a high level of internationalization. Few firms reach this level, although companies like Microsoft, Oracle and Symantec have done so.

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LSP’s at higher levels of maturity are expected to have specific processes to facilitate communication and avoid misunderstandings with the end client. Generally, the level of company maturity can be directly reflected in the effectiveness of the PM in dealing with the end client. It is expected that the higher the level of company maturity and commitment to process improvement, the greater the involvement of the PM in client education and the more successful the PM’s interaction with the client, resulting in enhanced translator job satisfaction. Although other survey items for this factor are possible, localization maturity level is assessed from the following survey item:

 It is apparent to me that the client does not understand the translation process 3.4.2.3.3 Role of the PM/Supervisor

Depending on the work environment, the PM may have an active role in workflow management. Even though the PM may see the need to change specific workflow processes, it is also possible that some constraints are posed by upper management. However, it is also possible that the PM has some autonomy and excellent persuasive skills, which could exert beneficial influence on upper management. This factor implies that the perceived efficacy of the PM in dealing with workflow issues relative to upper management has an effect on translator satisfaction. The survey items that measure the factor of role of the PM/Supervisor are as follows:

 LSPs I work with solve misunderstandings with client smoothly  PM has the ability to change the process  PM shows evidence of changing the process

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3.4.2.3.4 Payments

Administrative procedures comprise a broad category in many institutions.

However, this study will focus on the factor of payments, as this is expected to be a strong cause of dissatisfaction. Herzberg (1959) posits that “company policy and administration is the single most important factor determining bad feelings about a job”

(71).

Payment practices and payment terms vary with the LSP’s line of credit and therefore vary with the localization maturity level. Depending on the LSP’s line of credit, subcontractors may get paid by the translation company even if the client did not pay them. LSPs without a line of credit will not pay the translator until the client pays the

LSP. Some LSPs have fixed pay rates, or may ask for rate reductions (McKay 29) to stay competitive. Some LSPs with lower maturity may claim that the work delivered is below average, and may deduct some money from the pay (ibid.).

Translation agencies may have their own payment terms, and these terms are not negotiable. Often, the terms may indicate that payment will be issued within 30 days of invoicing (Net 30) or within 30 days from the end of the month (30 days EOM) (McKay

29). Sometimes payment terms may stipulate that the payment will be issued after 60 days or even up to 90 days. By contrast, payment terms are usually fixed for salaried in- house translators, usually at the beginning or at the end of the month or on a biweekly basis. The literature suggests that up-front payments do not seem to be common in translation contexts (Durban 187).

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Furthermore, a PM may refuse payment after the job is delivered for not adhering to instructions, or for not adhering to mutually agreed specifications, or for not meeting the deadline, etc. Translators have been expressing an increasing level of dissatisfaction with payment practices and payment terms when working for LSPs.

Payments are often delayed and translators are required to study the fine print for payment terms. Novices and freelancers are expected to show higher levels of dissatisfaction relative to payments. The factor of payments is measured with the following survey items:

 Payment Terms  Payment Practices

3.4.2.4 Individual-Client Relationship

Organizational support from the end client is expected to vary with the end- client’s level of localization maturity as well as the end client’s commitment to stakeholder satisfaction. This sub-concept intends to capture the end client’s level of understanding of the translation process and the level of involvement in stakeholder satisfaction. The sub-concept of individual-client consists of the factors discussed below

(see Fig. 3.14).

Onsite vs. Offsite Direct relationship with clients [Q22-8] Communication and relationship Continuous and respectful relationship [Q24-13] Individual-client Client review [Q22-7]

Client Clients expect too much [Q24-22] involvement

Receiving answers to my questions about client’s expectations or deliverables [Q26-6] Fig. 3.14. Factors and Variables – Individual-client.

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3.4.2.4.1 Communication and Relationship

Based on an end client’s initial level of understanding of the translation process, greater efforts directed to client education from the translation company and the PM and establishment of a standardized client communication process, may be necessary for satisfactory interaction. Concerning client involvement, ASTM F 2575 suggests that relationships between the requester and the translation provider should be smooth, and that the translators’ questions should be answered before the project is initiated. Dunne

(2011b) highlights the role, continual feedback and active participation of (a) the end client; (b) client reviewers and (c) the end user in order to successfully implement a customer-focused approach that prioritizes stakeholder satisfaction (183).

The model predicts an expertise effect with respect to client communication, as more experienced translators will derive greater satisfaction from the extent and quality of the communication. Both in-house and freelance translators should derive satisfaction from a smooth client communication process. The factor of communication and relationship is assessed with the following survey items:

 Direct relationship with clients  Continuous and respectful relationship with the client 3.4.2.4.2 Client Involvement

Client review seems to be the most common form of client involvement in the translation process. Effective client review is a clear manifestation of good communication practices between translation buyers and service providers. The review process should be used as an opportunity by language vendors to receive valuable feedback and improve relationships with customers by implementing suggestions and

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making changes, wherever and whenever necessary. Moreover, client review often presents an opportunity to improve business, quality and workflow processes. Finally, client review also presents an opportunity for client education. According to CSA,

“buyers repeatedly told us that they would love to have someone put them on the fast track toward learning about best practices for localization and translation, or even just to point them in the right direction” (Kelly et al. 13).

Client review may be seen, on the one hand, as a source of dissatisfaction for translators, especially when disagreements emerge. Durban (2010:60) presents the example of the reaction of an unhappy translator after receiving client feedback on his work. The author suggests that translators should be grateful and pleased because they receive feedback, and should use the opportunity to increase their contacts. Detailed client reviews and feedback on translation samples may indeed be interpreted as opportunities to learn.

Answering translator queries for clarification of the source text or for resolving terminological problems is another form of client involvement. For freelance translators this is a daunting task, since the end client may be inaccessible and receiving answers to queries may take a long time and slow down the translation process. However, in-house translators may have easier access to clients and even source text authors.

It is expected that experts will show higher levels of satisfaction with client review, and novices may often perceive that the client is being negative or expecting too much. The factor of client involvement is analyzed with the following survey items:

 Client review

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 Clients expect too much  Receiving answers to my questions about client’s expectations or deliverables

3.4.3 Facet of Professional Satisfaction

Professional satisfaction describes the feelings of fulfillment, status, or achievement that an individual develops when acquiring knowledge and skills which allow him or her to optimize his or her career path and achieve professional recognition

(Hackman and Oldham 1980). Professional satisfaction, as a facet, also groups those concepts that are associated with the development of a sense of identity as a translator and as a member of a social network of individuals playing similar roles and performing similar tasks: e.g., a sense of belonging to a community. The facet of professional satisfaction consists of the following concepts:

3.4.3.1 Professional Profile

The concept of professional profile consists of the factors discussed below (see

Fig. 3.15):

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CAT tools [Q10#2-4] Professional profile Certifications [Q10] Planning on earning Localization [Q10#2-5] more certifications [Q43]

Familiarity with source files [Q20-all] Familiarity with CAT I should update Expertise tools and usage Technical my skills [Q25-3] effect Usage of CAT tools [Q18], [Q21] expertise Offering terminology Your own terminology management management services skills [Q22-9], [Q11-4-1] [Q11-4] Specific training on CAT tools [Q19] Income

Formal Formal education on Translation Studies [Q8] education

Non-translation related Degree [Q9] Workload Years of experience [Q34]

Professional experience Favorite employers [Q34-3]

Length of employment Favorite clients [Q34-1] Full-timer vs. part- timer Favorite LSPs or agencies [Q34-2]

My subject matter expertise has been beneficial to my Subject matter expertise or Specialization career [Q24-11] areas of specialization [Q16] Number of areas of specialization [Q24-9] Professional & communication skills Fig. 3.15. Factors and Variables – Professional Profile.

3.4.3.1.1 Technical Expertise

It is widely acknowledged that skills such as proficiency in the Microsoft Office

Suite, presentation applications, hardware and software management, file management, etc. have become a prerequisite for any position in the language industry. In addition, of course, an understanding of CAT tools and an ability to deal with a variety of source text file formats is expected. Gouadec claims that “the ‘pure transfer’ translator seems to be on the way out” (168). Bowker (2002) emphasizes the increasing role of technology in the translation profession, and suggests that translators benefit from corpora and corpus analysis tools, terminology management systems, translation memory systems, integrated translation management systems, and localization management systems.

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In addition, new trends toward XML authoring and the implementation of content and global management systems, often require translators to update their understanding of how content is created. Translators are expected to have an understanding of “the technologies implemented to translate and localize content generated by, and for, diverse systems, globalization management systems, mobile devices, automated workflow and enterprise applications ... Web-enabled applications of all types, database systems"

(Folaron 213-215).

Translators may also be required to understand programs designed for professional desktop publishing and design, online publishing, digital design and e-book publishing, professional content authoring tools, 2D and 3D drafting, conceptual design, architectural drawing, documentation modeling, and possibly audio recording–dubbing software. Understanding the creation, modification and conversion of content based on standards (XML, XLIFF, TMX, TBX, etc.) is also crucial for specialized translators or translators working on multilingual dynamic environments.

Automation is unavoidable as the volume of translation keeps increasing and the timelines keep getting tighter, thereby necessitating the use of terminology management systems and translation memories in order to enhance productivity and ensure product quality. Managing high translation volume can be extremely challenging for freelancers or sole proprietors without employees, resulting in projects being turned down in many cases. Large-scale translations require a critical path analysis, involving a high degree of well-managed planning in order to enhance cost-effectiveness and reduce time to market, while meeting quality expectations.

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The required level of technical expertise can vary significantly with the level of task specialization and task complexity, as well as terminological complexity associated with a project. A high level of technical expertise can be generally associated with a high level of task satisfaction, and, as a result professional satisfaction. The possession of the skills is associated with status and achievement in the profession. Technical expertise is expected to vary among translators depending on the level of higher education, familiarity with translation tools, and certification and training in CAT tools. The model assumes differences in satisfaction between in-house employees and freelancers (due to differential access to training, for instance) and between experts and novices (due to the time necessary to develop advanced technical skills, although this may be mediated somewhat by formal translator training). The factor of technical expertise is measured with the following survey items:

 CAT tool certifications (mainly Trados)  Localization certifications  Familiarity with exchange formats (CSV, TMX, TBX, XLIFF, DITA)  Familiarity with source files and the frequency of usage (DOC, XLS, HPR or HPJ, MIF, PSD, XML, DWG, INX, PPT, DXF, TIFF, TOC)  Your own terminology management skills  Offering terminology management services  Specific training on CAT tools  Planning on earning more certifications  I should update my skills

3.4.3.1.2 Formal Education

The theme of formal education in Translation Studies can be controversial.

Broadly speaking, there is no general agreement on a common curriculum that all translators should take in order to become professionals. A great divide has been

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observed between translator education and translator training. On the one hand, translator education has traditionally focused on theoretical principles of the discipline and is mostly rooted within the humanities. On the other hand, translator training has focused on hands-on practice and simulation of actual projects, and its content has been more interdisciplinary. Each training program may prepare students uniquely, thus the translators practicing in the field may possess different skills and a wide variety of formal degrees. When discussing training in translation studies, the main classification is based on formal education, computer-assisted-translation (CAT) certifications, accreditations, or other professional certifications.

Unlike most disciplines, field-specific degrees are rare and many practicing translators may not have a translation-related formal degree. In fact, 65% of the respondents in the survey conducted for this study have a bachelor’s degree in a different area, or a vocational or professional degrees (Business, IT, JD, nursing, etc.). This is a unique characteristic of the profession.

A formal degree in translation studies, according to Gouadec (328), is expected to offer students (a) proficiency in their working languages; (b) familiarity with a wide variety of text types, information retrieval and data research techniques; (c) terminology management skills; (d) a good general knowledge in a broad range of disciplines; (e)

“master[y of] all the translation-localization (and revision) techniques, methods and procedures”; (f) “total [sic] proficiency in the use of all equipment and software they are likely to come across in their professional environment”; (g) some experience of project

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management and (h) the ability to communicate and interact efficiently with a variety of people.

Nevertheless, the above described learning outcomes sound idealistic and quite ambitious. The reality shows a more negative picture. As a matter of fact, the coursework related to (c), (d) and (g) is offered in very few institutions. Specifically, few institutions worldwide offer terminology management coursework and train students on localization management skills. The number of contact hours allocated may not allow for Gouadec’s

“total proficiency.”

However, the skills listed are crucial for an active practitioner in order to meet task, job and professional requirements. Practitioners who are interested in learning these skills may not be able to attend classes, or may not be able to afford to commute. This has led to a variety of online, fast-track, accelerated coursework that is offered to practitioners in the form of certifications, diplomas, online webinars, etc. The quality of these accelerated programs is sometimes questionable and is a topic of discussion among academics and professionals.

Some tool certifications are either offered by private companies such as SDL

Trados (PM and CAT). Coursework offered by the Institute of Localization Professionals

(TILP), e.g., Level 1, and localization courses offered in training institutions as a component of a formal degree do enjoy a higher level of professional recognition.

Additionally, translators with renowned project management certifications such as PMI’s

CAPM (mostly working on IT projects) and SAP certification also enjoy higher professional recognition. Since the number of institutions that offer formal project

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management, CAT and localization training courses is small, translators take advantage of any kind of certification to improve their technical knowledge.

Legal translation is an area where formal education and certifications are important for recruitment. Legal translation is more standardized and generally requires certification or placement exams in order for practitioners to work in the legal domains.

In many instances, legal translators also possess a degree in the legal field, a professional degree (JD) or a license to practice law. Hence, “sworn translators,” and translators and interpreters certified by the Court (State, Federal, etc.) often enjoy a higher level of professional recognition.

The lack of profession-wide, industry-wide standard training, accreditation or certification processes is evident in the number of certified translators. For instance, only

27 out of 250 participants in the survey were “certified” in some way. Social recognition of certifications varies significantly from one country to another; respondents from

Canada and Australia showed the highest representation of certified translators. Training bodies and professional associations are expected to increase their efforts in reaching an agreement on the very specific learning outcomes necessary for certification and for translator training programs. There is an urgent need to establish a minimum core set of prerequisites and a core curriculum that all degree programs must have so as to provide the industry with well trained professionals, and in order to achieve greater social recognition of the profession in the long run.

In this study, the impact of a formal degree in Translation Studies on accelerating the development of professional/technical expertise is examined (this is related to the

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discussion of technical expertise in the facet of task satisfaction). This study correlates the level of formal education with technical and subject matter expertise. In general, the level of education, number and level of certifications, etc. is thought to result in higher professional satisfaction. The factor of formal education is measured with two variables.

The first survey item captures formal education related to Translation Studies, and the second survey item captures non-translation degrees of translation professionals.

 Formal education on Translation Studies (Certificate in Translation Studies, Bachelor’s Degree in Translation Studies, Master’s Degree in Translation Studies, PhD)  Non-translation related degree (levels of education: Bachelor’s Degree, Master’s Degree, PhD, Professional School Degree)

3.4.3.1.3 Professional Experience

The factor of professional experience includes years of experience or long periods of active involvement in the language industry. Professional experience measures are assumed to correlate with professional satisfaction. The assumption is that professional longevity is a reflection of satisfaction with achievement, status and position. This factor is measured using the survey items:

 Years of experience (directly), and indirectly from the length of employment using the survey item:  Favorite employers (or favorite agencies or LSPs and favorite clients) 3.4.3.1.4 Specialization

The factor of specialization reflects professional characteristics associated with specific subject matter expertise and skills. Translators may have one of more areas of specialization and may possess a non-translation related degree (B.A, M.A, Professional

Degree, etc.) that might have augmented or accelerated their subject matter expertise.

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Generally, specialization can also be considered part of formal training. However, as Gouadec states, “it is unreasonable to expect graduates fresh out of a university translator training course to be specialized in any true sense of the word. … However, all students should be prepared and ready to specialize” (337).

Research shows that customers hold subject matter experts in high regard.

According to Bass (2006), “the market driving reality is that the demand for highly trained, specialized translators far exceeds the supply. The pool of qualified translators for virtually any specialized subject is small” (71). In fact, buyers express their frustration when an LSP hires translators who are seen as not “well-suited for their projects, [and] this work stands out like a sore thumb in the internal review process.” (DePalma

2008:10). Generally subject matter experts can command higher incomes. Specialization is related to professional satisfaction as a result of the higher status specialized translators hold in the industry and with clients. The factor of specialization is measured in the proposed model with the following survey items:

 Subject matter expertise or fields of specialization  Your level of subject matter expertise  Number of fields of specialization (one or more specializations)

3.4.3.1.5 Professional and Communication Skills

Professional and communication skills comprise a subgrouping of the following factors: flow of communication, social skills, cultural intelligence and new professional skills. Virtual team communication requires new management approaches in order to avoid conflict, build trust and meet performance criteria (see Table 3.16). Based on the literature related to leadership, individual team performance and communication

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workflow varies with individual professional and communication skills. The leader of the team also requires a high level of emotional, social and cultural skills to communicate virtually and professionally.

With regards to communication with team members, the intelligences play a crucial role for successful virtual communication. Turner and Müller (2006) summarized the most important leadership skills in project management. In their study, intellectual leadership skills (IQ) are understood as the rational capabilities of the project manager.

Managerial leadership skills (MQ) are strategies necessary to lead a team in a project whose goals has been previously defined and agreed upon. The authors found a positive correlation between emotional intelligence (EQ) and success within a variety of projects.

Professional profile Flow of communication Communication with team members [Q27-17]

My persuasion skills [Q25-16] Social skills Face-to-face communication [Q31] Professional & communication skills Interaction with Communication with people Cultural intelligence people with an from other cultures [Q27-16] accent [Q28]

General professional skills of Expertise team members (Q26-7) effect

Report progress (Q30) New professional skills I am flexible to adjust to Flexibility continuous changes [Q25-6]

Understanding Localization maturity levels of the end client [Q25-11]

Fig. 3.16. Factors and Variables – Professional & Communication Skills.

Generally, the role of the intelligences in the translation task is intertwined with self-regulatory processing and problem solving efficiency (Salovey and Mayer 1993), as

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well as with self-efficacy (van der Berg and Feij 2003). EQ can be used to assess the ability to manage relationships effectively (Goleman 2000), and it can also be attributed to: (a) an accurate perception of one’s own and other’s emotions; (b) the use of emotions to facilitate thinking and problem solving; (c) emotional knowledge and understanding including empathy and judgment, and (d) regulation of one’s emotions to promote personal growth, such as self-control, coping with stressful contexts, in order to accomplish a task (Salovey and Mayer 1990; 1993). In addition, Goleman (2002) asserts that people with a high level of emotional self-awareness and self-control are able to recognize their impact on the team and build effective team communication networks.

Social skills are also necessary since they show the individual level of proficiency in managing relationships and building networks. Social skills are characteristics of a leader who can build effective teams and persuade the team to change, if necessary

(Goleman 2007). Socially skilled people enjoy building rapport with colleagues, creating networks of collaboration and transmitting their passion for work to others. Generally, the effect of positive and negative emotional states and the possession of social skills can affect the ability to make use of personal resources and further expand team capabilities.

Acting and behaving professionally in a diverse workplace requires two additional skills from the leader: high levels of cultural intelligence, and an ability to clearly establish group tasks, group mission, group structure and processes for successful project communication. A PM needs to use different leadership styles in order to interact with culturally diverse teams and in order to influence individual behavior (Schein 89).

According to Stoeller (2011), “in the era of globalization, it is critically important to

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understand how culture influences business behavior. … people from different countries do things in different ways; culture helps us understand some of the reasons why” (300).

The author adds that cultural differences are also observed in “ethics, decision-making, communication, [and] negotiation (300). Lastly, Thomas and Inkson. (2009) suggest that culturally intelligent leadership begins with analyzing the concern for tasks and for relationships.

Research on leadership concludes that relationship-oriented leaders have more satisfied followers, and this is true across a wide range of cultures (112). Additionally, a culturally-oriented leader must understand the dimensions of context, space, and time

(Hall 1976). In translation, high-context people become impatient and annoyed when they receive information that they do not need. This makes finding the appropriate level and the suitable amount of context a challenging task in the LI.

The concept of proximity is important in some cultures since it establishes a distinction between a leader and a follower. The concept of time is studied as “time as communication,” and in this regard, cultures can be divided as monochronic or polychromic. In monochronic cultures, time is perceived as tangible (155), and time is equated with money; it can be saved, wasted, spent, etc. Thus, attachment to schedules and deadlines is crucial in monochronic cultures. By contrast, polychronic cultures attach more importance to social relationships than schedules. Therefore, schedule represents a potential source of disagreement and a source of conflict in multicultural translation teams. For successful cultural management, a leader must have a flexible culturally aware communication process in place.

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Additionally, since many of the normal cues of interpersonal communication disappear in virtual communication (e.g., eye contact, gestures, etc.), intercultural differences, including language differences, are less noticeable. Some people do not feel comfortable using forms of virtual communication, in particular when the content is complex. Additionally, building trust is harder in a virtual environment and it is challenging for a leader to create a “trusted channel” that allows solving intercultural differences, facilitating communication and effectiveness.

Self-managing teams are becoming common in the LI, and in many instances translators are expected to facilitate the work of the PM (and team members) by carefully following instructions, reporting constant progress, and adhering to processes. When the level of individual skills is inferior to that of other members, communication workflow may be affected and negative “interdependence effects” among team members arise, potentially increasing other team members’ level of dissatisfaction.

The factor of understanding the end client reflects the translator’s individual interest in understanding the localization maturity level of the end client and his or her role in ensuring customer satisfaction. The factor of localization maturity levels has already been discussed with respect to the facet of job satisfaction. This section focuses on understanding individual translator commitment to knowing more about a translation buyer’s needs.

Generally speaking, translators view themselves at the very end of the food chain, and it is debatable whether all translators make every effort to understand the end client or even have the access and opportunity to do so. The factor of understanding of the end

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client is particularly important for translators who work directly with the client in order to guarantee product and process quality.

In-house translators and translators who work directly with the client are expected to show a positive attitude toward gathering information about the translation requester.

For instance, in-house translators may be trained to work with the customer or with sales or customer service departments. Experienced translators are expected to show a higher level of satisfaction, since they generate revenue from client education in their consultancy services. But novices as well as freelancers may show a negative attitude since they may believe that clients expect too much, and that client education and interaction is not useful or profitable.

The literature on leadership studies suggests that virtual communication can be successful in a decentralized environment. However, it is debatable whether a decentralized process will help a translation company meet tight deadlines, since the flow of communication may get out of control, and the PM may spend most of the time dealing with misunderstandings and conflicts, rather than managing the project itself. It may be possible that experienced translators—with a higher level of emotional and social skills—have their own internalized communication process and already possess the necessary skills to work in self-managing teams i.e., they anticipate risks, report progress, and possess a higher level of understanding of task and project scope. Novices may not have learned these skills and may rely on organizational processes, indicating dissatisfaction with their own skills and their professional identity. In the analysis the variables below are correlated with some factors from the role of the PM and workflow

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management in order to comprehend possible discrepancies in processes. The factor of flow of communication is measured with the following survey items:

 Communication with team members  My persuasion skills  Face-to-face communication  Feel comfortable with face-to-face communication  Communication with people from other cultures  Interaction with people with an accent  General professional skills of team members  Report progress  I am flexible to adjust to continuous changes  Understanding localization maturity levels of the end client

3.4.3.2 (Perceived) Job Security

This concept and its single factor of perceived job security attempts to capture the individual feeling of certainty about being able to keep a job. With the industry and organizational changes observed in the last decade, voluntary career turnover has become very common. A large portion of the labor force does not want the traditional career of staying in the organization and working for one company exclusively, thus instead preferring volunteer turnover (Burke and Ng 2006); this claim is supported by a study from Binghamton University. A survey conducted two decades ago showed an average of approximately ten jobs per individual during a lifetime, and people change careers more often when they are younger (Polachek and Siebert 253).

Workers also seem to be more opportunistic these days (Burke and Ng 2006). For instance, the Belgian company SD Fox experienced an employee turnover of 17.46% in

2007. This number was still higher for younger employees, at 39% (SD Fox 2008). Hunt and Saul (1975) argued that there is a correlation between age, skill development, job

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security and job satisfaction, proposing that the older a professional, and the longer he/she is in an organization, the more satisfied he/she seems to be.

3.4.3.2.1 Job Security

The factor of job security has been significantly reshaped in the last decade, and it does not refer to a specific attachment to a company or a boss. It rather connotes a feeling of certainty related to one’s status and progression in the profession. Individuals with higher feelings of job security believe that they will have a constant stream of work over the course of their careers or that they “have career options” as a result of their achievements, skills and expertise.

In the LI, in-house translators probably enjoy a higher level of certainty about their jobs and career prospects. Thus, their attitude toward security is expected to be more positive. By contrast, freelancers are predicted to be less positive relative to this factor.

The factor of (perceived) job security is directly measured with the following survey item

(see Fig. 3.17):

 I have a wide variety of skills, thus higher job security

Professional profile

I have a wide variety of skills, thus Job security higher job security [Q47-6]

Flexibility to accept and Workload reject projects [Q36-6] Occupational flexibility Expertise I can afford to choose effect [Q24-8]

Full-timer vs. part-timer I can afford to accept projects from well- planned LSPs [Q25-14] Fig. 3.17. Factors and Variables – Job Security & Occupational Flexibility.

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3.4.3.3 Occupational Flexibility

The concept of occupational flexibility refers to the perceived ability of a professional to select the projects or tasks that he or she wants to undertake. This kind of flexibility is generally associated with greater professional achievement and status and is predicted to be associated with professional satisfaction. It is expected that an expertise effect will be clearly observed in the factors associated with this concept.

3.4.3.3.1 Flexibility

In the data analysis the factor of occupational flexibility will be correlated with income and workload. The factor of occupational flexibility will be assessed with the following survey items (see Fig. 3.17):

 Flexibility to accept and reject projects  I can afford to choose with whom I want to work  I can afford to choose projects from well-planned LSPs

3.4.3.4 Marketing

The concept of marketing represents the means by which translators make their professional abilities and experience (profile) known. The concept of marketing is very broad, and very few variables have been selected for this concept for the purpose of this study. Some factors of the concept of marketing do not apply to translators working onsite, unless they also freelance. Greater success in marketing one’s professional skills is assumed to correlate with greater professional satisfaction. The factors for marketing are listed in Fig. 3.18.

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Full-time vs. Part-time Talking to experts [Q36-1] Face-to-face Networking Marketing On-site vs. Close contact with other Off-site Online translators (Social networking, professional associations) [Q37] Expertise effect Fig. 3.18. Factors and Variables – Marketing.

3.4.3.4.1 Face-to-face Marketing

Face-to-face marketing includes promoting one’s name (also known as one’s brand) in the professional community, for instance distributing business cards among potential translation buyers. In this study, attending and presenting at professional conferences is also considered as a face-to-face marketing approach. The relationship between involvement in the profession by attending and presenting at conferences and the profitable return on such an involvement will be studied in the following section.

Networking is important in seeking new employment opportunities (Higgins and

Thomas 2001; Ibarra 1992) and research on social capital highlights the importance of networks in achieving results within organizations (Burt 1997; Forret and Dougherty

2001; Reagans and Zuckerman 2001). Failure to maintain career-relevant networks may reduce possible job opportunities, so the time spent maintaining career- relevant networks can be interpreted as an investment in one’s human capital. The ensuing survey item measures the factor of face-to-face marketing:

 Experience of talking to experts in translation

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3.4.3.4.2 Online Marketing

Online marketing is one of the most effective and common form of selling a brand. Networking and keeping close relationships with other translators and project managers is crucial, and can be conducted in business circles (e.g., chamber of commerce) or online by using such social networking applications as Facebook, Twitter,

Proz.com, Translatorscafe.com, etc. LinkedIn has lately proven to be a very effective marketing and learning tool since a professional can join specialized discussion groups relating to his or her interests and exchange contact information with other professionals.

Translators also market themselves through their individual websites, or blogs, or by commenting on other blogs written by translators. This is a very valuable source of knowledge that can speed the startup process of entering the profession. Directory pages or online listings are other traditional approaches for clients to reach other translators or

LSPs.

The key is to sell the image of a professional who has clearly established and defined one or more areas of specialization, possesses a wide variety of skills, and has a clearly tailored business plan. As one possible tip for success, Chris Durban (129) suggests that translators must understand the client’s subject matter and speak the client’s language. Finally, word of mouth is also known as a good marketing approach, but the results of this approach can be slow. The following survey item measures the concept of marketing (see Fig. 3.18):

 Keeping close contact with other translators via social networking

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3.4.3.5 Translator’s Self-concept

This section discusses how translators view themselves and how society views them, focusing on the translator’s self-concept, professional identity, and the translation profession as viewed from outside. The relationship between the translator’s professional self-concept and professional satisfaction has not been studied in translation studies.

Scholars working on the area of Organizational and Occupational Psychology have long agreed that changes in a person's work role and tasks are associated with changes in professional identity—the set of attributes, beliefs, values, motives and experiences by which they define themselves in their professional lives (Ibarra 2000).

Fletcher (2007) investigated the role of the self-concept in nursing, and concluded that public image is intimately intertwined with the self-image. Generally, translators view themselves as efficient problem solvers and highly qualified individuals. According to Katan (2009), translator and interpreter responses show that “their ‘professionality’ lies in their individually honed competencies in the field. They are dedicated and mainly satisfied wordsmiths, who take pride in their job” (111). Furthermore, translators are viewed as intercultural communication experts (Holz-Mänttäri 1984), cultural mediators

(Katan 2009), “cross-cultural specialists” (Snell-Hornby et al. 1992), or “agents of social change” (Tymoczko 2003), and activists (Baker 2008). In particular, “freelancers see themselves as dynamic, business-like people. Choosing to be self-employed gives them

‘professional’ status along with … other qualified practitioners” (Gouadec 169).

Translators have a strong sense of professional pride and a positive view of themselves; the general social perception, however, is that translators are individuals

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capable of communicating in two languages, but there is no recognition of the wide range of other skills and specialized training involved. Although professional translation bodies have made efforts to improve the social status of the profession, the outcomes have been largely unsuccessful, or at best mixed. Despite translators being admired (mostly working as interpreters) in big institutions like the UN and the EU, this does not necessarily imply a generally high level of social respect. Unlike interpreters, “very low status is accredited to translators worldwide” (Katan 111). The concept of professional self-concept comprises the factors listed below (see Fig. 3.19).

Lack of professional appreciation [Q47-3] Professional Identity [Q47-9] Expertise Having outstanding offers effect motivates me [24-17]

My current role meets my Expertise Professional professional expectations (Q47-4) Individual needs effect self-concept

My role in the industry [Q48]

Social recognition Social recognition of my profession [Q36-11]

Fig. 3.19. Factors and Variables – Self-concept.

3.4.3.5.1 Professional Identity

It is important to make a distinction between professional identity and professional status. According to Boyt et al. (2001), professional identity “consists of the attitudes and behavior one possesses toward one’s profession” (322). Atkinson (1983) suggests that professional identity can be increased by gaining social recognition and increasing the social and occupational status of the profession. Unlike professionalism,

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“professional status is inferred with the achievement of an objective standard such as an advanced degree” (Boyt et al. 322).

The individual’s identification with the profession can be an extremely important source of satisfaction. The level of professional satisfaction is expected to vary with expertise, with experts probably having more positive attitudes toward their careers and to the profession as a whole. Additionally, experts may feel that they play a role in the industry, since they may be more actively involved in associations, have produced publications, resulting in a sense of contribution in improving the image and social recognition of the profession. The predictors of satisfaction are also expected to differ between translators working onsite and offsite. The factor of professional identity is assessed with the following survey items:

 I identify strongly with my profession  Lack of professional appreciation

3.4.3.5.2 Role

Person-environment fit theory posits that individuals show a higher level of satisfaction when his or her role descriptions are compatible with his or her individual needs and abilities (Kaplan 1983; Dawis and Lofquist 1984). Thus, translators are expected to be happier if their roles and tasks meet their career expectations. This, in turn, implies greater levels of satisfaction with choice of profession. Experts are expected to show higher levels of satisfaction with their roles and their overall position in the industry. The factor of role is measured with the following survey items:

 My role meets my professional expectations  My role in the industry

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3.4.3.5.3 Social Recognition

Generally speaking, translators value the role of associations in promoting professional recognition, but employers and the general public do not acknowledge these efforts. Even “certified” status is not highly sought after by employers (Bowker 2005:19).

Translators know that they receive support from their respective professional association, and they offer their support by becoming active members and participating in conferences. This reinforces their professional identity, and promotes their public image.

However, a low status is assigned to the profession and it is expected that all groups indicate high levels of dissatisfaction with the social recognition of the profession. The factor of social recognition is assessed by the survey item:

 Social recognition of my profession

3.4.3.6 Career Development

Attitudes toward career development have drastically changed in the last two decades due to technological and business aspects of the work environment (Hall 2002).

In particular, organizational restructuring and new business processes have resulted in more flexible career paths. It is now quite common that the individual self-manages his or her own career development (Arthur et al. 2005). Two main aspects affect satisfaction with career development: (a) workers’ individual passion for their own development and

(b) organizational support in allowing the worker explore his or her career options.

The personality trait of proactive behavior in forming career goals has also been studied in the literature of career development as a source of intrinsic motivation.

