THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF Transpersonal Studies Volume 24, 2005 Table of Contents Editors’ Introduction ii Harris Friedman and Douglas A. MacDonald Nondualism and the Divine Domain 1 Burton Daniels Higher Self—Spark of the Mind—Summit of the Soul: Early History of an Important Concept of Transpersonal Psychology in the West 16 Harald Walach The Myth of Nature and the Nature of Myth: Becoming Transparent to Transcendence 29 Dennis Patrick Slattery Myth, Archetype and the Neutral Mask: Actor Training and Transformation in Light of the Work of Joseph Campbell and Stanislav Grof 37 Ashley Wain The Sources of Higher States of Consciousness 48 Steve Taylor Fear No Spirits: A Pilgrim’s Journey through the Brazilian Churches of Ayahuasca 61 Robert Tindall Why Does the Universe Exist? An Advaita Vedantic Perspective 69 Adam J. Rock

SPECIAL TOPIC: RUSSIAN SOUL: A REPORT FROM THE EUROPEAN TRANSPERSONAL ASSOCIATION 2005 CONFERENCE IN MOSCOW 77 Russian Soul: Introduction 77 Glenn Hartelius The Transpersonal Tradition in Russian Culture 78 Vladimir Maykov Synthesis and Plurality: Stories of the Self 79 Jason Wright The Psychic Defense 82 Vitor Rodrigues On Therapy by Means of Spiritual Culture 85 Mark E. Burno Creativity Lies at the Edge of Disintegration: Addressing the Shadow of Power and Leadership within Psychotherapy Training Organisations 87 Rupert Kinglake Tower We Were Made for These Times 90 Tanna Jakubowicz-Mount

READER’S COMMENTARY A Love Letter 92 Kidder Smith About Our Contributors 94 Board of Editors 96 Editorial Policy and Manuscript Submission Guidelines 97 Back Issues 98

Editors’ Introduction

his volume of the International Journal of explores actor training using the “neutral mask” from a Transpersonal Studies includes an eclectic group transpersonal perspective based on the works of Joseph Tof writings from a variety of areas within Campbell and Stanislav Grof. The mask is discussed as transpersonal studies. The issue’s first article is a transformative vehicle and as a way to study myths “Nondualism and the Divine Domain” by Burton and archetypes. Daniels. Ken Wilber’s theory of nondualism is com- Steve Taylor, in the “The Sources of Higher States pared and contrasted with an alternative perspective as of Consciousness,” argues that higher states of con- taught by Adi Da. When explicated this way, serious sciousness can result from either disruption of normal differences between the two accounts become striking- homeostasis or intensification of consciousness-energy. ly clear, providing a thought-provoking journey He concludes that only the second type can lead to addressing what is perhaps both the most important long-term changes in positively integrating higher and esoteric aspect of transpersonal studies, namely states of consciousness. what can be said about ultimate nondual enlighten- Next is “Fear No Spirits: A Pilgrim’s Journey ment. through the Brazilian Churches of Ayahuasca,” by Next, Harald Walach writes in “Higher Self–Spark Robert Tindall. His delightful telling of experiences of the Mind–Summit of the Soul: Early History of an within various religious traditions using ayahausca in Important Concept of Transpersonal Psychology in the Brazil brings these experiences near to the reader’s West” about the historical origins of the notion of the imagination. higher Self as introduced by Roberto Assagioli in psy- Following this, Adam J. Rock explores one of the chosynthesis. This notion has origins stemming from most fundamental of metaphysical debates in his antiquity, especially through the neo-Platonic tradi- paper, “Why Does the Universe Exist? An Advaita tion. The importance of transpersonal psychologists Vedantic Perspective.” He distinguishes between a pri- understanding the traditional roots for many of the ori and a posteriori propositions in addressing this field’s core concepts is emphasized, as well as is the question, the latter approach being supported experi- need for achieving theoretical and scientific integration entially through altered states of consciousness. The based on such concepts. insights derived are quite different from those usually In “The Myth of Nature and the Nature of Myth: debated. Becoming Transparent to Transcendence,” Dennis Transpersonal psychology remains a vibrant force Patrick Slattery compares Joseph Campbell’s writings in the world, as exemplified by the 2005 European on mythology with the poetry of John Keats. He dis- Transpersonal Association conference on “Human cusses the power of language, especially poetry, to Consciousness and Human Values in an access the transcendent, arguing that mythology and Interconnected World.” This volume’s special topics poetry can realign consciousness toward greater section highlights six of the approximately 70 offerings transpersonal insight and understanding. at that conference. Glenn Hartelius has selected, com- In “Myth, Archetype and the Neutral Mask: Actor piled, and edited presentations from Vladimir Maykov Training and Transformation in Light of the Work of on Russian transpersonalism, Jason Wright on the nar- Joseph Campbell and Stanislav Grof,” Ashley Wain rative approach to self-image, Vitor Rodriguez on psy- ii The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2005, Volume 24

chic attack, Mark Burno on spiritual culture, Rupert Tower on the shadow in organizations, and Tanna Jakubowicz on the transpersonal basis of taking action in the world. Together, these present an array of inno- vative transpersonal work happening within the European community on transpersonal themes. Finally, we are pleased to offer a reader’s comment in the form of a poem-story from Kidder Smith, titled “A Love Letter.” The interface between the spiritual and the carnal is playfully celebrated in questioning the amalgam of two during love-making, as “who is who is who?” As the third volume of the International Journal of Transpersonal Studies under our editorship goes to press, we want to thank Saybrook Graduate School and Research Center for its sponsorship, our reviewers who have worked diligently in providing guidance in the selection of articles, as well as our board members for their continuing support.

Harris Friedman, Ph.D. Professor Emeritus Saybrook Graduate School and Research Center

Douglas A. MacDonald, Ph.D. Associate Professor University of Detroit Mercy

Editors’ Introduction iii

iv The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2005, Volume 24

Nondualism and the Divine Domain

Burton Daniels

This paper claims that the ultimate issue confronting transpersonal theory is that of nondual- ism. The revelation of this spiritual reality has a long history in the spiritual traditions, which has been perhaps most prolifically advocated by Ken Wilber (1995, 2000a), and fully explicat- ed by David Loy (1998). Nonetheless, these scholarly accounts of nondual reality, and the spir- itual traditions upon which they are based, either do not include or else misrepresent the reve- lation of a contemporary spiritual master crucial to the understanding of nondualism. Avatar Adi Da not only offers a greater differentiation of nondual reality than can be found in contem- porary scholarly texts, but also a dimension of nondualism not found in any previous spiritual revelation.

he purpose of this paper is to clarify the funda- tle and profound realizations inherent within them. mental nature of reality, which is frequently His body of work covers a sprawling expanse of spiri- Tconfused in transpersonal psychology: nondu- tual literature and can be deemed not only a mam- alism. Perhaps nowhere in transpersonal psychology moth undertaking, but a work of extraordinary value has nondualism received a more thoughtful treatment for both science and spirituality. Humanity has bene- than in Wilber’s (1995, 2000a) spectrum/quadrant fited immeasurably from his work. However, for all its theory. Wilber initially posited a spectrum theory of scope and remarkable cogency, it is not unprece- consciousness, in which he integrates all psychological, dented. philosophical, and spiritual treatises on the develop- The Ruchira Avatar, Adi Da Samraj (1991, ment of human beings—from the inception of one’s 2000b) has also written extensively, lucidly, and beau- Very Being into an incarnated birth to their attain- tifully about nondual reality. Avatar Adi Da’s revelation ment of Divine Enlightenment and immersion in of nondual reality takes place as part of an overall nondual reality. His quadrant theory goes on to elabo- schema that accounts for all aspects of human develop- rate on this depiction of consciousness, organizing the ment and incarnate being: the seven stages of life. These vast expanse of existence into four fundamental stages progress through a potential sequence of human dimensions: interior and exterior, as well as individual maturation, spiritual growth, and Divine and collective. Every aspect of existence is thought to Enlightenment in any given individual’s life (see Adi be subsumed within the general structure of an all- Da, 2000b, pp. 103-131, 385-390): inclusive consciousness—indeed, even the nondual First Stage: individuation and adaptation to the reality that serves as its ultimate ground and final physical body. denouement. Second Stage: socialization and adaptation to the Wilber has written extensively, lucidly, and beau- emotional-sexual (or feeling) dimension of being. tifully about nondual reality. His passages on God and Third Stage: integration of the psycho-physical Spirit are carefully crafted and offered lovingly. personality and development of the verbal mind, Perhaps no one since Jung (1964) has done more to discriminative intelligence, and the will. authenticate spiritual reality within the professional Fourth Stage: ego-surrendering devotion to the community of psychology and make its lofty precepts Divine Person and purification of body-based point accessible to the lay reader. His synthesis of spiritual of view through reception of Divine Spirit-Force. revelation from the various traditions of humanity’s Fifth Stage: Spiritual or Yogi ascent of attention great saints and sages is remarkable, not only because into psychic dimensions of the being and mystical of their prodigious scope, but also because of the sub- experience of the higher brain.

Nondualism and the Divine Domain 1

Sixth Stage: Identification with Consciousness- the reader who is not well-informed about the seventh Itself (presumed, however, to be separate from all stage of life. Because Wilber’s account of nondual real- conditional phenomena). ity exists within an impressive overall theory of con- Seventh Stage: Realization of the Divine Self and sciousness, and his prominence within the transper- Inherently Perfect Freedom and realization of sonal community has been established thereby, it Divine Love-Bliss—no “difference” experienced would be useful to consider these differences more between Divine Consciousness and psycho-physi- closely. cal states and conditions. S/self and the Divine Domain Upon examination, considerable correlation exists Relative to spiritual reality, human beings can be between Wilber’s spectrum theory and Avatar Adi Da’s most fundamentally described as consisting of two seven stages of life. Both represent the individual as aspects: lower self and deeper Self. By this, it is meant consisting most fundamentally of five levels of being— that psychic structure involves a concomitant interface each of which correlating to one or another stage of between two entirely different, yet intimately connect- life—following in the spiritual tradition of Advaita ed, aspects of one’s being—what Jung (1919, 1964) Vedanta (Deutsche, 1969), as well as Mahayana referred to as the Self and the ego. However, Jung’s Buddhism (Suzuki, 1968; Conze, 1962).1 description of the Self is frequently vague and inexact. Avatar Adi Da refers to the spiritual process of Unfortunately, other descriptions of the Self in these traditions as the “Great Path of Return” and Western philosophy typically fare no better—for acknowledges that it represents a generally accurate example, Husserl’s transcendental ego (1960), Sartre’s depiction of the first six stages of life. However, this non-positional consciousness (1957), and Hegel’s soul depiction gives only a limited and inadequate account (1993). Better descriptions can be found in the tenets of unmanifest, nondual reality, out of which manifest of Eastern spirituality— for example, the “big mind” existence arises. Wilber and Avatar Adi Da are essen- of Zen Buddhism (Muzuka, 1990), or the “buddhi” of tially in accord relative to the first six stages of life. In yoga psychology (Rama, et al., 1998). Assogioli fact, Wilber’s meticulous and detailed account of these described the S/self this way: “There are not really two stages of life is probably unsurpassed in the history of selves, two independent and separate entities. The Self human ideas. Although his quadrant theory has cer- is one; it manifests in different degrees of awareness tain difficulties (Daniels, 1999), his spectrum theory is and self-realization. The reflection appears to be self- a superlative treatment of the first six stages of life, vir- existent but has, in reality, no autonomous substantial- tually mirroring that of Avatar Adi Da. Even so, at the ity. It is, in other words, not a new and different light point of the seventh stage of life—the Divine Domain but a projection of its luminous source” (1965, p. 20). of “Radical” Non-Dual Reality—striking differences Consequently, this amalgam of lower self and deeper between their accounts can be discerned. Self can be best indicated by the following nomencla- Not recognizing this difference has serious conse- ture: the S/self.2 quences for any understanding of nondualism. The Further, this depiction of S/self has significant difference between the accounts of nondualism by implications for the understanding of nondualism. Wilber and Avatar Adi Da can be summed up this The relationship between the lower self and the deep- way: Wilber does not clearly differentiate between the er Self could be put this way: “This abiding depend- sixth and seventh stages of life. The two often appear ence of ‘I’ upon Self amounts to an ontological union intermixed and conflated in his writings—as is fre- of ‘I’ and Self. They are so fundamentally related that quently the case in the great sixth stage literatures of a true break in that relationship would mean personal the Great Tradition (where accounts of the seventh annihilation, the nonbeing of ‘I.’ So complete is this stage appear at all). Further, the Great Path of Return union that it may be called ‘nondual’, a unity tran- of the spiritual traditions can be seen as not only inad- scending any sense of duality, isolation, or separation” equate to account for true nondual Enlightenment, (Firman & Gila, 1997, p. 45). Yet, this relationship but actually incidental to that purpose, for the essen- cannot be so simply stated. This passage indicates the tial dynamic of this process happens elsewhere. kind of confusion obscuring a true understanding of Indeed, the Great Path of Return only ends up obscur- nondualism. In fact, to use the term in this way is mis- ing a true understanding of nondual Enlightenment— leading. Although nondualism is frequently used to precisely because its essential dynamic happens else- refer to the relationship between Self and self, it most where. This set of circumstances might tend to confuse accurately—and most auspiciously—refers to the rela-

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tionship between S/self and God. The Divine Reality of is actually referred to by this passage is a single account ultimate nondualism is not realized by virtue of the of nondualism, applicable to the different aspects of self more accurately approximating the Self, or else any individual: cognition, perception, behavior, and, actualizing the self. Rather, Divine Reality is realized ultimately, their very Being. Yet, there actually are dif- by eliminating the S/self—and, in the process, being ferent kinds of nondualism, indeed, even going absorbed into God. beyond that mentioned by Loy. Overall, Avatar Adi Nondual reality has been expressed in numerous Da (2000b, pp. 144-153) indicates that there are five texts from various spiritual traditions, including not possible orientations to reality: “Conventional only Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism and Advaita Monism,” “Conventional Dualism,” “Primary Dualism,” Vedanta, but certain texts of Taoism. These orienta- “Secondary Non-Dualism,” and “Ultimate Non- tions can be described according to several features Dualism.” These orientations to reality summarize all typically attributed to nondualism. A good account of of the possible perspectives of the various traditions of these features has been put this way: psychology, philosophy, and spirituality. The following types of nonduality are discussed According to the point of view of “Conventional here: the negation of dualistic thinking, the Monism,” the world or domain of nature is all that nonplurality of the world, and the non-differ- exists. Reality is a material unity of natural laws and ence of subject and object…although there processes. In this orientation, the defining principle [are] two other nondualities which are also could perhaps be put like this: “What you see is what closely related: first, what has been called the you get”—or else perhaps this: “When you’re dead, you’re identity of phenomena and Absolute, or the dead.” This point of view accounts for all the bodily- Mahayana equation of samsara and nirvana, based and mortal beliefs about existence. It motivates which can also be expressed as “the nonduality the individual to struggle and search for fulfillment in of duality and nonduality”; second, the possi- the context of the first three stages of life, especially as bility of a mystical unity between God and it culminates in the third stage of life and the develop- man. ment of the rational mind. Indeed, the period in The critique of thinking that employs dual- which this faculty of mind first most fully emerged in istic categories (being vs. nonbeing, pure vs. the West was dubbed the “Age of Enlightenment” impure, etc.) usually expands to encompass all (Tarnas, 1991). However, this depiction is a startling conceptual thinking, for such thinking acts as a misnomer. It actual fact, it represents the least of what superimposition which distorts our immediate could be called “lesser” enlightenments. experience. That is why we experience the Following upon this stage, “Conventional world dualistically in the second sense, as a col- Dualism” interjects an awareness and appreciation of lection of discrete objects (including me) inter- spiritual reality into that which is merely physical. acting causally in space and time. Negating According to this point of view, the world is made up dualistic thinking leads to experiencing the of a number of principal pairs, which, ultimately, world as a unity, variously called Brahman, includes God. Typically, God is paired with either the Dharmakaya, Tao, the One Mind, and so on.… world or the psyche (e.g., Platonic Forms). Each half is This leads to the third sense of nonduality, the related to and even interrelated with the other—but denial that subject and object are truly distin- each half is also paradoxically conceived to be utterly guishable…which is…the root delusion that different than or inherently separate from the other. needs to be overcome. (Loy, 1998, pp. 17, 178) Consequently, the “goal” of each lesser (or dependent) half is to submit (and eventually ascend) to the greater In other words, dualistic thinking separates the (or higher) half. In other words, the obligation is for nonseparate unity of reality into component parts or the psyche (or even all of existence) to submit and categories (i.e., dualistic perception). Consequently, eventually ascend to “God” (i.e., the “Good”). As a reversing the process, by eliminating this separation, result, the individual traverses an immense hierarchy reverses the self/other dichotomy and returns the mul- of existence until they finally ascend to the pinnacle of titude of discrete objects to their pristine state—the salvation, which is God-realization (Griffiths, 1991). original unity of reality—which was always already the This process takes place within the fourth and fifth case to begin with. stages of life, the subtle and essentially spiritual However, although the passage by Loy suggests domains of human development. Recently, the New that different “types” of nondualism are possible, what Age movement has sought to usher in what amounts