Individuals who are in control of their own career development have shown higher levels

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of professional satisfaction, highlighting career planning, networking, and skill development as key predictors of career satisfaction (Barnett et al. 2007).

An overwhelming 95% of work providers, human resources managers and agencies contacted in a survey in 2000 and 2004 stressed that the required professional profiles were undergoing radical changes (Gouadec 168). Gouadec argues that most translators are poorly equipped to deal with current market challenges.

Training Training received in new task or new position [Q23-9]

Opportunities for career development [Q36-4]

Expertise Should not be responsible effect for my career Professional development [Q47-5] commitment Onsite vs. Attending conferences [Q39] Offsite

Attending workshops [Q38]

Full-time vs. Career development Schedule allows for career Part-time development [Q47-1]

Investing in career development is profitable [Q47-2] Workload Planning on earning more certifications [Q43]

Need to update my skills [Q25-3]

Passion about my career development [Q47-7]

Involvement in the Presenting at Onsite vs. profession conferences [Q40] Offsite Value in maintaining Expertise Memberships [Q36-8] ATA membership effect [Q47-8] Presenting training Workload sessions or workshops [Q41] Fig. 3.20. Factors and Variables – Career Development.

Katan also indicates his pessimism about career development in translation studies, the author quotes respondents’ answers in his study, and 80% of both translators and

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interpreters believe that “unlike most professions, no career structure in the profession” exists (123). The author adds “translating is a profession when it is ‘earned’ individually as a result of having made a name for oneself individually” (ibid.). In this study, the concept of career development comprises the factors illustrated below (see Fig. 3.20).

3.4.3.6.1 Training

There is a general agreement that a comprehensive curriculum with a focus on training can help create well-prepared translators, but cannot impart all of the skills necessary to prepare translators to function at the highest levels required by the industry.

It is to be hoped that employers and recruiters will increase formal training programs and opportunities to ensure that the labor force can successfully accomplish a wide variety of tasks. As in the past, a high percentage of translators continues to train on the job.

Feelings of preparation and adequacy to participate in the profession imparted by training are related to professional satisfaction. The following survey item will measure the factor of training:

 Training received in new tasks or new positions

3.4.3.6.2 Professional Commitment

Motivated workers often seek higher levels of skill, and they are generally committed to lifelong learning. Thus, intrinsically motivated translators are expected to attend conferences and workshops, for instance, regardless of organizational support and in the absence of a direct relationship to job rewards. Professional commitment is a measure of involvement in professional activities for the sake of the profession and long- term professional development, as opposed to shorter-term goals.

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In the language industry, predicting individual commitment to the profession is a daunting task. It is anticipated that attitudes vary with the translator’s formal training, professional experience, technical expertise, and the specifics of his or her work environment (onsite, offsite, salaried or freelancer). Thus, experience and expertise are expected to play a key role since experts are more intrinsically motivated to learn, more committed to lifelong learning, and not involved in professional activities such as conference attendance or workshops just for specific job-related reasons. That is, experts and novices may engage in similar activities (e.g., workshop attendance), but for different reasons. For the novice it may be for short-term gain, e.g., to meet requirements for a particular position. For experts, it may be for professional reasons less related to specific positions or jobs, e.g., feelings of professional commitment that may not have developed in the novice.

Professional commitment may be more viable for in-house staff, since the translator has organizational support, but being actively involved in professional activities may not be an option for the freelancer because of limited funding. Thus it is expected that a higher level of professional satisfaction may be observed in salaried staff than in freelancers in this regard. The factor of professional commitment will be measured with the following survey items (see Fig. 3.20):

 Opportunities for career development  Should not be responsible for my career development  Attending conferences  Attending workshops  Schedule allows for career development  Investing in career development is profitable

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 Planning on earning more certifications  Need to update my skills  Passion about my career development

3.4.3.6.3 Involvement in the Profession

The factor of involvement in the profession and professional commitment are clearly differentiated in the proposed model. Professional commitment refers to one’s passion or commitment to be involved in long-term career development, and in one’s commitment to lifelong learning by attending conferences or workshops for reasons that have a broader career scope. The factor of involvement in the profession is related to commitment, but emphasizes active participation in the profession. That is, the focus is on moving from passive activities such as attendance, to more active activities such as presenting at conferences, conducting workshops, and being active members of associations.

Generally, high levels of career satisfaction are associated with active involvement in the profession, e.g., memberships, contacts, attendance at professional meetings (Mortensen et al 2002). Freelance translators (see McKay 2006) acknowledge that “writing, speaking and consulting about translation and interpreting are great ways to get your name recognized” (59).

Experts may be more actively involved in associations, and they interpret the value of maintaining this membership as an intrinsic motivator of affiliation and source of professional satisfaction. A higher level of involvement in the profession is expected from experts and in-house salaried staff, thus indicating a higher level of professional

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satisfaction for both groups. The factor of involvement in the profession is measured by the following survey items (see Fig. 3.21):

 Presenting at Conferences  Memberships  Value in maintaining the ATA Membership  Presenting Training Sessions or Workshops

Presenting at Onsite vs. conferences [Q40] Offsite Value in Involvement in the maintaining Expertise Memberships [Q36-8] ATA profession membership effect [Q47-8] Presenting training Workload sessions or workshops [Q41] Fig. 3.21. Variables – Involvement in the Profession.

3.4.3.7 Professional Reputation

The concept of individual professional reputation is considered to be a crucial intrinsic motivator of professional satisfaction.

Having outstanding offers motivates me [Q24-17] Professional pride Receiving a project from a long- term client [Q27-2] Professional reputation Involvement in prestigious projects [Q36-5] Professional prestige Client’s reputation [Q36-2] Expertis e effect

Revenue from my Professional People know me positive public recognition professionally [Q36-10] image [Q36-3]

Mentoring as a motivational tool (Q42)

Mentoring was helpful for my career (Q24-19) Mentoring I mentor translators [Q36-7]

Mentee [Q36-9]

Career turnover Leaving the profession [Q44] Probability of finding a new job [Q45] Fig. 3.22. Factors and Variables – Professional Reputation, Mentoring & Turnover.

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The concept of professional reputation reflects an individual perception that others value their services, skills and competence. Reputation may derive from a history of the successful completion of prestigious projects from well-known clients, for instance, or from professional recognition in the form of awards. The concept of professional reputation comprises the factors listed below (see Fig. 3.22).

3.4.3.7.1 Professional Pride

Highly qualified professional translators can develop feelings of professional pride as the result of successful job performance or from being involved in the profession. They want to feel that their job is important and they want to feel that they do it well (Robinson 1997). Most importantly, translators feel a special pride when a long- term client needs a translation service, since it implies client satisfaction. All these aspects contribute to professional pride and reinforce a translator’s professional identity or self-concept. Unlike novices, experts may have outstanding offers, and this may be a predictor of satisfaction. The factor of professional pride is assessed with the following survey items (see Fig. 3.22):

 Having outstanding offers motivates me  Receiving a project from a long-term client

3.4.3.7.2 Professional Prestige

The concepts of professional prestige and professional recognition are intrinsically related and are expected to positively impact the overall level of professional satisfaction. Whereas public image depicts the society’s assessment of the specific characteristics or reputation of an individual or a group, professional prestige refers to the

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perception of the significance of one’s work related to personal and social esteem

(Stamps 1997). In this study, professional status, occupational status and professional prestige are used interchangeably.

Translators gain prestige from successful projects or tasks, and this level of prestige influences their careers, since a new project may come after successful completion of the previous one. There is a direct relationship between completing a successful project and satisfying the client. Therefore, when the client is satisfied, the client may provide more contacts or work to the translator or LSP. If it happens to be that the client is well-connected, this can lead to increasing recognition and volume. For instance, translators who have reached a high level of prestige have already built long- term business relationships with clients or LSPs, relying on their expertise to provide consulting services.

Prestige emerges from professional experience as well as active involvement in the profession, such as publishing or presenting at conferences. Increase in professional prestige often leads to an increase in workload, income, as well as new occupational opportunities. Experts are expected to derive a higher level of satisfaction from professional prestige. Even though prestige may equate with higher remuneration, it is not always the case in the profession of translation. It is possible that experts may not earn more than experienced translators, but it can be safely assumed that a higher level of prestige leads to a higher volume of work (and higher complexity), which in turn leads to a higher income. By contrast, novices do not view themselves as professionally recognized, and their clients may not be well known, or they may not be able to

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undertake highly complex tasks, thus novices will indicate a lower level of professional satisfaction from this source. The factor of professional prestige is measured by the following survey items:

 Involvement in prestigious projects  Client’s reputation (Client is well known)

3.4.3.7.3 Professional Recognition

The factor of professional recognition represents a positive attitude and feeling of satisfaction that derives from knowing that the translator is well known in the industry and the profession. Potentially, this results in a higher income or higher workload.

Since it is likely that experts feel stronger ties to the profession, they may enjoy the benefit of being known professionally, may have more contacts, and may receive invitations that generally result in a higher involvement in the profession. In addition, experts under these circumstances are expected to gain intrinsic motivation from the nature of the task or the project, from the professional prestige they enjoy in specific circles that are of paramount importance to them, and they actually see a return from their positive public image in their income. The factor of professional recognition is measured with the survey items:

 Generating revenue from my positive public image  People know me professionally

3.4.3.8 Mentoring

The ATA website defines mentoring as “a process where an experienced individual provides support, guidance, and assistance to a less experienced individual.

The Mentoring Committee was established to develop and implement a program to train

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ATA members as mentors and mentees in an enhanced, informal mentoring relationship.”

According to the ATA, mentoring can be used as a means to building the profession.

Mentoring can be approached with different goals in mind. First, Mortensen posits that mentoring is a form of professional involvement. For instance, the author mentions that both having a mentor early in professional career and being a mentor to another professional is correlated with high level of career satisfaction (1453). Second, mentoring can be described as a motivator of professional growth, requiring language professionals to engage in intellectual work in various informal settings other than their work setting. These experiences lead to an enhanced sense of professional identity through self-awareness in mentoring experiences and collaborative opportunities, which increases motivation to continue developing professional skills. Third, Goleman

(1998:103) praises mentoring and coaching asserting that “it has repeatedly been shown that coaching and mentoring pay off not just in better performance but also in increased job satisfaction and decreased turnover” (103). The author adds that the main impact on performance is the strong relationship created between mentor and mentee, and the effective power of feedback. Mentoring not only benefits the mentee, but it also increases the personal satisfaction and professional reputation of the mentor. The factor of mentoring is measured by the following survey items (see Fig. 3.21):

 Mentoring as a motivation tool  Mentoring was helpful for my career  Experience in which I was the mentor  Experience of being mentored

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3.4.3.9 Career Turnover

The relationship between turnover and satisfaction at work has been widely studied in the literature, and a clearly negative relationship has been found between turnover and satisfaction (Trevor 2001; Tett and Meyer 1993). The literature identifies career turnover as an indirect measurement of professional satisfaction, since high career turnover rates are taken to indicate dissatisfaction with the career path and profession.

Work behavior outcomes were investigated by expectancy-value approaches that suggest a negative self-concept contributes to the decision to leave the profession (Bornholt and

Piccolo 2005). Generally, career turnover is expected to be higher in novices than in experts. By contrast, experts are more likely to stay in the profession for a variety of reasons, including a feeling of “investment” and a shortened window of opportunity to change careers (Kyndt et al. 208). The factor of career turnover is measured directly by the following survey items:

 Likelihood of leaving the profession  Probability of finding a new job in the profession

3.5 Research Questions

The research questions posed by the model are divided into four major groups corresponding with the specific analysis technique that will be used for investigating the three facets of task, job and professional satisfaction model presented in this chapter. The data used for the analysis is collected from a survey questionnaire that will be discussed in the subsequent chapter.

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3.5.1 Descriptive Statistical Analysis

 What are the key sources of task, job and professional satisfaction in the language

industry?

Task Satisfaction

 Are translators satisfied with their knowledge of CAT tools? Do translators

believe that subject matter expertise and knowing CAT tools is essential in

order to meet deadlines (and do deadlines compromise quality)? Or,

conversely, do translators feel that they are too slow?

 Are translators satisfied with their own ability to perform a wide variety of

tasks, with the tasks they are involved in, with having the opportunity to

choose new ones, with multitasking or having the opportunity to change roles?

 Do translators take pride in their work, and feel that they make a contribution

to the team? Are they satisfied with the level of empowerment allowed and

autonomy given to make decisions?

 Are translators satisfied with the quality of the source texts and terminological

complexity? Does completing a complex project motivate translators and do

they feel that project task descriptions accurately depict the nature of the work

to be completed?

 Do translators have opportunities to learn at work by receiving constant

feedback?

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Job Satisfaction

 Do translators have a flexible schedule? Or do they feel that their job is

stressful because task deadlines are too tight? Are translators satisfied with

task deadlines, working overtime or during weekends, with telecommuting,

with the balance between work and personal life and other team members’

flexibility with schedules?

 Are translators satisfied with remunerations? Do translators feel that they are

getting paid fairly, or are they dissatisfied with requests for discounts,

payment practices and payment terms?

 Do translators have a manageable workload per year, and a continuous stream

of work? How many hours do translators work per week and what is the

average number of words that they produce per day?

 Are translators satisfied with the role of the PM as being in charge of the

communication workflow, with communication between team members, and

with the clarity of task descriptions? How translators feel about uncontrolled

communication among team members? Are translators satisfied with the PM

who matches skills of team members to project requirements and resolves

misunderstandings quickly? Do they prefer working with PMs who match

skills to project requirements or show appreciation for translators, and/or PMs

that provide reference materials and help with software troubleshooting? Do

freelancers feel satisfied with supervision?

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 Are translators satisfied with the PM reiterating the preference of assigning

the translator to a project, but at a lower rate? Are translators satisfied with

other team members’ professional skills and their perception that their voice is

heard within the team; do they get to choose their teams? Are translators

satisfied with the quality of work they receive from other translators? Are

translators satisfied with dynamic collaborations and interpersonal

relationships between the team members and the PM or coordinator? Are

translators satisfied with virtual teamwork or do they feel stressed about it?

 Do translators feel that the translation process is systematized and that

misunderstandings are resolved quickly? Do LSPs have processes in place to

deal with communication misunderstandings? Do translators feel that

processes are in place and that the PM has the ability to change the process?

Have translators seen evidence of the PM influencing upper management or

PMs being able to negotiate with team members?

 Do clients answer the translator’s questions and are translators satisfied with

client review? Are translators satisfied with having direct contact with the end

client, or do they feel that clients expect too much? Do translators have

continuous and respectful relationships with the client, and is it apparent to

translators when the client does not understand the translation process?

Professional Satisfaction

 How many areas of specialization do translators have? Do translators believe

that their subject matter expertise helps them in their career? Are translators

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satisfied with their terminology management skills, levels of subject matter

expertise and persuasion skills? Are translators flexible to adjust to continuous

changes? Do translators report progress and understand the localization

maturity level of the end client? Do translators feel comfortable with face-to-

face communication and in communicating with people from other cultures?

Do translators agree that having a wide variety of skills ensures higher job

security? Or, by contrast, do translators feel that they need to update their

skills, and are they planning on earning more certifications?

 Do translators identify strongly with the profession? Do translators feel that

their role in the industry meets their professional expectations, and do they

enjoy keeping close contact with other translators via social networking and

fora? Are translators satisfied with the social recognition of translation? Are

translators planning on leaving the profession? If so, do they believe that they

will find a new job?

 Are translators satisfied with their professional recognition? Are translators

involved in prestigious projects and do they show satisfaction when their

client is well known? Do translators generate revenue from their positive

public image or does receiving a project from a long-term client motivate

them? Do translators have occupational flexibility?

 Are translators passionate about their career development? Is it profitable to

invest in career development in the LI? Are translators involved in the

profession, and do they see the value of maintaining the ATA Membership? Is

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mentoring helpful for translators’ career and can it be used as a motivational

tool in the language industry?

3.5.2 Hypothesis Testing

 What are the main differences with regards to the factors related to task, job and

professional satisfaction among the following populations: experts versus novices,

full-timers versus part-timers, and in-house salaried staff versus freelancers?

Task Satisfaction

 Do experts show a higher level of understanding of the task scope (before

undertaking it) than novices? Do experts and freelancers believe that their

subject matter expertise helps them to work faster and meet deadlines? To

what extent do novices and experts agree (or disagree) that deadlines

compromise quality? Do novices and freelancers feel that they lack skills and

need to work faster than experts and in-house translators?

 Do novices rely on task descriptions more than experts? To what extent do

experts versus novices and in-house translators versus freelancers agree that

task descriptions accurately indicate the amount of work required in order to

complete the task?

 Do experts and freelancers have more opportunities to perform tasks in their

area(s) of specialization and to choose new tasks? Do experts and freelancers

show higher levels of satisfaction with task complexity? Are novices and in-

house translators more stressed out with terminological complexity? Are

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experts and freelancers more satisfied with the level of autonomy and

empowerment than novices and in-house salaried translators?

 Do experts take higher pride in their work and feel that they improve the

overall quality of the project, as compared to novices?

 Are experts and freelancers more satisfied with the feedback they receive on

translation samples than novices and in-house translators? Are in-house

translators more satisfied with receiving constant feedback? Are experts and

in-house translators more satisfied with performance appraisal?

Job Satisfaction

 To what extent do novices and experts agree that their job is stressful? Do

experts and freelancers have more flexible schedules than novices and in-

house translators? To what extent do in-house employees differ from

freelancers as regards telecommuting? Are in-house translators and experts

more satisfied with the balance between work and personal life than novices

and freelancers?

 Do experts produce more words per day than novices? Do full-timers translate

more words per day than part-timers? Do novices work more hours per week

than experts? Do freelancers translate more words per day than in-house

translators? Are onsite translators and experts more satisfied with having a

continuous stream of work?

 To what extent do in-house translators versus freelancers and experts versus

novices differ in their attitude toward remunerations? Are in-house translators

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more satisfied with monetary incentives than freelancers? Are translators

(novices, experts and freelancers) dissatisfied with requests for discounts?

 Are experts dissatisfied with deadlines? To what extent do novices and

freelancers agree that deadlines are getting too tight?

 Do experts indicate higher satisfaction with the role of the PM? To what

extent do experts and novices agree that they like the PM to be in charge of

the communication workflow? Are in-house translators more satisfied with

the professional skills of other team members than freelancers? Are novices

and freelancers dissatisfied with the quality of work from other team

members? To what extent do experts versus novices and freelancers versus in-

house translators show agreement toward the PM matching skills of team

members to project requirements? Do experts indicate that they have seen

evidence of the PM changing the process?

 Do experts and freelancers show a lower level of satisfaction with supervision

than novices and in-house translators? Do experts and in-house translators

show higher levels of satisfaction with virtual teamwork than freelancers and

novices? Are in-house translators more satisfied with interpersonal

relationships and dynamic team collaborations than freelancers?

 Do novices and in-house translators show higher level of satisfaction with the

translation process being systematized? Do in-house translators and experts

express higher levels of satisfaction with management procedures and policies

as well as specific processes to deal with misunderstandings?

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 To what extent do experts and novices agree that it is apparent to them when

the end client does not understand the translation process? Do novices and

freelancers believe that clients expect too much?

 Are novices and freelancers more dissatisfied with payment practices and

payment terms than experts? Do full-timers and experts indicate higher levels

of satisfaction with client involvement and direct relationships with the end

client than novices and part-timers?

 Are experts and freelancers confident of finding a new job if they leave the

current one? Do onsite translators and experts show higher levels of overall

satisfaction than freelancers?

Professional Satisfaction

 Do freelancers show a higher level of technical expertise than salaried in-

house translators? Do experts and freelancers show a higher level of

satisfaction with their own terminology management skills, and therefore do

not feel the need to update their skills? Do freelancers show a high level of

satisfaction with their terminology management skills? Do experts and

freelancers differ in their attitudes toward technical and subject matter

expertise? Do professionals with a Master’s degree in Translation Studies

show a high level of technical expertise, and thus a high level of task

satisfaction?

 Do experts and freelancers show higher level of satisfaction with their

professional and communication skills? Are experts and freelancers more

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interested in understanding business capabilities or localization maturity levels

of the end client? Do freelancers and experts show a higher level of agreement

in skills ensuring their job security?

 To what extent do experts and freelancers differ in their attitude toward

occupational flexibility and marketing? Do experts show a higher level of

satisfaction in the perceived feeling of professional identity than novices? Do

novices and freelancers feel dissatisfied with levels of professional

appreciation?

 Do freelancers, experts and part-timers show a higher level of satisfaction

with their role in the industry than in-house translators, novices and full-

timers? Do full-timers and freelancers exhibit a higher level of satisfaction

than part-timers with regards to the social recognition of the profession?

 Do salaried in-house translators show a higher level of satisfaction with

training? Do experts show a higher level of satisfaction in involvement in the

profession? Do experts indicate higher levels of satisfaction with the

profitability of investing in career development? Do experts demonstrate

higher levels of satisfaction with professional commitment than novices?

 Do experts show a higher level of satisfaction with being motivated by having

outstanding offers? To what extent do experts and novices differ with the level

of satisfaction with receiving a project from a long-term client? Are experts

more satisfied with professional recognition?

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 To what extent do freelancers versus in-house translators and experts versus

novices differ in their attitude toward mentoring and career turnover?

3.5.3 Regression Analysis

Task Satisfaction  What are the key predictors of task satisfaction?

 Can predictor variables be identified for task satisfaction through linear

regression analysis? If so, what is the level of significance of the predictor

model?

Job Satisfaction

 What are the key predictors of job satisfaction?  Can predictor variables be identified for job satisfaction through linear

regression analysis? If so, what is the level of significance of the predictor

model?

Professional Satisfaction

 What are the key predictors of professional satisfaction?  Can predictor variables be identified for professional satisfaction through

linear regression analysis? If so, what is the level of significance of the

predictor model?

3.5.4 Correlation Analysis

 What are the relationships among the component factors of task, job and professional

satisfaction?

 What are the correlations, if any, between the component factors?

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Task Satisfaction

 Are the variables for task satisfaction correlated? If so, how significant is the

correlation?

Job Satisfaction

 Are the variables for job satisfaction correlated? If so, how significant is the

correlation?

Professional Satisfaction

 Are the variables for professional satisfaction correlated? If so, how

significant is the correlation?

The construct of translator satisfaction consists of three main facets: task, job and professional satisfaction. These three facets have been comprehensively presented in this chapter and have been accompanied by their respective factors and variables in order to build a model of translator satisfaction. The next two chapters will present the methodology used in this study for conducting a survey for data collection. The data collected from the survey will be used (a) for testing the concepts presented in this chapter, and (b) for answering the research questions raised in this chapter. Descriptive statistics will allow this study to comprehend the concepts used to study each facet. Even though the number of variables resulting from the model presented in this chapter is large, these variables are essential and have been gathered from the literature of other disciplines or from the experience of translation professionals. Hypothesis testing, linear regression analysis and correlation analysis will be used to comment on the relevance and significance of the variables, as well as the robustness of the model.

CHAPTER 4

Methodology

This chapter presents the methodology used in this study to test the research questions from the model presented in Chapter 3 in order to assess task, job and professional satisfaction. Factors from the model are measured through specific variables from the responses to the survey questions. An online survey was designed and used as the instrument for collecting the data necessary to answer the research questions from the model. The survey was designed to gather relevant data about individual attitudes toward satisfaction, and identify the factors that influence a language professional’s sources of satisfaction. This chapter discusses the selection of participants, the development of the instrument, the methodology that was used for data collection, as well as the data analysis methods that were used.

4.1 Selection of Participants

The survey participants consisted of 250 translators who are actively involved in the language industry and provide a number of services such as translation, terminology management, editing, proofreading, testing, etc. to translation buyers. The survey was posted online (between February 10, 2011 and April 5, 2011) in the form of a questionnaire and attracted participants from all parts of the world.

The largest group of participants was from Canada, Australia and the US, although many translation professionals from countries like Argentina, Iran, Spain, and the UK participated in the survey. Out of the 250 participants, 71% of the respondents 206 207

were female and 29% were male. Even though the age of participants is not relevant for this study, all participants were at least 18 years old.

The participation criterion was based on whether the professional received some income from the language industry, regardless of the working environment. Respondents were asked to indicate the range of their annual income and the average number of hours they worked to ensure that translators working in the language industry in different capacities would participate in the survey. The criteria were set in order to encourage a broad sample of participants. For instance, survey participants identified themselves as salaried translators working onsite, freelance translators or subcontractors, salaried translators working remotely, sole proprietors without employees, sole proprietors with employees, and subcontractors working in the language industry as their second job.

Participants were also required to identify themselves so as to distinguish their involvement in the LI as constant or episodic: 32% of the respondents identified their work in the language industry as sporadic whereas 68% identified themselves as translators with regular involvement. The participants were classified into part-timers or full-timers based on the number of hours worked per week during active periods of work.

Participants with 21-80 hours of translation work per week were classified as full-timers whereas participants with 5-20 hours of translation work per week were classified as part- timers. The median number of hours worked by the participants classified as part-timers is 20 hours per week, whereas those classified as full-timers worked 42 hours per week

(median). However, it should be noted that many translators acknowledged that they may

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work as much as 70 hours per week during busy periods, and as little as 30 hours during slow periods.

The median number of words translated per day by full-timers was 3,000, ranging from 2,000 to 9,000. The median number of words translated by part-timers was 2,000.

Participants responded that they edited half the content that they translated per day on an average, and proofread more than 500 words of content per hour on average. The annual incomes of the participants ranged from USD 15,000 to 75,000 and the volume of content handled per year went as high as 1 million words.

The survey drew participants with varying levels of educational qualification. 58 participants had some certification in Translation Studies; 64 participants had a

Bachelor’s Degree in Translation Studies; 89 participants had a Master’s Degree in

Translation Studies; and 9 participants possessed a PhD in Translation Studies. Many participants indicated that they had more than one kind or level of formal education in

Translation Studies. More than 60% of the participants working as translators had a degree in another discipline; 65% of the participants had a Bachelor’s degree in a different discipline; whereas 63 participants had a Master’s Degree in such disciplines as

Linguistics, Language and Literature Studies, ELT, TEFL, Applied Psychology, Business

Administration, Computer Science, Law, etc. There were 9 participants with doctoral degrees in Slavic Studies, French Civilization, Linguistics and Multilingual

Communication, Biology and Ethnology. Professional degrees such as JD (Law), IT,

Agriculture (or other bio-sciences) and Teaching, were very common among participants.

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The survey captured participants from wide ranging areas of specialization, with

11% identifying themselves as translators of commercial or business content, another

11% translating legal documents, 10% translating tourism and/or marketing materials,

10% specializing in translation of technical and scientific materials, and 9% focusing on documents related to medical, pharmaceutical and public health. 7% translated financial, government and press texts, 6% translated IT documents and software products, and 5% specialized in translating literary texts. The rest of the participants translated materials related to multimedia, audiovisual, diplomatic, education and manufacturing.

Participants were also asked to identify their specific roles in the industry (they could choose more than one option, if applicable) based on the services they generally offered. Out of the 250 participants, 193 identified their service as translators, 165 as proofreaders, 153 as editors, 68 as terminologists, 28 as DTP specialists, 25 as localizers or software-related services and 10 as project managers.

The selection of the survey participants was as arbitrary as possible. The survey was made known to translation professionals through social networking platforms, members of international translation associations, and through industry contacts. A preliminary pilot study was conducted in October 2010 during the ATA annual conference in order to assess the viability of some of the concepts by post-processing the pilot results and performing some hypothesis testing. The participants were active language professionals, with most of them having 10+ years of experience, this led to some bias from the findings of the pilot. Participants in the pilot study were also asked to provide feedback on the possible ambiguity of questions in the questionnaire. Attending

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the conference also provided the opportunity to establish initial contact with some translation professionals and get some preliminary feedback. Some of these professionals were subsequently contacted via email in order to gather data for the pilot study. The contacts established during the pilot study were informed about the online survey and asked to participate. Professors and colleagues at the Kent State University also helped to contact professionals in order to get more participants for the survey. The survey was advertised using translation email lists (ATISA, CETRA) and translation portals such as

Proz.com and TranslatorsCafe.com. Some translators were contacted using email addresses that were obtained from national and international professional associations of translators. Approximately 100 translators were contacted directly via email, with some emails sent to the Directorate General for Translation of the European Commission as well as some contacts from the United Nations. All these means of communication proved to be effective and yielded participants from multiple countries with wide ranging specializations, thereby making a strong case for the sample representativeness of the survey.

It is difficult to establish a unique number from the literature on satisfaction and motivation that can be used as the ideal sample size due to high variability from one study to another. Generally speaking, there is no agreement on the total number of translators active in the language industry and only rough estimates have been published; thus one cannot use a formula (Krejcie and Morgan 1970) to compute the appropriate sample size. Some sample sizes used in previous studies range from 90 (Barnett et al.

2007) to 282 (Parker et al. 2006), and up to more than 300 (Kyndt et al. 2009) and 363

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(Karatepe et al. 2006). According to Lunenburg, 100-200 participants are required for correlation research, and at least 10 participants are necessary for multiple regression statistical analysis. For the purpose of this study, the sample size of 250 is considered to be adequate since any statistical analysis, including correlation studies or regression analyses can be conducted with this sample size with a reasonable amount of confidence.

This claim is supported by the use of similar sample sizes by other researchers who collected data from similar surveys (Lunenburg and Irby 2008).

Furthermore, the validity and reliability of the instrument was tested rigorously before starting data collection, and the instrument did not show any inherent contradiction or potential deficiency that could compromise the sample data collected from the instrument. This was accomplished by pre-testing the instrument online before making it accessible to survey participants. The questionnaire was also reviewed by three proof-readers, including a survey expert who assessed the validity of the instrument.

4.2 Instrument

The development of a comprehensive instrument is necessary in order to test the model of translator satisfaction outlined in Chapter 3. The two most common approaches used in the literature for measuring satisfaction can be classified into measurements of global satisfaction versus measurements of facets of satisfaction. Job satisfaction may be studied and measured as overall satisfaction or as several subcomponents of satisfaction.

“Overall work satisfaction is likely to reflect the combination of partial satisfactions related to various features of one’s job” (Skalli et al. 2008), such as reimbursement, working conditions, job security, working hours, etc. The level of overall job satisfaction

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can be considered a weighted result of the aggregated feelings of individual satisfaction relating to each of the individual aspects.

The conclusion that the level of overall work satisfaction depends on the need for evaluating individual subcomponents or subfacets has been supported by other researchers in the literature (Frey and Stutzer 2002). However, there are some researchers who believe that individuals make a judgment about their jobs as a whole (Skalli et al.

2008). The literature on satisfaction also supports the relevance of measuring subfacets of satisfaction indirectly, although internal criterion scales (rated scales) have become the most widely implemented means of measurement. Two most well-known scales for measuring subcomponents of (job) satisfaction are the Job Descriptive Index (JDI) and the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ).

JDI was designed by the Cornell Group (Smith et al. 1969) and uses the external criterion method for measuring job satisfaction. The external criterion method is implemented by administering the initial pool of items under two experimental conditions: (a) respondents’ answers with respect to the best job possible, and (b) their answers with respect to the worst job possible. A group of satisfied workers is compared with a group of unsatisfied workers, and the survey items are selected on the basis of demonstrated experience and the external criterion. JDI developed the measure by collecting data on job satisfaction indirectly, asking participants to describe their jobs rather than by asking direct questions on the level of satisfaction or dissatisfaction. The

JDI studies five main facets of work in a total of 72 items: the work itself, supervision, coworkers, pay, and opportunities for promotion. Each respondent is tested under three

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conditions: respondents are asked about their own jobs, respondents are asked about the best job they can think of, and respondents are asked about the worst job they can think of. Researchers agree that this instrument has high psychometric validity, and it has been widely replicated in studies on satisfaction.

MSQ was developed by the Minnesota group (Weiss, Dawis, England and

Lofquist 1967), and measures the level of satisfaction of various work needs. MSQ construes job satisfaction as a result of value fulfillment theory. Value fulfillment is used as a predictor of job satisfaction and six factors (achievement, altruism, autonomy, comfort, safety and status) are measured on the basis of a needs scale with different factor loadings. MSQ measures sources of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation as the sum of scores from each facet for the factors listed above. The overall job satisfaction is finally obtained by summing all the individual item scores. MSQ has gained wide recognition among researchers and has been replicated in numerous studies on satisfaction.

Neither of the instruments listed above directly transfers to the dynamic work environments prevalent in the current language industry. The high number of variables in this study makes it all the more difficult to directly implement the JDI or the MSQ scale to measure satisfaction. The conventional instruments are generally used to collect data in highly structured work environments, where all participants work under similar circumstances and mostly in a hierarchical organizational structure. These instruments, therefore, do not lend themselves readily for the measurement of satisfaction in this study.

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For instance, the conventional instruments were not designed to contain such variables as those that characterize current work environments in the language industry, including virtual teamwork interaction, outsourcing, subcontracting, stakeholder satisfaction, etc. This dissertation, instead, uses a combination of direct and indirect methods, as suggested in current research so as to assess the level of satisfaction of participants. For instance, a 1-5 Likert scale that indicates the level of satisfaction or dissatisfaction is a direct measurement, whereas using a combination of variables or a question that implies dissatisfaction (e.g., a question about turnover) can be used as an indirect measure of satisfaction.

New instruments have emerged that have been gaining widespread recognition.

These instruments use numerical scales based on a specific set of criteria that can be adapted to suit the particular interests of a study. In particular, the rated-item measurement is the most widely used type of measure and is based on the Likert method

(Likert 1932). The five-point Likert-rated scale has been adopted in this study to measure the levels of satisfaction of each item listed in the survey. This allows for quantifying the responses of each participant, and these responses can be compared and parsed for interpretation and for statistical analysis.

Quantitative data was gathered with the Likert scale (1-5) and qualitative data was also gathered from self-reporting open-ended answers. Open-ended questions have been included throughout the survey to gather qualitative data that can be used for interpretation, wherever necessary.

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There is no existing tool used in the language industry for studying translator satisfaction with the level of granularity achieved by the instrument designed for this study. The instrument offers a novel way of comprehending the contribution of specific variables toward three facets of translator satisfaction, namely task, job and professional.

The large number of variables included in the instrument for this study is based on a comprehensive literature survey from other disciplines, an analysis of the current language industry work environment, and from personal experience as a practicing translation professional. The final instrument also benefited from valuable suggestions received from experienced translation professionals during a pilot study.1 The instrument was successful in gathering data on levels of satisfaction pertaining to the facets of task, job and professional satisfaction at the individual level, which has enabled this study to make an assessment of the relationships and influences of multiple variables qualitatively and quantitatively.

4.2.1 Questionnaire Design

The questionnaire used for this study has been divided in two main sections (see

Appendix A for the complete questionnaire). The first section of the questionnaire includes the following items: 1) Demographic variables such as age, gender, income range, etc.; 2) Formal education in translation studies or in another discipline, level of education; 3) Professional experience as measured by years of experience and/or by

1 Some items were piloted at the American Translators Association conference in October 2010. However, data from the pilot has not been included in this dissertation since the pilot sample was very small and was primarily used to fine- tune the instrument. Also, most participants in the pilot study were experts (with 25+ years of experience) and had well established businesses with a constant stream of work. Thus, the results from the pilot study generally suggested high levels of satisfaction in most items.

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number of years in business, or working for an employer; 4) Specialization or subject matter expertise; 5) Technical expertise, certifications, specific training and knowledge of

CAT tools, services offered, level of familiarity with certain CAT tool formats and frequency of receiving specific source files; 6) Workload, measured in annual volume, translated words per day as well as the number of hours worked per week. In addition, participants were asked about the work environment 7) or primary work setting in order to understand whether the professional is salaried working remotely, salaried in-house, a freelancer or a subcontractor. Also, translators were asked whether they are registered as sole proprietors, with or without employees, and whether translation is their primary or secondary source of income.

The second section of the questionnaire contains items specific to the facets of task, job and professional satisfaction, measuring key variables that constitute the research questions presented in the model in Chapter 3. A composite index is created from responses used to measure task satisfaction, called the Task Satisfaction Index

(TSI). This index indicates the level of satisfaction toward variables assessed from the following statements:

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Neither Are you generally satisfied with the Very Somewhat Somewhat satisfier nor Dissatisfied Satisfied satisfied dissatisfied following? dissatisfied 1 2 3 4 5 Your own terminology management skills

Terminological complexity

Your level of subject matter expertise

Type of tasks you are involved with Working on challenging and complex tasks Working on the tasks of your specialization Your ability to perform a wide variety of tasks

Quality of source texts

Clarity of task descriptions

Your understanding of the scope of a task before undertaking the task Opportunity to choose new tasks or role

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Also, the level of agreement of the participants with the following statements is captured in the survey:

Do you generally agree with the Very Agree Neither agree Disagree Very much Much Moderately nor disagree moderately disagree following? Agree 1 2 3 4 5 My subject matter expertise helps me meet deadlines Knowledge of CAT tools is essential to meet my deadlines

Terminological complexity stresses me out

I feel that I should update my skills I feel I am too slow, and that I should be working faster

Feedback on translation samples

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The responses to the following statements are used to assess the level of job satisfaction by using a Job Satisfaction Index (JSI):

Neither Are you generally satisfied with the Very Somewhat Somewhat satisfier nor Dissatisfied Satisfied satisfied dissatisfied following? dissatisfied 1 2 3 4 5 Opportunities for rate increase or salary increase Having a continuous stream of work Receiving constant feedback and project updates

Client review

Direct relationship with clients Requests for discounts or lower rates

Pay practices Balance between work & personal life Level of autonomy given to make decisions Project manager provides reference materials and other resources (Style guide, TM, termbase) necessary to complete the task Receiving answers to my questions about client’s expectations or deliverables Matching the skills of team members to project requirements (LSPs you work for, your boss)

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Do you generally agree with Very Agree Neither agree Disagree Very much Much Moderately nor disagree moderately disagree the following? Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Deadlines are often too tight I can afford to have a flexible schedule I can afford to choose with whom I work (e.g., agencies) I feel I improve the quality of the whole project I believe that clients expect too much I feel that deadlines do not compromise quality My relationship with the client is continuous and respectful I feel I have a manageable workload per year The individual level of satisfaction toward team dynamics can also be assessed from the response to the following:

Neither Are you generally satisfied with the Very Somewhat Somewhat satisfier nor Dissatisfied Satisfied satisfied dissatisfied following? dissatisfied 1 2 3 4 5 Working in virtual teams Team members’ flexibility with schedules Dynamic team collaboration (usually team members help each other) Specific processes in place to deal with misunderstandings in team Quality of work you receive from other team members Rapport and relationships with fellow team members Communication with members of the team Appreciation or performance appraisal Effective supervision

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Additionally, the level of agreement toward the following statements about team and organizational dynamics is also gathered from specific questions in the questionnaire, such as:

Do you generally agree with Very Agree Neither agree Disagree Very much Much Moderately nor disagree moderately disagree the following? Agree 1 2 3 4 5

Team work stresses me out

I can choose the team with whom I want to work

I can afford to choose with whom I work (e.g., agencies) In most LSPs, the translation/localization process is systematized I like when the project manager controls the flow of communication between team members Usually misunderstandings with PM and team members are solved quickly, smoothly, and efficiently It is apparent to me when the client does not clearly understand the translation process

I believe that clients expect too much

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Responses to the following are used to assess professional satisfaction from the

Professional Satisfaction Index (PSI):

Neither Are you generally satisfied with the Very Somewhat Somewhat satisfier nor Dissatisfied following? Satisfied satisfied dissatisfied dissatisfied 1 2 3 4 5 My subject matter expertise in other fields has been beneficial to my career

I take pride in my work I am flexible and able to adjust to continuous changes and innovations in the project Professional skills of team members (communication skills, clear language, delivering on time, etc.)

Mentoring is helpful for my career Opportunities for skill or career development Experience of networking or talking to experts in translation Completing a complex project successfully motivates me Social recognition of my profession Flexibility to accept or reject projects Knowing the client is included in Fortune 500 list motivates me Generating revenue from my positive public image Being involved in prestigious projects

Presenting at conferences

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Finally, the level of agreement of the survey participants to the following statements is captured in the survey:

Do you generally agree with the Very Agree Neither agree Disagree Very much following? Much Moderately nor disagree moderately disagree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 I feel unappreciated professionally when I am asked to drop my rates I feel that I have multiple skills, thus a higher job security I identify strongly with my profession I am passionate about my career development

As indicated, all the responses to the survey questions are recorded using a five- point Likert scale ranging from a minimum of 1, assigned to "strongly agree" or "very satisfied,” to a maximum of 5, assigned to "strongly disagree" or "very dissatisfied.” It may be noted that if a specific question is used in the survey to directly measure the overall feeling of satisfaction for each facet, this has been primarily done for benchmarking purposes. The questionnaire is designed so as to contain a combination of open-ended and more specific questions. Open-ended questions are included so that participants can elaborate on their responses, and don’t feel committed to provide specific answers. Nevertheless, the number of open-ended questions is minimized to reduce participant fatigue and limit the time it takes to complete the survey. Additionally, in those questions where gathering the level of satisfaction is crucial, selecting one choice was made mandatory and thus the question could not be skipped by survey participants.

However, it is acknowledged that the participants could have been given a “not

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applicable” option for many questions due to the diversity of work environments in the current language industry. Making the selections mandatory facilitated post-processing of the data and also maintained the 1-5 numerical scale, allowing a quantitative analysis of the responses. The choice of the five-point Likert scale has been prudent for this study since it provides the participants with a neutral choice in the form of scale item 3 and this compensates for the lack of the “not applicable” option. A 1-3 Likert scale was used in the pilot study, but was found to be problematic because it limited the range of options from the respondents.

From the pilot study, it was evidenced that using questions which suggested a ranking or order of priority in the response was ambiguous. In addition, expressions related to business or the industry such as “business capabilities” were confusing. Many freelancers mentioned that they do not work in teams, and most of the questions about teamwork had to be refined. As indicated earlier, all questions were proofread and screened for ambiguity, complex terminology, content repetition and rewording by three experts: Dr. Richard Serpe, a professor of sociology at Kent State University, Dr.

Gregory Shreve and Dr. Keiran Dunne from the department of Modern and Classical

Language Studies at Kent State University.

The main drawback of the instrument is its length. Even though some motivators were inserted at three stages of the survey, the length could have caused fatigue and thus reduced the rate of participation somewhat. However, it was decided to retain the length of the survey in order to ensure the robustness of the instrument. Some of the questions in the survey were asked directly as well as indirectly, this strategy was responsible for

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increasing the length of the survey somewhat. For example, technical expertise was recorded by asking direct and indirect questions: participants were asked directly if they used CAT tools, and if they possessed specific training on tools. Later the participants were also asked in a separate item about their familiarity with specific CAT tool formats as well as their familiarity with receiving and accomplishing tasks with certain source text files.

The content validity of the final instrument designed for this study was initially tested during the pilot study in order to ensure that an empirical study could be performed using the data collected from the survey. Validity of results was ensured by repeated use of direct as well as indirect questions in the survey. Validity was further tested during post-processing of the results (Cronbach’s alpha=0.981). Hypothesis testing and linear regression analysis will allow this study to make conclusions with concrete significance levels and confidence bounds, thereby enabling the attribution of predictive capability to the model (Bethlehem 136). The validity of results was established by using statistical measures and by computing confidence levels for making conclusions from hypothesis testing. Further validity can be established by performing subsequent surveys and comparing the predictive models with actual data collected from these surveys.

An approval was obtained from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) for the

Protection of Human Subjects at Kent State University before starting data collection.

The documents approved by the IRB included the Recruitment message and the Informed

Consent for the online survey. Data collection was started after getting approval, and the forms are listed in Appendix B for reference. The recruitment message invited active

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professionals working in the language industry as translators to participate in the survey.

The participants were expected to receive some sort of income from translation and/or proofreading and/or editing, etc. Survey participants could have been working onsite or offsite; be salaried or subcontractors (freelancers); or be working part time or full time

(translation could be their primary, secondary or tertiary source of income). The Informed

Consent form mentioned the aim of the study and the procedure that would be followed.

Participants were informed that the data collected was anonymous and would not be shared with a third party, and participants were also made aware of the benefits and risks of participation (see recruitment message). It may be noted that participation in this study was entirely voluntary and that the participants were not reimbursed for their time, with the exception of a $5 gift card offered as a token of appreciation.

4.3 Data Collection

Data collection was via a questionnaire that was posted online using the Qualtrics software application. Participants were sent an invitation (recruitment message) via email. A link to the online questionnaire was included in the invitation. The first page of the survey contained the consent form, which explained the nature of the questionnaire, main research goals and expectations from participants. The participants were given access to the questionnaire only after they clicked “yes” to the consent for participation and expressed their agreement with the terms and conditions.

Several trials of the survey questionnaire were run online in order to ensure the proper functioning of the software. As per the trials, the questionnaire was expected to take approximately thirty minutes to complete. Translators were given up to a month to

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complete the questionnaire and a reminder was sent after fifteen days. A special effort was made to advertise the instrument publicly in order to recruit a diverse group of participants. Survey literature suggests that Wednesdays are the best day to recruit participants because it is midweek, and professionals do not have the stress from the beginning of the week. Professionals feel more relaxed and willing to participate as the weekend approaches. Therefore, most of the reminders were sent out on Wednesdays.

Some of the reminders were sent out on Fridays since it was felt that translators may have more time to complete the questionnaire on weekends than during week days.

Even though online surveys offer a significant advantage, allowing a researcher to have higher sample representativeness, the speed of the internet connection still remains a constraint for some participants. For instance, some participants indicated that they had problems with the browser and that the survey screen would freeze.

At the end of the survey, the software automatically displayed a thank you note or sent an automated thank you message to the participants’ email addresses. Participants were provided the opportunity to enter their email addresses to receive a $5 gift card as a token of appreciation. After data collection was completed, the software allowed exporting and downloading individual answers anonymously, without divulging specific details of the individual participants.

4.4 Data Analysis

Quantitative as well as a qualitative analysis are used in this dissertation to postprocess the data collected from the survey. Inferential and descriptive statistics are

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used for quantitative analysis. In particular, hypothesis testing, correlation and linear regression analysis are used as the primary quantitative methods to analyze the data.

The main goal of modeling in this study is to comprehend relationships or interdependencies among the model’s variables leading to a broad understanding of the facets of translator satisfaction. The main goals of modeling these dependencies are (a) description (to find out more about the dependent variable); (b) inference (understanding the explanatory power of each variable for prediction), and (c) prediction (understanding the value of a dependent variable for the values of the explanatory variable) (see

Arminger 1995; Dyer 2006).

4.4.1 Basic Statistical Metrics

Microsoft Excel has been used in this study to compute all the statistical metrics for post-processing. Additionally, toolboxes in Microsoft Excel and export features in the

Qualtrics software have been used for some post-processing.

The four metrics that are commonly used in the statistical analysis of data are mean, standard deviation, median and mode. These metrics were computed from the data collected from the survey. The mean is the average and is a convenient number that is commonly used to express data. Standard deviation is used to compute the scatter or the spread among the all the data points and is an extremely useful measure of variability.

Median represents a number with half the data points above and half the data points below it. Mode is a computed number that represents the most likely outcome based on the analysis of all the data points. The coefficient of variation (COV) is another unitless

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measure of variability and is computed as the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean value.

Histograms were created as part of data post-processing of the survey results and will be discussed in Chapter 5. A histogram is a frequency diagram that is used to break the collected data into intervals and visually represent the number of data points falling in each interval. In this study, histograms were broken into five equi-spaced intervals, ranging from 1 to 5. This allowed a breakdown of the survey responses into clear categories of “Very Satisfied,” “Satisfied,” “Neither Satisfied nor Dissatisfied,”

“Dissatisfied” and “Very Dissatisfied,” which can be seen and easily identified for each variable.

4.4.2 Correlation

The Pearson correlation coefficient was used to study interdependence between the variables of interest. The function Pearson in Microsoft Excel was used for computing the correlation coefficients in order to determine whether the variables are dependent or independent. Correlation analysis is generally used to establish dependence (or independence) between variables. The Pearson correlation coefficient (also called

Pearson’s correlation or Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient) is used to understand whether or not a linear relationship exists between two variables of interest.

Pearson’s correlation coefficient yields a number varying from -1 to +1. If the variables are independent (meaning if one variable does not have a linear relationship with the other), the correlation coefficient is 0. The closer the correlation coefficient is to +1 or -1, the more linearly dependent the two variable of interest are.

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The correlation coefficient (ρx,y) is calculated as follows:

 E xxy y   corr(,) x y  xy,  xy (4.1) There are some other measures of correlation such as Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient that can be used to measure the extent of dependence (or independence) between two variables (Dyer 187-189); however the Pearson correlation coefficient is the most commonly used measure of dependence.

A significant shortcoming of the correlation coefficient is that it cannot generally be used to claim a predictive or causal relationship between variables. The correlation coefficient can only be used to conclude whether (or not) the variables are dependent or independent (Dyer 190). That conclusion alone may not be sufficient for the purposes of this study. Additionally, there are too many variables in this study; therefore using correlation analysis alone may not be feasible. However, correlation analysis may be useful for certain pairs of variables and will be used as and when required during the study of the variables of interest in the subsequent chapter.

4.4.3 Linear Regression

This study uses linear regression analysis to overcome the limitations of correlation analysis. A linear regression analysis is commonly used for modelling and analysing multiple variables in order to forecast or predict a specific outcome of interest.

Linear regression is one of the most widely used statistical techniques in the social sciences because of its versatility and precision (Lunenburg and Irby 2008:80). The linear regression analysis provides not only the relationships between the variables of interest

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but also quantifies the relationships. Linear regression analysis is based on the use of a least-squares method to build the model.

A linear regression analysis yields a model as follows:

y x   x    x   1 1 2 2 kk (4.2)

In the linear regression model, β1, β2, …, βk are the coefficients and x1, x2, …, xk are the variables of interest, ε is the normally distributed error with zero mean and y is the output from the model (Arminger 80).

A toolbox in Microsoft Excel was used to perform linear regression analysis for this study. This toolbox was used to compute the coefficients, standard errors and levels of significance. For this study, different groups of variables (consisting of intrinsic and extrinsic variables) are used as independent variables in order to predict levels of satisfaction, with all independent variables scaled between 1 and 5. The regression coefficient of each variable will indicate the level of influence of the corresponding variable on the satisfaction model. Results from linear regression analysis will be presented in the next chapter.

Linear regression analysis provides the advantage of grouping specific variables in order to predict levels of satisfaction as a function of the variables of interest. This can be repeated multiple times with different variables and there are no limitations on the number of variables that may be included in the model. Since the number of variables in this study is very high, linear regression analysis is seen as extremely suitable for this study.

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4.4.4 Hypothesis Testing

Hypothesis testing is performed with the use of the t-test in order to determine whether the mean results of two sample populations are equal or not. In this study the t- test is used to compare the responses to specific questions from the survey between different groups of participants in order to comprehend whether the groups of populations express statistically identical or different responses. The t-test is expressed as follows:

H :  0 1 2 H :  1 1 2 (4.3)

H0 represents the null hypothesis and H1 is the alternate hypothesis, μ1 and μ2 represent the means of the two populations that are being compared. The null hypothesis

is rejected if tt , /2 , where t is the computed statistic and t, /2 is determined from statistical tables (Dyer 253). A toolbox in Microsoft Excel has been used to perform the t- test in this study. All results from the t-test will be presented and discussed in the next chapter.

4.4.5 Qualitative Methods

Qualitative methods used for data analysis in this study comprised of the analysis of patterns among the answers from survey participants. Only six open-ended questions have been included in the instrument, and these questions have been triangulated with quantitative data to support specific research questions. Since the instrument contains a minimum number of open-ended questions, qualitative analysis has only been used in specific instances.

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In conclusion, this chapter presents the approach used in this study for data collection as well as the methods used for post-processing and analysis of the data.

Sample representativeness, and the online data collection process that was used in this study is discussed in this chapter. The survey was successful in obtaining a diverse group of participants from many parts of the world, with varying expertise, educational background as well as income levels. This will enable the subsequent chapter to test the hypotheses that were formulated in association with the model, and also attach a level of significance to any results. The diversity of the data collected from the survey will also enable this study to establish predictive relationships and interdependence of specific variables in order to provide an empirical framework to the model of translator satisfaction presented in Chapter 3.

CHAPTER 5

Survey Results and Analysis

This chapter investigates the intrinsic and extrinsic aspects that influence three facets of satisfaction among active professionals from the language industry—task, job and professional satisfaction. The intrinsic and extrinsic predictors of satisfaction are integrated in the construct of translator satisfaction, presented in the model in Chapter 4. Data collected from a survey is used to test the concepts of the model. The model is expected to be robust so as to represent the multiple roles at various levels that are generally played by professionals in the rapidly evolving language industry.

The variables listed in the model were assessed in a survey and have been measured either qualitatively or quantitatively using a Likert scale. A 1-5 Likert scale is used consistently to quantify the responses of the survey participants, with 1 representing a very high level of satisfaction and 5 representing a very high level of dissatisfaction.

The 1-5 scale is convenient and has been used by other researchers, and also lends itself easily to a statistical analysis. Each variable has been subsequently post-processed in order to perform a detailed data analysis, and all the results from the analysis and post- processing are presented in this chapter. The data analysis includes the use of descriptive statistics to quantify variables associated with task, job and professional satisfaction.

Hypothesis testing is used to compare specific data sets for a more advanced analysis, and some research questions formulated in Chapter 3 are studied using linear regression analysis. Correlation analysis is used to comprehend the interdependence between certain

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variables of interest. Finally, qualitative analysis is included in the discussion to understand some open-ended answers provided by participants to explain the current issues that may emerge as sources of satisfaction or dissatisfaction.

5.1 Descriptive Statistical Analysis

This section presents the results from post-processing of the survey data. Each facet of satisfaction is presented in a separate subsection, and each variable is quantified statistically using mean, SD, median, mode and COV. The mean is the mathematical center of a distribution (Heiman 170) but may be skewed due to large variations in the data. Alternate measures like the median and the mode complement the calculation of the mean. The median is a better measure of central tendency and is another name for the 50th percentile data point. The mode identifies where most of the data is located in a distribution or the score that is most likely (Heiman 166). SD is the square root of the variance, also defined as “the square root of the average squared deviation of scores around the mean” (Heiman 200) and allows a researcher to interpret how scores deviate from the mean. Lastly, the COV is the ratio of the SD to the mean. In addition to the statistical measures, some of the variables presented in this section are further illustrated by using histograms.

5.1.1 Task Satisfaction

All the results for the concepts (and sub-concepts) pertaining to the facet of task satisfaction are presented in this subsection. These variables have been directly assessed from the responses of the survey participants.

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5.1.1.1 Self-efficacy

For the factor of task description, 50% of the respondents are satisfied with the clarity as well as accuracy of task description (median of 2, mode of 2, see Table 5.1).

However, it may be noted that 50% of respondents are either dissatisfied or neither satisfied nor dissatisfied with task description.

Table 5.1.

Survey Items – Task Satisfaction – Self-efficacy.

Factor Variable Mean SD Median Mode COV I am too slow and I should be working faster 3.52 1.27 4 5 0.36 (24-21) Deadlines do not compromise quality 3.10 1.33 3 4 0.43 (24-12) Knowledge of CAT Task scope tools is essential to meet 2.67 1.48 2 1 0.56 deadlines (24-10) Understanding of task 1.76 0.86 2 1 0.49 scope (23-7) My subject matter expertise helps me meet 1.73 0.84 2 1 0.48 deadlines (24-9) Clarity of task 2 0.99 2 2 0.49 description (22-3) Task description Task description shows accurate nature of work 2.51 0.98 2 2 0.39 (25-15)

Participants indicate a high level of satisfaction with understanding the task scope, and 50% of respondents indicate that they are highly satisfied or satisfied (mode of 1, median of 2) in this regard. In addition, translators generally agree that quality may be compromised due to deadlines, as suggested by the mean of 3.10, the mode of 4 and the

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median of 3 for this variable. Lastly, respondents acknowledge that their subject matter expertise enables them to meet deadlines, indicated by a mean of 1.73 and a mode of 1. In addition, translators express their agreement that CAT tool knowledge is essential for completing tasks (see Table 5.1) under the concept of self-efficacy. The mode of 1 for this variable indicates the most likely response among participants for this variable.

5.1.1.2 Nature of the Task

The most common tasks among survey participants are translation (100%), editing (72%), proofreading (73%), terminology management (58%), desktop publishing

(55%), and software engineering related tasks (57%). It may be noted that many respondents indicated that they may accomplish multiple tasks. Responses to open-ended questions suggest that participants also accomplish such tasks as cultural adaptation, interpreting, subtitling, précis writing, testing, cultural coaching, voiceover, audio review, technical drawing, drafting, professional writing and technical writing. Other tasks include project management-related activities (invoicing, scheduling, resource assignment, etc.).

Respondents are generally satisfied with the types of tasks they are involved in, and with working on tasks in their area of specialization (mode of 1, median of 2), but

50% of participants are dissatisfied or neither satisfied/nor dissatisfied with the quality of the source texts they receive, as shown by a median of 3 and a mean of 2.63 (see Table

5.2). The results of the variable terminological complexity stresses me out are interesting because translators seem to provide a neutral response to this question in the survey (see

Table 5.2).

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Respondents generally agree that there is an opportunity to choose new roles or new tasks, as indicated by the median of 2 and the mean of 2.29 for this variable, and a general agreement is observed in their ability to perform a wide variety of tasks. Also, respondents indicate high levels of satisfaction with working on complex and challenging tasks (see Table 5.2, mean of 1.68, median of 2, mode of 1).

Table 5.2.

Survey Items – Task Satisfaction – Nature of the Task.

Factor Variable Mean SD Median Mode COV Quality of the source text 2.63 1.02 3 2 0.39 (22-4) Tasks Satisfied with types of tasks 1.69 0.74 2 2 0.44 performed involved (22-5) Tasks of your specialization 1.77 0.83 2 1 0.47 (23-4) Terminological complexity 3.05 1.20 3 3 0.39 stresses me out (25-17) Task Terminological complexity 1.92 0.80 2 2 0.42 complexity (23-5) Working on challenging and 1.68 0.74 2 1 0.44 complex tasks (23-2) Variety of Ability to perform variety of 1.68 0.78 1.5 1 0.46 tasks tasks (23-6) Novelty of Opportunity to choose 2.29 1.00 2 3 0.44 the task new tasks (23-3)

5.1.1.3 Job Fit

All the variables used for assessing the concept of job fit are listed in Table 5.3 along with statistical measures of the responses from survey participants for these variables. As can be seen from Table 5.3, COV for all the variables is high, consistently higher than 0.4. A high COV indicates a high variability among the responses of the

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participants, and it may be argued that the perception of job fit varies significantly among translators, regardless of the variables that are used to assess this concept.

Table 5.3.

Survey Items – Task Satisfaction – Job Fit.

Factor Variable Mean SD Median Mode COV Improve project quality 1.78 0.86 2 1 0.48 (24-4) My contribution to Task pride 1.88 0.86 2 1 0.46 team (24-6) Pride in my work 1.30 0.62 1 1 0.48 (25-2) New tasks (23-3) 2.29 1 2 3 0.44 Task variety Multitasking (27-13) 2 1 2 1 0.5 Responsibilities (26-8) 1.85 0.77 2 2 0.41 Occupational Empowerment allowed level 2.08 1.05 2 1 0.5 (22-6) Initiative to learn Initiative 1.77 0.75 1 1 0.48 (25-1) Autonomy given to Task 1.83 0.87 2 1 0.48 autonomy make decisions (23-1)

From the variable pride in my work, for the factor of task pride, it can be concluded that translators take a high amount of pride in their work. The median for this variable is 1, meaning that 50% of respondents indicate a very high level of satisfaction with regards to this variable. Additionally, this variable has a mean of 1.3 and a mode of

1, further supporting the high level of satisfaction of respondents for this variable.

However, for the other variables for the factor of task pride, 50% of the participants are either dissatisfied or neither satisfied/nor dissatisfied.

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The two variables for the factor of task variety, opportunity to choose new tasks and multitasking, reveal that 50% of the participants are either dissatisfied or neither satisfied/nor dissatisfied with mean values of 2.29 and 2 respectively. Furthermore, the variable opportunity to choose new tasks shows a mode of 3, meaning that the most likely response for this variable is neutral. The histograms for these two variables are shown in

Fig. 5.1 and Fig. 5.2.

Question 23-3 Are you generally satisfied with the following?-Opportunity to choose new tasks or role (1 - Very Satisfied, 5 - Dissatisfied)

70 100.00% 60 60 52 80.00% 50 43 60.00% 40

30 40.00%

20 20.00% 8 10 5

0 0.00% 1 2 3 4 5

Frequency Cumulative %

Fig 5.1. Opportunity to choose new tasks or roles (23-3).

A mode of 1 suggests that the response of “highly satisfied” is the most one for the variables of empowerment allowed, having initiative to learn and task autonomy given to make decisions (see Table 5.3).

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Question 27-13 Are you generally satisfied with the following?-Multitasking (1 - Very Satisfied, 5 - Dissatisfied)

60 100.00% 55

50 44 80.00%

40 34 60.00%

40.00% 20

20.00% 10 6 3

0 0.00% 1 2 3 4 5

Frequency Cumulative %

Fig 5.2. Multitasking (27-13).

5.1.1.4 Self-fulfillment

50% of the respondents acknowledge that they feel intrinsically motivated after successful project completion and when they have outstanding offers. A mode of 1 shows that the response of “highly satisfied” is the most common answer among participants

(see Table 5.4) for the factor of growth. Also, 50% of the respondents show a high level of dissatisfaction regarding feedback from translation samples, as observed with a median of 3 and a mean of 2.8 (see also Fig. 5.3).

Additionally, for the factor of feedback, 50% of the respondents are dissatisfied due to a lack of constant feedback (see variable constant feedback in Table 5.4).

Generally, translators are satisfied with performance appraisal, as indicated by a mean of

2.35 and a mode of 1 (Table 5.4).

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Table 5.4.

Survey Items – Task Satisfaction – Self-fulfillment.

Factor Variable Mean SD Median Mode COV

Successful completion 1.48 0.77 1 1 0.52 motivates me (24-18) Growth Outstanding offers 2.22 1.09 2 1 0.49 (24-17) Constant feedback 2.62 1.06 3 3 0.40 (26-9) Feedback Translation samples 2.80 1.15 3 3 0.41 (23-10)

Performance appraisal Task 2.35 1.14 2 1 0.48 appreciation (27-5)

Question 23-10 Are you generally satisfied with the following?-Feedback on translation samples (1 - Very Satisfied, 5 - Dissatisfied)

60 56 100.00%

50 80.00% 40 40 33 60.00%

30 26 40.00% 20 13 20.00% 10

0 0.00% 1 2 3 4 5

Frequency Cumulative %

Fig 5.3. Feedback on translation samples (23-10).

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5.1.2 Job Satisfaction

In the facet of job satisfaction, sources or predictors of satisfaction may have their origins at the individual, team or organizational level. The facet of job satisfaction mainly focuses on the external aspects that investigate the individual-job fit relationship as well as the relationship between the individual and the organization. The individual- organization fit presents a higher level of complexity because it includes the relationship between the individual and the team, mediated by the PM, and the individual interacting with a translation company and/or the end.

5.1.2.1 Individual-Job Fit

For the factor of nature of the job, the results suggest that participants indicate their willingness to work overtime as well as over weekends (mode and median of 1), and they acknowledge that their job is stressful, as revealed by a mean 2.59 and a mode of 2

(see Table 5.5). 50% of respondents indicate high levels of satisfaction with having a flexible schedule and the policies for telecommuting or teleworking, indicated by a mode of 1 and a median of 2. However, a distinction must be made between translators who work full time and part time, as well as between novices and experts.

The results suggest that translators work an average of 41 hours per week and they translate an average of 3,542 words per day. Interestingly, participants are highly satisfied with having a continuous stream of work and a manageable workload per year, as shown by a mode of 1 and a mean of 2.43. 50% of respondents indicate being highly satisfied and satisfied (see Table 5.5, median of 2) with regards to both the variables.

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Table 5.5.

Survey Items – Job Satisfaction – Individual-Job Fit. Factor Variable Mean SD Median Mode COV Job is stressful (25-5) 2.59 1.07 2 2 0.41 Flexible schedule 1.88 1.01 2 1 0.54 (24-14) Nature of the Telecommuting job 2.10 1.03 2 1 0.49 (27-12) Working overtime or 1.68 1.50 1 1 0.90 weekends (29) Hours per week, 41 16 40 40 0.4 hrs/week (6) Words per day, 3542 3288 3000 3000 1 Workload words/day (7) Manageable workload 1.87 0.96 2 1 0.51 per year (24-15) Continuous stream of 2.43 1.28 2 1 0.53 work (23-11) Discounts (27-14) 3.70 1.24 4 5 0.34 Income (13) 3.36 1.31 3 5 0.39 Rate or pay increase 3.17 1.35 3 4 0.43 Reimbursement (27-15) or Monetary incentives 3.14 1.27 3 3 0.40 remuneration (27-6) Fair pay (24-20) 2.72 1.28 2 2 0.47 Remuneration, rates or 2.70 1.26 2 2 0.47 salary (27-8) Task deadlines 2.61 1.14 2 2 0.44 (23-12) Deadlines Deadlines are often 2.34 1.13 2 2 0.48 too tight (25-18) Balance Balance between work work/personal and personal life 2.61 1.20 2 2 0.46 life (27-11)

Job Turnover Turnover (45) 2.59 1.27 2 2 0.49

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It is important to note that linear regression analysis will be used to further understand the differences between groups with regards to the concept of workload.

With regards to remuneration, the scale designed for income must be interpreted in a different manner since the value of 5 was used for “I do not want to answer.” Thus results will be reported in percentages. A mode of 5 equates with a 27% of participants who did not want to mention their income in dollars. 10% of participants indicated that they make USD 75,000 or more, 18% indicated that they make between USD 50,000 and

USD 75,000, 26% of respondents indicated that they earn between USD 30,000 and USD

50,000 and 26% earn between USD 15,000 and USD 30,000 annually.