Nondualism and the Divine Domain 3

to a new Age of Enlightenment, but has only actually Presence being understood and directly intuited to be succeeded in emulating one or another of the “lesser” actual (or really so)—and then perfectly or utterly enlightenments (see Wilber, 1995, 1999b).3 affirmed by direct identification with Consciousness Following upon this stage, the highest transcen- Itself. dental position begins to emerge, starting with the Avatar Adi Da speaks of this orientation to nond- point of view of “Primary Dualism”— for example,, ualism as follows: Jainism and Samkhaya Yoga (Larson, et al., 1987). This point of view and Process (which may fol- This position ushers in the sixth stage of life. low upon, or be “Uncovered” by, the point of According to the point of view of this position, the view and Process of “Secondary Non-Dualism,” totality of existence is a combination of only two pri- and which may even immediately follow upon, mary realities: Purusha and Prakriti. Purusha is tradi- or be “Uncovered” by, the point of view and tionally understood to be nonconditional and inher- Process of “Primary Dualism”) is the third (and ently perfect Being and Consciousness. Prakriti is tra- final, and Principal) possible point of view and ditionally understood to be objective energy, which, Process traditionally (and inherently) associated when modified, appears as the body, mind, and all with the sixth stage of life (and such great sixth objects or others. The spiritual practice associated with stage schools as have appeared in the form of this point of view requires the individual to separate the traditions of Advaitism, and also, secondar- from Prakriti, usually by willful ascetic disciplines, so ily, or with less directness, within the schools of that the individual might participate exclusively as some varieties of Buddhism, especially within Purusha. This orientation begins the process that takes the Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions, and, place within the sixth stage of life, the causal and ulti- but with even less directness, within some of the mate spiritual domain of human development. schools of Taoism). (2000b, p. 147) Following upon this stage, the first form of a truly nondual position appears. In “Secondary Non- The essential realization is that only Dualism” (or “Secondary Absolute Monism”), no Consciousness exists, whether “things” arise or not. If inherently independent or separate Purusha exists, “things” do arise, Consciousness is happy to partici- whether as an eternal and nonconditional, individual pate in them—why not? It is a play of life, and infinite- Self or, as some traditions would have it, an absolute ly amusing. The Love-Bliss characterizing this state Being or Consciousness Itself. Rather, the totality of exists in the Awareness, not in the arising. existence is only Prakriti, conditionally appearing as a Consequently, nothing is ever threatened or at risk for beginningless and endless continuum of causes and the sixth stage sage. They can afford to be humorous effects (Satorakashananda, 1977; Verma, 1993). The and amused by all that arises—none of it means any- spiritual practice associated with this point of view thing. Only the existence of Consciousness matters, indicates that Prakriti appears only as an ephemeral for in this existence is a direct realization of Divine and observable sequence of changes until, by the Love. Everything else pales in comparison. process of observation, insight, and self-pacification, Yet, the point of view of “Ultimate Non-Dualism” the inherent and original (or nirvanic) state of Prakriti is actually somewhat more complex than this. This is realized. However, a difficulty exists with this point position of nondualism not only originates in the sixth of view, for it seeks to accomplish incompatible pur- stage of life, but it can also lead to or culminate in the poses: to be released from both the illusory need to seventh stage of life. In such a case, exclusive attach- eternalize the conditional self and the equally illusory ment to Consciousness Itself is released and all of exis- need to annihilate the conditional self. tence is seen as the manifestation of this One Reality. This orientation is superseded by the ultimately So to speak, “Ultimate Non-Dualism” can be thought nondual position. In “Ultimate Non-Dualism” (or of as straddling the sixth and seventh stages, acting as “Primary Absolute Monism”), the tables are turned for a bridge between them. Avatar Adi Da also refers to the preceding position. In other words, no separate seventh stage “Ultimate Non-Dualism” as “Radical” and independent “objective energy” (i.e., Prakriti) Non-Dualism, indicating its immediate and direct exists, or any separate and independent body, mind, or association with the Divine Condition Itself. object at all. Rather, the totality of existence is only the Avatar Adi Da describes this orientation to nond- One and Absolute Purusha (i.e., Self-Existing and Self- ualism as follows: Radiant Consciousness Itself). The spiritual practice Most ultimately, this point of view and Process associated with this orientation involves Its Very (of “Ultimate Non-Dualism,” or “Primary

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Absolute Monism”) is (if it is, by Means Of My point of view of “Ultimate Non-Dualism”—with only Avatarically Self-Transmitted Divine Grace, certain passages within them suggestive of the more Most Perfectly Realized) the “Point of View” profound and all-pervasive Realization of “Radical” (and the Most Perfect Process) that (by all the Non-Dualism. Graceful Means I have Revealed and Given for Avatar Adi Da explains the difference between the sake of all who will be My devotees) estab- His unique revelation of the seventh stage of life and lishes and characterizes the seventh stage of life. the seventh stage intuitions of these premonitory texts And, because (from the thoroughly Non- as follows: Dualistic “Point of View” that necessarily char- The traditional premonitorily “seventh stage” acterizes the seventh stage of life) the “Ultimate texts are advanced sixth stage literatures that Absolute” Is both Self-Existing (As Absolute express a few philosophical conceptions (or yet Being Itself and Absolute Consciousness Itself) limited and incomplete intuitions) that sympa- and Self-Radiant (As Absolute, and Perfectly thetically resemble the characteristic seventh Subjective, Love-Bliss-Energy Itself)…indicat- stage Disposition (in and of itself), and (thus) ing (in each case) the One, Absolute, and Non- somehow foreshadow (rather than directly Separate (or Inherently All-Inclusive, or reflect, or directly express) the truly Most Perfectly Non-Exclusive) Real God, or Truth, or Ultimate (or Transcendental, Inherently Reality. (Ibid., p. 148) Spiritual, and Most Perfectly Divine) “Point of View”.… [N]one of the traditional texts com- Avatar Adi Da frequently refers to this condition municate the full developmental and Yogic as “Open Eyes.” In this state, all conditionally manifest- details of the progressive seventh stage ed events and objects are spontaneously and inherent- Demonstration (of Divine Transfiguration, ly recognized to be illusory or merely apparent modi- Divine Transformation, and Divine fications of the Divine Fullness of Being Itself. The Indifference). Nor do they ever indicate (nor seventh stage of life is the Divinely Self-Radiant has any traditional Realizer ever Demonstrated) process by which all of conditional existence is “out- the Most Ultimate (or Final) Demonstration of shined” (see Adidam, 1991, pp. 707-708). In other the seventh stage of life (Which End-Sign Is words, body, mind, and world are no longer noticed— Divine Translation). Therefore, it is only by but not because the Divine Consciousness has with- Means of My own Avataric Divine Work and drawn or dissociated from manifest phenomena (i.e., Avataric Divine Word that the truly seventh sixth stage “Ultimate Non-Dualism”). Rather, the stage Revelation and Demonstration has Ecstatic Recognition of all arising phenomena (by the Appeared, to Complete the Great Tradition of Divine Self, as a modification of Itself) has become so mankind. (in press) intense that the “Bright,” Love-Blissful Radiance of Consciousness now Outshines all phenomena. The Illusion of Relatedness Therefore, all phenomena become immediately and The absence of the seventh stage point of view has directly recognized as nothing other than the Divine significant implications for any understanding of non- Condition Itself. dualism. The difficulty for most accounts of nondual- Although this kind of language might sound sim- ism, whether in the spiritual traditions or transperson- ilar to revelations made throughout the spiritual tradi- al psychology, is twofold: tions (e.g., Lankavatara Sutra, Avadhoota Gita, Tripura 1. They suggest that God is the goal of develop- Rahasya), they can be distinguished from the revela- ment, and tion of Avatar Adi Da in three significant respects:4 2. They misrepresent the actual mechanics where- 1. No historical text mentions all aspects of the by God manifests into human beings. seventh stage realization, 2. Certain aspects of the seventh stage realization Wilber’s spectrum theory offers an account of pre- appear in no historical texts at all, and cisely these misrepresented mechanics. In his spectrum 3. No historical text mentions only the realization theory, the development of evolution, climbing up the of the seventh stage of life. ladder of ascent—itself resulting from a prior, vertical deployment of involution, sliding down the ladder— Even the texts mentioned previously (among only can be traced through a hierarchy (i.e., holarchy) a handful of others) represent primarily the sixth stage involving several levels of being. Whereas involution

Nondualism and the Divine Domain 5

indicates preexisting states of deeper consciousness, Consciousness that Is God. It arises spontaneously, evolution initiates states of higher consciousness com- without cause or reason, and tends to persist, or else to ing into being. be repeated. If Consciousness identifies with this self- According to the perennial philosophy—or the contraction, It will falsely presume that It is no longer common core of the world’s great wisdom tra- Itself but, instead, an illusion of Itself. It will regard ditions—Spirit manifests a universe by “throw- Itself to be other than, or separate from, Itself, simply ing itself out” or “emptying itself” to create existing as this very activity of painful self-contraction. soul, which condenses into mind, which con- In so doing, It will also tend to resolve the discomfort denses into body, which condenses into matter, of this separate state of being through attention and the densest form of all. Each of those levels is falsely presume that It is, therefore, related to Itself, still a level of Spirit, but each is a reduced or across the non-existent gulf of this (apparent) separate- “stepped down” version of Spirit. At the end of ness. Yet, there is still only prior Reality (which the Self that process of involution, all of the higher continues to actually Be). This tension of separation dimensions are enfolded, as potential, in the goes both ways, like a rubber band stretched taut, lowest material realm. And once the material simultaneously pulled both toward and away. world blows into existence (with, say, the Big Consequently, the Self can only feel its own, inherent Bang), then the reverse process—or evolu- feeling of Love-Bliss when it relaxes this contracted tion—can occur, moving from matter to living state, releasing the Illusion of Relatedness into what is bodies to symbolic minds to luminous souls to its own, true state of Consciousness—as God, mean- pure Spirit itself.… Each level is a whole that is while, continues to merely exist in a Blissful state of also part of a larger whole (each level or struc- Awareness of all that is arising. ture is a whole/part or holon). In other words, All that appears to be not-Consciousness (or an each evolutionary unfolding transcends but object of Consciousness) is an apparition pro- includes its predecessor(s), with Spirit tran- duced by apparent modification (or sponta- scending and including absolutely everything. neous contraction and perturbation) of the (Wilber, 1999a, p. 10) inherent Radiance (or Native Love-Bliss) of Consciousness Itself.… However, once objects However, although involution and evolution are (or conditions) arise, they tend to persist (or to intrinsic processes of human life, they do not truly demand repetition)—and Consciousness may, indicate the mechanics whereby God manifests into therefore, tend to dwell on them with fascina- human beings. Indeed, Realizing God involves one in tion.… All of this arising is (in itself—or sepa- a different dynamic than that of involution and evolu- rately) an illusion—the principal signs of which tion entirely. The process of “Radical” Non-Dual are the presumption of relatedness (and of “dif- Enlightenment is far from easy, for embarking upon ference”), the presumption of a separate self… this process immediately embroils one in a perplexing (Adi Da, 2001a, pp. 346-347) paradox: nirvana and samsara are the same. Yet, this paradox exists only on the samsara side of the equa- Consequently, two aspects of reality come to exist, tion, not that which is God. Therefore, the paradox engaged in an intense paradox of God and Self, respec- can be resolved in this way: There is only God—even tively—the latter tussling with the former in a struggle if spread upon the illusory levels of mind (or samsara). over the sovereignty of its assumed identity. However, Whereas God is Reality, mind is illusion. That very this dynamic tension surrounds a further process aris- defining feature is precisely how they can both be— ing within its midst. The two aspects of the paradox and not be—one and the same. Although it is true that originally defined as God and Self are simultaneously the illusion exists, nonetheless, it’s not real. It’s an imi- delineated further into that of Self and Other, the latter tation (and, therefore, an imposter) of what Is Real: compensating the former for its comprised identity. God. The two exist as a duality—within nondualism. From here, the duality of this simultaneous para- Whereas the one Is God, the other is merely arising in dox (God/Self and Self/Other) further extends itself (and as) God. through all the levels of being (i.e., involution). The Consequently, the mechanics of human manifes- entire range of the human individual’s various levels of tation actually occur as follows: There is only God. The being are nothing but a diminution of the fundamen- causal Self comes into being as an utterly spontaneous tal Reality that is God, laboring against Itself and what contraction occurring in the pure state of is Its own True and Real state. This diminution takes

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place within mind, which is not other than the illu- principles.5 sions of S/self that comprise it. In other words, the This confusion probably manifests itself most S/self is an alternative to God, lived out in its various commonly in a concept typically attributed to Judeo- levels and diminutions. There is a price to be paid for Christian religion: the Fall of Man. Contrary to the this error, which is continually lived out in the suffer- biblical account, Wilber speaks of the “Fall” this way: ing of every life, for the activity of contraction in the “Thus, involution is not something that merely or midst of the Living Love-Bliss that is God is painful— even especially occurred prior to birth or in some dis- resulting in nothing but the loss of the Love and tant cosmological past. Involution is actually said to be Happiness of True Being. Further, it is an activity occurring right now, in this moment, as we separate or that every individual is presently doing. Even now. alienate ourselves from Ground and Source. For This “sequence” of simultaneous paradox ulti- moment to moment, we move away from Spirit, we mately traces out the agony of humanity’s suffering. involve, we descend; and thus we must return to The two are self-contained, one within the other, like Source and Self—we must grow and evolve to reverse the hard and brusque case of a nut, with the worm in the Fall” (1990, p. 125). However, like the Judeo- its seed. The two unfold in their turn, like steps ever Christian account, this passage suggests that the “Fall” diminishing—one turning away, even in facing itself; operates according to dynamics similar to gravity, such while the other, in turning away, turns against itself. that the individual plummets through the levels of Each is writhing upon the pillars of its own end of the being on their way to birth—as if Falling from the sky dichotomy. Indeed, even as the causal Self emerges of heaven en route to an impact with the Earth. into awareness, this fundamental separation is still Therefore, this process could be thought of as a “verti- present. However, this is ultimately just an illusion. It cal” Fall. Only in this sense does the idea of growing could all be understood differently. and evolving so as to reverse the Fall makes any sense. If the separate “I” and its separate “other” are However, the Fall could be understood very differ- Most Perfectly Relinquished (or Most Perfectly ently—as the Illusion of Relatedness. In this sense, the transcended), such that the complex presump- Fall could be thought of as a “horizontal” (i.e., lateral) tion of separate “I” and separate “other” (or of process, taking place at every level of being equally. the feeling of relatedness itself) is transcended Indeed, the Fall that is involution actually falls through (and is not superimposed on what otherwise the Fall that is the Illusion of Relatedness—which pre- arises, or on what is otherwise perceived condi- cedes it and pervades it all along its descending path. tionally)—then what arises? Involution arises as a consequence of the Illusion of This Unique and Original Freedom may Relatedness, tracing out its trajectory based on this be likened to the perception of waves from the more fundamental gesture within God and Reality— point of view of the ocean (as compared to the and does so at every level of its descent. The causal Self perception of waves from the point of view of Falls away from God and then, having thus Fallen in any single wave).… There are no separate this sense, now Falls through the involuted levels of waters in the seas, but every wave or motion being. Consequently, reversing the Fall that is the folds in one another on the Deep.… Such is the Illusion of Relatedness occurs irrespective of growth Disposition of the only-by-me Revealed and and evolution. Instead, it is a matter of not Falling in Given seventh stage of life. (Ibid., pp. 344-345) the first place—which requires no additional effort or process to reverse it—precisely because one has not Most accounts of spirituality and nondualism are Fallen. problematic, precisely because they attempt to resolve the paradox from the side that is the ego-“I”—but not “Radical” Non-Dualism that which is God. In other words, they try to make Much of the confusion surrounding nondualism sense of the paradox from within the parameters of the can be cleared up by considering an ambiguity in the paradox, which is, certainly, a futile effort. However, principal term of the discussion: consciousness. The God can be understood only on the other side of the usual definition of consciousness (as opposed to paradox, prior to its formation. Put somewhat differ- unconsciousness) does not mean Consciousness ently, the ego-“I” consists essentially of lack and is Itself—indeed, precisely because it derives its meaning empty, imploded inward upon itself; whereas God is as an alternative to unconsciousness. Consciousness is full and effulgent—indeed, radiating Ecstatically to usually thought of as a state of awareness, that is to say, Infinity. Clearly, the two operate upon very different the ability to “notice” things. However, Consciousness

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Itself is not aware of things. Conventional notions of This passage is notable for it presents an excellent consciousness associate it with an object, over against example of the “witness” consciousness associated with which that consciousness can be said to be aware. But the causal Self and the sixth stage of life. However, it Consciousness Itself is more primal than that. It sim- does not indicate “Radical” Non-Dual consciousness, ply is Awareness. To be aware of something is to attend which is associated with Divine Being and the seventh to it—and is, therefore, attention itself, the essence of stage of life. In other words, this passage is an excellent the Illusion of Relatedness. Perhaps one way to clarify example of what could be called the “lesser” enlighten- this distinction is by comparing it to the principal ment associated with sixth stage “Ultimate Non- therapeutic imperative of psychoanalysis: making the Dualism”. Although this state represents an extraordi- unconscious conscious (Pulver, 1995). When all nary level of being, nonetheless, it is not “Radical” unconscious (not to say, subconscious and self-con- Non-Dual Being. scious) aspects of S/self are made conscious, then there The confusion Wilber makes is in attributing is only Consciousness Itself. Consciousness Itself (i.e., “Consciousness as Such”) The epistemological position of simple awareness with one or another of the various modes of possible is typically referred to in the spiritual traditions as awareness: waking, dreaming, or sleeping. However, “witness” consciousness. However, such a position rep- the “Radical” Non-Dual state of Enlightenment actu- resents the point of view of the sixth stage of life (e.g., ally represents the transcendence of each level of Shankara, 1979). Here, the individual no longer per- being—whether waking, dreaming, or sleeping. “The ceives and understands experience from the point of Right Side Of The Heart Is The Base Of the state of view of the lower self or even the subtle Self. Rather, deep sleep…(And The Right Side Of The Heart…Is the individual participates in experience as the causal Fully Awakened, or Most Perfectly Resolved In Its Self, identified with the very consciousness that is Perfect Source…The Most Ultimate and Inherently observing all that arises. In that state, one takes the Most Perfect Awakening Of Perfectly Subjective position of the “witness,” merely observing all that Transcendental, Spiritual, and Divine Consciousness exists—even while they perhaps continue to partici- Itself) (Adi Da, 2000b, p. 223).6 Even deep, dreamless pate in the events of life. This is the beginning of the sleep arises—and is ultimately Awakened and ultimate stages of life. Resolved—in the Ultimate Source of Being that is Wilber conceives of this state of consciousness as Consciousness Itself. follows: However, more is at stake in Wilber’s point of view I became extremely serious about meditation than this, for he also makes the fundamental error practice when I read the following line from the associated with the sixth stage of life: regarding the illustrious Sri Ramana Maharshi: “That which sixth stage to be the culminating denouement of exis- is not present in deep dreamless sleep is not tence. Yet, Wilber also suggests that an even more pro- real”.… That is a shocking statement, because found dimension of being exists beyond this: the non- basically there is nothing—literally nothing— dual reality out of which all manifest existence arises. in the deep dreamless state.… Ultimate reality Although this latter comment might sound like (or Spirit), Ramana said…must also be fully “Radical” Non-Dualism, a curious quality is associat- present in deep dreamless sleep, and anything ed with it. Wilber has both manifest and unmanifest that is not present in deep dreamless sleep is not existence refer to the same level of being. But, in so ultimate reality.… Thus, if we want to realize doing, Wilber only reduces the seventh stage to the our supreme identity with Spirit, we will have sixth stage, which is a version of what Avatar Adi Da to plug ourselves into this current of constant calls the sixth stage error. In trying to have it both consciousness, and follow it through all changes ways, the result is to confuse them both. of state—waking, dreaming, sleeping. This will: Wilber put it this way: 1) strip us of an exclusive identification with [This] brings us to the most notorious paradox any of those states (such as the body, the mind, in the perennial philosophy. We have seen that the ego, or the soul), and 2) allow us to recog- the wisdom traditions subscribe to the notion nize and identify with that which is constant— that reality manifests in levels or dimensions, or timeless—through all of those states, namely with each higher dimension being more inclu- Consciousness as Such, by any other name, sive and therefore “closer” to the absolute total- timeless Spirit. (2000b, pp. 64-65) ity of Godhead or Spirit. In this sense, Spirit is the summit of being, the highest rung on the

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ladder of evolution. But it is also true that Spirit confusion is easy to make and, indeed, stems from the is the wood out of which the entire ladder and all traditional understanding of nondualism. That is to its rungs are made. Spirit is the suchness, the say, nondualism is typically thought to result whenev- isness, the essence of each and every thing that er the self/other distinction is eliminated. But such is exists. not the case for “Radical” Non-Dualism. Only the The first aspect, the highest-rung aspect, is other is dissolved in the elimination of the self/other the transcendental nature of Spirit—it far sur- distinction—not the causal Self, which is to say, the passes any “worldly” or creaturely or finite Illusion of Relatedness. What actually results for hav- things. The entire earth (or even universe) ing eliminated the self/other distinction is not could be destroyed, and Spirit would remain. “Radical” Non-Dualism, but merely a partial aspect of The second aspect, the wood aspect, is the reality: the Self. Although the elimination of the immanent nature of Spirit—Spirit is equally self/other distinction has been traditionally associated and totally present in all manifest things and with the emergence of what might be thought to be events, in nature, in culture, in heaven and on “Radical” Non-Dualism, such is simply not the case. A earth, with no partiality. From this angle, no subtle dualism yet remains: Self and God. The forms of phenomenon whatsoever is closer to Spirit than dualism are not resolved until the entire S/self structure another, for all are equally “made of” Spirit. is eliminated, dissolved in the True and “Radically” Thus Spirit is both the highest goal of all devel- Non-Dual Enlightenment of Real God. Simply put, opment and evolution, and the ground of the the real significance of the sixth stage error is this: con- entire sequence, as present fully at the begin- fusing the causal Self for Real God. ning as at the end. Spirit is prior to this world, In another context, Wilber has correctly identified but not other to this world. (1997, pp. 43-44) the ultimate significance of this difference, by para- (emphasis in the original) phrasing Avatar Adi Da’s own revelation about it: Adi Da…originally taught nothing but “the The sixth stage error is most clearly indicated by path of understanding”: not a way to attain this passage and can be seen as comprised of two parts: enlightenment, but an inquiry into why you the term “spirit” is used ambiguously—to indicate want to attain enlightenment in the first place. both Self and God—and, further, the goal of the stages The very desire to seek enlightenment is in fact of life is attributed to both Self and God. Wilber sees nothing but the grasping tendency of the ego his theory as an attempt to align with spiritual presen- itself, and thus the very search for enlighten- tations made traditionally: “That simple witnessing ment prevents it. The “perfect practice” is there- awareness, the traditions maintain, is Spirit itself, is the fore not to search for enlightenment, but to enlightened mind itself, is Buddha-nature itself, is God inquire into the motive for seeking itself. You itself, in its entirety.… Thus, according to the tradi- obviously seek in order to avoid the present, tions, getting in touch with Spirit or God…is your and yet the present alone holds the answer: to own simple witnessing awareness” (Ibid., p. 287). seek forever is to miss the point forever. You However, a significant problem exists with this: the always already ARE enlightened Spirit, and spiritual traditions are in error. Consequently, nothing therefore to seek Spirit is simply to deny Spirit. is gained by being so aligned. Yet, the error is not so You can no more attain Spirit than you can much a mistaken notion—for it does accurately repre- attain your feet or acquire your lungs.… [T]hus sent the casual Self—as an error of omission, failing to seeking Spirit is exactly that which prevents accurately represent God. Virtually no precedence for realization. (1997, p. 26) the seventh stage revelation is present in the spiritual traditions, apart from a handful of texts that are pre- Yet, Wilber has not applied this same understand- monitory in nature.7 ing to his own theory, for it is precisely the act of set- Wilber collapses the sixth and seventh stages ting God up as a goal that inserts seeking into the together, claiming that nondual reality is essentially equation—and eliminates God thereby. Further, comprised of two aspects: goal and ground. However, Wilber makes a different sort of error in his comments, only the latter applies to “Radical” Non-Dual Reality as well, suggesting that “you always already are enlight- (i.e., Real God). The former applies to the causal Self ened Spirit.” However, the truth is this: even though alone (i.e., sixth stage “Ultimate” Non-Dualism), and you are always already God, you are not always already this is what makes all the difference. Nonetheless, this Enlightened (at least, certainly, in terms of “Radical”

Nondualism and the Divine Domain 9

Non-Dualism). Indeed, it is precisely the fact that you the asana of ‘Ruchira Avatara Bhava’ (or the love- are suffering a “veil of ignorance” that indicates your ‘Intoxication’ of true devotion to Me) is a devotional, need to be Enlightened. God is your true state—but Yogic gesture in heart-Communion with Me” (Adi Da, the Illusion of Relatedness is also true of you, and what 2000a, p. 325). This Bhava is available to every indi- requires elimination in the process of “Radical” Non- vidual at any time, not just those in the higher stages Dual Enlightenment. Wilber simply has no account of of life. However, it is accessed only through the spiri- the Illusion of Relatedness in his theory. Although tual process of worship and devotion—precisely Wilber states that you can “no more attain Spirit than because the Blessing of Bhava is Given as a Gift, to you can attain your feet or acquire your lungs,” attain- everyone. Therefore, it must be received as a Gift—and ing Spirit is precisely what is meant by the Great Path given in return. of Return he is advocating. Unfortunately, Wilber’s concept of transcendence Ironically, conceiving of consciousness as if a is at odds with this revelation. Although Wilber “spectrum” only ends up undermining the nondual includes a “Unity Consciousness” in his formulations reality it is intended to advocate. Indeed, the metaphor of the ultimate ground of existence, his emphasis and of a spectrum is really only useful in conceiving of the orientation all point toward the moving from one level involuted/evoluted levels of being on this side of the of consciousness to another—rather than the immedi- Illusion of Relatedness. Avatar Adi Da (1997, 2001b) ate and direct immersion into Consciousness Itself. frequently speaks of “Radical” Non-Dual Reality as Self-transcendence (or self-transformation)…is being a state of “Brightness”—which is a state of not just a communion, self-adaptation, or asso- unfathomably Blissful Light, without form or function ciation.… In self-adaptation or communion, or any referents to dilute it. It is by way of the Illusion one finds oneself to be part of a larger whole; in of Relatedness that this “Brightness” is corrupted and self-transformation one becomes a new whole, transmuted into a spectrum—as if by a prism. The dif- which has its own new forms of agency (relative ference between the seventh stage account of this autonomy) and communion.… Eros, as process and the sixth stage is that the sixth stage sees Socrates (Plato) uses the term, is essentially the prior unity of Light while within the prism. what we have been calling self-transcendence, Although this witnessing of reality exists prior to the the very motor of Ascent or development or Light’s transmutation into a spectrum, it does not exist evolution: the finding of ever-higher self-identi- prior to the Light’s entering the prism. In other words, ty with ever-wider embrace of others. And the the sixth stage is still captivated by the mechanics of opposite of that was regression or dissolution, a the prism—even as the “Brightness” exists within it. move downward to less unity, more fragmenta- Although the Light has not yet transmuted into the tion (what we called the self-dissolution factor, spectrum, nonetheless, the forces are building by tenet 2d). (Wilber, 1995, pp. 42, 335) which it will do so. The seventh stage, on the other hand, exists as the absolute purity of “Brightness,” on For Wilber, the choice is to either ascend—and the other side of the prism, before its dreadful mechan- develop into greater embrace and unity—or else ics of incarnation even come to exist—and, indeed, descend—and disintegrate into greater fragmentation remains even after the fact, in the event that they do. and regression. What he fails to appreciate, however, is a third option: transcend—into direct and immediate S/self-Transcendence and Real-God-Realization communion with God. In fact, “Radical” Non- Perhaps the most difficult part of understanding Dualism has nothing to do with progression of any the seventh stage of life is that it does not “follow” the kind, whether ascension or descension—or, indeed, sixth stage, as if another level of construction in the even an integration of the two. Transcendence, in this overall holarchy. Rather, the seventh stage of life is the sense, is a matter of releasing one’s hold on life and its context of every stage, including the sixth. developmental trajectory. Unfortunately, Wilber has Consequently, the seventh stage is present as much at the process go a step further, attaching to the next the beginning as in the culmination of the holarchy. higher level of development. But the whole point of Further, this context can be accessed at every stage— transcendence is the release—disengaging one’s affilia- directly and immediately. And to do so captivates one tion and identification with their particular level of in a swoon and rapture of God’s Love-Bliss: being (that is to say, all levels of being). “Therefore, the only right asana is utter ‘in-love’ of The conundrum of Wilber’s spectrum theory Me, unconditional love-feeling of Me. Fundamentally, could perhaps be put this way: although holons consist