Additionally, results suggest that translators are satisfied with their rates or salaries and they feel they get paid fairly, as shown in the modes and medians of 2.

However, a low level of satisfaction with the variable rate or pay increase becomes evident by a mean of 3.17 and a mode of 4, with 50% of participants being dissatisfied or neither satisfied/nor dissatisfied with opportunities for pay increases. This may be due to the fact that most translators are asked to reduce their rates.

Additionally, 50% of respondents indicate dissatisfaction with monetary incentives (see Table 5.5, mean and mode of 3); this may be because receiving monetary incentives is not a common phenomenon and is limited exclusively to in-house salaried staff. High levels of dissatisfaction are expressed toward discounts (mode of 5, mean of

3.70) and 50% of participants express dissatisfaction (median of 4). The histogram for this variable is shown in Fig. 5.4.

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Question 27-14 Are you generally satisfied with the following?-Requests for discounts or lower rates (1 - Very Satisfied, 5 - Dissatisfied)

60 100.00% 51 50 80.00%

40 34 32 60.00% 30 40.00% 20 16

9 20.00% 10

0 0.00% 1 2 3 4 5

Frequency Cumulative %

Fig 5.4. Requests for discounts (27-14).

Translators are satisfied with task deadlines (see Fig. 5.5, and also see Table 5.5), as indicated by the mode of 2 and mean of 2.61. However, translators agree that deadlines are often too tight (Table 5.5, mode of 2, median of 2). This can also be seen in the histograms that represents this variable (see Fig. 5.6).

Lastly, translators are generally satisfied with the balance between work and personal life (median of 2, mode of 2), and 50% of respondents express confidence that they are likely to find a new job if they want (see Table 5.5, median of 2, mode of 2 for the variable turnover).

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Question 23-12 Are you generally satisfied with the following?-Task deadlines (1 - Very Satisfied, 5 - Dissatisfied)

80 100.00% 68 70 80.00% 60

50 60.00% 38 40 40.00% 30 24 25 20 13 20.00% 10

0 0.00% 1 2 3 4 5

Frequency Cumulative %

Fig 5.5. Task deadlines (23-12).

Question 25-18 Do you generally agree with the following?-Deadlines are often too tight (1 - Totally Agree, 5 - Disagree)

60 100.00% 55

50 80.00% 39 40 34 60.00% 30 40.00% 20 16

20.00% 10 8

0 0.00% 1 2 3 4 5

Frequency Cumulative %

Fig 5.6. Deadlines are often too tight (25-18).

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5.1.2.2 Individual-Organization Fit

The summary of the variables associated with the fit between the individual and the organization is included in this section. This is followed by a discussion on the relationship between the individual and upper management as well as between the individual and the end client. The individual-organization fit is a superordinate concept that consists of the sub-concepts of Individual-Team Fit and Role of the PM (or Supervisor).

The sub-concept for the role of the PM consists of the factors illustrated in Table

5.6. For the factor of communication and professional skills, translators are satisfied with communication among team members as well as with other team members’ professional and communication skills, as shown by the mode of 1, meaning that translators agree that other member’s language usage is unambiguous, they communicate effectively, they deliver on time, etc. However, a higher level of satisfaction is observed for individual professional skills of team members (see Table 5.6, mean of 1.16, mode of 1).

50% of respondents show a preference for the PM controlling the flow of communication and the PM being in charge of the communication process, as shown by the median of 2 for these variables. However, for both these variables, a mode of 3 indicates that most participants chose a neutral response. Respondents are satisfied with the clarity of task descriptions, as observed in the mean of 2.00 and a mode of 2 (see

Table 5.6).

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Table 5.6.

Survey Items – Job Satisfaction – Role of the PM (or Supervisor). Factor Variable Mean SD Median Mode COV PM influences upper 3.56 1.93 5 5 0.54 management or client (32) PM’s persuasion skills (25-4) 2.68 0.94 3 3 0.35 Controlled communication among team members 2.43 1.02 3 3 0.42 (27-17) Communication workflow PM controls flow (25-12) 2.40 1.06 2 3 0.44 I like when PM is in charge of 2.40 1.06 2 3 0.44 communication (25-12) Clarity of task description 2.00 0.99 2 2 0.49 (22-3) Communication with team 2.01 0.96 2 1 0.48 members (22-11) Matching skills to project 2.26 0.83 2 3 0.37 requirements (23-8) Quality of work from other 2.35 1.03 2 3 0.44 Skill- members (22-12) requirement Preference for PM that matches fit 1.76 0.77 2 1 0.44 skills (25-10) Professional skills of team 1.16 0.37 1 1 0.32 members (26-7) Preference for assigning me 3.67 1.13 4 5 0.31 (25-9) Appreciation PM shows appreciation (27-5) 2.35 1.14 2 1 0.48 My voice heard within the team 2.02 0.93 2 1 0.46 (24-1) Involvement I choose the team (24-3) 2.96 1.35 3 3 0.46 PM support with 2.58 1.05 3 3 0.41 Support troubleshooting (22-2) Reference materials (26-5) 2.55 1.17 2 2 0.46 Close supervision 2.55 0.96 3 3 0.38 (27-4) Supervision Effective supervision 2.30 0.94 2 3 0.41 (27-3)

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Additionally, results suggest that more than 50% of the participants have not seen evidence of PM influencing upper management or the client (mean of 3.56, mode of 5, median of 5), and respondents are generally not satisfied with the PM’s persuasion skills

(median of 3, mode of 3).Interestingly, respondents indicate a neutral response toward their satisfaction with the flow of communication among team members (mode of 3, median of 3).

The factor of skill-requirement fit studies the PM’s efforts to match the skills of team members to project requirements, and translators demonstrate a high level of preference for working with PMs who match individual skills to project requirements

(see Table 5.6, mean of 1.76, mode of 1).

Even though 50% of respondents are satisfied with the PM’s demonstrated ability to match skills to project requirements (mean of 2.26, median of 2), a mode of 3 shows a neutral response being the most preferred answer for this variable. Also, translators are satisfied with the quality of work they receive from other members, as observed in the mean of 2.35 and median of 2 for this variable.

A neutral response is observed with regards to translators being able to choose the team (see Table 5.6, mode of 3, median of 3), which indicates that this is not commonly observed. 50% of respondents indicate they are highly satisfied or satisfied with the reference materials they receive from the PM, and a mode of 2 indicates that most participants are “satisfied.”

Concerning the factor of task appreciation, a mode of 1 for my voice is heard within the team and PM shows appreciation (see Fig. 5.7) reveal that most participants

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are very satisfied with these variables. Thus, translators generally feel appreciated, as the means of 2.35 and 2.02 indicate. However, when asked if project management offers them a lower rate, but reiterates his/her preference to assign the translator to the project,

50% of participants are highly dissatisfied and a mode of 5 for this variable indicates very high level of dissatisfaction (see Table 5.6).

Question 27-5 Are you generally satisfied with the following?-Appreciation or performance appraisal (1 - Very Satisfied, 5 - Dissatisfied)

45 100.00% 41 39 40 40

35 80.00%

30 60.00% 25

20 16 40.00% 15

10 6 20.00% 5

0 0.00% 1 2 3 4 5

Frequency Cumulative %

Fig 5.7. Appreciation or performance appraisal (27-5).

Lastly, results for the factor of supervision reveal a neutral response for close and effective supervision. Nevertheless, 50% of respondents are satisfied with the degree of effective supervision (median of 2, mean of 2.30) and neither satisfied/nor dissatisfied with close supervision (see Table 5.6, median of 3, mean of 2.55). This may be due to the fact that close supervision is not common under the outsourcing model. The histogram in

Fig. 5.8 supports the above discussion.

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Question 27-4 Are you generally satisfied with the following?-Close supervision (1 - Very Satisfied, 5 - Dissatisfied)

80 75 100.00%

70 80.00% 60

50 60.00%

40.00% 30 27 27

20 20.00% 9 10 4

0 0.00% 1 2 3 4 5

Frequency Cumulative %

Fig 5.8. Supervision (27-4).

5.1.2.2.1.2 Interpersonal Relationships

For the factor of interpersonal relationships between the PM and team members,

50% of the respondents are satisfied/highly satisfied with their relationship with the PM

(see variable relationship with PM in Table 5.7).

Also, 50% of the respondents are highly satisfied or satisfied with rapport with team members and dynamic relationships, as observed with a median of 2, but a neutral response has been the most preferred answer, with a mode of 3. A median of 3 shows a neutral response toward flexibility to multitask; this could be because flexibility may not be called for, or because participants may be unable to multitask. 50% of respondents are satisfied or highly satisfied with other team member’s flexibility with schedules (see

Table 5.7, median of 2, mean of 2.37).

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Table 5.7.

Survey Items – Job Satisfaction – Interpersonal Relationships.

Factor Variable Mean SD Median Mode COV Rapport with team 2.28 0.97 2 3 0.43 Team members (26-10) members Dynamic relationships 2.25 1.04 2 3 0.46 (26-1) Relationship with PM PM/Team 1.93 0.93 2 1 0.48 (26-11) Flexibility to multitask 2.49 0.92 3 3 0.37 (27-1) Flexibility Flexibility with 2.37 0.98 2 3 0.41 schedules (26-3)

5.1.2.2.1.3 Overall Satisfaction with Virtual Teamwork

The results of overall experience of virtual teamwork suggest that 50% of the respondents are satisfied with the virtual team work environment (Table 5.8, median of

2), but it may be noted that this variable results in a mode of 3 meaning that many participants may not be working in virtual teams.

Table 5.8.

Survey Items – Job Satisfaction – Virtual Teams.

Factor Variable Mean SD Median Mode COV Teamwork stresses me out 3.17 1.16 3 3 0.37 Overall (24-2) experience Overall experience of 2.32 1.03 2 3 0.45 virtual teamwork (26-2)

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Question 26-2 Are you generally satisfied with the following?-Working in virtual teams (1 - Very Satisfied, 5 - Dissatisfied)

60 100.00% 54

50 44 80.00%

40 38 60.00%

40.00% 20

20.00% 10 7 6

0 0.00% 1 2 3 4 5

Frequency Cumulative %

Fig 5.9. Virtual teams (26-2).

Question 24-2 Do you generally agree with the following?-Team work stresses me out (1 - Totally Agree, 5 - Disagree)

60 100.00% 53

50 80.00%

40 33 33 60.00% 30 25 40.00% 20 12 20.00% 10

0 0.00% 1 2 3 4 5

Frequency Cumulative %

Fig 5.10. Teamwork stress (24-2).

Respondents generally agree that teamwork stresses them out and causes dissatisfaction, as indicated in the mean of 3.17 and a mode of 3 for this variable. Histograms in Fig. 5.9

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and Fig. 5.10 clearly support the above discussion for these two variables with a high number of participants indicating their dissatisfaction with high stress levels due to teamwork (see Fig. 5.10).

5.1.2.2.2 Individual-Upper Management Fit

The results for the sub-concept of individual-upper management fit are listed in

Table 5.9. A strong agreement is observed among translators relative to the assessment the end client does not understand the localization process (see Table 5.9, median of 1, mode of 1). Additionally, the results suggest that translators are highly satisfied with quick resolution of misunderstandings, as can be seen from the variable misunderstandings are solved quickly (see Table 5.9, mode of 1, median of 2, mean of

2.01). 50% of the respondents are satisfied or highly satisfied regarding processes are systematized (median and mode of 2). However, high variability is observed in the data with regards to specific processes to deal with misunderstandings (COV of 0.33 and

0.48), with management policies and procedures (COV of 0.36), with PM showing little interest in changing the process (COV of 0.30), and a high number of respondents indicate a neutral response toward these variables, as shown by the median of 3 and mode of 3 for these variables. However, participants neither agree nor disagree with the fact that the PM has the ability to change the process. Interestingly, participants acknowledge that translation and localization processes are in place, but the level of dissatisfaction increases regarding the lack of specific processes to deal with misunderstandings when working in teams. The results suggest that dissatisfaction emerges in translators due to

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the lack of specific team management procedures or the lack of interest on the part of the

PM in effecting process change.

Table 5.9.

Survey Items – Job Satisfaction – Individual-Upper Management Fit. Factor Variable Mean SD Median Mode COV Specific processes to deal with 2.63 0.87 3 3 0.33 misunderstandings in team (26-4) Management Workflow procedures and 2.61 0.94 3 3 0.36 management policies (27-7) and business processes Processes are systematized 2.51 0.96 2 2 0.38 (24-7) Misunderstandings are solved quickly 2.01 0.95 2 1 0.48 (24-5) Client does not Localization understand localization 1.50 0.73 1 1 0.49 maturity levels process (25-13)

PM shows little interest in changing 2.80 0.85 3 3 0.30 the process (25-7) PM has the ability to Role of the change the process 2.80 0.91 3 3 0.32 PM or (25-8) supervisor LSPs that I work with solve any misunderstanding 2.22 0.93 2 2 0.42 smoothly (24-16) Payment terms 2.77 1.35 3 2 0.49 (27-10) Payments Payment practices 2.65 1.28 2 2 0.48 (27-9)

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Since a high variability is observed in many of these variables, linear regression and correlation analysis will be used to further investigate interdependence between some of these variables.

Lastly, the factor of payments is specifically studied within administrative procedures. Results suggest that translators are generally satisfied with payment practices and payment terms (mode of 2 in Table 5.9). However, participants are more satisfied with payment practices (mean of 2.67) than payment terms (mean of 2.77, median of 3).

This may be due to the fact that payment terms sometimes clearly establish when a professional can expect his or her remuneration, which can be delayed up to three months. The histograms in Fig. 5.11 and Fig. 5.12 support the above discussion.

However, further analysis is required to understand the characteristics of the population that is more satisfied or more dissatisfied (see Regression Analysis).

Question 27-9 Are you generally satisfied with the following?-Pay practices (1 - Very Satisfied, 5 - Dissatisfied)

50 47 100.00% 45 40 80.00% 34 35 30 30 60.00% 25 19 20 40.00%

15 12 10 20.00% 5 0 0.00% 1 2 3 4 5

Frequency Cumulative %

Fig 5.11. Payment practices (27-9).

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Question 27-10 Are you generally satisfied with the following?-Payment terms (1 - Very Satisfied, 5 - Dissatisfied)

40 100.00% 37 36 35 32 80.00% 30

25 60.00% 21 20 16 40.00% 15

10 20.00% 5

0 0.00% 1 2 3 4 5

Frequency Cumulative %

Fig 5.12. Payment terms (27-10).

5.1.2.2.3 Individual-Client Relationship

The sub-concept of individual-client relationships attempts to understand the relationship between a translator and the translation company or the end client. The results for the factors of communication and relationship and client involvement are listed in Table 5.10. For the factor of communication and relationships, the results suggest that translators maintain continuous and respectful relationships with clients, as shown in the mode of 1 and the median of 1 (see Table 5.10). 50% of the respondents are satisfied or highly satisfied with their relationship with the end client (mode of 1, mean of 2.26, median of 2), as well as with LSPs for helping them in solving misunderstandings with the end client smoothly (mean of 2.22, median of 2, mode of 2). Also, translators are satisfied with receiving answers to their questions and with client review (median of 2, mode of 2).

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Table 5.10.

Survey Items – Job Satisfaction – Individual-Client Relationship. Factor Variable Mean SD Median Mode COV Direct relationship 2.26 1.20 2 1 0.53 with clients (22-8) Communication and Continuous and relationships respectful 1.67 0.90 1 1 0.54 relationship (24-13) Client review (22-7) 2.50 1.11 2 2 0.44 Clients expect too Client 2.92 1.08 3 3 0.37 much (24-22) involvement Receiving answers to 2.24 1.12 2 2 0.50 my questions (26-6)

A neutral response is observed for the variable the client expects too much; this variable will be discussed in more detail through linear regression for the factor of end client.

5.1.3 Professional Satisfaction

5.1.3.1 Professional Profile

The variables from the facet of professional satisfaction related to the expertise effect have been quantified using a 1-5 scale for post-processing purposes. In this section, such variables as formal education, professional experience, technical expertise, and specialization are further discussed as key components of the translator professional profile. The variable professional experience consists of years of experience in the language industry and has also been indirectly measured with years of long-term business relationships in working directly with clients or LSPs, or years of attachment to the same employer. This variable is used to classify experts, novices and experienced translators, and the concept of professional profile comprises the factor of Technical Expertise.

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Since self-reporting may not be an objective measurement, a 1-5 scale is selected to quantify responses with regards to the familiarity and usage of certain files that add complexity and require higher technical expertise in tasks. In this case, a rank of 1 implies high technical expertise, and individual responses captured under this group indicate a thorough familiarity, and high frequency of receivables, with HPR and HPJ,

MIF, TOC, DITA, XLIFF, DWG, DXF files. 2 indicates familiarity with PSD, XML,

TIFF, INX; 3 indicates the most common CAT-tool file formats such as TMX, CSV,

TBX and 4 is assigned to those individuals who usually receive source files in MS Office, such as DOC, XLS and PPT, with XLS being the most uncommon receivable. Lastly, a 5 is assigned to professionals who responded to the survey with “no idea” or a lack of familiarity with the source files and CAT tool files.

In addition, technical familiarity and frequency of usage are triangulated with technical expertise. A technical expert is assigned a 1, meaning the individual has a

Master’s Degree from a university whose curriculum includes more than 20 credits on

CAT tool coursework, and/or terminology coursework and/or localization coursework. In this category, any other IT degree is also included. 2 is assigned to Bachelor’s degree in

Translation Studies with a tool component and/or localization certifications; 3 is assigned to SDL Trados and other certifications, while 4 is assigned to professionals with general literacy of computer concepts and basic MS Office programs. A 5 is assigned to individuals without formal education on computer concepts or participants who indicated that they have “no idea” in most of their responses in this part of the survey.

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Results suggest that Microsoft Word and Microsoft Excel are the most commonly received files among translators, followed by MS PPT files (see Table 5.11, mode of 1).

50% of respondents reveal that they never receive the following files: MIF, HPR or HPJ,

PSD, DWG, INX, and DXF. Surprisingly, respondents indicate that they have “no idea” about such files as TOC (Table of Contents) and DXF (Autocad). Specifically CSV is a very common conversion file format, and a mean of 3.45 and mode of 5 reveal the lack of familiarity with this file format (also see Fig. 5.13). This may be associated with the respondents’ acknowledgement for the need to update their skills (see Table 5.11).

With regards to CAT tool-related extensions, results suggest that participants are very familiar with Word and Excel (see Table 5.11 mode of 1), and 50% are very familiar/familiar with translation memory files (TMX), as revealed by a median of 2 (see also Fig. 3.14). 50% of respondents acknowledge that they have “no idea” about XLIFF,

TBX and DITA files (see histograms in figs. 5.15 and 5.16).

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Table 5.11. Survey Items – Professional Satisfaction – Technical Expertise.

Factor Variable Mean SD Median Mode COV Level of training or formal 3.15 1.27 3 3 0.40 education (10, 19) DITA 4.38 1.12 5 5 0.26 TBX 3.81 1.53 5 5 0.40 Familiarity CSV 3.45 1.56 4 5 0.45 XLIFF 3.37 1.62 4 5 0.48 TMX 2.75 1.69 2 1 0.61 HPR or HPJ 4.47 1.01 5 5 0.23 TOC 4.37 1.17 5 5 0.27 DXF 4.54 0.97 5 5 0.21 PSD 3.92 1.49 5 5 0.38 MIF 4.36 1.15 5 5 0.26 Receivables DWG 4.34 1.18 5 5 0.27 Familiarity INX 3.89 1.52 5 5 0.39 TIFF 2.91 1.62 2 5 0.56 Technical XML 2.70 1.56 2 1 0.58 expertise PPT 1.69 1.33 1 1 0.79 XLS 1.66 1.27 1 1 0.76 DOC 1.18 0.72 1 1 0.61 PSD 4.53 1.00 5 5 0.22 MIF 4.70 0.83 5 5 0.18 DWG 4.74 0.79 5 5 0.17 HPR or HPJ 4.77 0.69 5 5 0.14 INX 4.36 1.21 5 5 0.28 Receivables TIFF 4.18 1.21 5 5 0.29 Frequency DXF 4.80 0.69 5 5 0.14 TOC 4.65 0.94 5 5 0.20 XML 3.54 1.52 4 5 0.43 PPT 2.85 1.36 3 3 0.48 XLS 2.55 1.39 2 1 0.54 DOC 1.27 0.87 1 1 0.69 My own terminology 1.97 0.99 2 1 0.50 management skills (22-9) Planning on earning more certifications 3.18 2.00 5 5 0.63 (43) Need to update my skills (25-3) 2.09 0.94 2 2 0.45

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Question 20-1 How familiar are you with the following CAT tool file format?-CSV (1 - Very Familiar, 5 - Unfamiliar)

80 100.00% 74

70 80.00% 60

50 60.00%

40 33 40.00% 30 26 26 23 20 20.00% 10

0 0.00% 1 2 3 4 5

Frequency Cumulative %

Fig 5.13. Familiarity with CSV (20-1).

Question 20-2 How familiar are you with the following CAT tool file format?- TMX (1-Very Familiar, 5 - No Idea) 70 65 100.00%

60 53 80.00% 50 39 40 60.00%

30 40.00% 18 20 20.00% 10 7

0 0.00% 1 2 3 4 5

Frequency Cumulative %

Fig 5.14. Familiarity with TMX (20-2).

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Question 20-3 How familiar are you with the following CAT tool file format?- TBX (1- Very Familiar, 5-No idea) 120 100.00% 101 100 80.00%

80 60.00% 60 40.00% 40 25 23 18 20.00% 20 15

0 0.00% 1 2 3 4 5

Frequency Cumulative %

Fig 5.15. Familiarity with TBX (20-3).

In particular, with regards to TBX it is important to note that TBX is a termbase exchange file, generally associated with terminology management processes. Even though translators are satisfied with their terminology management skills (see Table 5.11, mean of 1.97, mode of 1, and also Fig. 5.17), their lack of familiarity with TBX reveals a contradiction in self-reporting (see Fig. 5.15).

Lastly, 50% of respondents are satisfied or highly satisfied with their own terminology management skills, as indicated by a median of 2 and a mode of 1. This can also be observed from Fig. 5.17 with most of the survey participants answering 1 or 2.

Also, a high COV of 0.5 indicates that there is a big difference among respondents with regards to terminology management skills.

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Question 20-5 How familiar are you with the following CAT tool file format?-DITA (1 - Very Familiar, 5 - Unfamiliar)

140 100.00% 127 120 80.00% 100

60.00% 80

60 40.00%

40 24 20.00% 15 20 10 6 0 0.00% 1 2 3 4 5

Frequency Cumulative %

Fig 5.16. Familiarity with DITA (20-5).

Question 22-9 Are you generally satisfied with the following?-Your own terminology management skills (1 - Very Satisfied, 5 - Dissatisfied)

70 66 65 100.00%

60 80.00% 50

60.00% 40

30 25 40.00%

20 15 20.00% 10 2 0 0.00% 1 2 3 4 5

Frequency Cumulative %

Fig 5.17. Terminology management skills (22-9).

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5.1.3.1.2 Formal Education

With regards to formal education, the variable formal education is quantified in a

1-5 range with 1 assigned to participants holding a PhD degree in Translation Studies and

2 assigned to a Master’s Degree or Bachelor’s Degree in Translation Studies.

Respondents with a non-translation related PhD are assigned a 3, and ‘4’ is reserved for a non-translation Bachelor’s Degree or Master’s Degree. A 5 is used for professional degrees and any other form of formal education or diploma. Certifications are not included in this category, since they have been considered to be part of the curriculum for technical expertise.

Broadly speaking, translators are highly qualified individuals as evidenced in their level and variety of formal education and active involvement in the profession. A median of 2 in the results suggests that 50% of translators have pursued a Master’s or a

Bachelor’s Degree and a mode of 2 reveals that these degrees seem to be the most common in the profession (see Table 5.12). A high COV of 0.49 indicates that there is a significant difference in educational qualifications among translators.

Table 5.12.

Survey Items – Professional Satisfaction – Formal Education.

Factor Variable Mean SD Median Mode COV Formal Formal education (8, 9) 2.62 1.28 2 2 0.49 education

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5.1.3.1.3 Professional Experience

Even though years of experience of the respondents range from 2 to 30 years, results suggest that 50% of participants have 6 years of professional experience (see

Table 5.13, median of 6). Additionally, a very high COV of 0.78 suggests a significant difference in the experience level among respondents.

Table 5.13.

Survey Items – Professional Satisfaction – Professional Experience.

Factor Variable Mean SD Median Mode COV

Professional 5.8 Years of experience (16) 7.49 6 5 0.78 experience 6

5.1.3.1.4 Specialization

Survey participants were also asked about their fields of specialization. In order to quantify this category, a rank of 1 is assigned to participants who specialize in more than one field; a 3 is assigned to translators who specialize in one field and 5 is reserved for translators who do not have an area of specialization. Generally, results suggest that 1 is the most preferred answer among respondents, with a mode of 1 and a median of 1 further indicating that 50% of respondents have more than one area of specialization.

Participants’ answers with regards to their subject matter expertise have also been quantified using a 1-5 scale. Asking participants directly if they felt they are subject matter experts was not considered to be an objective measurement of subject matter expertise. Thus a new scale was created that accounts for degrees and certifications.

Participants are assigned a number based on the degree and the type of degree(s) they

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possess in order to assess their subject matter expertise. For instance, a value of 1 was assigned to participants with a PhD in a certain area, including translation studies, but two Master’s degrees do not equate with a PhD Degree. A value of 2 was assigned to participants who hold a Master’s degree in a certain area and/or more than one Bachelor’s degree. A value of 3 was assigned to participants with a Bachelor’s degree and/or other

Professional school Degree (JD, IT, etc.); a value of 4 was assigned to professionals with other certifications or diplomas, and a value of 5 was reserved for professionals without any higher education. 50% of participants have a Bachelor’s degree or lower (median of

3, Table 5.14). In addition, translators were asked to choose their domain of specialization(s). It may be noted that 50% of the participants strongly agree that their subject matter expertise is beneficial to their careers, as evidenced by a mode of 1 and a median of 1 (see Table 5.14).

Table 5.14.

Survey Items – Professional Satisfaction – Specialization.

Factor Variable Mean SD Median Mode COV Number of areas of 1.22 0.63 1 1 0.51 specialization Areas of expertise 3.15 1.27 3 3 0.40 Specialization My subject matter expertise has been 1.65 0.84 1 1 0.51 beneficial to my career (24-11)

5.1.3.1.5 Professional and Communication Skills

The summary of the variables associated with professional and communication skills is listed in Table 5.15. The results suggest that translators are satisfied with the

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general professional skills of other team members, as shown by the mean of 1.16 and median of 1 of this variable. In addition, professionals are satisfied with such variables as face-to-face communication, individual persuasion skills as well as general communication with professionals from other cultures. Generally, participants don’t seem to mind interacting with people with an accent. However, 50% of the respondents are either dissatisfied or neither satisfied/nor dissatisfied with the variable flow of communication (see Table 5.15, mean of 2.43, median of 3).

Table 5.15.

Survey Items – Professional Satisfaction – Professional and Communication Skills.

Factor Variable Mean SD Median Mode COV Flow of Flow of communication 2.43 1.02 3 3 0.42 communication (27-17) My persuasion skills (25-16) 2.38 0.95 2 2 0.40 Social skills Comfortable with face-to- 1.16 0.37 1 1 0.32 face communication (31) Communication with people 2.19 0.99 2 2 0.45 Cultural from other cultures (27-16) intelligence Communication with people 1.17 0.81 1 1 0.69 with an accent (28) Professional skills of team 2.04 0.87 2 2 0.43 New members (26-7) professional I am flexible to adjust to 1.89 0.90 2 2 0.47 skills continuous change (25-6) Report progress (30) 2.75 1.99 1 1 0.72 My understanding of Understanding maturity levels, end client 2.50 1.07 3 3 0.43 of the end client (25-11)

This may be attributed to the lack of established communication processes on the organizational or client side. This issue will be further investigated in the linear

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regression analysis in order to understand the relationships between variables in more detail.

The results also suggest that 50% of respondents indicate that they are dissatisfied or neither satisfied/nor dissatisfied with the localization maturity levels or business capabilities of the end client (mean of 2.50, median of 3, mode of 3).

Participants show a high level of flexibility toward adjustment to continuous changes (see Table 5.15, mean of 1.89, mode of 2). Additionally, participants acknowledge that they report progress regularly (median of 1, mode of 1), and 50% of participants indicate that they are satisfied or highly satisfied with respect to adjusting to continuous changes, as shown by a mean of 1.89 and a mode of 2 for this variable (see

Table 5.15).

5.1.3.1.6 (Perceived) Job Security

Results suggest that 50% of translators are satisfied or highly satisfied with job security. They feel they possess a wide variety of skills, which helps them in successful task completion, as indicated in the median of 2 and mean of 2.21 (Table 5.16).

Table 5.16.

Survey Items – Professional Satisfaction – Job Security.

Variable Mean SD Median Mode COV Wide variety of skills, 2.21 1.14 2 2 0.52 thus higher job security (47-6)

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5.1.3.1.7 Occupational Flexibility

Participant responses suggest that 50% of translators are satisfied or highly satisfied with the fact that they can accept or reject projects as they wish (median of 2, mode of 1 in Table 5.17). A lower degree of agreement is observed with the variable I can afford to choose with whom I work, as observed in the mean of 2.28 and the mode of

2. Conversely, translators cannot afford to work only for LSPs who have proven to be well-managed (see Table 5.17, median of 3, mode of 3).

Table 5.17.

Survey Items – Professional Satisfaction – Occupational Flexibility.

Factor Variable Mean SD Median Mode COV I can afford to accept projects from well- 2.68 0.97 3 3 0.36 planned LSPs (25-14) Occupational I can afford to accept to flexibility choose with whom I work 2.28 1.22 2 2 0.54 (24-8) Flexibility to accept and 1.96 1.11 2 1 0.57 reject projects (36-6)

5.1.3.1.8 Marketing

Results suggest that translators make use of networking as a marketing tool, and they acknowledge the use of social networking platforms to keep close contact with other translators, as evidenced by a mean of 1.48, median of 1 and mode of 1 (Table 5.18).

Additionally, 50% of the respondents are satisfied or highly satisfied with their experience of talking to experts from the language industry (see Table 5.18, median of 2, mode of 2).

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Table 5.18.

Survey Items – Professional Satisfaction – Marketing.

Factor Variable Mean SD Median Mode COV Talking to experts (36-1) 2.24 1.01 2 2 0.45 Networking Close contact (37) 1.48 0.50 1 1 0.34

5.1.3.2 Translator’s Self-concept

Results suggest a general agreement among participants about feeling professionally unappreciated (median and mode of 1, mean of 1.79 in Table 5.19). Most respondents agree that they strongly identify with their profession (mode of 1, median and mode of 2), with 50% of the participants being satisfied with their role in the industry and with their roles meeting professional expectations.

Table 5.19.

Survey Items – Professional Satisfaction – Professional Self-concept.

Factor Variable Mean SD Median Mode COV I identify strongly (47-9) 1.82 0.91 2 1 0.50 Professional I feel professionally identity 1.79 1.11 1 1 0.62 unappreciated (47-3) My role meets my 2.25 1.11 2 2 0.49 expectations (47-4) Role My role in the industry, 2.09 0.90 2 2 0.43 overall (48) Social Social recognition of my 3.13 1.35 3 3 0.43 recognition profession (36-11)

A mean of 3.13 (see Table 5.19) indicates dissatisfaction with the social recognition of the profession (see also Fig. 5.18). However, high variability is observed in the factors of role and social recognition (COV of 0.43), thus further statistical analysis in the

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subsequent sections will be used. It is important to acknowledge that translation professionals receive a higher recognition in certain countries than others.

Question 36-11 Are you generally satisfied with the following?-Social recognition of my profession (1 - Very Satisfied, 5 - Dissatisfied)

40 100.00% 34 35 31 31 80.00% 30 26 25 60.00% 19 20

15 40.00%

10 20.00% 5

0 0.00% 1 2 3 4 5

Frequency Cumulative %

Fig 5.18. Social recognition (36-11).

5.1.3.3 Career development

Generally speaking, respondents in the survey indicate a neutral response toward training provided in the workplace. This may be due to the fact that translators actually receive training when they join a new job or a new position.

Concerning professional commitment, results suggest that participants are passionate about their career development (see Table 5.20, median of 2, mode of 2). They not only attend conferences but also attend training sessions or workshops, as evidenced by a median of 1 and a mode of 1 (see Table 5.20). 50% of the participants are satisfied or highly satisfied with existing opportunities for career development as well as the

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flexibility in their own schedules to participate in these opportunities (mode of 2, median of 2).

Table 5.20.