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of God, they do not actually comprise God. That is to It arises in God. The Illusion of Relatedness yet sepa- say, no assembly or arrangement of holons—even ones rates the two. that integrate into higher levels of the holarchy—will However, as involution proceeds, this rung does, ever result in God. Indeed, holons are nothing but the indeed, “throw itself out” into further levels—each one effect of the Illusion of Relatedness having taken place. of which simply a continuation of the causal rung. To In other words, the difficulty for Wilber’s theory is suggest that the “ladder” is the origin of “each rung” is this: seventh stage “Ultimate Non-Dualism” is mistak- misleading—at least in the same sense that God Is the en for the collapse of the self/other distinction—when Source and Substance of all existence. Although the seventh stage “Ultimate Non-Dualism” is, in reality, language sounds similar, the dynamic underlying them the collapse of the Self/God distinction. is entirely different. It is the causal stage that is the ori- Avatar Adi Da puts it this way: gin of each subsequent rung of the ladder, “stretching” Because each and all of the first six stages of out into ever diminished forms until it finally reaches life are based on (and identical to) egoity (or bottom. It is in this manner that it makes sense to self-contraction, or separate and separative speak of an “origin” and a “goal” to existence—for the point of view) itself, not any one (or even the whole developmental sequence is really nothing more collective of all) of the first six stages of life than the causal rung expanding and contracting upon directly (and Most Perfectly) Realizes (or Is the itself. Inherently egoless and Inherently Most Perfect Avatar Adi Da makes use of a different metaphor Realization and the Inherently egoless and entirely to speak of “Radical” Non-Dual Reality: the Inherently Most Perfect Demonstration of) waves of the ocean. Each apparently separate entity or Reality, Truth, or Real God. being is nothing but a wave—comprised of the same I Say Only Reality Itself (Which Is, Always water as every other wave and, indeed, the entire Already, The One, and Indivisible, and ocean. No real difference or separation between Indestructible, and Inherently egoless Case) Is them—at least on the level of the ocean. But on the (Self-Evidently, and Really) Divine, and True, level of the waves, it seems that there is no end to the and Truth (or Real God) Itself.… I Say the only difference and separation, as they appear to spread out Real God (or Truth Itself) Is the One and Only in all directions. For the sake of sorting out the essen- and Inherently Non-Dual Reality (Itself)— tial difference between these two metaphors, imagine Which Is the Inherently egoless, and Utterly there are only six waves in the ocean. Further, imagine Indivisible, and Perfectly Subjective, and that five of these waves have all emerged, or descend- Indestructibly Non-Objective Source- ed, out of the original sixth wave. In fact, imagine that Condition and Self-Condition of All and all. these waves are all somehow connected together, assem- (2000b, pp. 250, 295) bled by the very fact that they inhere in one another. All the waves of the ocean can be thought of as an Wilber likens the situation relative to nondualism immense matrix (or else spectrum), aligned together to that of a ladder (if not, indeed, a river). However, and arising, level upon level, into an ascending hierar- this is something of a pantheistic (i.e., “Secondary chy. As can be seen, this arrangement is exactly that of Non-Dualism”) view in which the mere aggregate of a ladder. However, there is more to existence than component parts represents God and Reality—where- merely this ladder. Wilber is correct in asserting that as, in truth, God and Reality are other than the ladder. there is a ladder of existence—it is just that the ladder That is to say, the ladder itself arises within God, only is floating in the ocean! And, therefore, its rungs are not then to divide into its corresponding rungs. Wilber actually comprised of wood—they’re comprised of states that the ladder gives a good description of man- water.8 ifest existence because the highest rung of the ladder The true significance of this arrangement suggests and, indeed, the very wood of which it is made are, in that there is only one way to Realize God or “Radical” essence, the very same thing: Spirit. However, this Non-Dual Enlightenment: one must leave the ladder. statement is based on an illusion, which can be sorted Yet, to do so involves a concomitant—and Ecstatic— out in the following way: when the highest rung of the activity: submit to being absorbed back into the ocean. ladder (i.e., causal Self) originally emerges, that is all One must release their attachment (i.e., addiction) to the ladder there is. At this causal point of “origin,” it is manifest existence and submit to God. But this is exact- easy to see how the wood and the rung are identical— ly what the ego-“I” loathes to do (Vitz, 1994)—and they are all there is. Still, this causal rung is not God. for good reason. To release one’s hold on manifest exis-

Nondualism and the Divine Domain 11

tence is to die. However, the difference between this only reaches the top rung. There is nowhere else to go spiritual realization and the misguided judgment of so in scaling the ladder but the top rung. And, more to many unfortunate souls who have made headlines in the point, mistakenly thinking that God-Realization recent years requires an understanding of exactly what involves “climbing” out of samsara only ends up it is that must die: the ego-“I”—not the human body. obscuring the real process of God-Realization. It is the ego-“I” that stands between S/self and God— Although Wilber claims you must first climb the lad- and it does so at every stage of life, including the sixth der, so as to position yourself to discard it, the truth is stage (however subtle its presence at that point). To you must discard the ladder right now, nevermind your overcome the Illusion of Relatedness one must come apparent unpreparedness to do so. And the same is to a dual understanding: 1) realize that the ego-“I” is true at every stage of life—indeed, even that of the actually an obstruction to God (and, therefore, a causal, sixth stage sage. In other words, you don’t need painful denial of Ecstasy), and 2) realize that this is to experience the ladder first to discard it (at any or all something you are doing—even right now. of its rungs). You need only to understand it. It is at this Consequently, the true means to God-Realization is point that you discard the ladder—when you under- simple: stop doing it! No amount of development will stand that it is unnecessary. ever ease or replace this obligation, for even the sixth Indeed, contrary to Wilber’s account, at the point stage of life has its own sense of ego-“I” to overcome. of one’s “highest climb,” a surprising development The S/self in its entirety must accept and submit to could be said to occur: the ladder is not actually dis- being absorbed into God. In a manner of speaking, carded. Rather, it collapses, something like a telescope, there is really only one means to God-Realization: you each rung simply enfolding within the others until must take the “plunge”! only one is left. To think that no more ladder exists Any other understanding only confuses the issue. simply because only one rung is left is an illusion. The Wilber speaks of the ladder metaphor in this manner: causal, sixth stage sage—no matter how truly illustri- “But according to the traditions, it is exactly (and ous and profound—is simply perched upon their final only) by understanding the hierarchical nature of sam- plank of wood, so close to the ocean that they are sara that we can in fact climb out of it, a ladder dis- everything except immersed within it. It is all around carded only after having served its extraordinary pur- them, yet, this one, final piece of wood keeps them pose” (1997, p. 45). Perhaps nowhere is the contrast buoyed. between the Great Tradition and “Radical” Non- “Radical” Non-Dualism and the seventh stage of Dualism more evident than in this passage, for life, on the other hand, yield an entirely different par- Enlightenment actually occurs based upon an entirely ticipation in Reality: different dynamic. In the only-by-Me Revealed and Given seventh [T]he “radical” approach to Realization of stage of life, all conditions (or all motions, or Reality (or Truth, or Real God) is not to go patterns, or waves of My Avatarically Self- gradually “higher and higher” (and, thus, more Transmitted Divine Spirit-Energy) Are (each in and more “away”), but (by surrendering your its moment) Divinely Self-Recognized On and “self,” or total body-mind, to Me—just as it is, In and As the Deep (or Self-Existing and Self- in place) to directly enter into heart- Radiant Consciousness Itself.… Therefore, Communion with Me (the Avataric Self- Deep (Inherently egoless, and Self-Evidently Revelation of the Reality, or Truth, That Is the Divine) Self-Recognition Realizes Only Self- Only Real God), and (in this Manner) to Existing and Self-Radiant Love-Bliss where the Realize Reality, Truth, or Real God In Place (or conditional patterns of merely apparent modifi- As That Which Is Always Already The Case, cation rise and fall in their folds. Where and As you Are, Most Perfectly Beyond At first, this Realization Shines in the and Prior to ego-“I,” or the act of self-contrac- world and Plays “Bright” Demonstrations on tion, or of “differentiation,” which act is the the waves.… At last, The “Brightness” Is prismatic fault that Breaks the Light, or envi- Indifferent (Beyond “difference”) In the sions It as seeming two, and more). (Adi Da, Deep—There, Where Primitive relatedness Is 2000a, p. 276) Freely Drowned. And, When “Bright” Self- Recognition Rests Most Deeply In Its Put somewhat differently, the error of the Great Fathomless Shine, the Play of motions Is Tradition is this: in having climbed the ladder, one Translated In Love-Bliss, Pervasive In the

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Water-Stand—and, like a Sea of Blankets, All References the Deep Unfolds To Waken In the Once Adi Da (1991). The Dawn Horse Testament. Middletown, Neglected (Now Un-Covered) Light of Self- CA: Dawn Horse Press. Illuminated and Eternal Day. (Adi Da, 2001a, Adi Da (1997). Drifted in the deeper land. Middletown, CA: pp. 345, 346) Dawn Horse Press. Adi Da (2000a). Hridaya Rosary (Four Thorns of Heart- Instruction). In The Five Books of the Adidam Revelation Conclusion (Book Four). Middletown, CA: Dawn Horse Press. God both is and is not the S/self, and understand- Adi Da (2000b). The seven stages of life. In The Seventeen ing this fundamental paradox is the only means by Companions of the True Dawn Horse (Book Ten). which one can understand their true relationship to Middletown, CA: Dawn Horse Press. God. Merely considering the S/self to be God— Adi Da (2001a). Eleutherios. In The Five Books of the indeed, even as it exists at the truly profound level of Adidam Revelation (Book Five). Middletown, CA: the causal Self—only trivializes the very real dynamic Dawn Horse Press. of separation that exists in its midst, for the S/self is Adi Da (2001b). Real God Is the Indivisible Oneness of also not God. One cannot Realize God by pretending Unbroken Light. In The Seventeen Companions of the the difference between them does not exist. One can True Dawn Horse (Book One). Middletown, CA: Dawn Realize God only by eliminating that difference— Horse Press. which is only one’s own doing, nevermind how spon- Adi Da (in press). The unique sixth stage foreshadowings of taneous and without reason. the Only-By-Me revealed and demonstrated and given Clearly, confusing the sixth and seventh stages is seventh stage of life. In The Basket of Tolerance. easy to do, for the difference between them is extreme- Middletown, CA: Dawn Horse Press. ly subtle. Yet, this difference is of ultimate significance. Adidam (Eds.) (1991). Notes. In The Dawn Horse The state that Wilber advocates as nondual is really Testament. Middletown, CA: Dawn Horse Press. nothing more than the causal Self emerging in the Assagioli, R. (1965). Psychosynthesis. New York: Viking. midst of the collapse of the self/other duality. Wilber Beck, D.E. & Cowan, C.C. (1996). Spiral dynamics. (2000b) refers to this state as the “Unborn.” To see how Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers. this reference could be made is understandable, for the Chopra, D. (1995). The seven spiritual laws of success. San causal Self does exist prior to involution (i.e., prior to Rafael, CA: Amber-Allen Publishing. being “born” as the various levels of being). However, Cohen, A. (2002). Living enlightenment. Lenox, MA: it does not exist prior to the Illusion of Relatedness— Moksha Press. nor, therefore, as Real God. Although the “Unborn” is Cohen, A. & Wilber, K. (2002). The guru and the pandit: an utterly profound state of reality, its realization is Andrew Cohen and Ken Wilber in dialogue. What is predicated upon the development—rather than the dis- Enlightenment? 22, 39-49. solution—of manifest being. But it is the latter that Conze, E. (1962). Buddhist thought in India. London: Allen makes the difference. Ultimately, God-Realization is a and Unwin. matter of being absorbed into that which is truly Daniels, B. (1999). In appreciation of Wilber’s Unmanifest. The traditions have, at most, only intuit- spectrum/quadrant theory. Internet: BurtonDaniels.com. ed the seventh stage of life. They have not fully Daniels, B. (2003a). The “Apex” Paradox: The role of the ego Embodied it, as is the case with Avatar Adi Da. This is in psychology and spirituality and its implications for clin- precisely why Avatar Adi Da is the unique and only ical practice (Vol. I: The abundant ego). Lincoln, NE: means to seventh stage God-Realization—for He Is Writer’s Showcase. That Very Reality which is to be Realized. Daniels, B. (2003b). The “Apex” Paradox: The role of the ego in psychology and spirituality and its implications for clin- ical practice (Vol. II: The aberrant ego). Lincoln, NE: Writer’s Showcase. Deutsche, E. (1966). Advaita Vedanta. Honolulu, HI: East- West Center Press. Firman, J. & Gila, A. (1997). The primal wound. Albany, NY: State Univ. of New York Press. Griffiths, B. (1991). Vedanta and Christian faith. Clearlake, CA: Dawn Horse Press.

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Hegel, G.W. (1993). The Essential Writings (F.G. Weiss, Footnotes Ed.). New York: HarperCollins. 1This sequence of S/self structure is summarized in Husserl, E. (1960). Cartesian meditations (D. Cairns, Wilber (1995, 2000) as follows: spirit, soul, mind, body, mat- Trans.). The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. ter. Avatar Adi Da (2001a) agrees with this five-tier structure Jung, C.G. (1919/1971). Instinct and the unconscious. In overall. However, there is a significant difference in the two The Collected Works of C.G. Jung (Vol. 8). Princeton, NJ: schemas. He depicts this sequence as consisting of the fol- Princeton Univ. Press. lowing levels of being: causal, subtle, mental, etheric, and Jung, C. G. (1964). Man and his symbols. New York: Dell. gross. Indeed, Avatar Adi Da indicates that there are three Larson, G. J., Potter, K. H., & Bhattacharya, R. S. (Eds.) basic tiers overall, as the subtle actually subsumes the men- (1987). Encyclopedia of Indian philosophy (Vol. 4). tal and etheric within it. Structurally, there is a significant Princeton, NJ: Princeton Press. difference between the two schemas, for the emotions (i.e., Lee, C. (2003). Adi Da: The promised God-Man is here. etheric level) are omitted in Wilber’s model, while the levels Middletown, CA: Dawn Horse Press. of “body” and “matter” are differentiated into the two low- Loy, D. (1998). Nonduality. Amherst, NY: Humanity est levels instead. As a way of clarifying what Wilber means Books. by his nomenclature, a somewhat simplistic correlation can Muzuka, E. (1990). Object relations theory, Buddhism, and be drawn between these levels of being and certain domains the self: Synthesis of Eastern and Western approaches. of science: matter represents physics and geology; body rep- International Philosophical Quarterly, 30(1), 59-74. resents chemistry and biology; and mind represents psychol- Pulver, S.E. (1995). The technique of psychoanalysis prop- ogy and sociology. Unfortunately, at this time science has no er. In B.E. Moore & B.D. Fine (Eds.), Psychoanalysis: correlates for the subtle and causal levels of being (i.e., soul The Major Concepts. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press. and spirit). The schema of these levels of being relates to Rama, S., Ballentine, R, & Ajaya, S. (1998). Yoga and psy- Avatar Adi Da’s revelation of the seven stages of life as fol- chotherapy. Honesdale, PA : Himalayan Pubs. lows: the first three stages of life conform to the gross, ether- Sartre, J. P. (1957). The transcendence of the ego (F. Williams ic, and lower mental levels, respectively; the fourth stage of & R. Kirkpatrick, Trans.). New York: Noonday Press. life is a transitional state between the lower and higher lev- Satorakashananda (1977). The goal and the way. St. Louis, els; the fifth stage of life conforms to the higher mind of the MO: Vedanta Society. subtle level; and the sixth stage of life conforms to the pri- Shankara (1979). A thousand teachings (M. Sengaku, mal Self of the causal level. The seventh stage of life sub- Trans.). Tokyo: Univ. of Tokyo Press. sumes them all as the inherent Substance and Source- Suzuki, D.T. (1968). Studies in the Lankavatara Sutra. Condition of Existence. London: Routledge and Kegan-Paul. 2For a fuller account of the S/self, especially as it relates Tarnas, R. (1991). The passion of the western mind. New to the ego, see Daniels (2003a, b). York: Ballantine Books. 3However, note that even in being “lesser,” the states of Verma, C. (1993). Buddhist phenomenology. Columbia, spiritual attainment emulated here are profound and exhalt- MO: South Asia Books. ed levels of being and should not be dismissed or taken Vitz, P. (1994). Psychology as religion (2nd ed.). Grand lightly. Although they fall short of the most profound level Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. of Enlightenment—“Radical” Non-Dualism and the sev- Wilber, K. (1990). Two patterns of transcendence: A reply enth stage of life—they, nonetheless, represent extraordi- to Washburn. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 30(3), nary states of awareness, far exceeding those attained by the 113-136. vast majority of humanity at this time. Indeed, the remark- Wilber, K. (1995). Sex, ecology, spirituality. Boston & able few capable of attaining these stages of life represent an London: Shambhala. enormous boon to humanity, which is so critical at this stage Wilber, K. (1997). The eye of spirit. Boston & London: of evolution. These levels of “lesser” enlightenment are Shambhala. advocated in the recent works of numerous authors— for Wilber, K. (1999a). Introduction. In The Collected Works example, Cohen (2002), Chopra (1995), and Beck & (Vol. 2). Boston & London: Shambhala. Cowan (1996). Wilber, K. (1999b). The marriage of sense and soul. New 4For a fuller treatment of these aspects of the seventh York: Broadway Books. stage of life, see Adi Da (2000b, 2001a). Wilber, K. (2000a). Integral psychology. Boston & London: 5These may be easily confused for one another. Indeed, Shambhala. Cohen and Wilber give this example: “You really, really, real- Wilber, K. (2000b). One taste. Boston & London: ly need to let go of self and egoic self-esteem altogether. And Shambhala. the problem is that therapists…want to hold onto the egoic

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self-contraction and make it feel good about itself.… [Yet] as one goes deeper and deeper into the process of transfor- mation, it gradually becomes clear what a daunting foe the ego really is, and what a poison narcissism is” (2002, pp. 45- 46). However, although these precepts sound similar to the revelation of Avatar Adi Da, they are not actually situated in the context of the seventh stage of life, precisely because they do not take into account the Illusion of Relatedness. Rather, they advocate the evolution of Enlightenment, which only ends up making God into a goal of spiritual practice—rather than an ongoing, present relationship of worship and devotion. This approach to Enlightenment is what Avatar Adi Da calls either Emanationism or Transcendentalism. For a fuller treatment of these different approaches to spiritual awareness and awakening, see Adi Da (2000b) and Daniels (2002). 6According to Avatar Adi Da’s (2000b, 2001a) schema of development, the right side of the heart is the anatomical reference point for both the sixth stage of life and the causal Self—which are ultimately subsumed within the anatomical reference point of the seventh stage of life: amrita nadi. 7To this point, all spiritual masters have necessarily worked within the cultural constraints imposed by their par- ticular time and place. Only in the last half of the twentieth century has technology and affluence allowed for the cre- ation of a true world community. Consequently, the condi- tions have only recently occurred whereby the provincialism of local customs and loyalties could be overcome and the Great Tradition consummated in a single, all-inclusive reve- lation. Avatar Adi Da has Incarnated precisely for the fulfill- ment of this purpose (see Lee, 2003). 8Note that Wilber has sought to distance himself from the criticism that his theory is linear by employing the imagery of a “river” to replace that of the “ladder”. Although this more “watery” metaphor may appear to have some sim- ilarity to that of the ocean, Wilber’s use of the river is in no way the same. The metaphor of the river is employed to sug- gest the “flux” and “fluidity” of development—over against that of a rigidly linear course. Wilber has chosen the river to suggest the “flow” of development (that it courses through many eddies and cross currents)—not its “Source” or “Substance.” If the rungs of the ladder could be conceived of as being in flux or fluid, then it would serve the exact same purpose as that of the river—and the situation would remain essentially the same: a ladder (i.e., “river”) floating in the ocean.

Correspondence regarding this article should be directed to the author at [email protected]

Nondualism and the Divine Domain 15

Higher Self – Spark of the Mind – Summit of the Soul: Early History of an Important Concept of Transpersonal Psychology in the West

Harald Walach

The Higher Self is a concept introduced by Roberto Assagioli, the founder of psychosynthesis, into transpersonal psychology. This notion is explained and linked up with the Western mysti- cal tradition. Here, coming from antiquity and specifically from the neo-Platonic tradition, a similiar concept has been developed which became known as the spark of the soul, or summit of the mind. This history is sketched and the meaning of the term illustrated. During the middle ages it was developed into a psychology of mysticism by Thomas Gallus, popularized by Bonaventure, and radicalized by the Carthusian writer Hugh of Balma. Spark of the soul signi- fies an "organ of the mystical experience." It is argued that the split introduced into history between outer and inner experience has lain dormant ever since the 13th century, with inner experience relegated to the private and mystical realm. By introducing this concept, transpersonal psychology reconnects with this tradition and has to be aware of the legacy: to achieve the theo- retical, and if possible scientific, integration of both types of experience by drawing on the expe- riential nature of this concept and fostering good research.

istorians and theoreticians of science have chological research nowadays (Bunge, 1980; Bunge & repeatedly noted that the progress of a scien- Ardila, 1987). While this might be acceptable for some Htific discipline is not simply a cumulative branches of psychology, this suggestion does not seem process of increasing knowledge along the lines of to depict the whole situation, and certainly not within accepted methology, but that this progress is achieved clinical psychology, where even the consensus on what by both working within given frameworks of accepted methods to base scientific evidence on is debated presuppositions and by discussing and debating the (Chambless, Sanderson, Shoham, et al, 1995; very foundations (Kuhn, 1955; Laudan, 1977; Oeser, Seligman, 1995; Weinberger, 1995; Wachter & 1979a; Oeser, 1979b; Fleck, 1980; Toulmin, 1985; Messer, 1997; Messer & Woodfolk, 1998). Collingwood, 1998). Psychology, as a scientific disci- Clinical psychology seems to be very much in a pline, is comparatively young with a history of rough- preparadigmatic stage, where many rivalling theories ly 150 years; the first blinded psychological experi- exist, which not only suggest different modes of action ment dating back to Peirce’s and Jastrow’s attempt to contradictory to those of competing theories, but also find out about the smallest perceptible sense difference rest on theoretical presuppostions excluding each in 1883 (Kaptchuk, 1998). It is understandable, there- other. And yet they seem to be effective to some degree fore, that insiders and outsiders alike deplore a kind of independent of their theoretical underpinnings and “preparadigmatic” state of psychology as a whole, with irrespective of the fact that they are using seemingly many different research paradigms in Kuhn’s sense opposite interventions (Goldfried, 1987; Beitman, (Kuhn, 1977) competing for priority. It is only in Goldfried, & Norcross, 1989; Glass, Victor, & some disciplines within psychology, like in experimen- Arnkoff, 1993; Castonguay & Goldfried, 1994; tal or applied psychology, that a comparatively unitary Fensterheim & Raw, 1996). It is mostly within the canon of methods and accepted standards of problem context of clinical psychology, and most notably solving seems to have been accepted by the whole through its humanistic psychological expressions, that community. One could make a case that a systems the- a new movement arose at the end of the 60s, which oretical perspective with an associated emergentist called itself “Transpersonal Psychology” (Sutich, 1969, type of ontology is the most useful paradigm for psy- 1976). The impulse to found yet another movement

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within the already widely disparate field of clinical psy- between what he called lower and higher unconscious chology, seems to have been the realization that there and to introduce the concept of the Higher Self were realities and experiences pointing beyond the per- (Figure 1). The lower unconscious can roughly be sonal self (Maslow, 1969, 1970; Sutich, 1973), such compared to what Freud intended with this notion: as: the experience that individual purpose is always an past and unconscious experiences, drives and impuls- act of transcending the individual self and relating es, our bio-psychological past, as it were. The higher with a “transpersonal” value (Frankl, 1971,1972, unconscious, in contrast, was a notion to differentiate 1973, 1975), the historical awareness that religious “higher” impulses from the lower unconscious and to and spiritual needs have always been and likely will describe them: esthetic values, inspiration and intu- remain part of human life and therefore should be part ition, “higher” drives like altruistic impulses or artistic and parcel of any scientific endeavour to understand inspiration, and also a kind of repository of future human psychology (Wilber, 1974, 1975, 1979, 1984, developmental possibilities. One could even say that 1985a, 1985b, 1985c, 1985d), and last but not least the higher unconscious was something like an the realization that spiritual expriences within the Aristotelian final cause or entelechy for human devel- framework of spiritual traditions are both important opment. In that Assagioli tried to differentiate the and possibly irreducible elements of human experience Jungian notion of collective unconscious into the part (Goleman, 1972, 1975; Fadiman & Frager, 1976; which comprises the impulses towards development Tart, 1976, 1986; Robinson, 1977; Washburn, 1978; and wholeness from that which stands for disintegra- Bergin, 1980; Armstrong, 1984; Engler, 1984, tive forces (Assagioli, 1974). Complexes of experiences Atwood & Maltin, 1991; Thalbourne, 1991; Lukoff, he called sub-personalities. This is a notion akin to Lu, & Turner, 1992, 1998). It is wrong, however, to Jung’s concept of “complex,” meaning an emotional, suppose that Transpersonal Psychology is a unitary motivational and action oriented quasi-independent school. It is rather a loose connection of many move- part of the personality, usually associated with repeat- ments and groups whose common denominator prob- ed experiences or social roles. It would be very interest- ably is the emphasis on and interest in experiences ing to study this concept in relation to modern which are termed “spiritual,” “mystical,” or “religious,” schema-theoretic approaches (Ciompi, 1991; Lundh, without clear definitions of these terms (Lukoff, 1985; 1995; Stein & Markus, 1996; Rusting, 1998), because Thalbourne, 1991; Thalbourne & Delin, 1994; very likely the concept of a schema would cover what Turner, Lukoff, Barnhouse, & Lu, 1995; Thalbourne Assagioli meant by subpersonalities. Assagioli pointed & Delin, 1998). towards the importance of the human will as a resource for integration and development, and there- Psychosynthesis by, incidentally, foreshadowed an important modern One of the early members of the transpersonal movement within self-regulation theory (Kuhl, 1996, movement and original coeditor of the Journal of 1998, 1999). But most important of all is his concept Transpersonal Psychology was the Italian psychiatrist of Higher Self. Assagioli underlined that the process of Roberto Assagioli (1888-1974), who developed a psy- integration and synthesis which human development chological model of personality and clinical change represents is neither a random nor a simple cumulative which he called “psychosynthesis” (Assagioli, 1934, process, but one which seems to be mediated, super- 1969, 1974, 1986, 1988, 1991). While many theoreti- vised or even fostered by something like a transperson- cians and practitioners of transpersonal psychology al attractor, to use a modern metaphoric language. have heavily relied on impulses from Eastern philoso- This centre, which both acts as the inner guideline and phies and traditions, psychosynthesis is one of the impulse—as well as a regulating and attracting goal, he “Western” types of transpersonal psychologies, called Higher Self. although Assagioli seems to have derived many of his Assagioli usually was very scant with bibliograph- concepts and strategies also from theosophy and, ic details of his sources. Therefore, for an outsider, his therefore, from Eastern sources as well (Besmer, 1973; psychology looks as if he had invented all the concepts Schuller, 1988). Originally one of the early advocates himself. Some emphasize the esoteric and theosophic of psychoanalysis in Italy (Assagioli, 1911), he quickly heritage (Schuller, 1988). It is my aim here to show developed a psychological concept of his own. that the notion of Higher Self has a long tradition in Thereby, he used the depth-psychological terminology the West which can be located mainly within the introduced by Freud and developed by Jung and dif- Platonic, neo-Platonic and mystical traditions. While ferentiated it. His main thrust was to discriminate these traditions have lost their importance within sci-

Higher Self 17

ence, it is now within transpersonal psychology and by some higher, spiritual nature within man we can see in the mediation of Assagioli’s psychosynthesis that one the fragment B119 (around 500 BC) of Heraklitos of the most interesting concepts of this tradition starts (Weber, 1976), which reads: ETHOS ANTHROPO to surface again. I want to sketch out this tradition and DAIMON. This can, as most texts by Heraklitos, be therebey connect the seemingly unconnected modern understood in different ways and needs interpretation. practice and terminology with the tradition, and thus But one possible and probably sensible reading and point to its importance and possible explanatory translation would be: “home for man is the god(ly)”. power. The journey will lead us from the predecessors The Greek word “ETHOS” signifies “home,” of the notion in antiquity to the first formulation of a “hearth,” “the innermost of the house”. The fragment, transpersonal type of psychology by mystical writers of then, can be understood in the sense: The god(ly) is the middle ages to the modern concept. Since this his- home to man, meaning surrounding, holding man, tory is extremely complicated and complex, I will only but also in the centre of man, central to his innermost point out the more important turns and steps. personality there is something godly. Heidegger, in his famous “letter on humanism” has pointed toward this * Higher Self fragment in this sense (Heidegger, 1967, p. 301ff). (organizing principle) We next explicitly meet the idea of some inner God or godlike inner voice in the famous Platonic dia- logue, “The Apology of Socrates” (Plato, 1964). higher Socrates, who because of that in the end is sentenced unconscious to death for “introducing new gods,” confirms that he experiences an inner voice that is sometimes warning him against doing things, but never advises him in the positive to do something. field of consciousness collective Endre von Ivanka (1964), who has traced the his- unconscious tory of this concept, has pointed out that apart from Me the Platonic and neo-Platonic traditions of the con- middle unconscious cept of Spark of the Soul, there also is a Stoic root to it, namely the Stoic teaching of the universal fire as the source of everything and the trace of this fire in every- subpersonalities thing as a fiery, cosmic seed. Plato, of course, with his teaching that the soul lower stems from the realm of ideas from where it comes into unconscious the body, bringing a trace of the ideal worlds of immutable ideas and of the Beauty and Good with it Figure 1. Assagioli’s Personality Model. into the human being, laid the foundation for the later teaching of an immortal soul or rather, an immortal It will remain a task on its own to be accomplished part within the soul. Plato developed a model of the in a separate paper to follow the history of Assagioli’s soul in which one part of the soul was striving towards sources through modern psychology and from the the good, which later was merged with Stoic and other theosophical tradition. Likely sources will have to ideas. include the writings of Blavatsky and Bailey, Yoga psy- Even Aristotle, who otherwise was more inclined chology, William James, who first seemed to have towards biology and natural philosophy and tried to mentioned a concept like “spiritual self” in the mod- eschew some of the pitfalls of Platonic thinking, in his ern scientific tradition, and Jewish Kabbalist sources. “De anima - on the soul” (Aristoteles, 1983) explicitly All those direct sources of Assagioli’s will not be the said that the highest part of the soul, the agent intel- topic of this paper. Rather I wish to draw the attention lect, the active part of the intellect, came from “out- of readers to the mystical tradition and its likely influ- side-THYRATHEN,” which literally reads as “from ence on the modern shape of the concept of Higher outside through the door.” Although his “de anima” Self as expressed by Assagioli and other writers. was a work rather of natural philosophy, which tried to understand and outline the natural workings of the Roots in Antiquity soul, he pointed to this super- or trans-natural part of The first written trace of the idea that there is the soul. Since one other work of Aristotle, which is