Survey Items – Professional Satisfaction – Career Development. Factor Variable Mean SD Median Mode COV Received in new position or Training 2.67 1.02 3 3 0.38 tasks (23-9) Planning on earning more 3.18 2.00 5 5 0.63 certifications (43) Should not be responsible for my career development 4.35 0.99 5 5 0.23 (47-5) Opportunities for career 2.46 1.06 2 2 0.43 development (36-4) Need to update my skills 2.09 0.94 2 2 0.45 (25-3) Professional Passion about my career 2.19 1.03 2 2 0.47 commitment development (47-7) Schedule allows for career 2.22 1.07 2 2 0.48 development (47-1) Investing in career development is profitable 1.85 0.96 2 1 0.52 (47-2) Attending conferences (39) 2.42 1.92 1 1 0.79

Attending workshops (38) 2.90 2.00 1 1 0.69 Presenting at conferences 4.01 1.73 5 5 0.43 (40) Presenting workshops or 3.93 1.77 5 5 0.45 Involvement training sessions (41) in the profession Memberships (36-8) 2.54 1.02 3 3 0.40 Value in maintaining the 3.17 1.18 3 3 0.37 ATA membership (47-8)

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By contrast, high levels of disagreement are observed in the variable I should not be responsible for my career development, with a mean of 4.35 and median of 5 (see

Table 5.20). Nevertheless, it may be noted that this question involves a double negative, thus it may have been ambiguous. More than 50% of the respondents are not planning on earning more certifications, as indicated by a median of 5, and 50% express the need to update their skills (see Table 5.20, median of 2, mode of 2). The factor of involvement in the profession is measured with the variables presenting at conferences and presenting workshops or training sessions. The results suggest that translators are not presenting at conferences, and their low level of participation in workshops and training sessions becomes apparent with a median of 5 and a mode of 5 (see Table 5.20). Lastly, 50% of participants indicate a neutral or negative response toward memberships and toward the value of maintaining the ATA membership, as shown in the median of 5 and mode of 5.

However, the variable value in maintaining the ATA membership is found to be biased, since it mostly captured responses from translators involved in US professional associations, but the intention of the question was to gather a general response from worldwide participants. Generally, translators acknowledge that investing in career development is profitable (mean of 1.85, mode of 1).

5.1.3.4 Professional Reputation

The variables that assess the concept of professional reputation are summarized in

Table 5.21. Translators are highly satisfied when they receive a project from a long-term client, as shown in the mean of 1.68, median and mode of 1 (see Table 5.21). 50% of the respondents acknowledge being satisfied/highly satisfied with the fact that having an

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outstanding offer represents an intrinsic motivator (see Table 5.21, median of 1 and mode of 1). For the factor of professional prestige, translators show a neutral response toward being involved in prestigious projects and toward the clients’ reputation, as evidenced in a mode of 3. However, 50% of the respondents indicate being highly satisfied/satisfied with being involved in projects from companies in the Fortune 500 list.

Table 5.21.

Survey Items – Professional Satisfaction – Professional Reputation.

Factor Variable Mean SD Median Mode COV Having outstanding offers 2.22 1.09 2 1 0.49 Professional motivates me (24-17) pride Receiving a project from a 1.68 0.82 1 1 0.49 long-term client (27-2) Client’s reputation (36-2) 2.83 0.81 3 3 0.29 Professional Involvement in prestigious prestige 2.22 0.90 2 3 0.41 projects (36-5) Revenue from my positive 2.35 0.88 2 3 0.37 Professional public image (36-3) recognition People know me 2.11 0.90 2 2 0.43 professionally (36-10)

Translators are satisfied with being known professionally (see Table 5.21, mean of 2.11, mode of 1, median of 2). Interestingly, 50% of respondents generate revenue from their public image, as shown in a media of 2, but a mode of 3 means that they are neither satisfied nor dissatisfied with this type of revenue, thus suggesting that some respondents may not have reached a high professional status, where revenue can be generated from being a well-known professional in the language industry.

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5.1.3.5 Mentoring

Results suggest that 50% of respondents indicate a neutral response of “maybe” toward mentoring being a motivational tool, as indicated with a median of 3 and a mean of 2.94 (Table 5.22). However, the most likely response is “yes,” as indicated by a mode of 1. In addition, 50% of respondents agree that mentoring is helpful for their careers (see

Table 5.22, median of 2), but a neutral response is the preferred answer (see Table 5.22, mode of 3). 50% of the participants indicate that they are neither satisfied/nor dissatisfied with mentoring and being mentored, thus suggesting that few translators may have been mentors or mentees (median of 3, mode of 3).

Table 5.22.

Survey Items – Professional Satisfaction – Mentoring.

Variable Mean SD Median Mode COV I mentor translators (36-7) 2.45 0.91 3 3 0.37 Mentee (36-9) 2.61 0.91 3 3 0.35 Mentoring was helpful for my career 2.18 1.01 2 3 0.46 (24-19) Mentoring as a motivational tool (42) 2.94 1.96 3 1 0.66

5.1.3.6 Career turnover

Results suggest that 50% of the respondents agree that it is very likely/likely that they will find a new job if they leave the current one (see Table 5.23, median of 2, mode of 2). 82% of the participants reveal that they do not want to leave the profession in the near future, with 12% answering as “maybe” and 6% of the respondents being confident that translation is not a viable career.

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Table 5.23.

Survey Items – Professional Satisfaction – Career Turnover.

Variable Mean SD Median Mode COV Leaving the profession (44) 1.50 1.13 1 1 0.75 Probability of finding a new job (45) 2.59 1.27 2 2 0.49

5.2 Hypotheses Testing

Statistical hypotheses are statements about the population that “sample data represent if the predicted relationship does or does not exist in nature.” (Heiman 340) The t-test was selected to compare the behavior between two sample populations such as experts and novices, full-timers and part-timers. For the sake of simplicity and better representativeness, data from experienced translators has not been included. The main objective of the test is to determine whether the sample populations are statistically identical or different with regards to the variables of interest. In this design, the formulation of the null hypothesis and the alternate hypothesis is as follows:

H0: μ1 = μ2 H1: μ1 ≠ μ2

A confidence level is associated with the result from the hypothesis testing. H0 is rejected when the computed value of ‘t’ exceeds tv,α/2, otherwise H0 is accepted. It may be noted that Microsoft Excel always reports results for H0. When H0 is proven to be correct, the p value can be interpreted as the confidence level directly. However, if H0 is not correct, it still reports the p value for the null hypothesis, in such cases the confidence level is actually 1-p corresponding to H1.

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Subsequently, the results from regression and correlation analysis are included in this chapter. For each facet of satisfaction, the factor expressed in the model is indicated along with the results from its corresponding variables.

5.2.1 Hypothesis Testing – Task Satisfaction

5.2.1.1 Self-efficacy

For the concept of self-efficacy, the following hypotheses were tested:

1. Experts show a higher level of understanding of task scope than novices.

2. Experts and freelancers believe that their subject matter expertise helps them

to work faster and meet deadlines.

3. Novices and freelancers agree that deadlines compromise quality to a greater

extent than experts.

4. Freelancers express the need to work faster than in-house translators.

5. Freelancers exhibit higher levels of satisfaction with the contribution made by

their subject matter expertise to the ability to meet deadlines than in-house

translators.

6. Novices feel that they lack skills, and that they need to work faster than

experts.

7. Novices rely on task descriptions more than experts.

8. Experts and novices express similar levels of agreement about the accuracy of

task description.

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9. Novices show a higher level of dissatisfaction with clarity of the task

description as compared to experts.

10. In-house translators are more satisfied with the clarity of task descriptions

than freelancers.

With regards to the factor of task scope, a clear difference is observed between experts and novices. From hypothesis testing, it can be concluded that experts as well as freelancers acknowledge the need to work faster (24-21). This is different from the response of the novices and in-house translators. This conclusion can be drawn using the t-test with a confidence level of 76% and 99.99% respectively (see Table 5.24). Thus the results support the claim that a higher level of metacognitive knowledge and self-efficacy enhances experts’ understanding of task scope and of the industry requirements as well.

Table 5.24. t-test In-house/Freelancers – I am too slow and I should be working faster.

Experts’ higher level of task awareness and task familiarity provides them the opportunity to reshape and adjust the translation and localization processes to meet deadlines and understand quality requirements. In this regard, experts agree that deadlines don’t compromise quality, which is in contrast to the feeling of novices. This

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conclusion can be seen from the results of the t-test in Table 5.25 with a confidence level of 92%.

Table 5.25. t-test Expert/Novice – Deadlines do not compromise quality.

A higher level of subject matter expertise is generally equated with a higher level of self-efficacy and task familiarity, main characteristics that differentiate experts from novices. Experts and novices exhibit a significantly different opinion on the question of subject matter expertise, with the experts stating that meeting deadlines becomes possible as a result of their expertise. This can be seen from the results of hypothesis testing in

Table 5.26 with a confidence level of 97% (p=0.03).

Table 5.26. t-test Expert/Novice – My subject matter expertise helps me meet deadlines.

Furthermore, freelancers and in-house translators are equally skeptical about the influence of deadlines on quality (Table 5.27). This can be stated with a confidence of

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85% (p=0.15). Also, freelancers feel more strongly that their subject matter expertise helps them to meet deadlines (Table 5.28). However, this statement can be made with a confidence level of 64 % only (p=0.36).

Table 5.27. t-test In-house/Freelancers – Deadlines do not compromise quality.

Table 5.28. t-test In-house/Freelancers – My subject matter expertise helps me meet deadlines.

For the factor of task scope, no statistically significant difference is exhibited in the responses of experts compared to novices with regards to understanding of task scope and knowledge of CAT tools is essential to meet deadlines. Thus, the results show a general agreement on the need for subject matter expertise, and understanding of task scope before undertaking projects as well as CAT tool familiarity.

For the factor of task description, the results show that novices rely more on task descriptions than experts. This can be asserted from the results of hypothesis testing with

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a confidence level of 97% (p=0.03). In-house employees are much more satisfied with clarity of task descriptions (see Table 5.29), with a confidence of 99.99 %. However, no significant difference is observed between experts and novices with regards to task description shows accurate nature of work (25-15).

Table 5.29. t-test In-house/Freelancers – Clarity of task description.

5.2.1.2 Nature of the task

The following hypotheses were tested for the concept of nature of the task:

1. In-house translators and novices are more stressed out with terminological

complexity than freelancers and experts.

2. Experts have more opportunities to perform tasks of their specialization than

novices.

3. Experts and freelancers have more opportunities to choose new tasks than

novices and in-house translators.

4. Experts and freelancers are satisfied with their ability to perform a wide

variety of tasks.

Terminological complexity represents one of the main challenges in the translation process. A significant difference is observed between experts and novices

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toward the perceived level of stress. Low task familiarity in this case is expected to generate a higher level of stress in novices. As Table 5.30 shows, novices sense a higher level of stress due to terminological complexity. This is evidenced with a 99.99%

(p=0.001) confidence level for this variable.

Table 5.30. t-test Expert/Novice – Terminological complexity stresses me out.

A similar response is recorded for the general feeling of satisfaction with terminological complexity. However, in-house translators are more stressed with terminological complexity than freelancers. This statement can be made with a confidence level of 72%

(see Table 5.31).

Table 5.31.

t-test In-house/Freelancer – Terminological complexity stresses me out.

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With regards to the type of tasks translators may perform, experts’ answers capture a higher level of satisfaction with accomplishing tasks related to their area of specialization than novices (23-4). However, this can be concluded with a low confidence level of 57% only (p=0.43, see Table 5.32) supports the argument presented in the model that novices may not have the ability or opportunity to undertake specialized tasks. In addition, experts exhibit an ability to perform a wide variety of tasks that is not demonstrated by novices (23-6); this can be stated with a confidence of 89% from the t- test. Nevertheless, offering both novices and experts the opportunity to undertake a wide variety of tasks and tasks related to their area of specialization can be used as enhancers of task commitment. Contrary to what is argued in the literature, no significant difference is observed between experts and novices with regards to task description shows accurate nature of the work (25-15) and the opportunity to choose new tasks or new roles (23-3).

Table 5.32. t-test Expert/Novice – Tasks of your specialization.

5.2.1.3 Job Fit

The following hypotheses were tested for the concept of job fit:

1. Experts are satisfied with the level of autonomy.

2. Experts have more empowerment and responsibilities in a project than novices.

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3. Freelancers are more satisfied with the level of autonomy than in-house

translators.

For the factor of task autonomy, experts indicate a significantly higher level of empowerment and participation in projects and tasks as compared to novices. This can be stated with a confidence level of 99.99% (p=0.001), as can be seen below in Table 5.33.

Furthermore, experts state that they have a higher level of task autonomy (23-1), as supported by relevant literature, since autonomy may equate with years of experience, subject matter expertise, specialization and years of long-term business relationships with the end client or LSPs.

Table 5.33. t-test Expert/Novice – Empowerment allowed in tasks.

5.2.1.4 Self-fulfillment

For the concept of self-fulfillment, the following hypotheses were tested:

1. Experts are intrinsically motivated by having outstanding offers.

2. Experts are more satisfied with the feedback they receive on translation samples.

3. Freelancers are more satisfied with regards to translation samples.

4. Experts are more satisfied with performance appraisal than novices.

5. In-house translators are satisfied with receiving performance appraisal.

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The results suggest that a significant difference is observed between experts and novices. Novices express that they are more motivated if they have outstanding offers

(see Table 5.34).

Table 5.34. t-test Expert/Novice – Having outstanding offers motivates me.

This data does not support the existing literature, since it is debatable whether novices may be provided the opportunity to have outstanding offers. However, if they have the offers, the conclusion from the t-test can be made with a confidence level of 78%

(p=0.22) only and may need further investigation.

With regards to the factor of feedback, experts are generally more satisfied with feedback received from the end client (26-9), with 77% confidence level from the t-test.

Similar results are recorded on the question about translation samples (23-10). Thus, whenever feedback is provided, feedback equates with higher levels of satisfaction; these results are consistent with the claims in the literature that feedback may be used as an intrinsic motivator. Also, in-house translators are slightly more satisfied with feedback on translation samples; however this can only be concluded with a low confidence of 37%

(see Table 5.35).

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Table 5.35. t-test In-house/Freelancers – Feedback on translation samples.

The factor of task satisfaction investigates a positive feedback from the project manager or the end client. Experts are more satisfied with performance appraisal (27-5) than novices, as shown in the results in Table 5.36 with a confidence of 90% (p=0.10).

Table 5.36. t-test Expert/Novice – PM shows appreciation.

These results further support the need for including performance appraisal as a key satisfier of task performance. In-house translators are more satisfied with appreciation or performance appraisal than freelancers, and this can be concluded with a confidence level of 74% (see Table 5.37).

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Table 5.37. t-test In-house/Freelancers – PM shows appreciation.

5.2.2 Hypothesis Testing – Job Satisfaction

In this section, the results of hypothesis testing are presented for the facet of job satisfaction. Job satisfaction includes external sources of satisfaction that study the relationship between the individual and the project manager, or a team or any organization.

5.2.2.1 Individual-Job Fit

For the concept of individual-job fit, the following hypotheses were tested:

1. Freelancers are more satisfied with having a flexible schedule and with

opportunities to telecommute.

2. Novices are more concerned with tight deadlines than experts.

3. Freelancers are much more dissatisfied with task deadlines than in-house

translators.

4. Experts differ from novices in their feeling that their workload is manageable.

5. Onsite translators and experts are more satisfied with having a continuous

stream of work.

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6. Freelancers, novices and experts are similarly dissatisfied with requests for

discounts.

7. In-house translators are satisfied with opportunities for salary increases.

8. Experts are dissatisfied with opportunities for salary or rate increase.

9. Freelancers have a higher income than in-house translators.

Freelancers feel that they have a flexible schedule, which is in contrast to the feeling of in-house translators. This can be stated with a confidence of 95% (see Table

5.38, p=0.05). However, in-house translators and freelancers have similar levels of satisfaction with telecommuting, with a confidence of 72% (see Table 5.39).

Table 5.38. t-test In-house/Freelancers – Flexible schedule.

Table 5.39. t-test In-house/Freelancers – Telecommuting.

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Differences in self-regulatory processing, understanding of task scope, task familiarity, task awareness, professional experience, etc., motivate novices. Novices are much more concerned with tight deadlines than experts (see Table 5.40); this conclusion can be made with a confidence level of 93% by the t-test (p=0.07).

Table 5.40. t-test Expert/Novice – Deadlines are often too tight.

Also, freelancers are more dissatisfied with task deadlines (see Table 5.41); this statement can be made with a confidence level of 75%.

Table 5.41. t-test In-house/Freelancers – Task deadlines.

With regards to workload, a statistically significant difference is observed between experts and novices. Experts feel that their workload is manageable, in contrast to novices. This conclusion can be made with a confidence of 81% (Table 5.42, p=0.19).

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A statistically significant difference is also observed between experts and novices with regards to having a continuous stream of work. Experts are much more satisfied with having a continuous stream of work, as can be seen from Table 5.43. In-house translators also exhibit high levels of satisfaction with having a continuous stream of work (see Table 5.44), as the results suggest with a confidence level of 71%.

Table 5.42. t-test Expert/Novice – Manageable workload per year.

Expert Novice Mean 1.69 1.98 Variance 1.06 0.80 Observations 32 50 df 59 t Stat -1.32 P(T<=t) two-tail 0.19 t Critical two-tail 2.00

Table 5.43. t-test Expert/Novice – Having a continuous stream of work.

Expert Novice Mean 1.88 2.69 Variance 1.32 1.58 Observations 34 51 df 75 t Stat -3.04 P(T<=t) two-tail 0.00 t Critical two-tail 1.99

Table 5.44. t-test In-house/Freelancers – Having a continuous stream of work.

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For the concept of remuneration, experts are much more satisfied with remuneration than novices (see Table 5.45). This can be concluded with a confidence level of 99.99%. The results also suggest that in-house translators have a higher income than freelancers, and this statement is supported by the t-test results with a confidence of

98% (p=0.02, see Table 5.46).

Table 5.45. t-test Expert/Novice – Remuneration.

Table 5.46. t-test In-house/Freelancers – Income.

Also, with a low confidence level of 64%, it can be asserted that in-house translators are more satisfied with rates and salary (see Table 5.47). Likewise, in-house translators are much more satisfied with opportunities for rate or salary increase than freelancers. This is supported by the t-test with a confidence level of 99% (see Table

5.48, p=0.01). Interestingly, both experts and novices are equally dissatisfied with the

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request for discounts from clients, and freelancers are much more dissatisfied with requests for discounts and the data supports this argument with a confidence level of

99.99% (see Table 5.49).

Table 5.47. t-test In-house/Freelancers – Fair pay.

Table 5.48. t-test In-house/Freelancers – Rate or pay increase.

Table 5.49. t-test In-house/Freelancers – Requests for discounts.

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5.2.2.2 Individual-Organization Fit

5.2.2.2.1 Role of the PM or Supervisor

For the concept of role of the PM or supervisor, the following hypotheses were tested:

1. Experts and novices equally prefer the control of the PM over the flow of

communication.

2. Experts and novices equally prefer having controlled communication among

team members.

3. Experts and freelancers are dissatisfied with the individual professional skills

of team members.

4. Experts are dissatisfied with communication among team members.

5. Experts are satisfied the PM’s efforts for matching skills of team members to

project requirements.

6. Freelancers are dissatisfied with the PM’s efforts for matching skills of team

members to project requirements.

7. Experts and freelancers are dissatisfied with the quality of work received from

other team members.

8. Experts are satisfied with PM’s appreciation of their performance.

9. Novices and freelancers are dissatisfied with their opportunities for choosing

their project teams.

10. In-house translators are more satisfied with close supervision.

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For the role of the PM or supervisor, the factors of communication and professional skills, skill-requirement fit, task appreciation, involvement, support, and supervision are included. Experts and novices equally agree that they prefer the PM to control the flow of communication (25-12) and to have a controlled communication among team members (27-17). Both groups indicate high levels of satisfaction with professional skills of team members (26-7). However, experts indicate a higher level of satisfaction with communication with team members (22-11) than experts, although this can be concluded only with a 59% confidence level. In addition, in-house translators are much more satisfied with professional skills of team members. This can be stated with a confidence of 99.99 %; see Table 5.50.

Table 5.50. t-test In-house/Freelancers – Professional skills of team members.

Experts are generally more satisfied with the PM’s efforts to match skills to project requirements. But the t-test yields a confidence of only 65% (p=0.35) for this conclusion (see Table 5.51). Both experts and novices seem to agree on their preference for PMs who match skills with project requirements. Furthermore, freelancers are dissatisfied with the matching of skills to project requirements, than in-house employees, with a confidence level of 98% (p=0.02); see Table 5.52. It is interesting to note that no

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statistically significant difference is observed between experts and novices with regards to the quality of the work they receive from other members (22-12) and their preference for PMs that match skills (25-10).

Table 5.51. t-test Expert/Novice – Matching skills to project requirements.

Table 5.52. t-test In-house/Freelancers – Matching skills to project requirements.

Experts indicate being more satisfied with task appreciation on the PM side than novices. As explained below, allowing the translator to choose the team is seen as a form of involvement, and experts indicate higher satisfaction with the opportunities to choose with whom they want to work. In-house translators are satisfied with their opportunity to choose the team they want to work with (see Table 5.53). Lastly, in-house translators are more satisfied with supervision, with a confidence level of 98% (see Table 5.54).

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Table 5.53. t-test In-house/Freelancers – I choose the team.

Table 5.54. t-test In-house/Freelancers – Close supervision.

5.2.2.2.2 Overall Experience with Virtual Teamwork

The following hypotheses were tested for the concept of overall experience with virtual teamwork:

1. Experts, freelancers and novices express similar levels of dissatisfaction with

virtual teamwork.

2. Experts, freelancers and novices express similar levels of dissatisfaction with

stress from virtual teamwork.

Generally, no significant difference is observed between the two groups with regards to virtual teamwork (26-2) and teamwork-related stress. In addition, teamwork

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stresses freelancers much more than in-house translators. This conclusion can be made with a confidence level of 92% (see Table 5.55).

Table 5.55. t-test In-house/Freelancers – Teamwork stresses me out.

5.2.2.3 Individual-Upper Management

For the sub-concept of individual-upper management fit, the following hypotheses were tested:

1. Freelancers, experts and novices are dissatisfied with management procedures

and policies, and they indicate high levels of disagreement with process

systematization.

2. Experts and novices are similarly dissatisfied due to a lack of processes to

deal with misunderstanding in the project team.

3. Experts and novices are dissatisfied due to the PM’s lack of interest in

changing processes.

4. In-house translators are satisfied with process systematization and

management procedures and policies.

5. Novices and freelancers are dissatisfied with payment practices and terms,

whereas in-house translators are satisfied.

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6. Experts and novices are equally dissatisfied with the client’s understanding of

the translation process.

With regards to workflow management and business processes, both experts and novices express a neutral response toward the systematization of localization processes among LSPs, with a confidence level of 79% (see Table 5.56) and toward specific processes to deal with misunderstandings in the team (26-4).

Table 5.56. t-test Expert/Novice – Processes are systematized.

Table 5.57. t-test In-house/Freelancers – Processes are systematized.

Both groups agree that the PM shows little interest in changing the process (25-7). In addition, in-house translators feel that most LSPs are systematized whereas freelancers do not completely agree; this can be stated with a confidence level of 99% (see Table 5.57).

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Experts are much more satisfied with management procedures (27-7), and this can be concluded with a confidence of 93% (see Table 5.58, p=0.07). In-house translators are much more satisfied than freelancers with management policies and procedures, and this can be stated with a confidence level of 99.99% (see Table 5.59).

Table 5.58. t-test Expert/Novice – Management procedures and policies.

Table 5.59. t-test In-house/Freelancers – Management procedures and policies.

Thus a higher level of expertise can be associated with a higher level of understanding of localization maturity levels on the client side, which may explain why experts indicate a higher satisfaction than novices with management procedures. Unlike experts, novices’ frustration may appear when processes are not systemized or when there is a lack of processes in place to deal with communication or constant change.

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Onsite translators and freelancers feel differently about the efficiency of problem solving by the PM, with the in-house translators being much more satisfied than the freelancers. This conclusion can be made with a confidence level of 97% (see Table

5.60).

Table 5.60. t-test In-house/Freelancers – Misunderstandings are solved quickly.

With regards to organizational variables on the client side, both experts and novices express a statistically similar level of dissatisfaction with the lack of understanding of the translation and localization processes on the client side. In addition, novices feel that clients often expect too much, which can be seen from the results of the hypothesis test in Table 5.61 (p=0.001).

Table 5.61. t-test Expert/Novice – Clients expect too much.

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Administrative procedures are included in the literature of satisfaction as crucial dissatisfiers. A significant difference is observed toward payment practices and payment terms. Experts are more satisfied with pay practices than novices (see Table 5.62, p

=0.05, confidence of 95%). A statistically significant difference is also observed for the variable of payment terms, which indicates that experts are happier than novices (p=0.04, confidence of 96%). As was argued in the model, experts understand the peak and low times in the industry and can plan accordingly. In addition, experts can also count on a more flexible line of credit that novices may not possess. Also, freelancers are significantly dissatisfied with payment terms of the industry (see Table 5.63, p=0.001).

Table 5.62. t-test Expert/Novice – Payment practices.

Table 5.63. t-test In-house/Freelancers – Payment terms.

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5.2.2.4 Individual-Client Relationship

Hypotheses for the concept of individual-client relationship are as follows:

1. Experts are more satisfied than novices with client’s involvement in

answering questions.

2. Experts and in-house translators are more satisfied with client review.

3. Freelancers agree that clients expect too much.

Experts are more satisfied with the responses from clients (see Table 5.64).

Table 5.64. t-test Expert/Novice – Receiving answers to my questions.

However, no statistically significant difference is observed between experts and novices with regards to client review (22-7). In-house translators are neutral toward client expectations whereas freelancers feel that clients expect too much (Table 5.65).

Table 5.65. t-test In-house/Freelancers – Clients expect too much.

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5.2.3 Hypothesis Testing – Professional Satisfaction

In this section the results from hypothesis testing for the facet of professional satisfaction are presented.

5.2.3.1 Professional Profile

The following hypotheses were tested for the concept of professional profile:

1. Experts and in-house translators are more satisfied with the professional skills

of team members.

2. Experts are more satisfied with their persuasive skills, progress report,

flexibility toward continuous change and their understanding of the end

client’s localization maturity.

3. Both novices and experts are comfortable with intercultural as well as face-to-

face communication.

4. Experts are more flexible toward multitasking and changing schedules.

5. All translators agree that subject matter expertise has benefited their career.

With regards to professional and communication skills, the results of the most significant variables are presented. Both experts and novices are equally satisfied with the professional skills of team members (26-7); this can be concluded from hypothesis testing with a confidence of 96%. No significant difference is recorded between the two groups with regards to I feel I can convince the project manager, the client or my boss about the necessity of action (25-16), I am flexible to adjust to continuous change (25-6), their understanding of the localization maturity level of the end client (25-11) and reporting progress regularly (30). This indicates that translators are generally satisfied with their

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own communication and professional skills. Translators, both novices and experts, generally indicate high levels of cultural intelligence, since they are highly satisfied and they feel comfortable with face-to-face communication (31) and communicating with people with an accent (28). Additionally, the results support the hypothesis that flexibility has become a new required professional skill that affects team interactions. Results from hypothesis testing indicate no significant difference in flexibility between experts and novices regarding schedules and multitasking.

Lastly, experts and novices, freelancers and in-house translators express a similar agreement that their subject matter expertise has benefited their career; this can be concluded only with a confidence of 50% (see Table 5.66).

Table 5.66.

t-test In-house/Freelancers – My subject matter expertise has been beneficial to my career.

5.2.3.2 (Perceived) Job Security

For job security, the following hypothesis is tested:

1. Experts have a higher level of perceived job security.

With regards to job security, experts feel they have a higher level of job security because they have a wider variety of skills (p=0.15).

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5.2.3.3. Occupational Flexibility

The following hypotheses were tested for the concept of occupational flexibility:

1. Experts are much more satisfied with their flexibility to accept and reject

projects as well as choose their own teams.

2. Experts are satisfied with their ability to choose the LSPs that they want to

work with.

Flexibility is understood as the freedom an individual may have to accept or reject projects once he or she has achieved high professional status and recognition. The results suggest that experts are much more satisfied with flexibility to accept or reject projects.

This can be concluded with a confidence level of 98% (see Table 5.67, p=0.02).

Table 5.67. t-test Expert/Novice – Flexibility to accept and reject projects.

Experts clearly state that they also have the flexibility to choose their team for a project

(24-3), which is contrary to the feeling expressed by novices. This statement can be asserted with a confidence of 85% (p=0.15, Table 5.68). Experts seem to indicate that they tend to choose LSPs that they want to work with more than the novices. However, this conclusion can only be made with a confidence level of 67%.

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Table 5.68. t-test Expert/Novice – I choose the team.

5.2.3.4 Marketing

The following hypotheses were tested for the concept of marketing:

1. Full-timers are more satisfied with opportunities to network.

2. Experts express more interest in attending conferences.

No significant difference is observed toward the experience of networking and talking to experts (36-1) and maintaining close contact with other translators (37), but full-timers are more satisfied with networking than part-timers; this conclusion can be drawn with an 81% confidence level.

5.2.3.5 Self-concept

For self-concept, the following hypotheses were tested:

1. Novices identify strongly with the profession.

2. Both part-timers and full-timers identify strongly with the profession.

3. Experts and novices express dissatisfaction with lack of professional

appreciation due to requests for dropping rates.

4. Experts and novices are similarly dissatisfied with the social recognition of

their profession.

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5. Full-timers and freelancers are more dissatisfied with the social recognition of

the profession than part-timers and onsite translators.

6. Experts and full-timer translators are more satisfied with their role in the

industry.

With regards to professional identity, experts and novices show a similar level of strong identification with their profession. Results from hypothesis testing evidence this conclusion with a confidence level of 87% (see Table 5.69). Results from hypothesis testing suggest similar conclusions for part-timers and full-timers, with a confidence level of 96%. Hence, confirming the evidence from the literature that language industry professionals are proud of being translators and strongly identify with the profession.

Table 5.69. t-test Expert/Novice – I identify strongly with my profession.

In addition, experts and novices express similar levels of dissatisfaction and lack of professional appreciation with requests to drop rates. This conclusion can be made with a confidence level of 95% (see Table 5.70, p=0.05). Freelancers also feel professionally unappreciated when asked to drop their rates, but in-house translators have a neutral response to this question, statement made with a confidence level of 97% (see

5.71, p=0.03).

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Table 5.70. t-test Expert/Novice – I feel professionally unappreciated.

Table 5.71. t-test In-house/Freelancers – I feel professionally unappreciated.

Likewise, experts and novices show a similar level of dissatisfaction with the social recognition of their profession, generally considered to be a nascent profession with which the public is not often familiar. However, full-timers are slightly more satisfied with the social recognition of the profession than part-timers, as the data suggest with a confidence level of 87%. With a confidence level of 99.99%, it can be asserted that freelancers are dissatisfied with the social recognition of the profession as well (see Table

5.72).

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Table 5.72. t-test In-house/Freelancers – Social recognition of my profession.

A statistically significant difference is observed between novices and experts toward the role in the industry. Experts are much more satisfied with the role they play in the industry, as can be seen in Table 5.73. This can be concluded with a 99.99% confidence level (p=0.001). Additionally, full-timers are more satisfied with their role in the industry than part-timers (p=0.08).

Table 5.73. t-test Expert/Novice – My role in the industry.

Similar results are captured showing that experts are more satisfied than novices toward their current roles in the industry and tend to agree more that it meets their professional expectations (47-4), statement that can be made with a confidence level of

99.99%. The results of this variable are listed in Table 5.74 (p=0.001).

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Table 5.74. t-test Expert/Novice – My role meets my expectations.

As the literature suggests, an expertise effect is observed in this regard, which provides the opportunity for experts to have an active role in the industry due to their task familiarity, professional experience, subject matter expertise and broader understanding of the industry in general.

5.2.3.6 Career Development

For career development, the following hypotheses were tested:

1. Experts are more passionate about their career development.

2. Novices express a higher interest in earning more certifications.

3. Novices feel that they need to update their skills.

4. Experts are keener to offer workshops or training sessions, and present at

conferences.

5. Experts deem membership of professional organizations to be valuable.

With regard to professional commitment, experts and novices express a similar level of interest in attending conferences (39), and this can be said with a confidence of

83%. In addition, novices show a higher level of agreement that their schedule allows for career development (47-1), possibly because their volume of work is lower. This can be

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concluded with a 94% confidence level (p=0.06). Generally, novices indicate being more passionate about their career development then experts (47-7); this conclusion can be made with a confidence level of 96% (p=0.04).

With regards to earning more certifications, novices show a higher agreement toward having more certifications than experts (43); this can be concluded with a 93% confidence level (p=0.07). It is possible that novices feel the need to have more certifications to get more clients, upgrade their professional profile and potentially increase their income. Unlike experts, novices’ need for more certifications equates with their need to update their skills (25-3), which can be concluded with a 94% confidence level (p=0.06).

Experts show a higher interest in presenting at workshops or training sessions (41) and this conclusion is supported by hypothesis testing results with an 86% confidence level. No statistical difference is found with regards to presenting at conferences (40) and value in maintaining the ATA membership (47-8). However, experts also reveal a higher level of agreement toward having memberships (36-8), this can be concluded with 89% confidence level (p=0.11).