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thought to have contained the more esoteric aspect of life is comfortable (Enn IV 8, 8.23) his psychology, is lost, we can only speculate what he really meant by the saying, the “active intellect” comes Often I have woken up out of the body to my from outside. But it is a well accepted fact meanwhile self and have entered into myself, going out that the followers of Aristotle and those who still had from all other things; I have seen a beauty won- access to the rest of his works, as well as his Islamic derfully great and felt assurance that then most interpreters, interpreted him in the sense that this of all I belonged to the better part; I have actu- active part of the intellect was a spiritual and immor- ally lived the best life and come to identity with tal part of the soul (Merlan, 1963). the divine; and set firm in it I have come to that The next step was made within the neo-Platonic supreme actuality... (Enn IV 8, 8.1f) tradition of those Platonists, who revived the Academy and its teaching after nearly 500 years. The founder of These quotes illustrate Plotinos’ psychology pretty this neo-Platonist movement was Plotinos (204-270 clearly: He saw the soul as “containing” two parts, a AD) (Plotin, 1966). The hallmark of his teaching is, in higher and lower part. The higher part, he thought, modern terminology, a consequent idealist ontology was like a mark of the divine, a trace of the One, which which starts from the insight or experience that pure was experienced by the individual as a desire to reunite consciousness is primary. Plotinos called the principal with the One. This was possible, Plotinos taught, by source of everything “the One,” which he conceived to contemplation, by receding the faculties and powers of be all and everything in one, beyond every limitation, the soul from the outside world and turning inwards out of which everything emanates in four stages: first until, in total stillness, this divine part of the soul the NOUS, the intellect, which is pure intelligibility reunites with the One. This was one of the main and reservoir of the world of ideas in the Platonic sources of the contemplative traditions in the West, sense. From the intellect emanates the world soul and is, of course, very much akin to Eastern practices which gives life to everything. And from this, at last, of meditation like Yoga or Zen. Plotinos, so his biog- emanates the material world. However, there is an rapher Porphyrios tells us and as Plotinos testified imprint of the divine One in every single soul, as it himself, had quite a few experiences like that which were, a trace of the One which is at the same time left in him the desire to be totally gone from this world mark of and spurn to the One. It is the impulse with- and reunited. Therefore he was ashamed of his body, in the soul to return, turn round to the One again and, which to him seemed like a hindrance. This, inciden- in mystical contemplation, seek reunion with the One tally, is the source for much of later aversions against (Beierwaltes, Balthasar, & Haas, 1974). This model, of the body, which is attributed to Christianity, but seems course, is akin to Eastern cosmologies, and very likely to derive from the neo-Platonist tradition. was inspired by contacts between the Greek culture The idea of a special part of the soul was finally and the East (O’Meara, 1982). Plotinos himself is said introduced by Proclos, one of Plotinos’ followers and to have had contacts with Eastern sages while traveling the systematizer of Plotinos’ ideas (Beierwaltes, 1965). in Egypt (see the Biography of Plotinos by his disciple In his “Ten doubts on providence” (Proklos, 1953, and follower Porphyrios, which is printed in the first 1977), he says: volume of the Loeb edition of Plotinos’ works). A few For in us also there is inherent a certain occult quotes from Plotinos may illustrate his ideas: vestige of the One, which is more divine than For the soul is many things, and all things, both our intellect, and in which the soul, perfecting the things above and the things below down to and establishing herself, becomes divine, and the limits of all life, and we are each one of us lives, as far as is possible for this to be accom- an intelligible universe, making contact with plished by her, a divine life. (1953, p. 70) this lowerworld by the powers of the soul below, but with the intelligible world by its Proclos was important insofar as he probably was powers above; and we remain with all the rest of the teacher of a Syrian monk who was known in later our intelligible part above, but by its ultimate centuries as Pseudo-Dionysios (Ps.-Dionysios), the fringe we are tied to the world below... (Enn III. Areopagite. Saint Paul, in the Acts of the Apostles, is 4, 3.21 ff). said to have preached to the Athenians and to have converted one Dionysios, a philosopher from the ...but there is a higher part (of the soul) which Areopague. Using this alias name, this anonymous the transitory pleasures do not please, and its monk of the 5th century could secure himself highest

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authority since his writings were long thought to have the human soul, which was untouched and untouch- been inspired by the Apostle himself. Saint Thomas able by human sin. Philosophers of the 12th century, Aquinas, for example, quoted Ps.-Dionysios more like Phillip the Chancelor, or later on Adam de la often than Saint Augustine. Thus, this neo-Platonic Hale, used the term “synderesis” to signify the fact that tradition made its way into the Christian middle ages, even the worst of sinners always had a door open neo-Platonism baptized, as it were. towards the good, that he always could convert himself The teachings of Ps.-Dionysios the Areopagite and turn to God, since there was a place within him (Ps.-Dionysius Areopagita, 1949, 1957, 1987), which remained untouched by all the evil he brought endowed with Apostolic authority, have been highly on himself by his sins (Lottin, 1942, 1948). This was influential in the middle ages. The main theme of his the place where God spoke through the true voice of book “Mystical Theology,” was centred around the consciousness, the “synderesis,” a place free of sin even immense greatness of God, his absolute otherness and in the sinner, and thus granting freedom of conversion difference and the impossibility to know him. In this at any time. In this moral sense this term seems to have teaching the neo-Platonic One is identified as God, or been used for quite a long time, even by Thomas God as he is conceived in the Judaic-Christian tradi- Aquinas in the 13th century. tion is identified with the neo-Platonic One. And But in parallel to this moral usage another one man’s endeavour, of course, must be to seek reunion turned up out of the slumber of the dark ages in the with God, “in ignorance,” beyond rational thinking mystical tradition. The main psychological text of the and knowing. Ps.-Dionysius takes up the teachings of middle ages, the “Liber de spiritu et anima - The book Proclos and also speaks of a higher part of the soul, of the spirit and the soul,” which is attributed to the which is the faculty of union of man with God. Cistercian author, Alcher of Clairvaux, but was known in the middle ages as a text of St. Augustine’s, men- Development During the Middle Ages tions the fact that in the contemplative-mystical expe- Somewhere along the line during the Dark Ages rience the soul is taken out of its normal state, and that this neo-Platonic idea of a special part of the soul as there is an “occult power” within the soul, but without the trace of the One, or the image of God in Christian naming this power (Pseudo-Augustinus & Alcher von terminology, seems to have melted together with the Clairveaux, 1996, Cap. XXIV, p. 797). It was Thomas Stoic teaching of the “seeds of the eternal fire” to form Gallus or Thomas of St.Victor, also known as Thomas what became known as “scintilla synderesis,” the spark of Vercelli or Commentator Vercellensis, who reintro- of the synderesis. Synderesis is a complicated term, and duced the concept of the “scintilla synderesis” as a it is still unclear, what it really meant and what its true mystical notion. ethymology is. For the philosophers of the middle ages Thomas Gallus (1219 - 1247) is mentioned as a it primarily was a moral concept. It signalled a part of canon of St.Victor in Paris and university teacher in

Figure 2. Scheme of Thomas Gallus’ psychology.

apex mentis experitur affectus unicionem consummatio ad Deum nec potest intellectus synderesis comprehendre intellectus supra naturam et industriam imperia liberi arbitrii robur mentis ratio industria motus voluntarii appetitus divinorum vera an falsa vires naturales naturales apprehensiones natura

intellectus - veritas affectus - bonitas aliena cognoscere sua propria cognoscere

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1219. At some stage he was transferred to the abbey of grace only; it is beyond human nature and active effort Vercelli in Piemont, where he lived and studied (supra naturam et industriam), and in it the highest (Barbet, 1990). His work, apart from his monastic and faculties of the human soul are perfected (consumma- ecclesiastic duties, mainly consisted in reading, com- tio intellectus). menting and interpreting the works of Ps.-Dionysios Of this upper triad of the soul, the synderesis, only the Areopagite. By doing this, he achieved two things, the very highest, which corresponds to the highest which made him important for posteriority: He trans- hierarchy of angels, the Seraphim, is called the “apex lated the meaning of the Greek terms which were close mentis - summit of the mind”, or at other places “scin- to the pagan, neo-Platonic tradition, into the Western, tilla synderesis - spark of the synderesis”, or “princi- Augustian terminology and made this strain of con- palis affectio - principal affection.” This is the “organ” templative tradition more accessible to the West. And of the contemplative, unitive experience of ecstatic he developed a psychology which could incorporate oneness of the soul with God, which is beyond any these teachings. The main part of this psychology, operation of the mind. This scintilla synderesis belongs which he outlined in his commentary on Isiah, is lost. solely to the affect, and thereby is concerned with the But he wrote a summary himself in one of his com- highest good of the soul, with God alone. In his com- mentaries which has survived and has been edited mentary on the “Mystic Theology” (which, by the way, (Thomas Gallus, 1936). In that summary he aligns the is extremely rare; a copy is obtainable by interlibrary inner structure of the soul with Ps.-Dionysios’ teach- loan from the university library in Mainz, Germany) ing of the celestial hierarchies, and posits 3*3 faculties of Ps.-Dionysius the Areopagite (Thomas Gallus, of the soul, according to the 3*3 hierarchies of angels. 1934, p. 14), he says: It is schematically reconstructed in Figure 2. In this book he (i.e. Dionysius) hands down.. a There are two major faculties: intellect (intellec- more profound way of knowing God... Pagan tus), and affect (affectus). While the intellect is con- philosophers...thought the highest cognitive cerned with the outside world and truth (veritas, aliena power was found in the intellect, when there is cognoscere)—at the lower level with sensory truth, at another power that exceeds the intellect no less a higher level with propositional and intellectual truth, than the intellect exceeds reason and the reason the affect is concerned with goodness and the soul’s exceeds imagination. This power is the princi- own states (bonitas, suo propria cognoscere)— at a pal affectio, which is the spark of the synderesis lower level with the subjective and sensual goodness, at and which alone can be united to the Holy a higher level with the intellectually and morally good. Spirit. The first level of the soul, compartments 1-3 as it were, consist of the natural faculties of the soul (vires This is the first explicit mentioning of a specific naturales). They work naturally, subconsciously in faculty of the soul, whose sole purpose and aim is the modern parlance (natura). There we find the natural, unification with God, a faculty or organ for the mysti- sensual apprehensions (naturales apprehensiones), and cal experience, as it were. the simple discernment of basic truths and falsity (vera With Thomas Gallus, the neo-Platonic teaching an falsa). But at the border toward the next level, of a trace of the One has combined with various denoted as the rational faculty (ratio), the affect strands of Christian teaching, with the moral concept already comes out of its natural slumber, as it were, of consciousness, to form an explicit psychological and experiences a desire for the divine (appetitus divi- notion of the “scintilla synderesis,” spark of the soul or norum). This second level, compartments 4-6, is acti- principal affection, which is the highest part of the vated by the will and by effort of energy (industria), soul. In this specific place in the soul a human being is and is the central power of the mind (robur mentis). divine, as it were, and is able to unite with God One could also interpret this as the conscious level of him/herself, and by doing this, gains experiential, mys- our human rational faculties. The highest part of the tical knowledge of God. Here the “spark of the soul” affect here are the commands of the free will (imperia has made its entry into the teaching of the West. liberi arbitrii). Note that in former psychologies some Thomas Gallus was not a minor writer. He was 50 or 100 years earlier, this free will would have been well regarded by posteriority and widely read, whence a part of the synderesis. Here in Thomas Gallus, we his title of honour “commentator Vercellensis - the find a whole compartment above the rational powers commentator from Vercelli.” The middle ages only of the soul which he calls synderesis. These are the tributed such nicknames and titles of honour to well- compartments 7-9 so to speak. This is activated by known and important writers. Thus it is understand-

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able that his teachings were taken up by others and cal edition of his text (Hugo de Balma, 1995). handed down. Opinions about the author, his biography, his motives Saint Bonaventure, the Franciscan friar, general, and the basic thrust of his teachings vary widely. While and professor of theology was one of them (Gilson, the official, accepted version is that he was a 1929). In his book “Itinerarium mentis in Deum - The Carthusian prior, Walach (1994) has argued that he mind’s itinerary to God” he described the mystical probably was a Franciscan friar opposing St. ascent (Bonaventura, 1961). This ascent is conceived Bonaventure and who had to retreat into the charter- according to his— more Augustinian—psychology. house for personal safety and ecclesiastical peace. And every faculty of the soul has a certain role to ful- These details, however, do not concern the main fill in this. He says: impact of his teaching. This was taken up extensively These six steps of the ascent to God are accord- about 100 years after his presumed active period, ing to six hierarchically ordered faculties of the which can be dated round about the years of 1260- soul, ... the senses, the imagination, the ration- 1270. His teaching was highly influential, his work al faculties, the intellect, the understanding, was translated into many languages, and printed in and the summit of the soul or the spark of the many editions, such that he can really be called one of synderesis (apex mentis seu synderesis scintilla). the fathers of Western mysticism. He very likely was (Bonaventura, 1961, I.6, p. 59f.) the main source for the contemplative text, “The Cloud of Unknowing” (Anonymous, 1981), which It is within this latter spark of the soul, which he also is inspired by Carthusian spirituality. He influ- also calls apex affectus, summit of the affect, that the enced the 14th and 15th century movement of lay mystical experience takes place: devotion, the so called devotio moderna, and thereby In this step, if it is to be perfect, all intellectual was seminal for the later contemplative or mystical tra- activities have to be given up. And the apex of dition. His influence on Meister Eckhart remains to be the affect is totally taken over and transformed traced, but the fact that Eckhart was in Paris in 1276/7 into God. This process, however, is mystical and in 1312 makes a connection a possibility. and most secret. Noboby understands it, unless One can make a point that, up to Hugh of Balma, he receives it, and he does not receive it, unless mystical and classical theology, pre-modern science he desires it, and he does not desire it, unless and mystical speculation, outer and inner experience the fire of the holy spirit ignites him in his very were one. This is also evidenced by Thomas Gallus’ centre. (Bonaventura, 1961, VII. 4, p. 150) psychology, where the faculty of intellect, which is concerned with the outer world, and the faculty of Thus, in Bonaventure the neo-Platonic-Dionysian affect, which is concerned with the soul’s own inner theme of an imprint of the One or an organ for the states, which in fact is inner experience, are still mystical experience has been combined with the more together. It was Hugh of Balma who radicalized this traditional Augustinian psychology familiar at the teaching. His basic message is simple: Only in the total schools of theology and has been firmly established in withdrawal of the soul from every outward orienta- what became one of the key texts of the Western tion, only in radical extinction of thinking, and only in Christian mystical traditions. Bonaventure has taken concentrating all the soul’s powers into the affect, thus up the notion introduced by Thomas Gallus of a sum- aiming only at the mystical union with all desire and mit or spark of the soul, and being one of the major all power and in ardent love, can true knowledge of authors of the Franciscan community and a widely God, true peace and freedom be gained, and, as a kind read theological teacher, popularized it. of side effect, true knowledge of many other things. In parallel, another author was possibly even more He severely attacks all school teaching and academic influential than St. Bonaventure in familiarizing the wisdom, university teachers and theologians for having spiritual readership with the concept of a higher part relinquished the true path towards insight and knowl- of the soul: the Carthusian author, Hugh of Balma edge, the mystical path, as taught by Ps.-Dionysios and (Walach, 1994; Walach, 1996). Hugh of Balma is usu- Thomas Gallus, which leads to a unification with God ally known only to specialists due to missing editions in the scintilla synderesis, and which is the only aim and literally missing access to his writings, except in and bliss of the soul. old and rare prints until very recently. There is now Here is a textual example from Hugh’s lengthy available a recent English (Martin, 1997b) and tract, “Viae Sion lugent - The ways to Zion mourn”, German translation (Walach, 1994), as well as a criti- which was also known as “Mystical Theology” or as

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“De triplici via ad sapientiam - The Threefold Way to sis. Meister Eckhart, the Dominican friar and preach- Wisdom”: er has taken this notion up and popularized it in the The other type of knowing is more eminent vernacular in his sermons, mostly to Dominican sis- than the other two: it consists in the most ters, which were written down and copied widely. ardent unifying love, which in reality makes the Here he also calls this central part of the soul spark of spirit able, without any mediating agent, to rise the soul, little fortress of the soul, God within. And ardently and glowingly with surging strivings to from there it made its way into the teaching of other his beloved. This type of knowledge was hand- mystics, like Tauler or Seuse, or into the circles of lay ed down in the “Mystical Theology” (of Ps.- people (Ruh, 1993). A concept was born, albeit main- Dionysius). It rises up in the summit of the ly outside academical traditions, which signifies that, affective power. About this rising it is said that within the human mind, there is a part which is like a it happens without knowledge, or rather by “better” part of a divine nature, and therefore can be not-knowing. By letting go of any activity of the place and the means of the mystical experience of imagination, of the rational faculty, of the mind union with God. It is conceived as the very centre or and of the understanding, we are able to feel summit of the soul. already now, in the present moment, by virtue It certainly would be interesting to sketch further of the unification of the glowing, ardent love this history in the West and in later times. And it that, what the mind is incapable of grasping. would be even more interesting to draw the parallels (Walach, 1994, p. 265) with and underline differences to Eastern traditions, which would certainly be possible, but is outside the This text, then, is one of the major manifestos, if scope of this paper. These hints may suffice for a first not the most important one, of mystical thought in approach. the West. It was ascribed to Bonaventure and thereby This concept has mainly disappeared from the became widely known and eminently important. More academic agenda ever since Hugh of Balma, who like- than 100 text witnesses are extant, an enormous num- ly tried to influence academic opinion, failed. It has ber, testifying to its wide distribution. Its influence is since lived and survived in the circles of pious groups, still not completely traced and established, but certain- in monasteries and in the writings and teachings of ly goes as far as the Spanish mystics (Pablo Maroto, mystical writers. It seems to be an interesting fact that, 1965) of the 16th and 17th century, like Theresa of within transpersonal psychology, especially within psy- Avila, John of the Cross, and Ignatius of Loyola, the chosynthesis, this concept returns. founder of the Jesuit order and of the meditative-expe- riential tradition of the spiritual exercises (Beyer, Higher Self: The Heritage and the Future Agenda 1956). It is within psychosynthesis as described by It is in Hugh of Balma that the academic tradition Assogioli that the concept of a Higher Self makes it of the West branches into an “exoteric,” academic, the- quasi-official reappearance on the agenda of modern ological and scientific branch, which looks at every- psychology. It seems evident that what Assagioli had in thing from the outside, for which experience is experi- mind by this notion is probably very similar to what ence of something (else), be it nature, world or God, was expressed in the tradition by the terms “spark of and in an “esoteric,” counter-academic, mystical the soul,” “summit of the mind,” “spark of the syn- branch, for which experience is eminently experience deresis.” While the mystical tradition used the term of oneself, as nature, as world, as God. Since the latter more in the context of the mystical experience of half of the 13th century, the mystical tradition has union with God, Assagioli assigns more mundane drifted away from orthodox teaching, and was more or tasks to the Higher Self, as we saw. In his psycholo- less driven out of universities and schools. Experience gy–which, by the way, he did not see as a fixed system has started to become experience of outer things. Inner but as a suggestion open to and in demand of further experience or mystical experience has been delegated exploration—the Higher Self is an active centre, acti- to lay piety and private worship. vating and thereby pulling the individual toward his or The psychology of these mystical writers, howev- her development. Whitehead’s beautiful metaphor of er, has culminated in a notion, which has henceforth “God luring” entities towards him, comes to mind remained present in the West: the notion of a higher here. The Higher Self of Assagioli has a psychological part of the soul, variably named summit of the mind, function: unification, and spiritual development of the spark of the soul, principal affect, spark of the syndere- psyche. During the middle ages, this was identical to

Higher Self 23

deification: becoming God-like or union with God. Self is at the first glance utterly unscientific: there is no The historical distance from the middle ages can be way of verifying or falsifying it, it seems; there is no traced in the fact that nowadays we also recognize psy- clear advantage for such a concept to everyday research chological needs more readily. We acknowledge that and theorizing; and it probably would be cut away by sometimes psychological problems have to be solved Ockham’s razor, which forbids entities beyond necessi- before or after spiritual experiences, and that the ty. power of such a mystical experience can be severely There are several strands of empirical and theoret- hampered by psychological malfunctioning of the rest ical research which recommend itself in that way. of the person. Granted that a modern psychological It should be shown beyond doubt that spiritual stance has something to add and to offer to the purely experiences are quite common, quite natural and a mystical or spiritual position, the essence of what is health resource rather than hazard. Although there is meant by the Higher Self or the spark of the soul in the some research into that direction, it is by no means middle ages seems to be the same: enough nor is it good enough. Only if presented in the Both signify the highest part of the soul, basically widely read mainstream journals with high impact and untouched by psychological suffering, sound and rigorous review will such material be taken seriously. available as a resource, in modern parlance. We feel Historical and theoretical research should establish reminded of Viktor E. Frankl’s dictum that the spirit is firm links between concepts of different cultures and never ill, only the soul. times. One guiding principle would be the possibility Both attribute to this part an active role in the that basic human experiences and conditions are uni- unification of the personality. While for Assagioli, this versal but interpreted differently according to different is a kind of ever present synthesizing and motivating historical and cultural backgrounds. activity, for the mystical writers of the middle ages this Transpersonal therapies should take up the burden was the innate spurn to embark on the spiritual quest, of empirical research and evaluation, proving to the to let oneself be drawn by the call of God. Apart from scientific community and the public that therapies the different and clerical language this is couched in, it using transpersonal resources, in imagination, healing, describes the same basic experience. prayer or whatever other type, can be effective, or even Both traditions see the experience of this inner- more effective than conventional treatment. most part, our godlike nature, Christ-nature or Specifically, interventions tapping the spiritual Buddha-nature, as the most important and most ful- resources should be researched and documented well. filling experience, to which everyone is drawn. Assagioli has suggested some imagination exercises for Therefore, I venture to say that in the Higher Self helping the individual growth process.The best known of psychosynthesis, or rather in this or similar concepts of these is probably the inner journey to the wise man, of Transpersonal Psychology, the old concept of “spark which is thought to be an imaginative counterpart of of the soul” makes its reappearance. If this is so, this contacting one’s Higher Self. We need data on the has some important ramifications, since history is not effectiveness of interventions like that, and on the simply a rehearsal of the same piece of music all over effectiveness of therapies which base their concept again, and there are some tasks which come with it. more on a spiritual understanding of man, utilizing As I have tried to show, the mystical tradition has this as a resource. At present, we know virtually noth- pulled away from the official academic strand of ing. research and teaching. If it is true that within transper- Then, of course, there would be the reductive sonal psychology some of the legacies of the mystical argument which is difficult to counter apart by self- tradition are present, then one task would obviously be evidence, which is not very convincing to sceptics and to reconnect this strand of thinking and experiencing critics: What is the criterion that in any experience of with the main stream of the scientific endeavour, in Higher Self, of Higher Nature, or Spark of the Soul, other words to reintroduce the topics of transpersonal one has indeed made contact with a spiritual or psychology within academic main-stream psychology transpersonal realm? Why has it to be “trans-” and is and research. One way would be to point out phenom- not simply something like a strong resource, like self- ena which cannot be explained well by the ruling par- esteem, or coping skills, or salutogenetic resources? adigms of academic psychology and which will suggest Traditions usually have a pragmatic answer: True expe- a concept like the Higher Self as an explanatory con- riences transform people and leave them changed such struct. To be quite sure: By the rules and standards of that they are able to do things or perform tasks which academic psychology a concept like that of the Higher they previously were unable to. In the Zen-tradition

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there is something like that in the testing for the word, not only as inner experience and not only as understanding of a Koan. Something like that would outer experience, but as what it originally was: inner be necessary for a science of spiritual experiences. A and outer exprience combined into one mode with catalogue of “traces” which should be detectable in the two faces. In such a notion of science and experience psychological make-up or in the daily lives or achieve- there would be a place for a concept derived from ments of people with true “experiences” of their high- inner experience like the Higher Self, or the spark of er nature should be worked out. The knowledge of the the soul. spiritual traditions can be helpful in this, but eventu- ally will have to undergo empirical tests as well. As yet, these types of validation of experiences, which alone Author Note can yield an argument against reductive reasoning, are This paper is based on a talk held at the 3rd World not public knowledge. Maybe they never will be, nor Congress of Psychotherapy in Vienna, July 1999. It should be. Maybe some simple surrogate tests could be was supported by the Institut für Grenzgebiete der devised. The rationale is not much different from that Psychologie und Psychohygiene, Freiburg, Germany. of common tests: What can be tested for (intelligence, motor performance, school aptitude), likely exists. History shows that phenomena, experiences, facts References and theories remain unrecognized unless they can be Anonymous. (1981). The cloud of unknowing: The combined with, integrated into and linked up with classics of Western spirituality. Ed., transl., introd. existing knowledge and paradigms. A successful new by J. Walsh. New York: Paulist Press. paradigm is not a paradigm which suggests: Throw Aristoteles. (1983). Vom Himmel. Von der Seele. Von away the old stuff, I’ll give you something completely der Dichtkunst. Übers. & hrsg. v. O. Gigon. new. In that sense voices coming from the transperson- München: DTV. al camp and demanding a “new” science are not all Armstrong, T. (1984). Transpersonal experience in that helpful, if they cannot at the same time point out, childhood. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, how to really integrate what is “new” with what is 16, 207-230. there. Quantum mechanics was successful not because Assagioli, R. (1911). Il Subcosciente. In Anonymous, it was new, but because it could integrate what was Atti del IV Congresso Internationale di Filosofia, there into a new framework, which explained the same Bologna. (pp. 606-624). Nendeln: Kraus. phenomena as well as the old theories plus could make Assagioli, R. (1934). Psychoanalysis and psychosyn- testable predictions and integrate some odd phenome- thesis. Hibbert Journal, 33, 184-201. na left unexplained by Newtonian mechanics. In that Assagioli, R. (1969). Symbols of transpersonal experi- sense, good theory and good empirical theory testing ences. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 1, 33- should be mandatory also for transpersonal psycholo- 45. gy, if integration is to happen at all. One way would be Assagioli, R. (1974). Jung and psychosynthesis. to promote research into meditation, both empirically Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 14, 35-55. by EEG, fMRI, and quantitative self-report, as well as Assagioli, R. (1986). Die schulung des willens. phenomenologically by studying qualitative reports, Methoden der psychotherapie und der selbstthera- and to combine this with existing models as far as pos- pie. Paderborn: Junfermann. sible. It would probably be wise to utilize the modern Assagioli, R. (1988). Psychosynthese. Prinzipien, trend towards neuroscience, neuroimaging and the methoden und techniken. Adliswil/Zürich: Verlag concepts derived from there, as well as the methodol- Astrologisch-Psychologisches Institut. ogy that comes with it, to introduce the topics of Assagioli, R. (1991). Transpersonal development. The transpersonal psychology into mainstream research. dimension beyond psychosynthesis. London: The Higher Self or Spark of the Soul initially was Harper Collins. a concept derived from experience. Plotinos reported- Atwood, J. D., & Maltin, L. (1991). Putting eastern ly had quite a few spiritual experiences himself, as philosophies into western psychotherapies. probably did the other writers. It was inner experience, American Journal of Psychotherapy, 45, 368-382. subjective in the first place, but linked up with philo- Barbet, J. (1990). Thomas Gallus. In dictionnaire de sophical and traditional terminology, and thus inter- spiritualité. (pp. 800-816). subjective in result. We need something similar today, Beierwaltes, W. (1965). Proklos. Grundzüge seiner it seems. We need experience in the full sense of the metaphysik. Frankfurt: Klostermann.