5.2.3.7 Professional Reputation

The following hypotheses were tested for the concept of professional reputation:

1. Unlike novices, experts are more satisfied with professional recognition.

2. Experts are satisfied with their ability to generate revenue from their positive

public image.

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3. Experts are more satisfied with professional prestige, participation in

prestigious projects and having clients from the Fortune 500 List.

Hypothesis testing provides interesting results with regards to professional reputation.

Unlike novices, experts are much more satisfied with professional recognition, since they appreciate that people know them professionally. This can be asserted with a confidence level of 93% (see Table 5.75, p=0.07). However, experts are slightly more satisfied with the generation of revenue from a positive public image, this statement can be made with only a 75% confidence level (see Table 5.76). Thus, contrary to the claims made in the literature, there is no conclusive evidence to support that experts that are known professionally generate more revenue from their public image.

Table 5.75. t-test Expert/Novice – People know me professionally.

Table 5.76. t-test Expert/Novice – Revenue from my positive public image.

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Nonetheless, experts and novices show the same level of satisfaction with professional prestige, specifically with their participation in prestigious projects (36-5) and this can be concluded with 89% confidence level (see Table 5.77). Likewise, as can be seen in Table

5.78, experts and novices show similar satisfaction from working with clients in the

Fortune 500 list (36-2).

Table 5.77. t-test Expert/Novice – Involvement in prestigious projects.

Table 5.78. t-test Expert/Novice – Client’s reputation.

Unlike novices, experts show a higher level of satisfaction with receiving projects from long-term clients, which can be concluded with 97% confidence (p=0.03). It may be possible that their professional experience, or years in business, provides them with the opportunity to retain clients. However, this may not be viable for novices who may be

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building their client portfolio and may not have been in business long enough to have built solid business relationships.

5.2.3.8 Mentoring

For mentoring, the following hypotheses were tested:

1. Novices strongly agree with the benefits of mentoring as a motivational tool.

2. Novices feel that mentoring is beneficial to their career development.

With regards to mentoring, novices agree more strongly than experts about the benefits of mentoring as a motivational tool. This can be claimed only with a confidence level of 76% (see Table 5.79).

Table 5.79. t-test Expert/Novice – Mentoring as a motivational tool.

Table 5.80. t-test Expert/Novice – Mentoring was helpful for my career.

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Nevertheless, the results presented in Table 5.80 suggest that novices strongly agree that mentoring is beneficial to their career development with a confidence level of 99.99%

(p=0.001, Table 5.50).

5.2.3.9 Career Turnover

Lastly, for the concept of career turnover, the following hypotheses were tested:

1. Novices and experts express a similar sense of attachment to their profession.

2. Experts are more confident about their ability to find a new job.

When translators are asked about a potential career turnover, novices and experts exhibit a similar sense of attachment to their profession, as can be concluded from their response to question 44, illustrated in Table 5.81 with a confidence of 70%.

Table 5.81. t-test Expert/Novice – Leaving the profession.

However, experts and novices differ on the likelihood of finding a new job if they leave their current jobs (45). This can be asserted with a confidence level of 84% (see Table

5.82).

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Table 5.82. t-test Expert/Novice – Job turnover.

5.3 Regression Analysis

This section presents the results from regression analysis. Results are outlined in the form of Tables, listing all the regression coefficients and necessary metrics of regression in order to investigate the existence of predictive relationships among the variables of interest. A representative index is created for each grouping included within the facets of task, job and professional satisfaction in order to perform the regression analysis. This representative index yields the output variable that is required to establish an input-output relationship for regression (see Appendix C).

The predictors used in the assessment of task satisfaction contain the variables that represent intrinsic sources of satisfaction or dissatisfaction. The predictors of job satisfaction consist of external sources of satisfaction or dissatisfaction. The predictors of professional satisfaction include variables that combine translators’ professional profile as well as the general professional aspects associated with the language industry.

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5.3.1 Regression Analysis of Task Satisfaction

Some important predictors of the facet of task satisfaction are as follows: formal education in Translation Studies, subject-matter expertise, professional and communication skills and technical expertise. Furthermore, understanding of task scope and clarity of task description, opportunity to accomplish challenging and complex tasks, ability to multitask, autonomy given to make decisions and constant feedback may also be used as predictors of task satisfaction.

For the regression analysis of task satisfaction, the Task Satisfaction Index, used as the output variable for regression, is the mathematical average of the following variables: subject matter expertise helps me meet deadlines, terminological complexity stresses me out and task pride. The input variables of the first regression analysis are: formal education in Translation Studies (x1), subject-matter expertise (x2), professional and communication skills (x3) and technical expertise (x4). Technical expertise in this case is quantified by using familiarity and frequency of usage of specific file formats whereas professional and communication skills are assessed from a combination of the following variables: flow of communication, I can convince the PM or coordinator, face- to-face communication, professional skills of team members, interaction with people with an accent and communication with people from other cultures. It may be noted that the predictors of task satisfaction for this analysis have been checked for correlation and the correlation coefficients vary from 0.02 to 0.19. This indicates that these predictors are independent and can be used for the regression analysis.

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Thus, the input-output relationship for the linear regression discussed above can be expressed as:

̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ (5.1)

̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ In Eq. (5.1), ̂ is the estimated index of task satisfaction, and , , , are the regression coefficients for the four variables of interest. Table 5.83 lists the ANOVA

(analysis of variance) results. The remaining results from this regression analysis are presented in Table 5.85 along with the results of the second regression analysis of task satisfaction.

Table 5.83.

ANOVA – Regression – Task Satisfaction – 1.

For the second regression analysis of task satisfaction, five input variables are used with the first variable being a combination of understanding of task scope, clarity of task description, task description shows accurate nature of the work. This variable (x1) represents task scope and description. The remaining variables used in this analysis are: challenging and complex tasks (x2), multitasking (x3), autonomy given to make decisions

(x4) and constant feedback (x5).

Therefore, the linear regression of the aforementioned analysis can be expressed as:

̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ (5.2)

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̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ Eq. (5.2) yields the estimated index of task satisfaction, ̂ , with , , , , being the regression coefficients of the five variables to be studied. Table 5.84 lists the

ANOVA results of this regression analysis and Table 5.85 lists the coefficients of the variables used for this regression analysis.

Table 5.84.

ANOVA – Regression – Task Satisfaction – 2.

For this first regression analysis (Model 1), the adjusted R2 value is 0.92 and the four regression coefficients are 0.11, 0.17, 0.48 and 0.09 respectively, as listed in Table 5.85.

Table 5.85.

Regression Results – Task Satisfaction.

The unadjusted R2 value for this analysis is 0.93. The high value of adjusted R2 and the high value of the F statistic (see Table 5.85) are indicative of the validity of the

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regression analysis. The similarity of the two values of R2 indicates that the model is adequate. Furthermore, a test for statistical significance using the F statistic also indicates that the model is statistically significant. A residual analysis also attests to model adequacy. Table 5.85 also lists the standard error (SE) and the bounds of all the coefficients with a 95% confidence level.

As can be seen from the results of this regression analysis, high technical expertise significantly enhances task satisfaction and can be used as a predictor of task satisfaction. Formal education in Translation Studies and subject matter expertise may also be used as predictors of task satisfaction. By contrast, the level of professional and communication skills of a translation professional may not be useful as a predictor of task satisfaction.

For the second regression analysis (Model 2), the five regression coefficients are

0.48, 0.24, 0.12, 0.03 and 0.06 respectively, as listed in Table 5.86. The results suggest that autonomy given to make decisions and receiving constant feedback are strong predictors of task satisfaction. Multitasking can also be seen as a predictor of satisfaction.

Conversely, the lack of understanding of task scope and lack of clarity of task descriptions can be used as possible predictors of task dissatisfaction.

5.3.2 Regression Analysis of Job Satisfaction

The predictors of the facet of job satisfaction are as follows: having a continuous stream of work, field of specialization, income, client review, opportunities to increase rates, performance appreciation from the PM or the supervisor, PM’s efforts toward matching skills to project requirements and the opportunity to have a flexible schedule.

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Additionally, the PM’s ability to control the flow of communication, the PM’s persuasive skills, the PM’s influence on the upper management, achievement of a balance between work and personal life, effective supervision, clearly established management procedures and policies, the client’s maturity level and payment terms are crucial predictors of job satisfaction as well.

A mathematical average of such variables as fair salary, processes in place and task deadlines is used as the index of job satisfaction for the regression analysis of the facet of job satisfaction. The input variables of this regression analysis are as follows: continuous stream of work (x1), specialization (x2), income (x3), client review (x4), opportunities for rate increase (x5), performance appreciation (x6), matching skills to project requirements (x7) and flexible schedule (x8).

Thus, the linear regression for the above mentioned analysis can be expressed as:

̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ (5.3)

̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ In Eq. (5.3), ̂ is the estimated job satisfaction, and , , , , , are the regression coefficients for the eight variables of interest. Tables 5.86 lists the ANOVA results of the regression analysis.

Table 5.86.

ANOVA – Regression – Job Satisfaction – 1.

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For the second regression analysis of job satisfaction, the input variables are as follows: PM controls the flow of communication, PM’s persuasion skills and PM influences upper management, combined together as one variable (x1), balance between work and personal life (x2), effective supervision (x3), overall experience of virtual teamwork (x4), management procedures and policies (x5), client does not understand the translation process (x6), and payment terms (x7).

Thus, the linear regression for the above mentioned analysis can be expressed as:

̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ (5.4)

̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ In Eq. (5.4), ̂ is the estimated job satisfaction, and , , , , , are the regression coefficients for the seven variables of interest. The ANOVA results of this regression analysis are captured in Tables 5.87 and 5.88.

Table 5.87.

ANOVA – Regression – Job Satisfaction – 2.

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Table 5.88.

Regression Results – Job Satisfaction.

For this regression analysis (Model 1), the adjusted R2 value is 0.94 and the eight regression coefficients are 0.13, 0.06, 0.08, -0.02, 0.30, 0.08, 0.25 and 0.17 respectively, as listed in Table 5.88. The ANOVA results of this regression analysis are in Table 5.86.

The results from the regression analysis suggest that client review is a strong enhancer of job satisfaction. Specialization, income and performance appreciation, followed by continuous stream of work, are also strong predictors of job satisfaction. In addition, the results from regression analysis indicate that having a flexible schedule is not a strong predictor of satisfaction. Lastly, the lack of opportunities for rate or salary increase as well as the lack of efforts on the PM side of matching skills of team member to project requirements may be understood as predictors of job dissatisfaction.

The seven regression coefficients for the second regression analysis (Model 2) are: 0.38, 0.22, 0.00, 0.03, 0.23, 0.01 and 0.17 (see Table 5.88). The results indicate

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overall experience of virtual teamwork as an enhancer of job satisfaction. When clients show a higher understanding of the translation process, translators reveal higher levels of job satisfaction. Paying attention to payment terms leads to higher job satisfaction. By contrast, the lack of management procedures and policies in place and the lack of control on the PM side can be considered as sources of job dissatisfaction. Attention must be paid to the need to balance work and personal life since this variable may be a predictor of job dissatisfaction. From the regression results it can be said that effective supervision may be considered as a strong predictor, but results are inconclusive. Hence, this variable needs to be correlated with other variables to yield more conclusive results.

5.3.3 Regression Analysis of Professional Satisfaction

Significant predictors of professional satisfaction that have been investigated in this section are as follows: multiple skills of a translator ensuring job security, opportunities to network, passion about career development. Also, having flexibility to accept and reject projects, opportunities to present at conferences, strong identification with the profession, having outstanding offers, using mentoring as a motivational tool and professional recognition are some enhancers of professional satisfaction that can be used as predictors. Specialization, technical expertise and subject matter expertise are proven to be beneficial the career development of a translator, thereby enhancing professional satisfaction.

For the first regression analysis of professional satisfaction, the output index is the mathematical average of the following variables: I feel I have multiple skills, therefore job security, networking and I am passionate about my career development. The input

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variables of this regression analysis are: flexibility to accept and reject projects (x1), presenting at conferences (x2), I identify strongly with my profession (x3), outstanding offers (x4), mentoring as a motivational tool (x5) and people know me professionally (x6).

Thus, the linear regression for the above mentioned analysis can be expressed as:

̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ (5.5)

̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ In Eq. (5.5), ̂ is the estimated professional satisfaction and , , , are the regression coefficients.

Table 5.89.

ANOVA – Regression – Professional Satisfaction – 1.

The ANOVA results from this regression analysis are listed in Table 5.89.

The input variables of the second regression analysis of professional satisfaction are: I feel unappreciated professionally (x1), my role meets my professional expectations

(x2), social recognition of my profession (x3), specialization (x4), subject matter expertise has been beneficial to my career (x5), a combination of file formats representative of technical expertise as TMX, TBX, INX, TOC (x6), and investing in my career is profitable

(x7).

Thus, the linear regression for the above mentioned analysis can be expressed as:

̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ (5.6)

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̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ In Eq. (5.6), ̂ is the estimated professional satisfaction, and , , , , , are the regression coefficients for the seven variables to be investigated. The ANOVA results of this regression analysis are listed in Table 5.90.

Table 5.90.

ANOVA – Regression – Professional Satisfaction – 2.

For the first regression analysis (Model 1), the adjusted R2 value is 0.90 and the six regression coefficients are 0.04, 0.04, 0.39, 0.12, 0.10 and 0.26 respectively, as listed in Table 5.91. The results suggest that the factor flexibility to accept and reject projects as well as the factor of attending conferences are enhancers of professional satisfaction.

Table 5.91.

Regression Results – Professional Satisfaction.

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The results evidence that having outstanding offers is a strong motivator and that mentoring can be used as a predictor of professional satisfaction. Lastly, the data suggests that individual identification with the profession and people knowing the translator professionally may not be used as predictors of professional satisfaction.

The seven coefficients for the second regression analysis (Model 2) are: -0.05,

0.07, 0.13, 0.25, 0.20, 0.12 and 0.28. The results of this regression analysis reveal that a higher level of professional appreciation toward the translator enhances professional satisfaction. Furthermore, professional satisfaction increases when a translation professional’s role meets his or her professional expectations. Technical expertise can be used as a strong predictor of professional satisfaction. In addition, the data indicates that increasing the social recognition of the profession increases the level of professional satisfaction. Professionals who believe that their subject matter expertise has benefited their career are more likely to be professionally satisfied. Lastly, having specializations as well as investing in career development in the language industry may not be used as strong predictors of professional satisfaction.

5.4 Correlation Analysis

The results from correlation analysis express the interdependence or relationship existing between two variables of interest. This relationship is expressed in the form of the Pearson correlation coefficient. The correlation coefficient expresses the important characteristics of a relationship and the strength of the relationship (Heiman 254). The maximum value that can be obtained from correlation analysis is +1.0 and the minimum value is -1.0. When the coefficient is negative, there is an inverse relationship between

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the two variables, and the two variables are independent if the coefficient is 0. The larger the value of the coefficient, the stronger the relationship.

5.4.1 Correlation – Task Satisfaction

Formal education in Translation Studies is correlated with specialization, resulting in a mild positive correlation of r=0.01. Specialization is also correlated with technical expertise and subject matter expertise. A positive interdependence of r=0.15 is recorded between specialization and technical expertise, but a negative coefficient of r=-0.09 is found between specialization and subject matter expertise.

Formal education in Translation Studies is positively correlated with overall task satisfaction yielding a correlation coefficient of r=0.04. Subject matter expertise and overall task satisfaction are positively correlated, with a low coefficient of r=0.04. The interdependence between technical expertise (familiarity and frequency of usage) and overall task satisfaction (50) is assessed, with a coefficient of r=0.04 between the two variables.

The Pearson correlation coefficient is computed to assess the relationship between

Knowledge of CAT tools is essential to meet deadlines (24-10) and My subject matter expertise has been beneficial to my career (24-11). There is a strong positive correlation between the two variables, r=0.55. Thus, a higher amount of knowledge of CAT tools correlates with increase in subject matter expertise. By contrast, a moderate interdependence is found between knowledge of CAT tools is essential to meet deadlines

(24-10) and specialization (r=0.03). The same variable, knowledge of CAT tools is essential to meet deadlines (24-10) is also directly correlated with overall task

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satisfaction (50), with a moderate positive correlation of r=0.16. However, there is an inverse relationship between terminological complexity stresses me out (25-17) and overall task satisfaction, as supported by r=-0.13. Thus, low levels of stress with regards to terminological complexity correlates with higher levels of task satisfaction. However, it may be noted that a moderate correlation coefficient does not allow making conclusive statements.

Conversely, a negative correlation is found between my own terminology management skills (22-9) and need to update my skills (25-3). A coefficient of r=-0.12 indicates that a decrease in the level of terminology management skills correlates with an increase in the need to update skills, or vice versa. Interestingly, a moderately negative correlation is recorded between my own terminology management skills (22-9) and years of experience (r=-0.11), indicating that an increase in terminology management skills correlates with a decrease in years of experience. Additionally, an increase in the need to update one’s skills positively correlates with specialization, thus indicating that the higher the specialization, the higher the need to keep updating one’s skills (r=0.6).

A negative correlation is observed between the variables deadlines do not compromise quality (24-12) and I am too slow and I should be working faster (24-21), with a coefficient of r=-0.14. A strong negative correlation is found between I am too slow and I should be working faster (24-21) and my subject matter expertise helps me meet deadlines (24-9) with a coefficient r=-0.34. By contrast, the variable my subject matter expertise helps me meet deadlines (24-9) is positively correlated with overall task satisfaction (r=0.38). Thus, an increase in subject matter expertise contributes to the

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ability to meet deadlines and correlates with an increase in overall task satisfaction.

Increase in the level of subject matter expertise correlates with the perception of a decrease in the quality of the source text; this statement is supported by a negative correlation between the variables (r=-0.07). Lastly, the interdependence between the individual understanding of the quality of the source text is seen to correlate with years of experience. As expected, the higher the years of experience, the lower the perceived quality of the source text (22-4), supported by a low coefficient of r=-0.02.

The variables constant feedback (26-9) and successful completion motivates me

(24-18) are assessed. There is a moderate positive correlation between the two variables, r=0.13. The relationship between constant feedback (26-9) and performance appraisal

(27-5) is separately studied and the two variables are found to be strongly positively correlated, r=0.48. Thus an increase in constant feedback can be interpreted as an increase in performance appraisal efforts.

The relationship between opportunity to choose new tasks (23-3) and empowerment allowed in tasks (22-6) is investigated, with a strong coefficient of r=0.42 suggesting that increases in the opportunity to undertake new tasks or new roles correlate with the feeling of empowerment. The variable 23-3 is also separately correlated with working on challenging and complex tasks (23-2), resulting in a high correlation coefficient of r=0.39. The variable 23-3 and the ability to perform a wide variety of tasks

(23-6), are also positively correlated with r=0.26. In addition, a low positive correlation

(r=0.03) is observed between years of experience and the opportunity to choose new tasks

(23-3). Lastly, working on challenging and complex tasks (23-2) and empowerment

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allowed in tasks (22-6) are also correlated. A strong, positive correlation of r=0.42 is recorded, indicating that working on complex tasks correlates with increase in the level of empowerment felt by the professional. The ability to perform a wide variety of tasks (23-

6) is subsequently correlated with specialization, and a moderate coefficient of 0.07 is observed. Furthermore, the ability to perform a wide variety of tasks (23-6) is strongly positively correlated with overall task satisfaction (r=0.35).

As supported by the discussion in the relevant literature, pride in my work (25-2) is strongly correlated with the overall feeling of task satisfaction. A high correlation of r=0.44 suggests that the higher the pride or the individual perception of being good at what he or she does, the higher the level of overall task satisfaction. Additionally, the variable I feel I Improve project quality (24-4) is moderately positively correlated with overall task satisfaction, with r=0.27.

5.4.2 Correlation – Job Satisfaction

A Pearson correlation coefficient is computed to assess the relationship between having a continuous stream of work (23-11) and job is stressful (25-5), yielding a low correlation of r=0.02 between the variables. The variable 25-5 is subsequently correlated with years of experience and a low coefficient of r=0.06 is observed. The variable continuous stream of work (23-11) is moderately correlated with specialization (r=0.18).

Moreover, a strong positive correlation is revealed between continuous stream of work

(23-11) and income (13), with r=0.40. Thus, an increase in the stream of work is correlated with an increase in income. The relationship between having a continuous stream of work (23-11) and working on challenging and complex tasks (23-2) is also

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studied. A moderate positive coefficient of r=0.20 is captured between the two variables.

Interestingly, the variables pertaining to a continuous stream of work and the ability to perform variety of tasks (23-6) are moderately positively correlated, with r=0.16. Also, positive correlation is found between having a continuous stream of work (23-11) and technical expertise (familiarity and frequency of usage), with r=0.12. Lastly, a correlation coefficient is used to study the interdependence between having a continuous stream of work and years of experience. The variables are moderately negatively correlated with r=-0.21, and the results suggest that an increase in years of experience correlates with a decrease in the continuous stream of work.

The interdependence between processes are systematized (24-7) and task deadlines (23-12) is investigated. A moderate positive interdependence of r=0.28 is found, thus indicating that increase in process systematization correlates with an increase in satisfaction with task deadlines. Similar results are recorded between processes are systematized (24-7) and overall experience of virtual team work (26-2), r=0.24. A moderate relationship is captured between 24-7 and teamwork stresses me out (24-2), r=0.11 and a low negative correlation (r=-0.06) is observed between processes are systematized (24-7) and deadlines are often too tight (25-18), thus indicating that an increase in process systematization correlates with a decrease in pressure to meet deadlines. Lastly, a moderately positive relationship is observed between processes are systematized (24-7) and rapport with team members (26-10), r=0.34. This correlation coefficient suggests that an increase in systematization correlates with an improvement in interpersonal relationships.

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With regards to interpersonal relationships, the variable rapport with team members (26-10) is strongly positively correlated with dynamic relationships (26-1). A strong value of r=0.66 indicates that the more the opportunities for improving for rapport between team members, the more dynamic the relations are among team members. dynamic relationships (26-1) is subsequently correlated with flexibility with schedules

(26-3) and the variables are very strongly correlated (r=0.69), thus suggesting that the more flexibility team members show toward schedules and submissions, the more dynamic the relationships among members are.

The relationship between management procedures and policies (27-7) and dynamic relationships (26-1) is also studied. Results suggest that the variables are strongly positively correlated (r=0.46), indicating that having management procedures and policies correlates with positive dynamic relationships. Management procedures and policies (27-7) also correlates with relationship with PM (26-11) and a strong positive correlation is observed between the two variables with r=0.43. Hence, having procedures and policies in place correlates with a positive relationship with the project manager.

However, a moderate interdependence is found between management procedures and policies (27-7) and task deadlines (23-12), r=0.29. By contrast, a moderately negative relationship is observed between management procedures and policies (27-7) and deadlines are often too tight (25-18), r=-0.19, as well as between management procedures and policies (27-7) and teamwork stresses me out (24-2), r=0.02. The variable clarity of task description (22-3), associated with the role of the project manager, is subsequently correlated with years of experience. A low negative correlation is

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observed (r=-0.06), indicating that translators with more years of experience do not rely on (or do not need) a clear task description. Likewise, a negative correlation is observed between years of experience and understanding of task scope (23-7), with r=-0.08.

A strong positive relationship is observed between management support, represented by the variable reference materials (26-5) and effective supervision (27-3). A correlation coefficient of r=0.32 suggests that an increase in the availability of reference materials correlates with the effectiveness of supervision. The data also suggests that effective supervision (27-3) is strongly correlated with Project manager’s help with software troubleshooting (i.e., problems with the termbase or TM) (22-2). The value r=0.27 suggests that an increase in the project manager’s support correlates with higher supervisory effectiveness. In addition, a stronger positive interdependence is recorded between close supervision (27-4) and reference materials (26-5), with r=0.38.

A Pearson correlation coefficient is also calculated to assess the interdependence between direct relationship with clients (22-8) and specialization, and results do not suggest the existence of a potential interdependence. However, the relationship between direct relationship with clients (22-8) and overall task satisfaction is also studied. A strong positive interdependence is observed between the variables, with r=0.41 suggesting that having good relationships with clients correlates with higher levels of overall task satisfaction. Overall, there is a moderately negative correlation between direct relationship with clients (22-8) and years of experience (r=-0.22), thus suggesting that an increase in years of experience correlates with a decrease in job satisfaction in direct relationships with clients. Direct relationship with clients (22-8) is subsequently

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correlated with overall professional satisfaction and a moderately strong relationship of r=0.27 emerges. Lastly, the variable clients expect too much (24-22) is correlated with client review (22-7) and a moderately negative interdependence of r=-0.12 is observed, thus indicating that the higher the satisfaction with client review, the more positive the opinion toward the client being realistic in his or her expectations.

With regards to remuneration, correlation is used to investigate the interdependence between rate or pay increase (27-15) and specialization. A low negative interdependence of -0.03 is found between the variables. Thus, as specialization increases, the rate or pay received may not equate with the corresponding level of specialization. Also, a moderately negative correlation is captured between fair pay (24-

20) and years of experience. A coefficient of r=-0.18 suggests that the amount of professional experience does not equate with the perception of a fair income. In addition, professional experience is negatively correlated with rate or pay increase (27-15), with r=-0.07. Interestingly, the higher the years of experience, the lower the satisfaction with client review, as supported by a negative correlation (r=-0.21) between the variables.

5.4.3 Correlation – Professional Satisfaction

Overall professional satisfaction (52) correlates with I take pride in my work (25-

2) with a strong positive coefficient of r=0.34. A very low correlation is found between formal education in Translation Studies and overall professional satisfaction (r=0.01). A strong positive correlation is observed between working on challenging and complex tasks (23-2) and overall professional satisfaction, thus indicating that undertaking complex and challenging tasks correlates with an increase in professional satisfaction.

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Additionally, overall professional satisfaction is positively correlated with I feel I have a wide variety of skills, thus higher job security (47-6). The value r=0.42 indicates that an increase in the variety of skills and job security correlates with an increase in overall professional satisfaction. A strong positive interdependence is also observed between overall professional satisfaction and professional skills of team members (26-7).

A strong relationship of r=0.30 suggests that as professional skills of team members increase, overall professional satisfaction is enhanced. Among the measured variables for professional skills, a moderate relationship is recorded between comfortable with face-to- face communication (31) and overall professional satisfaction (r=0.14). Interestingly, a mildly negative interdependence is captured between understanding of localization maturity levels of the end client (25-11) and years of experience (r=-0.04).

A moderate positive correlation is observed between the overall feeling of professional satisfaction (52) and presenting at conferences (40), (r=0.10). Overall professional satisfaction is also correlated with presenting workshops or training sessions

(41) and the corresponding coefficient is r=0.11, thus indicating a moderate interdependence. Presenting workshops or training sessions (41) is strongly correlated with technical expertise (r=0.32) as well as with revenue from a positive public image, with a coefficient of r=0.31. Lastly, presenting at conferences (40) and presenting workshops or training sessions (41) are also correlated with overall professional satisfaction. A moderate interdependence is captured in both cases, and similar results are observed for both variables, r=0.10 and r=0.11 respectively. Furthermore, a strong positive correlation is found between presenting at conferences (40) and revenue from my

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positive public image (36-3) and this statement is supported by a coefficient of r=0.34.

An increase in the revenue from a positive public image also correlates strongly with the opportunity to present workshops and training sessions (41), and a coefficient of r=0.31 from the data provides evidence for this interdependence.

Revenue from my positive public image (36-3) is correlated with people know me professionally (36-10). A strong positive correlation is found between both variables, and a coefficient of r=0.55 suggests that the more people know the individual professionally, the higher revenue the individual may generate. Revenue from my positive public image

(36-3) is also correlated with receiving a project from a long-term client (27-2). A moderate positive relationship of r=0.18 is found between the variables. Moreover, a low positive relationship between the variable 27-2 and presenting workshops or training sessions (41) is found with r=0.09. Lastly, a moderately positive correlation is observed between opportunities for career development (36-4) and continuous stream of work (23-

11). This interdependence is supported by the data with a correlation coefficient of r=0.23. Subsequently, the variables overall professional satisfaction and the experience of being a mentee are moderately positively correlated, r=0.25. Similar results are observed with regards to overall satisfaction and the experience of being a mentor, with a coefficient of r=0.18.

With regards to the possibility of undertaking new tasks or roles, the variables task turnover and mentee (36-9) are moderately positively correlated, with r=0.27.

Finally, the relationship between mentoring as a motivational tool (42) and I mentor translators (36-7) is also studied with a moderately positive correlation of r=0.28.

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Additionally, the variable I mentor translators (36-7) is also correlated with overall task satisfaction and a moderate positive relationship of r=0.18 emerges. The variable I mentor translators (36-7) is positively correlated with mentoring as a motivational tool

(42). Thus, a coefficient of r=0.28 suggests that mentors acknowledge that mentoring can be used as a motivational tool for translators.

The interdependence between being a mentee (36-9) is subsequently correlated with overall professional satisfaction, and this statement is supported by a moderate positive coefficient of r=0.27. Likewise, a moderate positive correlation is found between

I mentor translators (36-7) and overall professional satisfaction (r=0.25). Lastly, the variable mentoring was helpful for my career (24-19) is strongly positively correlated with overall professional satisfaction. A coefficient of r=0.35 supports the relationship that an increase in satisfaction is correlated with being involved in mentoring.

There is a strong, positive correlation between involvement in prestigious projects

(36-5) and the flexibility to accept and reject projects (36-6), r=0.51. Having more prestigious projects correlates with increase in the flexibility to pick and choose the projects the translator prefers to undertake. In addition, the variable I can afford to accept projects from well-planned LSPs (25-14) is moderately correlated with overall professional satisfaction (r=0.08). The variable I can afford to accept projects from well- planned LSPs (25-14) is found to be negatively correlated with years of experience (r=-

0.19), thus indicating that an increase in years of experience does not equate with the ability to accept projects exclusively from specific project managers. Also, years of experience positively correlates with client’s reputation (36-2), r=0.02. A moderate

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positive correlation is also observed between having outstanding offers (24-17) and specialization, with a coefficient of r=0.24. By contrast, a strong positive interdependence is recorded between receiving a project from a long-term client (27-2) and overall professional satisfaction. This statement is supported by the data with a coefficient of r=0.30.

Moreover, the variables turnover (45) and client’s reputation (36-2) are positively correlated, although with a low coefficient of r=0.06, and when the variables turnover and years of experience are subsequently correlated, a moderate correlation of r=0.17 is found between the variables. Thus, the low correlation coefficients found when correlating the variable that represents turnover does not provide enough evidence to make conclusive statements. This example justifies the need for triangulation as well as the use of other statistical analyses to post-process survey results in other sections of this chapter.

Finally, correlation coefficients for variables related to the profession in general are estimated. The interdependence between social recognition of my profession (36-11) and income is assessed, with a moderate relationship observed between the variables, r=0.08. This suggests that an increase in income correlates with an increase in the social recognition of the profession.

5.5 Qualitative Analysis

The first open-ended question addresses evidence that the project management can influence upper management. Respondents mentioned such examples of evidence as project management’s efforts in negotiating rates, rate increase requests and accelerated

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payment processing. The project manager plays a key role in having a deadline extended or in requesting terminological approval from the end client. In addition, the project manager is crucial for client education and to convince the end client of the best translation approach. Respondents stated that “he (PM) can sometimes explain to them that translation is not just pushing a button and watching the target language spill out,” about the need for terminology management in both source and target languages, as well as PM influencing “client-side authoring/development and review processes.” Lastly, one respondent emphasizes the PM’s efforts in “convincing clients of the need to provide internationalization training to development teams.”

Responses to the second open-ended question capture the main sources of motivation of the survey participants. When asked what motivates them the most, a wide variety of responses was recorded. For instance, challenge, complexity and the nature of the work itself are widely seen as the main satisfiers: “challenging and interesting texts,”

“interesting topics,” “interesting projects,” “enjoying the translation itself and the challenge of terminology,” “when I translate difficult terminology or complex structures correctly,” “interesting work is by far the most important motivator for me, and the feeling that I am getting a fair rate of pay,” “the fact that I’m good at my job” and “I like my work, that motives me the most.”

With regards to group dynamics, translators mention the pleasure of working with professional project managers, respect from colleagues, talented coworkers, “good interaction with client or PM,” “great director, great team, new iMac with additional 24” monitor, Adobe CS5, XTM Cloud, Plantronics headset,” “working with Project Managers

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who *really* know what they are doing and take the time to provide feedback on your strengths and weaknesses” and “being able to feel that I am part of a team and contributing to something.”

Participants also mention quality, performance appraisal and feedback as crucial satisfiers: “Performing a good job, get acknowledgment for it (also monetary, not just a pat on the back),” “delivering a fantastic end product,” “knowing I've done a good job and feeling I have been paid fairly,” “appreciation from the client and positive feedback

[i.e., repeat work],” and “receiving detailed feedback is the one thing that motivates me the most when translating as well as getting rewarded and praised for the work I do.”

Respondents also feel proud of their achievements with the end client: “I have finally developed a good relationship with a client in Korea (the PM in an agency) who speaks very poor English and no Spanish at all: it took a while to accomplish this but I am very proud of having achieved it,” “good relationship with client and their respect for what I do (reasonable deadlines, excellent pay rate),” “doing the best for clients,”

“delivering a project and having the feeling that it turned out well,” “to see that my clients are happy and appreciate the work,” “having the time to do a good job and sufficient contact with the client to ask questions and tailor the job to the client’s specific needs” and “customer satisfaction, my own satisfaction.”

Responses also reveal (a) flexibility in the work environment and time management, (b) good balance between work and personal life, (c) freedom and (d) working from home as key motivators. Participants indicate that they enjoy the fact that

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“usually we don’t have a routine, the work is always different,” “the ability to determine my own working environment” and “silence is the key.”

Furthermore, translators indicate their commitment to life-long learning and they appreciate the opportunity to learn something new in every project: “Opportunity to research and to learn about new subjects on a weekly basis, and flexibility to pursue my own intellectual interests” and “possibility of further professional growth.” Translators conclude that their main sources of motivation are:

being able to do my best, offer quality jobs, being paid a fair price, receiving fair compliments. (Anonymous)

producing quality work, although I’m losing my motivation because nobody seems to notice the difference between a Google translation and a professional piece of work. (Anonymous) I love working at home and making my own schedule even though I often work long hours and during the weekends. Plus I love languages, I’m doing something I’m good at and enjoy, and I like the very tangible nature of the work. I do, however, wish I could translate only subjects I’m most interested in rather than having to focus on business, which is the meat and potatoes of my work. I don’t like having to spend enormous amounts of time on research and I’m frustrated with the low pay and not being able to raise my rates; I recently tried to raise my rates after many years and met stiff resistance. What other business doesn’t raise its prices in seven years? Thank goodness for the weak dollar against the euro. All in all, though, this is the best career I ever had and couldn’t imagine doing anything else despite the low pay. (Anonymous)

Among the most common reasons for professional turnover, participants often times cite low social status, increasing work stress, and the perception that translation is something any bilingual can do as key dissatisfiers. Sixty percent of respondents assert that they love translating, but “I need some recognition to my work … nobody seems to notice the difference between an excellent and a poor translation.”

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Even though there is a general agreement among practitioners that translation is

“a huge responsibility and a tough job,” this does not equate with the expected pay.

Unfair pay, low pay, lack of promotion and the need to earn more money are emphasized as the most common sources of dissatisfaction among respondents’ answers: “Because I think it’s too tiring and badly paid, plus we are going to be replaced by machines anytime soon,” “money and the fact that LSPs seem to become bad companies to work for,”

“because conditions and rates are deteriorating at an alarming rate and I am not prepared to put up with that any longer,” “the low pay is very demoralizing. The only hope is to have direct clients, but that takes constant marketing efforts … translation does not permit a livable income” and “it is impossible to live on the salary of a freelance translator. The people who brag about making a lot of money are not telling the truth.

After 6 years, I am making about $14,000 per year, even though I work constantly to find new clients. LSPs pay so low it’s insulting.” In addition, one of the participants concludes, “payment is a serious problem. We are asked to perform highly skilled tasks, often with very tight deadlines. And yet, as the range of skills and qualifications is growing, rates are going down. Big LSPs are more concerned with presenting their stakeholders with big fat bonuses at the end of the year, while whining to their workforce about the economic crisis and lowering their rates.”

Participants that indicated the possibility of leaving the profession are switching to jobs that require fewer hours of work, and provide higher salary and longer holidays.

Respondents under these circumstances do not want to continue working during

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weekends or late nights. In addition, 20% of participants revealed an overall dissatisfaction with industry practices and the lack of professional ethics.

When asked about their satisfaction with the tasks they perform, respondents often cite the nature of the tasks as the main satisfier. Satisfied respondents indicated that

“WHEN I have a job, I enjoy it very much. The problem is my work is very sporadic” and “as translation is not my primary income, I can reject those I dislike.” They also indicated their involvement in different activities and roles because they feel they learn a lot, and they meet very interesting people. Generally speaking, translators “feel pride in tasks well accomplished,” but “sometimes the problem is not the work per se but the deadlines” and adhering to the process:

I used to enjoy translating and the technical side it involves. Unfortunately, over the past 10 years, my experience has been that the tools that were once supposed to improve quality and processes for the translator are now doing the exact opposite. I feel that many of these tools were invented by people who have never worked as translators, editors, etc. and so do not understand what we really need. So many times I have lost (unpaid) hours over struggling with technical problems that could only be solved by support in another time zone. The focus is not so much on the linguistic side anymore but on sticking to processes. (Anonymous)

Lastly, translators were asked about the main sources of professional satisfaction, and echoes of dissatisfaction emerged in their answers. Participants indicated that “I don’t think I have a ‘role in the industry’.” The LI is not necessarily viewed as the primary source of income or the main professional occupation by some participants, “I wish I had enough work to consider translation my primary income always and not just half the year.” Additionally, responses captured the existence of external pressures that

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do not leave time for career development, “I would like to have had/have more time for professional development, and to be more in control of my job.”

A perceived lack of professional recognition is also captured through participants’ responses. Respondents indicated that society does not seem to understand the difference between a translator and an interpreter and “in most other professional fields, it is the professional who determines the ultimate rate and deadline, not the other way around.”

However, translators acknowledge that “I am working to visibilize [sic] my career in society through my association and lectures.” Also, “the industry has developed into mass production and working on the line. QA is often a farce. PMs of larger LSPs are often very young, lacking in manners, and generally ignorant.” Translators “feel undervalued despite receiving excellent feedback and professional recognition from clients.”

Participants’ demotivators become apparent due to some of the current industry trends:

I’m not satisfied with the industry in general right now. I haven’t been able to raise my rates in over 3 years and am constantly getting asked for rate reductions. Also, I notice on my editing jobs that quality seems to be going down, and I wonder if that is because of LSPs tendencies to have to choose cheap translators to cut cost. (Anonymous)

Sometimes I feel unappreciated and at ‘the bottom of the chain’. I do however love translating for itself– but I do not believe it is a viable career. (Anonymous)

By contrast, highly qualified professionals express a more optimistic opinion since they can accept and reject projects and they enjoy recognition from a positive public image: “my experience and expertise allows me to pick and choose the projects on which I work, with whom I work, etc., and from the fact that I do this part-time” and

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“satisfaction comes from being recognized as an academically educated, trained and passionate professional.” Thus, experienced translators reveal that formal education, subject matter expertise and specialization as well as having established long business relationships with LSPs, clients and other translators became crucial satisfiers in the long term.

This chapter has presented the data collected from the survey conducted for this study along with analysis post-processing. An introduction has been provided to each analytical tool and statistical analysis used in the chapter for each facet of satisfaction.

This has been followed by statistical analysis of the variables, hypothesis testing, regression analysis and correlation analysis. A brief discussion on qualitative feedback from some of the survey participants has also been included.

Results from the t-test have provided evidence to support the main differences between specific sample populations such as, experts and novices, full-timers and part- timers, etc. The results support many hypotheses laid out in the model in Chapter 4 for the study of the three facets of satisfaction, generally with a confidence level of 75% or higher. Many significant research questions listed in Chapter 4 have also been tested using regression analysis, providing evidence of predictive relationships between certain variables and the individual facets of satisfaction. Interdependencies between specific variables of interest have also been established with the use of the correlation analysis.

The use of all these tools has significantly enhanced the understanding of the model governing the three facets of satisfaction among translation professionals, thereby

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enhancing the robustness of the model and providing a predictive tool in the form of regression relationships between the variables and the individual facets of satisfaction.

It may be noted that the significance of many variables studied in the model should not be disregarded due to low coefficients from the correlation analysis. This is because the model governing the three facets of satisfaction is very complex, necessitating the need for multiple analysis tools in order to comprehend the relationship between variables, or the governing relationships between variables and the respective facets of satisfaction. A correlation coefficient that supports a one-to-one relationship can be misleading, since the outputs—task satisfaction, job satisfaction and professional satisfaction—are comprehensive facets that are governed by more complex relationships than just a one-to-one interdependence. Correlation analysis is simplistic and does not necessarily capture all the relationships, thus only concluding potential interdependences among variables of interest without providing a predictor relationship. This justifies the need to resort to regression analysis for establishing the predictive input-output relationships, and furthermore using hypothesis testing to compare sample populations.

The analysis results have contradicted some observations found in the literature. It must also be noted that the limited amount of empirical data in the literature of translation studies did not permit making established predictive relationships beforehand for this study. The operationalized definitions have been tested in the form of variables, and the data now supports the strength of the operationalization. However, further research is necessary to test the findings in this study and to improve the proposed model.

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This chapter has also included a section on qualitative data so as to discuss sources of satisfaction and dissatisfaction, as explicitly identified as such by participants.

Many of the sources of satisfaction and dissatisfaction coincide with the findings presented in the Literature Review (Chapter 2) and the Model (Chapter 3). These will be further discussed in the next chapter, which outlines the main findings from this study and some recommendations for further research.

CHAPTER 6

Conclusions

The language industry has been significantly transformed over the last two decades due to rapid advances in information technology and due to the incorporation of sophisticated technology to deal with increasing translation volume. Language service providers (LSPs) have evolved in order to adapt to the increasing volume by adjusting their business practices and translation processes. This has led to the replacement of the traditional translation processes that were designed to handle relatively small and manageable individual jobs by more “industrialized” mass-production methods. A requirement for highly organized division of labor, highly specialized skills and greater process standardization are some of the inevitable consequences of mass-production methods.

For example, as discussed in Chapter 1, language service providers have extensively modified their business processes and organizational dynamics. LSPs have heavily adopted the outsourcing model in order to keep pace with the ever-increasing volume and changing nature of translation tasks. The outsourcing model relies on a large number of highly skilled freelancers and subcontractors who generally work remotely and are virtually managed by a supervisor. The widespread adoption of the outsourcing model has enabled language service providers to keep up with rapid growth and meet customer demands to shorten the project life cycle and reduce costs. However, outsourcing has also potentially prevented language service providers from adopting long

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term business policies that would enhance quality and at the same time develop a skilled and motivated labor force.

The outsourcing paradigm has radically transformed the work environment, with telecommuting, virtual teamwork, minimal face-to-face interaction and a lack of interpersonal relationships becoming very common. This new work environment has resulted in the emergence of new team dynamics in which a project manager or a coordinator plays the role of a mediator linking the translation virtual team to upper management and the end client. Furthermore, evolving industry expectations have reshaped the translator professional profile, with an increasing demand for subject matter expertise, specialization, terminology management skills and project management skills.

The changing work environment, increasing industry expectations and the overwhelming adoption of outsourcing have generally resulted in new and difficult working conditions for translation professionals. This has resulted in dissatisfaction among active translation professionals, especially among freelancers or subcontractors, as the findings from this study suggest.

6.1 Summary of Results

This study presents a thorough and sophisticated instrument that can be used to gauge three facets of translator satisfaction. This study also provides a translator satisfaction model that can be used to comprehend key factors and variables responsible for translator satisfaction or dissatisfaction in the contemporary work environment of the language industry. The main findings from this study are summarized in this section.

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The most significant satisfiers among translation professionals that are identified from descriptive statistical analysis of the data collected through a survey for this study are as follows: successful completion of a project, ability to perform a wide variety of tasks, professional skills of team members, having a continuous and respectful relationship with clients and receiving projects from long term clients. Additionally, translators feel that subject matter expertise is extremely beneficial to their career development.

Most translators state that they take pride in their work and have a strong initiative to learn. Translators agree that knowledge of CAT tools is essential, and subject matter expertise is important to meet deadlines. Furthermore, translators agree that task description accurately indicates the nature of work in most cases. Translators indicate that deadlines are frequently too tight, and that the client often does not understand the localization process. However, translators generally disagree with the need to work faster to accomplish tasks.

Translators are somewhat satisfied with a clear understanding of task scope, clarity of task description, types of tasks, and tasks related to their specialization.

Translators are also somewhat satisfied with terminological complexity and opportunities to work on challenging tasks, and feel satisfied with their contribution toward improving quality. Translators feel somewhat satisfied with the level of responsibility, autonomy as well as empowerment in decision making. Translators feel a sense of satisfaction if they have outstanding offers and if they receive performance appraisals. Translators are generally satisfied with the new nature of the job under the outsourcing model, such as

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schedule flexibility and opportunities to telecommute, and they are also somewhat satisfied with their ability to find a balance between work and personal life. Translators are somewhat satisfied with opportunities to build a direct relationship with the client, client review and client response. Furthermore, translators are generally satisfied with flexibility to accept or reject projects, which can be attributed to the outsourcing model.

Translators seem to be generally familiar with the following file formats that are often encountered in some common tasks: TMX, XLS, DOC, and PPT. However, many translators are not familiar with terminology management file formats as well as relevant conversion files (such as CSV). Translators indicate that they are subject matter experts at least in two areas of specialization. Translators are generally satisfied with their own terminology management skills but feel that they need to update their skills. In fact, translators that specialize in scientific/technical translation (N=90, 90 participants from the data collected for this study) reveal the strongest level of agreement toward the need of updating their skills, followed by translators that specialize in IT and software localization (N=55). A strong agreement toward updating their skills is also expressed by multimedia translators (N=35) and marketing translators (N=73). However, translators indicate that they do not intend to earn more certifications, albeit they acknowledge that it is beneficial to invest in career development. Translators generally believe that they possess a wide variety of skills resulting in a perception of higher job security.

With regards to virtual teamwork, in-house translators working remotely do not consider teamwork as a source of stress, as freelancers generally do. The role of the PM is crucial in understanding translators’ attitude toward the team. In-house translators

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agree that most translation and localization processes are systematized, but freelancers do not share the same perception. In addition, in-house translators are more satisfied with management policies and procedures observed in the work setting, but freelancers show higher levels of dissatisfaction toward management procedures. In-house translators are also more satisfied with communication among team members, and with quick resolution of misunderstandings. Translators indicate a neutral response toward communication being always under control, this can be attributed to subcontracting and virtual teams.

Many translators feel that the PM does not always match skills to project requirements, and indicate a neutral response toward the quality of work they receive from other team members. However, translators show a clear preference for PMs that match skills to project requirements and that show evidence of executing well-planned projects.

With regards to the facet of professional satisfaction, translators’ profiles show that they are highly qualified individuals, with high levels of education and more than one area of specialization. Translation professionals generally show high levels of cultural intelligence and are flexible with schedules and multitasking. Generally speaking, both novices and experts are equally satisfied with the professional skills of team members and all groups acknowledge the benefits of their subject matter expertise in their career. Even though translators identify strongly with the profession, they feel professionally unappreciated. Only experts are satisfied with their role in the industry, and novices indicate being more passionate about their career development than experts.

Novices not only acknowledge the need of having more certifications, but also a higher need to update their skills.

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To summarize, the most significant dissatisfiers among translators are low income, lack of opportunities for raises and frequent requests for discounts. Translators are also dissatisfied with specific aspects of the project manager’s role, including rate negotiation and the lack of influence on upper management. Translators feel professionally unappreciated due to the lack of social recognition of their profession, and many of them express their intent to leave the profession in the near future. Some of these dissatisfiers can be linked to the predominance of the outsourcing model.

6.2 Discussion and Implications of this Study

This section summarizes the answers to the research questions that are listed in

Chapter 1 and subsequently elaborated in Chapter 3. These answers to the research questions are based on the analysis of the data collected from the survey questionnaire.

The key sources of task satisfaction among active translation professionals are identified as task pride, the ability to perform a wide variety of tasks, and successful completion of a project. The key sources of job satisfaction are identified as receiving projects from long-term clients, having a continuous and respectful relationship with clients, and clients’ understanding of the translation and localization process. The key sources of professional satisfaction are identified as subject matter expertise (being beneficial to translators’ career development), possession of social skills and cultural intelligence as part of the professional profile, professional skills of team members, regular reporting of progress and close contacts with experts from the LI. It may be noted that only the most significant sources are listed above, other sources of satisfaction that

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may not be as significant have been discussed in the previous section as well as Chapter

The most significant predictors of task satisfaction identified from the linear regression analysis are: level of professional and communication skills, level of formal education in Translation Studies, amount of subject matter expertise, understanding of task scope and task description, ability to accomplish challenging, and complex tasks and multitasking ability. Technical expertise, feedback and autonomy in decision making are also identified as significant predictors of task satisfaction among current translation professionals.

The most significant predictors of job satisfaction resulting from the linear regression analysis are as follows: opportunities to increase rates, matching of skills to project requirements (by the PM), persuasive skills of the PM and PM’s influence on upper management, with respect to procedures and policies for workflow management.

Some other predictors of job satisfaction are the balance between work and personal life, opportunities for having a flexible schedule and a continuous stream of work, payment terms, performance appreciation, income levels, possession of two or more areas of specialization, availability of client review and client involvement in the translation and localization process as well as effective supervision.

The most significant predictors of professional satisfaction that have been identified from the linear regression analysis are as follows: level of individual identification with the profession, level of professional recognition for the translator, investment in career development, and the level of benefit associated with subject matter

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expertise as being beneficial to career development. Some other predictors of professional satisfaction are outstanding offers, mentoring used as a motivational tool, level of flexibility to accept and reject offers, opportunities to present at conferences, social recognition of the profession as well as the level of professional appreciation.

The main differences between experts and novices that have been identified by using hypothesis testing are as follows: level of task awareness and task familiarity, perceptions that deadlines do not compromise quality, importance of subject matter expertise in meeting deadlines, level of task descriptions, stress resulting from terminological complexity, level of task autonomy, receiving performance appraisal, feeling that deadlines are often too tight, opportunities for having a continuous stream of work, having manageable workload per year, quality of work received from other team members, task appreciation, and understanding of the localization maturity of the end client. Expert and novice responses also differ about satisfaction with payment practices, payment terms, flexibility to accept and reject projects, the role played in the industry, opportunities for career development, passion about career development, professional recognition, receiving projects from a long-term client and attitude toward mentoring.

Experts and novices also reveal significant differences in their level of satisfaction (or dissatisfaction) with the professional skills of team members, PM’s matching of skills to project requirements, supervision, overall virtual teamwork experience, systematization of translation and localization processes, policies and management procedures, quick resolution of misunderstandings, payment terms, and professional appreciation.

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The main differences between full-timers and part-timers are observed in their attitude toward the social recognition of the profession, toward opportunities for networking and to the role they play in the industry. The main differences between in- house translators and freelancers that have been identified from hypothesis testing are observed in their attitude toward being too slow, feeling that deadlines do not compromising quality, clarity of task descriptions, stress caused by terminological complexity, schedule flexibility, attitude toward task deadlines, opportunities for having a continuous stream of work, opportunities for rate and salary increase.

The detailed results from correlation analysis are presented in the Results in

Chapter 5, only the most significant correlations among variables are listed in this section. These are as follows: knowledge of CAT tools being essential to meet deadlines correlates with subject matter expertise as being beneficial to the career; subject matter expertise helps in meeting deadlines correlates with overall task satisfaction; receiving constant feedback correlates with performance appraisal; opportunity to choose new tasks correlates with working on challenging and complex tasks; working on complex tasks correlates with empowerment allowed in tasks; the ability to perform a wide variety of task correlates with overall task satisfaction, and having a continuous stream of work correlates with income. Significant correlations are also observed between the following variables: processes are systematized and rapport with team members; rapport with team members and dynamic relationships; dynamic relationships and flexibility with schedules; management procedures and policies and dynamic relationships; management procedures and policies and the relationship with PM, specialization and technical

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expertise, receiving constant feedback and motivation from successful completion. Some other significant correlations are as follows: perception of improving project quality correlates with overall task satisfaction; having a continuous stream of work correlates with technical expertise; process systematization correlates with the perception of tight deadlines; management procedures and policies correlates with the perception of tight deadlines. Lastly, strong task pride, perception that having a wide variety of skills ensures higher job security, professional skills of team members and being a mentee correlate with overall professional satisfaction; presenting at conferences correlates with technical expertise; presenting at conferences correlates with revenue generated from a positive public image, and involvement in prestigious projects correlates with the flexibility to accept and reject projects.

This study provides a model along with empirical data for the assessment of translator satisfaction or dissatisfaction. No empirical studies on translator satisfaction have been found in the existing literature. Hence, this study represents an initial attempt to establish a new model of translator satisfaction. Descriptive statistics, hypothesis testing, and regression analysis are used in this study in order to discern a wide variety of sources of satisfaction and dissatisfaction among translators. Specific variables have been identified in this study that may be used to enhance satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Key differences are observed among different groups of translators: experts and novices, full- timers and part-timers, freelancers and in-house translators. A correlation analysis is also performed to understand interdependencies between the variables that influence satisfaction.

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With regards to task satisfaction, a general agreement is observed between freelancers and onsite translators as well as between experts and novices that subject matter expertise, understanding of task scope before undertaking the project, and CAT tool familiarity are crucial in order to perform tasks in the current work environment of the language industry. In-house translators are more satisfied with the clarity of task descriptions than freelancers. The findings from this study identify technical expertise, task autonomy (or empowerment given to the translator to make decisions) as well as constant feedback as among the most important predictors that affect translator task satisfaction. Moderate predictors of task satisfaction found from the regression analysis done in this study are formal education in Translation Studies, subject matter expertise and the ability to multitask.

Even though technical expertise has become crucial in order to handle large volume projects because it enables professionals to shorten the project life cycle by automating processes and by allowing the systematic reuse of content, Esselink (2003) has argued that a trend toward technical simplicity may emerge in the near future. The data collected in this study does not directly allow for understanding this trend in the current work environment. The findings from this study, however, reveal translators’ low levels of familiarity and low frequency of usage of many CAT-tool formats. This indicates a lack of training in using files that are considered to be relevant to create or modify files, and to perform day-to-day tasks related to the current work environment in the language industry. Subject matter expertise and formal education in Translation

Studies are also becoming increasingly essential in the translator profile in order to

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accomplish an increasingly wide variety of tasks. Task autonomy increases task commitment, thus enhancing the establishment of shared goals and the level of satisfaction related to the nature of the task. Feedback is a key component of the learning process since it provides a translator with an opportunity for professional growth and self-fulfillment. The findings from this study, therefore, confirm that the aforementioned sources of task satisfaction, when aligned with individual expectations, can become intrinsic satisfiers that contribute to the translator knowledge. This can enrich the self- concept of a translation professional, and may also mediate the impact of external dissatisfiers.

The study of the facet of job satisfaction among active translation professionals has revealed the existence of some satisfiers, but it has also highlighted numerous dissatisfiers. Client review is found to be the strongest predictor of job satisfaction, followed by such moderate predictors as a continuous stream of work, specialization, performance appreciation and income. Specialization has become necessary in the current work environment under the outsourcing paradigm in order to ensure a continuous stream of work, and it can be argued that client review is a strong predictor because it provides the translator with an opportunity to further increase his/her task awareness and learn about client requirements and needs. Conversely, having a continuous stream of work and client review are not identified as dissatisfiers by onsite translators.

However, such dissatisfiers as the lack of opportunities for rate increases, payment practices and payment terms, as well as constant requests for discounts are the highest inhibitors of job satisfaction. These dissatisfiers are particularly observed among

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freelancers, and the lack of rate increases, in particular, is leading to a higher turnover.

In-house translators, on the other hand, do not encounter these satisfiers; they are found in this study to be satisfied with payment terms and the general working conditions. This can be attributed to the fact that they have higher job security and additional job benefits.

However, it may be pointed out that onsite translators represent a small minority among currently active translation professionals.

Among the group of freelancers, the findings from this study suggest that translators are highly dissatisfied with the lack of well laid out policies and procedures among language service providers, in addition to clients’ lack of understanding of the translation process. Increasing efforts directed toward process standardization and workflow management have become all the more necessary under the current outsourcing paradigm. Results from this study suggest that there is a general perception of lack of business processes or procedures to manage communication and the overall translation process. Many survey respondents in this study attributed these dissatisfiers to the lack of planning or control from the project manager, to uncontrolled communication, and to the mismatch between project requirements and the skills of team members.

Interestingly, results from this study suggest that freelancers have had positive experiences with virtual teamwork and are generally satisfied with the skills of other team members, but results indicate that freelancers feel stressed in the virtual work environment due to a lack of control over the communication workflow from the supervisor or the project manager, dissatisfiers that can be clearly linked to the emergence of the outsourcing model. Onsite translators, on the other hand, are generally

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satisfied with management as well as the systematization of translation processes. The higher level of satisfaction of onsite translators is also observed in their satisfaction with the role of the project manager as well as their satisfaction with the clarity of task descriptions. With regards to workflow management and systematization of the translation process, further understanding of the role of the project manager becomes crucial because the greater the project complexity, the greater the need for dedicated management. Therefore, further research is necessary in order to comprehend key differences or predictors of satisfaction and dissatisfaction in work environments with different translation processes. Before we can make strong generalized conclusions about workflow management and process systematization, it may be useful to understand existing differences with regards to the various variables between translators working for

LSPs versus translators working directly with end clients.

Additionally, the findings from this study reveal that experts are often allowed by clients or language service providers to choose their teams, and thus they can be selective and work with companies that demonstrate efficient management approaches and match their professional expectations. Freelancers are concerned about the influence of deadlines on quality, and they are generally dissatisfied with deadlines that are provided to them by language service providers. These findings attest to an urgent need for a revision of the translation workflow and the creation of standards (or revision of existing ones) for enhancing project management efficiency. This is important since it will allow translation professionals to strike a balance between quality and deadlines.

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The findings from this study reveal large differences of opinion between experts and novices. Unlike experts, the responses from novices yield the highest number of dissatisfiers. Experts show higher levels of satisfaction than novices in most aspects of the work environment. Experts, as expected, also show higher levels of self-efficacy. This provides them with the ability and willingness to take on new tasks and undertake new roles as well as to perform a wider variety of tasks that meet their expectations for self- actualization. Furthermore, experts also enjoy complex tasks, and they are generally not concerned about the influence of deadlines on quality, and terminological complexity does not stress them out. In addition, experts have a continuous stream of work and a more manageable workload, thus they are more satisfied with their job security, income and payment terms. Experts have years of experience that provide them with a feeling of task familiarity, helping them in undertaking more responsibility. This in turn allows them to have a higher involvement and empowerment in decision making, and to succeed in task and project completion, which results in a higher job satisfaction.

Additionally, experts express a very high level of professional satisfaction. The data collected in this study suggests that experts feel a higher level of professional recognition, since their role in the industry meets their professional expectations. Experts often work more directly with the client and often receive project offers from long-term clients or have outstanding job offers, a situation that motivates them intrinsically.

Experts can afford to accept and reject projects, allowing them to strike a better balance between work and personal life, and allowing them to have more flexible schedules. As the data collected for this study suggests, strong predictors of professional satisfaction

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among experts include a strong identification with the profession, a feeling of enjoyment from their work, and a perception that they are seeing a return from their professional image as a result of being well-known in the industry. Since experts see a higher generation of revenue from their involvement in the profession, their responses to the survey questions for this study reveal a higher level of involvement in professional organizations and conferences, being involved in mentoring, etc. Lastly, a general agreement toward professional dissatisfaction is found in the data that indicates a perceived lack of respect or recognition for translators due to constant requests for discounts and poor practices involved with requesting discounts during translator recruiting.

It is important to bridge this large satisfaction gap between experts and novices since it is necessary to nurture young professionals so that they do not change professions due to the emergence of high levels of dissatisfaction. The question is whether there are ways that can be used to help in overcoming the experience gap between novices and experts, and whether we can reduce the effects of dissatisfiers early in a career, so that translators can stay in the profession long enough to reap the “satisfaction” benefits that experience and expertise brings.

This result can be achieved, at least partly, by improved training initiatives and by increasing the “professionalization” of the language industry in order to accelerate the development of technical and professional expertise among inexperienced translators.

Three solutions that employers and recruiters can adopt are increasing training

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opportunities, enhancing opportunities to pursue formal education in Translation Studies, and encouraging mentoring of young professionals.

The outsourcing model that is widely prevalent in the current language industry is inflexible and does not allow for training the labor force since it is not generally cost- effective to do so, and since training freelancers does not fit within organizational objectives. Because the language industry is in a state of flux and since the nature of translation tasks has been changing, language service providers and translation clients are pushed to hire translators who are readily available and “productive” at the time of hire.

This population seems to be in short supply. Thus, novice translators are under pressure to make time for their career development and continuously upgrade their skills in order to remain competitive. Yet, although the market demands “work ready” translators, novice translators often have to undertake their own training without any organizational support, and often at their own expense. The language industry, therefore, will have to settle into an equilibrium in order to resolve the mismatch between what it wants, and what it needs. This is important in order to put mechanisms in place that will continue to provide a trained and capable labor force. This area of mismatch is a major source of dissatisfaction among less experienced translators in the current industry environment.

The need for training also becomes apparent from the data collected for this study.

A general agreement between experts, novices, and freelancers is found that emphasizes on the need to work faster and on the importance of CAT tools in meeting deadlines. In fact, novices are much more concerned about tight deadlines than experts. However, the survey also found that freelancers agree that investing in career development in

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translation is not profitable, even though freelancer responses indicate familiarity with a very limited number of sources file formats and CAT tools. In other words, the labor force recognizes the importance of technical expertise in order to perform the job, but has not recognized the need for pursuing it, as evidenced by their lack of familiarity with the tools and increasingly common file formats. The industry needs to provide more opportunities to train professionals in CAT tools and in order to learn file formats that are considered to be crucial to perform tasks or to handle larger volumes; more importantly the industry needs to motivate translators to seek out such training opportunities. A mismatch between industry needs, translator capabilities and opportunities for training can result in high dissatisfaction, and even in high turnover.

Thus, increasing technical expertise can be considered to be an enhancer of task and professional satisfaction. As the data from this study indicates, the ability to perform a wider variety of tasks (common among the expert group) results in higher task and professional satisfaction. Also, the expertise effect equates with higher levels of self- efficacy. This explains, for instance, why experts indicate a neutral response toward the lack of clarity on tasks descriptions. They do not seem to rely on detailed task descriptions as much as novices do. Experts have a greater metacognitive knowledge that helps them to compensate for sketchy or ambiguous task descriptions. They also have a better understanding of task scope that is necessary for successful task completion.

Broadly speaking, the need for more training becomes evident from the pessimism expressed by novices. Many responses from novices in the survey conducted for this study express dissatisfaction toward their ability to find a new job if they leave

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their current one. Moreover, their pessimism is expressed in their feeling that they do not consider the language industry to be a viable career option in the long term. The data suggests that a novice’s perceived and actual lack of professional experience, limited task familiarity and inability to adjust readily to current demands of the emerging work environment are powerful and negative influences. This is not an unexpected result, but one that needs to be addressed in an industry that pushes, even demands, ever higher levels of expertise from its work force. To overcome the supply problems of a small pool of experienced translators, there needs to be a concerted effort toward finding ways to

“push” the development of expertise downwards to younger and less experienced translators more quickly through training, certification or qualification initiatives. Such initiatives are also expected to mitigate the dissatisfaction that drives many novices out of the labor force before they can become more experienced.

There are very few academic institutions or professional associations that provide a thorough training on CAT tools, and often the training offered does not meet the schedule of a working professional, or the training may not be sufficient to reach the high level of technical expertise that clients require. The lack of variety in existing certifications and the lack of recognition for the available certifications seems to frustrate translators, since translators acknowledge that they are passionate about career development, but that they are not willing (or able) to invest in earning more certifications.

It needs to be pointed out that there is a lack of a standardized curriculum in

Translation Studies, and there is no clear agreement on the specific number of credits that

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should be devoted to tools, language skills or other professional skills. Thus, some institutions might have integrated CAT tools, terminology management as well as localization coursework in the curriculum, whereas other institutions offering the same degree might be offering a completely different set of courses. Most of the academic curriculum offered currently prepares students mainly in the linguistic and cultural aspects of the translation practice. It should be emphasized that academic institutions can play a key role in accelerating the expertise effect by adjusting the existing coursework and teaching a combination of tools and applications to their graduating students that can prepare the students better for the industry environment.

There are an increasing number of skills that have to be incorporated into the learning process in order to ensure that translation students meet industry expectations and are better prepared for the work environment. In addition to the specific skills necessary to accomplish translation tasks, the data collected for this study also suggests the need for enhancing professional and communication skills. These skills include general social skills such as face-to-face communication and skills associated with negotiation and persuasion. Professional abilities that enable the translator to interact with and understand the needs of the end client have become increasingly important. In addition, the ability to report progress regularly, the flexibility to multitask, the ability to schedule flexibly and adjust to continuous change will be increasingly required. These new skills and abilities are crucial in addition to the more technical skills discussed previously. Some of these abilities are associated with cultural intelligence, emotional intelligence, and with leadership skills in general. If these social and communicative

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abilities can somehow be fostered in the curriculum, the data suggests that they can help novices to be better prepared for effective participation in the labor force. They can more effectively participate in the professional and intercultural communication of virtual teamwork. By providing opportunities to develop such skills earlier, some of the sources of communicative and professional dissatisfaction can be mitigated.

The data collected in this study also suggests that experts are intrinsically motivated, and most predictors of satisfaction come from the intrinsic sources of satisfaction found in the facets of task and professional satisfaction. Thus, new retention strategies that enhance human capital by reinforcing intrinsic satisfiers that enrich the self-concept and self-actualization are strongly recommended. Offering the opportunity to learn at work (and from work) via mentoring seems to be the most viable option at the moment under the current circumstances of work environments in the language industry.

Specifically in translation, where the small size of the qualified labor pool has hindered the growth of the profession, combined with the limited number of training opportunities, employers can invest in retention strategies that reinforce long-term business relationships via mentoring. Mentoring seems to be the most feasible approach, since it is cost-effective for employers, recruiters and managers.

The data collected in the survey for this study seems to provide a general agreement among translators that mentoring can be used as a motivational tool.

Mentoring increases task appreciation (feelings of being appreciated as the result of task performance) because it provides opportunities for positive and constructive feedback.

The findings conclude that translators feel higher levels of satisfaction if they receive

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feedback on task performance and that mentoring can be used as an extremely valuable tool. However, the outsourcing model does not lend itself easily to the incorporation of mentoring approaches.

Another possible justification for mentoring is that it can, to some extent, make up for the lack of supervision. Findings indicate that onsite translators are more satisfied with supervision, thus the extent and quality of supervision can be associated with satisfaction. Close and effective supervision has more or less vanished with the new outsourcing model, and so, mentoring can be introduced as an alternative to make up for the declining levels of supervision. Mentors can undertake some of the roles of the supervisor in motivating and managing the virtual team. The data collected in this study justifies the role of mentoring as an alternative to supervision, with a focus on the need to build strong relationships and achieve higher levels of satisfaction which are commonly found among onsite translators with regards to interpersonal relationships, dynamic team collaboration and team cohesion. The data points out that ways to deal with virtual teams are still being “discovered,” therefore, suggesting a need to build alternative mechanisms that can provide workers with sources of task and job satisfaction.

Mentoring can also provide an enriching opportunity to build the leadership skills that facilitates group interactions. Intergroup conflict may exist constantly or occur only sporadically; how much conflict occurs and how it is handled depends on the level of management and leadership ability of the team leader or the PM. Effective leaders are expected to have processes in place to deal with misunderstandings and conflicts. In the

LI, controlling the communication workflow is essential to avoid conflict, and in order to

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do so, structured interactions have become all the more necessary in the virtual work environment. Additionally, with an increasing trend toward self-managing work teams, teams may become dysfunctional. For successful self-managed teams, team planning, team set up, team support as well as clear direction, task autonomy and skill diversity of team members have become key measures of project success that have to be developed via feedback or mentoring opportunities.

Feedback is a powerful motivational tool since it is one of the key factors of promoting lifelong learning at work. Providing feedback on actions allows workers to effectively determine the ways by which they can improve their performance. Feedback mediates the relationship between achievement, motivation and performance. Receiving feedback increases a translator’s feelings of perceived contribution and significance to the task and the project. Although there is no clear consensus among scholars about the role of feedback, it is generally agreed to have a very positive effect on performance and learning, and therefore on levels of satisfaction.

Feedback, as mentioned earlier, can be provided via mentoring. But it can also occur through client review and feedback on translation samples. The data collected for this study suggests that experts are more satisfied with feedback on translation samples.

Likewise, onsite translators indicate higher levels of satisfaction toward translation samples than freelancers. Onsite translators see this component as a crucial opportunity to receive feedback and learn at work. Also, as the results suggest, client review can be considered as an opportunity for feedback as well as an opportunity for client involvement.

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Mentoring and feedback are, therefore, proposed as a primary approach to retain skilled workers. During mentoring, workers are learning, and this opportunity to learn has a strong positive effect on satisfaction and retention. Mentoring and feedback can be used to reduce turnover and feelings of “intent to quit.” Therefore, it is important to stress that using mentoring as a motivational approach for worker retention and for enhancement of sources of intrinsic motivation for work satisfaction seems to be a very valid and effective solution to the lack of training opportunity in the current work environment of the language industry.

6.3 Contributions of this Study

The main contribution of this study is the creation of an empirical model that enhances understanding of the main predictors of translator satisfaction in the current language industry, which have not been previously discussed in the literature. Data collected in this study has been used to test a wide variety of research questions in order to determine the main sources of satisfaction derived from tasks, from the work environment as well as from the profession. Significant findings have resulted from the extensive post-processing of the data, allowing the development of the translator satisfaction construct. In the construct of translator satisfaction the findings suggest strong relationships among some variables of study, thus confirming the validity and reliability of the measurement of the factors. Some factors have been grouped together and the findings have supported the hypothesized relationships among these factors.

Furthermore, extensive use of statistical analysis has allowed this study to quantify many of the findings or the conclusions.

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The strength of the proposed empirical design suggests its possible application to future studies of the trends in the language industry. The strength of the empirical design has been justified in the Results in Chapter 5, especially from the regression models that yielded a high value of adjusted R2, a high value of the F statistic as well as a low value of standard error (SE). All these metrics indicate the validity of the proposed regression models.

Another significant contribution of this study is the creation of an extensive instrument in order to assess translator satisfaction. The design of a reliable instrument for data collection is a daunting task since no other instrument on satisfaction in the language industry has been previously developed, especially in order to comprehend the challenges of outsourcing and a dynamic work environment. The instrument has been capable of collecting consistent data that has been subsequently used for hypothesis testing. In fact, one of the highlights of the instrument developed for this study is the creation of direct and indirect measures for many variables. One such measure of technical expertise allowed the identification of contradictions in participants’ self- reporting.

Even though the high coefficient of variation (COV) for many responses to survey questions indicates significant variability in the data, this may be justified through sampling representativeness. Since the number of onsite translators is very limited and since the education levels, skills, work environments and backgrounds of language professionals are very broad, high variability can be expected from such a survey. Even though the ratio of freelancers to in-house translators who participated in the survey for

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this study is similar to the ratios commonly mentioned in the literature, the sample representativeness of the group of in-house translators can be improved in future studies.

This is because the number of in-house translators who contributed to the survey for this study was limited to around 20% of the entire population of participants.

The strength of the instrument is confirmed with a high response rate. Even though the instrument is long, participants appreciated the quality and depth of the research. Even though a high participation rate contributed to statistical validity, a large number of variables and data, conversely, led to a complex and daunting post-processing analysis. In fact, the high number of variables limited the scope of post-processing and prevented the use of a more sophisticated regression analysis that could have captured more interaction effects. The large number of variables also limited the extensive use of correlation analysis. Refinement of the proposed model might lead to reducing the number of factors and variables, wherever possible, by collapsing similar factors into broader categories.

6.4 Limitations of this Study

One of the limitations of this study results from the lack of accuracy in self- reporting. Data collection for this study consisted of a survey questionnaire that includes participants’ individual responses. The subjectivity inherent in self-reporting measurements may be misleading, since participants may arbitrarily select the answers.

The survey questionnaire designed for this study has attempted to overcome this limitation by incorporating direct and indirect questions into the instrument, wherever possible. However, this has also resulted in the survey questionnaire being too lengthy.

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The model proposed in this study is conceptual and is based on the literature from

Industrial and Organization Psychology, data collected in the field of Management

Studies, and research conducted on the trends in the current language industry. The model presented in this study, therefore, is a first attempt toward understanding translator satisfaction and is by no means conclusive. Further research is necessary in order to understand the validity of specific variables proposed in this study, and to further comprehend the role of these variables toward the study of each facet of translator satisfaction. It may be noted that the model presented in this study is not predictive by itself, although the regression analysis allows a possible identification of certain variables that can be used as predictors of satisfaction. The predictors chosen for regression analysis that are used in this study are based on relevant literature on task, job and professional satisfaction as well as from case studies reported from the literature in the language industry. However, these predictors may not be unique. This shortcoming can be overcome by performing hypothesis testing and residual analysis to check model adequacy and statistical significance, as has been done for one regression model in this dissertation. This needs to be studied further along with various regression analyses conducted on data from controlled groups in multiple work environments in order to ensure that the regression models are robust and in order to make conclusive comments about the validity of the conceptual model as well as the regression models presented in this dissertation.

It may also be argued that many other variables related to economic, sociological, cultural or ethnographic circumstances can be added to the conceptual as well as

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regression models of satisfaction. Such variables have not been included in this study since the focus of this study is limited to variables closely related to the translation work environment. However, the influence of such variables can be assessed in future studies of satisfaction among language professionals.

Another limitation of the proposed model is the inability to assess cross-cultural applicability. The methodology adopted in this dissertation did not allow for any study of cultural differences among the respondents in any work environment. This will need to be further studied by including relevant ethnographic variables in the model.

Sample representativeness of the data collected for this study through the survey questionnaire may not be sufficient to make conclusive remarks about the entire language industry. Although every attempt has been made in this study to collect an extensive amount of data, further work is required to gather data from specific groups of professionals in the language industry in order to draw definitive conclusions, and in order to improve upon the model proposed in this study. It is acknowledged that a sample size of 250 translation professionals from different countries and with varying technical backgrounds may not be enough to prove or disprove hypotheses laid out in this study.

However, the use of multiple statistical techniques allows this study to quantify some of the findings with specific confidence levels.

The conceptual model used for this study consisted of a very high number of variables. This resulted in constraining the post-processing and analysis of the data, thereby limiting the ability to perform detailed and more sophisticated regression analysis. The high number of variables also resulted in a long questionnaire for survey

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participants, leading to an increasing level of participant fatigue among survey respondents. This can be overcome in future studies by eliminating some of the variables that were found to be insignificant in this study.

Software limitations constrained this study in some ways. The data collection process was accomplished entirely online via a commercially available software package which offered templates that constrained the quantification in specific ways. This could be overcome with a customized product for survey research.

It may also be noted that the term “facet” has been specifically defined for the purposes of this study and may not be consistent with the traditional use of the term in other disciplines such as Knowledge Management. Therefore, this study does not imply any hierarchical relationship among the facets of task, job and professional satisfaction, as it might have been established in theories related to other disciplines.

Lastly, it may be noted that the findings from the model used in this study are limited to the current trends observed in the work environment of the language industry.

These trends have been widely prevalent for the last two decades. However, many trends currently observed in the profession may vary and, therefore, significantly influence the work environment and the corresponding nature of the job and the tasks in the near future. This will limit the application of the model proposed in this study, which will require modifications in order to be relevant to the working conditions prevailing in the industry.

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6.5 Recommendations for Further Research

A further extension of this research can be accomplished via data collection at a specific venue or institute where the work environment is controlled and some variables are blocked. This approach would allow for the further investigation of differences between specific work environments, such as onsite and offsite. The findings could be integrated to ascertain the most common best practices, and more conclusive statements could be made on how to motivate the labor force. These practices could be integrated in a new theory of satisfaction and be used by employers and recruiters as new approaches to retention as well as in the development of new training initiatives.

A natural extension of the work done in this study would be a more detailed regression analysis that examines the interaction effects of the predictors of translator satisfaction and dissatisfaction. This analysis, however, requires a controlled group of participants with a small number of variables. This study will be done as an extension of the work presented in this dissertation as part of future research.

This dissertation hopes to emphasize that speaking two languages and having some level of cultural intelligence is not sufficient to become an active translation professional, but that proper training and certification are as important for translation professionals as they are for any other high-skill profession. This argument is supported by the data collected in this study which suggests that a high level of technical expertise is becoming necessary to undertake high volume projects with stringent quality requirements and tight deadlines. The possession of technical expertise as early as

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possible in the career path will serve the industry well and at the same time enhance the level of satisfaction (task, job, professional) of the translator.

Professionals in the language industry are generally highly qualified and highly skilled. This statement is substantiated by the data collected in this study. This human capital is an extremely crucial component of the language industry that cannot be ignored. Thus, it is extremely important to comprehend the satisfiers and dissatisfiers of translation professionals at all stages of their careers and in different work environments in order to implement policies that enhance satisfaction and keep translators motivated.

This will allow language service providers or employers to retain and build their labor force in the most rational way, therefore reducing the high costs of recruiting and re- training new employees as a result of high turnover due to dissatisfaction. This will also increase productivity in the industry due to higher levels of motivation and higher levels of employee engagement and commitment.

Despite all the technological advances, a highly skilled labor force remains a crucial component of the language industry that needs to be nurtured and kept motivated in order to meet the increasing demands of high quality and improved productivity. As suggested in this study, a highly-qualified labor force seeks and needs intrinsic motivators that help the individuals to achieve higher levels of self-fulfillment. That, in turn, results in higher levels of task, job and professional satisfaction.

APPENDIX A

Survey Questionnaire

Question Answer Consent Yes, I agree to the above consent form and wish to proceed. No

Question Answers Female Identify your gender Male Yes Is translation your primary source of income? No Episodic Is your work episodic or constant? Constant When you are very active in the language industry, how many hours do you work per week? When you are very active in the industry, how many words do you translate (or edit, or proofread, etc.) per day?

Question Answers What is your primary An in-house (salaried) translator work setting? A freelancer or subcontractor A salaried translator working remotely Owner of an agency or LSP (sole-proprietorship) Owner of an agency or LSP with employees

(non-sole-proprietorship) Subcontractor, translation-related job as a second

job

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Question Answers Which services do you provide? Translation Editing Proofreading Terminology management

Desktop publishing Software engineering-related activities Other(s). Specify:

Question Answers Do you have any of the following Certificate in Translation Studies degrees? Bachelor’s Degree in Translation

Studies Master’s Degree in Translation

Studies PhD Non-translation related degree: Bachelor’s Degree Master’s Degree PhD

Professional School Degree Other Degree. Please specify: If more than one degree, please specify fields. Specify country Professional certifications. Select ATA one option: Medical interpreting Court Interpreting SDL Trados Localization TILP ACC PMI PMP CAMP Project management. Other? Specify: Sworn translator (e.g., Ministry of

Foreign Affairs) Other professional certification. Please

specify:

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Question Answers What describes your average income per year from the language industry (in $75,000 or more USD)? $50,000 to $75,000 $30,000to $50,000

$15,000 to $30,000 I do not want to answer this question

Question Answers Do you have a dedicated bank account in the name of your Yes business? No

Question Answers How much volume do you handle per year? +1,000,000 words 500,000 - 1,000,000 words 100,000 - 500,000 words

50,000 - 100,000 words 0 - 50,000 words

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Question Answers Do you specialize in one or more fields? Commercial or Business Select all that apply Diplomatic Financial Government Journalistic Legal Manufacturing Marketing, tourism Medical, pharmaceutical, public health Multimedia, audiovisual, cinema

Patents Software translation, videogames, gambling, IT Technical/Scientific Literary Other domain. Please specify: Human rights, international affairs, development Education, arts, history, social sciences

Yes Do you use CAT tools (TM, termbase, etc.)? No Do you have specific training on CAT tools Yes (i.e. TM, terminology management, programming, etc)? No

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How familiar are you with the following CAT tool file format?

Question Very Somewhat Neither familiar nor Somewhat No idea familiar familiar ignorant ignorant

CSV TMX TBX XLIFF DITA

How familiar are you with the following source files?

Question Very Somewhat Neither familiar Somewhat No idea familiar familiar nor ignorant ignorant DOC XLS HPR or HPJ MIF PSD XML DWG INX PPT DXF TIFF TOC

How often do you receive the above mentioned source files?

Question Very often Often Once in a while Rarely Never

Question Answers Are you comfortable interacting with non-native speakers who have an Yes accent? No

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Are you generally satisfied with the following?

Question Very Somewhat Neither Somewhat Dissatisfied satisfied satisfied satisfied nor dissatisfied dissatisfied

Quality of source texts Project manager’s help with software troubleshooting (i.e. problems with termbase or TM) Client review Availability of reference materials and other resources

(TM, etc) necessary for the project

Quality of work you receive from other team members Direct relationship with clients Clarity of task descriptions Communication with members of the team Level of participation and empowerment allowed in tasks or projects (e.g. for improving quality or changing processes) Your own terminology management skills Your level of subject matter expertise Type of tasks you are involved with

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Are you generally satisfied with the following?

Question Very Somewhat Neither Somewhat Dissatisfied satisfied satisfied satisfied dissatisfied nor dissatisfied Level of autonomy given to make decisions Working on challenging and complex tasks Opportunity to choose new tasks or role Working on the tasks of your specialization Terminological complexity Your ability to perform a wide variety of tasks Your understanding of the scope of a task before undertaking the task Matching the skills of team members to project requirements (LSPs you work for, your boss) Orientation or training received in new position or new tasks Feedback on translation samples Having a continuous stream of work Task deadlines

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Question Answers Yes Are you willing to work overtime or during weekends? No Yes Do you report progress regularly to project manager or supervisor? No

Question Answers Do you feel comfortable with eye contact while communicating Yes face-to-face or via webcam? No Have you seen evidence that the PM influences upper management Yes (of the client and/or the LSP)? No Favorite clients How long have you been doing business with the following? Favorite LSPs or (Optional) agencies Favorite employers What motivates you the most in your working environment? Do you maintain close contact with other translators (using LinkedIn, Facebook, professional organizations, online fora)? Yes Do you attend to workshops, courses, or training sessions? No Yes Do you attend conferences? No Do you present at conferences? Yes No Yes Do you present training sessions or workshops? No Yes Can mentoring be a motivational tool? No Maybe Yes Are you planning on earning more certifications? No Yes Do you intend to leave the profession in the near future? Why? No Maybe

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Almost done! Do you generally agree with the following?

Question Very Agree Neither Disagree Very much moderately agree nor moderately much agree disagree disagree I feel that my voice is heard within the team Team work stresses me out I can choose the team with whom I want to work I feel I improve the quality of the whole project Usually misunderstandings with PM and team members are solved quickly, smoothly, and efficiently I feel I make a great contribution to the team In most LSPs, the translation/localization process is systematized I can afford to choose with whom I work (e.g. agencies) My subject matter expertise helps me meet deadlines Knowledge of CAT tools is essential to meet my deadlines My subject matter expertise in other fields has been beneficial to my career I feel that deadlines do not compromise quality My relationship with the client is continuous and respectful I can afford to have a flexible schedule I feel I have a manageable workload per year

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LSPs that I work with solve any misunderstandings with client smoothly Knowing that I have outstanding offers motivates me (e.g., working for a new employer at any time I want) Completing a complex project successfully motivates me Mentoring is helpful for my career I feel that I get paid a fair amount for the work I do (i.e. rates, labor per hour, salary) I feel I am too slow, and that I should be working faster I believe that clients expect too much

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Do you agree with the following?

Question Very Agree Neither Disagree Very much moderately agree nor moderately much agree disagree disagree My schedule allows me to participate in professional development initiatives I think it is profitable to invest in professional development in translation I feel unappreciated professionally when I am asked to drop my rates My current role in translation meets my professional expectations I should not be responsible for my own career development I feel that I have multiple skills, thus a higher job security I am passionate about my career development I find value in maintaining

ATA membership I identify strongly with my profession

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Are you generally satisfied with the following?

Question Very Somewhat Neither Somewhat Dissatisfied satisfied satisfied satisfied nor dissatisfied dissatisfied Dynamic team collaboration (usually team members help each other) Working in virtual teams Team members’ flexibility with schedules Specific processes in place to deal with misunderstandings in team Project manager provides reference materials and other resources (Style guide, TM, termbase, etc) necessary to complete the task Receiving answers to my questions about client’s expectations or deliverables Professional skills of team members (communication skills, clear language, delivering on time, etc.) Responsibilities associated with my role Receiving constant feedback and project updates Rapport and relationships with fellow team members Relationship with coordinator or project manager

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Sales or other service- related activities (other responsibilities outside translation, editing, etc.)

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Are you generally satisfied with the following?

Question Very Somewhat Neither Somewhat Dissatisfied satisfied satisfied satisfied nor dissatisfied dissatisfied Team members’ flexibility to multitask or switch roles Receiving new projects from a long-term client Effective supervision Close supervision (i.e. manager or coordinator) Appreciation or performance appraisal Monetary incentives or rewards outside normal remuneration Management procedures and policies Remuneration (e.g., rates, salary) Pay practices Payment terms Balance between work

& personal life Policies for working remotely (from home) or telecommuting Multitasking (changing tasks, or I can be a translator in one project, and be an editor in another, etc.) Requests for discounts

or lower rates Opportunities for rate

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increase or salary increase Communication with people from other cultures General communication between team members (e.g. numerous emails circulating among team members, without copying the PM)

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Are you generally satisfied with the following?

Question Very Somewhat Neither Somewhat Dissatisfied satisfied satisfied satisfied nor dissatisfied dissatisfied Experience of networking or talking to experts in translation Knowing the client is included in Fortune 500 list Generating revenue from my positive public image Opportunities for skill or career development Being involved in prestigious projects Flexibility to accept or reject projects Experience in which I was the mentor Memberships in associations Experience of being mentored People know me professionally Social recognition of my profession

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Do you generally agree with the following?

Question Very Agree Neither Disagree Very much much moderately agree nor moderately disagree agree disagree When there is something new to learn, I take the initiative I take pride in my work I feel that I should update my skills Project managers are good at convincing me I feel that my job is stressful I am flexible and able to adjust to continuous changes and innovations in the project Project managers I work with show too little interest in changing the process Project managers I work with have the ability to change the process I feel appreciated when project management offers me a lower rate, but reiterates his/her preference to assign me to the project I prefer to work with managers or coordinators who make a good effort to match skills of team member with project requirements I attempt to understand and gather information about localization maturity levels or business capabilities of the end client (i.e. business processes of the end client)

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I like when the project manager controls the flow of communication between team members It is apparent to me when the client does not clearly understand the translation process I only accept projects from LSPs who have proven to be well-planned Typically, task descriptions accurately reflect the true nature of the work to be completed I feel I can convince the project manager, the client or my boss about the necessity of action Terminological complexity stresses me out Deadlines are often too tight

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Question Answers How likely is it that you will find a new job if you Very likely leave your current one? Likely Moderately likely Unlikely Very unlikely How likely is it that you will take new roles or new Very likely tasks in a completely new working environment? Likely Moderately likely

Unlikely Very unlikely Very satisfied Somewhat satisfied Overall, how satisfied are you with your role in the Neither satisfied nor industry? dissatisfied Somewhat dissatisfied Dissatisfied Very satisfied Somewhat satisfied Overall, how satisfied are you with the tasks or Neither satisfied nor activities that you perform? dissatisfied Somewhat dissatisfied Dissatisfied Very satisfied Somewhat satisfied Neither satisfied nor Overall, how satisfied are you professionally? dissatisfied Somewhat dissatisfied Dissatisfied Thank you very much for your time!If you want to receive a gift card, you will be asked to enter your Done. End of survey email address in the next page. Good luck. Please send me a gift Please write your email address below: card

APPENDIX B

IRB Documentation – Recruitment Message, Informed Consent and Approval

Research participants invited!

Hello! My name is Monica Rodriguez. I am a doctoral candidate at Kent State University. I am conducting a study that will help me collect data for my dissertation. I am studying sources and foci of feelings of satisfaction in the language industry.

Are you a satisfied translator? The survey measures levels of satisfaction participants feel regarding their professional lives, current job, current tasks, or current roles in the language industry. I need responses from translators, localizers, terminologists, editors, proofreaders, technical writers, DTP specialists, multimedia translators, etc. who *are active professionals* as defined below:

- working onsite or offsite; - salaried or as a subcontractor (freelancer); - working part time or full time (translation can be your primary, secondary or tertiary source of income).

If you are a translation professional who receives all or some of your income from the language industry, I would greatly appreciate 20 minutes of your time. Please click on the following link ------(or cut and paste it onto your internet browser) to have access to the study. A gift card of $5 will be sent to the first fifty participants as a gesture of appreciation.

Thank you very much in advance,

Saludos,

Mónica R.

401

402

Kent State University Institutional Review Board

Informed Consent to Participate in a Research Study

Study Title: Elements of Task, Job, and Professional Satisfaction in the Language Industry: An Empirical Model

Principal Investigator: Monica Rodriguez You are being invited to participate in a survey for the study listed above. This consent form will provide you with information on the research project and related details on what you are expected to do, and the associated risks and benefits of the research. Participation in the survey is completely voluntary. Thank you very much in advance for your consideration and participation.

Purpose This is a survey about satisfaction. The survey measures satisfaction level in the participants’ professional lives, current job, current tasks or current roles (translator, editor, terminologist, etc.) in the language industry. If you decide to participate in this study, you will assign a ranking to your response to each question that reflects how strongly (or otherwise) you feel about certain aspects of your job, your tasks and your profession.

Procedures The procedure involves filling an online survey that will take approximately 20 minutes. Your responses will be completely confidential and no identification information such as the participant’s name or IP address will be collected. Questions on the survey are related to your translations, your specialization, expertise, relationships with the client or your project managers, remuneration, deadlines, etc.

Participants in the Study Participants in the study are translation professionals who receive an income from the language industry. The target group includes, but is not limited to, translators, localizers, terminologists, editors, proofreaders, technical writers, DTP specialists, multimedia translators, etc. If you decide to participate, you must: - be an active professional who translates and/or proofreads and/or edits, etc.; - be working onsite or offsite; - be salaried or a subcontractor (freelancer); - be working part time or full time (translation can be your primary, secondary or tertiary source of income).

Benefits As an informant, this research may not benefit you directly. However, your participation in this study is valuable and will help us to better understand the translation profession and the sources of professional, job and task satisfaction. Your participation will also offer you the opportunity to contribute to the advancement of knowledge and research in Translation Studies, Human Resource Management and Occupational Psychology. Only the first 50 participants will receive a $5 gift card as a token of appreciation. After you complete the survey, you will be transferred to a new website. You will also be asked to write a valid e-mail address in order to receive an electronic coupon.

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Risks and Discomforts No risks are anticipated since no sensitive questions are included in the survey. The online survey is designed so that participants can proceed without answering every question. Participants will be provided a "no response" option for questions that may be viewed by participants as uncomfortable, sensitive or instrusive (e.g., salary, income).

Privacy and Confidentiality Your study related information will be kept confidential within the limits of the law. The identity of informants will not be disclosed and information submitted online is encrypted. The online database will use a Secure Socket Layer (SSL) protocol that allows secure communications across the Internet. Numerical data will be included only in aggregate tables with ID numbers. The data being transferred in this case study will not have identifiers, and individual records will have unique ID numbers generated by the survey software. All passwords will meet security standards to protect the database from intruders, and they will not be shared. Research participants will not be identified in any publication or presentation of research results.

Compensation Only the first 50 participants in this study will receive financial compensation for their participation. Other benefits of the study are discussed under benefits.

Voluntary Participation Taking part in this research study is entirely up to you. You may choose not to participate or you may discontinue your participation at any time without penalty or loss of benefits. You may skip any question by choosing “no response.”

Contact Information If you have any questions or concerns about this research, you may contact Monica Rodriguez, the Principal Investigator at 330-000-0000 or Dr. Gregory Shreve, the Project Advisor for this research at 330-000-0000. This project has been approved by the Kent State University Institutional Review Board. If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant or complaints about the research, you may call the IRB at 330.672.2704.

Consent Statement My completion of this survey will be indicative of my consent to participate in this research study. Clicking below indicates that I have read the description of the study, I am at least 18 years old of age and I voluntarily agree to participate. I may print a copy of this consent statement for future reference.

No Yes, I agree to the above consent form and wish to proceed.

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RE: Protocol #11-131 entitled “Elements of Task, Job, and Professional Satisfaction in the Language Industry: An Empirical Model”

Hello,

I am pleased to inform you that the Kent State University Institutional Review Board has reviewed and approved your Application for Approval to Use Human Research Participants as Level I/Exempt research. This application was approved on March 15, 2011. Your research project involves minimal risk to human subjects and meets the criteria for the following category of exemption under federal regulations:

Exemption 1: Research conducted in established or commonly accepted educational settings, involving normal educational practices. Exemption 2: Research involving the use of educational tests, surveys, interviews, or observation of public behavior. Exemption 3: Research involving the use of educational tests, surveys, interview procedures, or observation of public behavior not exempt under category 2, but subjects are elected or appointed public officials or candidates for public office. Exemption 4: Research involving the collection or study of existing data, documents, records, pathological specimens, or diagnostic specimens. Exemption 5: Research and demonstration projects conducted by or subject to approval of department or agency heads, and which are designated to study, evaluate, or otherwise examine public programs or benefits. Exemption 6: Taste and food quality evaluation and consumer acceptance studies.

Submission of annual review reports is not required for exempt projects. If any modifications are made in research design, methodology, or procedures that increase the risks to subjects or includes activities that do not fall within the approved exemption category, those modifications must be submitted to and approved by the IRB before implementation. Please contact the IRB administrator to discuss the changes and whether a new application must be submitted. It is important for you to also keep an unstamped text copy (i.e., Microsoft Word version) of your consent form for subsequent submissions. Kent State University has a Federal Wide Assurance on file with the Office for Human Research Protections

(OHRP); FWA Number 00001853.

APPENDIX C

Regression Models

Subject matter expertise

Formal education in Translation Studies

Professional and communication skills

Task scope and task description Task Satisfaction Technical expertise

Challenging and complex tasks

Multitasking

Autonomy given to make decisions

Constant feedback

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Continuous stream of work

Specialization

Income

Opportunities for rate increase

Payment terms

Flexible schedule

Performance appreciation

Balance between work and personal life Job Satisfaction Matching skills to project requirements

Management procedures and policies

PM controls communication, workflow, persuasion skills and influence on upper management

Effective supervision

Overall experience with virtual teamwork

Client does not understand localization and translation processes

Client review

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Flexibility to accept and reject projects

Having outstanding offers

Strong identification with the profession

I feel professionally unapreciated

People know me professionally

My role in the industry meets my professional expectations Professional Satisfaction Social recognition of the profession

Specialization

Subject matter expertise has been beneficial to my career

Technical expertise

Investing in my career is profitable

Presenting at conferences

Mentoring as a motivational tool

GLOSSARY active professional – person that receives all or some of the income from the language industry. The person may be working onsite or offsite; be salaried or working as a subcontractor (freelancer); working part time or full time, and translation can be the primary, secondary or tertiary source of income client – requester (individual, department, company or organization) placing an order for a translation (ASTM F 2575) or other service related to the language industry concept – a rule defined in order to explain a specific subject matter. Concepts consist of factors and variables core competence – the source of competitive advantage established from the products or services offered by an organization. It provides potential access to a wide variety of markets, should make a significant contribution to the perceived customer benefits of the end product and it should be difficult for competitors to imitate (Prahalad and Hamel

1990:83) dissatisfier – demotivators or sources of unhappiness that inhibit satisfaction experienced translator – an individual who possesses from 4 to 10 years of experience in a particular job, subject field, or other area of translation

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expert – an individual with 10+ years of professional experience or 10,000 hours of work

(Shreve and Angelone 2010) facet – a grouping or a composite of concepts factor – discrete element or property of a concept full-timer – an individual who is active in the language industry working at least twenty hours per week job satisfaction – a person’s attitude toward a set of tasks performed in a work environment over a period of time. An individual affective reaction that reflects the overall feeling toward the tasks performed in conjunction with external sources of satisfaction or dissatisfaction coming from a social network localization maturity level – a company’s level of business capabilities or ability to document the behaviors, processes, and activities that constitute defined, managed, and repeatable best practices (DePalma et al. 2006:1) market culture – a culture that has a strong external focus that values stability and control. Organizations with this culture are driven by competition and a strong desire to deliver results and accomplish goals (Kreitner and Kinicki 2010) motivator – a source of satisfaction or happiness that becomes an intrinsic reward or form of pleasure (Herzberg 1968) novice – an individual with 1 to 4 years of experience

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organization – is a system of consciously coordinated activities or forces of two or more people. These people are involved in four common denominators: coordination of effort, a common goal, division of labor and a hierarchy of authority (Barnard 1966:73). A collection of people working together to achieve a common purpose (Schermerhorn et al.

2005:6) part-timer – is an individual who works less than twenty hours per week in active periods in the language industry predictor – is a statistically significant variable that allows a researcher to conclusively establish a predictive relationship with another variable of interest professional satisfaction – the feeling of fulfillment resulting from status or achievements that individuals continuously gain and develop while acquiring knowledge and skills, allowing them to optimize their career paths and achieve professional recognition (Hackman and Oldham 1980) project manager – a person assigned by the performing organization to achieve the project objectives. A project manager is expected not only to know, but also be able to apply the tools and techniques necessary to manage a project (PMI 2008:1) satisfier – sources of satisfaction or pleasure that meet individual needs and expectations social network – a set of nodes, such as people, or actors linked by a set of ties (e.g., relationships) in a social entity

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stakeholder – persons or organizations, who are actively involved in the project or whose interests may be positively or negatively affected by the performance or completion of the project (PMI 2008:2) task satisfaction – the feeling of success or happiness caused by accomplishing a task

(Fisher 1980, Locke 1976); an individual source of happiness that comes from the task itself or from an attitude or trait inherent to the individual technical complexity – level of difficulty in specific tasks that require knowledge of the following technologies: electronic data storage and retrieval; word processing with appropriate fonts and formatting; computer-assisted translation tools and electronic data transfer (ASTM F 2575). In this dissertation, technical complexity refers exclusively to file formats herein mentioned translation service provider – company, department, or individual approached by the requester, providing professional translation services into one or multiple languages for the requester (ASTM F 2575) variable – is the discrete element of a factor that allows the measurement of a specific concept work environment – is a virtual or physical space where someone works. It may include the work space as well as the environmental factors that affect or surround the work setting and interactions among resources

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