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Beierwaltes, W., Balthasar, H.U.v., & Has, A.M. (1974). Fleck, L. (1980). Entstehung und entwicklung einer Grundfragen der mystik. Einsiedeln: Johannes. wissenschaftlichen tatsache. Einführung in die Beitman, B. D., Goldfried, M. R., & Norcross, J. C. Lehre vom Denkstil und Denkkollektiv. Mit einer (1989). The movement toward integrating the psy- Einleitung herausg. v. L. Schäfer und T. chotherapies: an overview. American Journal of Schnelle. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp. (Original Psychiatry, 146, 138-147. erschienen 1935). Bergin, A.E. (1980). Psychotherapy and religious val- Frankl, V.E. (1971). Ärztliche Seelsorge. Grundlagen ues. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, der Logotherapie und Existenzanalyse. Wien: 48, 95-105. Deuticke. Besmer, B. (1973). Psychosynthesis: Height psychology Frankl, V.E. (1972). Der Wille zum Sinn. Bern: Huber. - Discovering the self and the Self. An interview Frankl, V.E. (1973). Der Mensch auf der Suche nach with Roberto Assagioli. Interpersonal Develop- Sinn. Freiburg: Herder. ment, 4, 215-225. Frankl, V.E. (1975). Anthropologische Grundlagen Beyer, J. (1956). Saint Ignace de Loyola chartreux. der Psychotherapie. Bern: Huber. Nouvelle revue théologique, 78, 937-951. Gilson, E. (1929). Der Heilige Bonaventura. Hellerau: Bonaventura. (1961). Itinerarium mentis in Deum. Jakob Hegner. De reductione artium ad theologiam. Lat. & Glass, C.R., Victor, B.J., & Arnkoff, D.B. (1993). deutsch. München: Kösel. Empirical research on integrative and eclectic psy- Bunge, M. (1980). The mind-body problem. A psy- chotherapies. In G. Stricker & J.R. Gold (Eds.), chobiological approach. Oxford: Pergamon. Comprehensive Handbook of Psychotherapy Bunge, M., & Ardila, R. (1987). Philosophy of psy- Integration. (pp. 9-26). New York: Plenum. chology. New York: Springer. Goldfried, M.R. (1987). The challenge of psychother- Castonguay, L. G., & Goldfried, M. R. (1994). apy integration. In W. Huber (Ed.), Progress in Psychotherapy integration: An idea whose time has psychotherapy research. (pp. 801-823). Louvain- come. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 3, 159- la-Neuve: Presses Universitaires de Louvain. 172. Goleman, D. (1972). The Buddha on meditation and Chambless, D. L., Sanderson, W. C., Shoham, V., states of consciousness part II: A typology of med- Johnson, S. B., Pope, K. S., Crits-Cristoph, P., itation techniques. Journal of Transpersonal Baker, M., Johnson, B., Woody, S. R., Sue, S., Psychology, 4, 151-210. Beutler, L., Williams, D. A., & McCury, S. (1995). Goleman, D. (1975). Mental health in classical bud- An update on empirically validated therapies. The dhist psychology. Journal of Transpersonal Clinical Psychologist, 49, 5-18. Psychology, 7, 176-181. Ciompi, L. (1991). Affects as central organising and Heidegger, M. (1967). Wegmarken. Frankfurt: integrating factors. A new psychosocial/biological Klostermann. model of the psyche. British Journal of Psychiatry, Ivanka, E. V. (1964). Plato Christianus. Übernahme 159, 97-105. und Umgestaltung des Platonismus durch die Collingwood, R. G. (1998). An essay on metaphysics. Väter. Einsiedeln: Johannes Verlag. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. Kaptchuk, T. J. (1998). Intentional ignorance: A his- de Balma., H., Ruello, F., & Barbet, J. (1995). tory of blind assessment and placebo controls in Théologie mystique. Introduction, Texte Latin, medicine. Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 72, Traduction, Notes et Index. Paris: Éditions de Cerf. 389-433. 1. Sources Chrétiennes, No. 408. Kuhl, J. (1996). Who controls whom when “I control Engler, J. (1984). Therapeutic aims in psychotherapy myself”? Psychological Inquiry, 7, 61-68. and meditation: Developmental stages in the repre- Kuhl, J. (1998). Wille und Persönlichkeit: sentation of self. Journal of Transpersonal Funktionsanalyse der Selbststeuerung. Psycholo- Psychology, 16, 25-61. gische Rundschau, 49, 61-77. Fadiman, J., & Frager, R. (1976). Personality and per- Kuhl, J. (1999). A functional-design approach to sonal growth. New York: Harper & Row. motivation and self-regulation: The dynamics of Fensterheim, H., & Raw, S. D. (1996). Empirically personality-systems interactions. In M. Boekaerts, validated treatments, psychotherapy integration, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Self- and the politics of psychotherapy. Journal of Regulation: Directions and Challenges for Future Psychotherapy Integration, 6, 207-215. Research. New York: Academic Press.

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Kuhn, T. (1955). The structure of scientific revolu- Pablo Maroto, F.d. (1965). Amor y conocimiento en la tions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. vida mística según Hugo de Balma. Revista espirit- Kuhn, T. S. (1977). Die Entstehung des Neuen - ulidad, 24, 399-447. Studien zur Struktur der Wissenschaftsgeschichte. Plato (1964). Plato with an English Translation by Frankfurt: Suhrkamp. W.R.M. Lamb. The Loeb Classical Library. (Plato Laudan, L. (1977). Progress and its problems: Toward I: Charmides, Alcibiades I & II, etc.). London: a theory of scientific growth. Berkeley: University Heinemann. of California Press. Plotin. (1966). Plotinus with an English Translation Lottin, O. (1942). Psychologie et morale aux XIIe et by A.H. Armstrong in Seven Volumes. Cambridge: XIIIe siècles. Tome I: problèmes de psychologie. Harvard University Press. The Loeb Classical Louvain: Abbaye du Mont César. Library. Lottin, O. (1948). Psychologie et Morale aux XIIe et Proklos. (1953). Proclus the Neoplatonic Philosopher: XIII Siècles. Tome 2: Problèmes de Morale, “Ten Doubts Concerning Providence and a Première Partie. Louvain: Abbaye du Mont César. Solution of those Doubts” and “On the Lukoff, D. (1985). The diagnosis of mystical experi- Subsistence of Evil” transl. by T. Taylor. Chicago: ences with psychotic features. Journal of Ares. Transpersonal Psychology, 17, 155-181. Proklos. (1977). Trois études sur la providence. Ed. D. Lukoff, D., Lu, F., & Turner, R. (1992). Toward a Isac. I. De decem dubitationes circa providentiam. more culturally sensitive DSM-IV. Psychoreligious II. De providentia et fato et eo quod in nobis ad and psychospiritual problems. Journal of Nervous theodorum mechanicum. III. De malorum subsis- and Mental Disease, 180, 673-682. tentia. Paris: Société d’Edition “Les Belles Lettres”. Lukoff, D., Lu, F., & Turner, R. (1998). From spiritu- Ps.-Dionysius Areopagita. (1949). Mystical theology al emergency to spiritual problem: The transper- and the celestial hierarchies. Transl. b. The Editors sonal roots of the new DSM IV category. Journal of of the Shrine of Wisdom. Fintry Brook: Shrine of Humanistic Psychology, 38, 21-50. Wisdom. Lundh, L. G. (1995). Meaning structures and mental Ps.-Dionysius Areopagita. (1957). The Divine names. representations. Scandinavian Journal of Transl. b. the Editors of The Shrine of Wisdom. Psychology, 36, 363-385. Fintry Brook: Shrine of Wisdom. Martin, D. D. (Ed). (1997). Carthusian Spirituality: Ps.-Dionysius Areopagita. (1987). The complete The Writings of Hugh of Balma and Guigo de works. Transl. by C. Luibheid. Intr. by. J. Pelikan, Ponte. Mahwah: Paulist Press. J. Leclercq & K. Froehlich. The Classics of Western Maslow, A. (1970). Theory Z. Journal of Spirituality. London: SPCK Press. Transpersonal Psychology, 2, 31-47. Pseudo-Augustinus, A., & Alcher von Clairveaux. Maslow, A.H. (1969). The farther reaches of human (1996). Liber de Spiritu et anima. In PL 40 (vgl.S nature. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 1, 1-9. 816) (Ed.), (pp. 779-832). Merlan, P. (1963). Monopsychism mysticism meta- Robinson, E. (1977). The original vision: A study of consciousness. Problems of the Soul in the the religious experience of childhood. Oxford, UK: Neoaristotelian and Neoplatonic tradition. The Religious Experience Research Unit, Alistair Hardy Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. Research Centre. Messer, S. B., & Woodfolk, R. L. (1998). Ruh, K. (1993). Geschichte der abendländischen mys- Philosophical issues in psychotherapy. Clinical tik. München: Beck. Psychology: Science and Practice, 5, 251-263. Rusting, C.L. (1998). Personality, mood, and cogni- O’Meara, D. (Ed.) (1982). Neoplatonism and Indian tive processing of emotional information: Three thought. Albany: State University of New York Press. conceptual frameworks. Psychological Bulletin, Oeser, E. (1979a). Wissenschaftstheorie als 124, 165-196. Rekonstruktion der Wissenschaftsgeschichte.Band Schuller, M. (1988). Psychosynthesis in North 1: Metrisierung, Hypothesenbildung, America. The story of the movement, the people, Theoriendynamik. München: Oldenbourg. and the issue. Doctoral Dissertation, Union Oeser, E. (1979b). Wissenschaftstheorie als Graduate School. Rekonstruktion der Wissenschaftsgeschichte. Band Seligman, M. (1995). The effectiveness of psychother- 2: Experiment, Erklärung, Prognose. München: apy. American Psychologist, 50, 965-974. Oldenbourg. Stein, K.F., & Markus, H.R. (1996). The role of the

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self in behavioral change. Journal of Psychotherapy heisst das? - Hugo de Balmas Begriff der Integration, 6, 349-384. Erfahrungserkenntnis Gottes - Versuch einer Sutich, A. J. (1969). Some considerations regarding Rekonstruktion. In J. Hogg (Ed.), The Mystical transpersonal psychology. Journal of Transpersonal Tradition and The Carthusians. Vol 5. (pp. 45-66). Psychology, 1, 11-20. Salzburg: Institut für Anglistik und Amerikanistik Sutich, A.J. (1973). Transpersonal therapy. Journal of der Universität Salzburg. Transpersonal Psychology, 5, 1-6. Washburn, M. (1978). Observations relevant to a uni- Sutich, A.J. (1976). The emergence of the transper- fied theory of meditation. Journal of Transpersonal sonal orientation: a personal account. Journal of Psychology, 10, 1. Transpersonal Psychology, 8, 5-19. Weber, F.J. (Ed.) (1976). Fragmente der Vorsokratiker. Tart, C. T. (1976). The basic nature of altered states of Text und Kommentar. Paderborn: Schöningh. consciousness: A systems approach. Journal of Weinberger, J. (1995). Common factors aren’t so com- Transpersonal Psychology, 8, 45-64. mon: The common factors dilemma. Clinical Tart, C. T. (1986). Consciousness, altered states, and Psychology: Science and Practice, 2, 45-69. worlds of experience. Journal of Transpersonal Wilber, K. (1974). The spectrum of consciousness. Psychology, 18, 159-170. Main Currents, 31, 2. Thalbourne, M.A. (1991). The psychology of mystical Wilber, K. (1975). The ultimate state of consciousness. experience. Exceptional Human Experience, 9, Journal of Altered States of Consciousness, 2, 3. 168-183. Wilber, K. (1979). A developmental view of con- Thalbourne, M.A., & Delin, P.S. (1994). A common sciousness. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, thread underlying belief in the paranormal, creative 11, 1-21. personality, mystical experience, and psychopathol- Wilber, K. (1984a). The developmental spectrum and ogy. Journal of Parapsychology, 58, 3-38. psychopathology: Part I, stages and types of pathol- Thalbourne, M.A., & Delin, P.S. (1998). ogy. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 16, 75- Transliminality: Its relation to dream-life, religiosi- 118. ty and mystical experience. International Journal Wilber, K. (1984b). The developmental spectrum and for the Psychology of Religion. psychopathology: Part II, Treatment modalities. Thomas Gallus. (1934). Explanatio in mysticam the- Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 16, 137-166. ologiam. Grand Commentaire sur la theologie Wilber, K. (1985a). Ein Entwicklungsmodell des mystique. Ed. G. Théry. Paris: Editions historiques Bewutseins. In R. Walsh & F. Vaughan (Eds.), et philosophiques R. Haloua. Transpersonale Psychologie. (pp. 117-135). Bern: Thomas Gallus. (1936). Commentaire sur Isaie. Ed. Scherz, par G. Théry. Vie Spirituelle, 47, 146-162. Wilber, K. (1985b). Philosophia perennis und das Toulmin, S. (1985). Conceptual revolutions in sci- Spektrum des Bewusstseins. In R. Walsh & F. ence. In R. S. Cohen & M. W. Wartofsky (Eds.), A Vaughan (Eds.), Transpersonale Psychologie. (pp. Portrait of Twenty-Five Years: Boston Colloquium 83-99) Bern: Scherz. for the Philosophy of Science 1960-1985 (pp. 58- Wilber, K. (1985c). Auge in Auge: Wissenschaft und 74). Dordrecht: Reidel. Transpersonale Psychologie. In R. Walsh & F. Turner, R.P., Lukoff, D., Barnhouse, R.T., & Lu, F.G. Vaughan (Eds.), Transpersonale Psychologie. (pp. (1995). Religious or spiritual problem. A cultural- 247-253). Bern: Scherz. ly sensitive diagnostic category in the DSM-IV. Wilber, K. (1985d). Zwei Weisen des Erkennens. In R. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 183, 435- Walsh & F. Vaughan (Eds.), Transpersonale 444. Psychologie. (pp. 267-275) Bern: Scherz. Wachtel, P.L. & S.B. Messer (Eds.) (1997). Theories of Psychotherapy. Origins and Evolution. Washington: American Psychological Association. Correspondence regarding this article should be Walach, H. (1994). Notitia experimentalis Dei - directed to the author at University College Erfahrungserkenntnis Gotte. Studien zu Hugo de Northampton School of Social Sciences and Samueli Balmas Text “Viae Sion lugent” und deutsche über- Institute for Information Biology, Boughton Green setzung. Salzburg: Institut für Anglistik und Road, Northampton NN2 7AL UK. Phone +44- Amerikanistik der Universität Salzburg. 1604-89 2952, Fax +44-1604-722067. Walach, H. (1996). Notitia experimentalis Dei - Was Email [email protected]

28 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2005, Volume 24

The Myth of Nature and the Nature of Myth: Becoming Transparent to Transcendence

Dennis Patrick Slattery Pacifica Graduate Institute

The works by the American mythologist, Joseph Campbell, as well as the poetry of John Keats, especially his “Ode to a Nightingale,” offer new ways to reimagine our relation to the earth, to the dead and to language’s continued vitality. Beginning with a brief overview of some of the major tenets of Campbell’s guiding force of the “monomyth,” which gathers all the various world mythologies as inflections of one universal story, the essay then moves into a discussion of Keats’ poem in order to reveal the power of poetic utterance in reconfiguring a vital mythology. If there is to be a renewed mythos, it may come out of a revisioned care of language itself as a transport vehicle towards the transcendent or invisible realms of being that poetry exposes us to through its aesthetic and linguistic corridors. The purpose of yoking mythology to poetry is to realign consciousness along a mytho-poetic axis of insight and understanding.

As long as I am this or that, or have this or that, I art the other. am not all things and I have not all things. In addition, psychic and spiritual energy, though Become pure till you neither are nor have either not divorced from matter but actually inhering within this or that; then you are omnipresent and, being it, within Mother Earth, seems to be one of Campbell’s neither this nor that, are all things. perennial and abiding concerns. This essay will explore Meister Eckhart, in Huxley, these regions rather than move to the topic that put The Perennial Philosophy (1970, p.107) him on the world map: that of the hero’s journey (1948/2004). For today we would be wise to place the The mythologist Joseph Campbell, whose 100th earth’s journey at the forefront of any pilgrimage birthday we celebrate this year (1904-2004), revealed towards revitalizing the planet. in many of his 28 books and journals the intimate con- The “life of a mythology,” he asserts in Flight of nection of mythology to the earth’s foundational soil. the Wild Gander (1951/2002) “derives from the vitali- By doing so, he antedated the ecology movement as ty of its symbols as metaphors” (p. xx). This quality of well as a fuller consciousness of the earth’s terminal ill- vitality of the symbolic and metaphoric realms of nesses if not diagnosed and treated with some careful knowing is at the heart of Campbell’s teachings and prescription policies available for continued refills. one we would do well to retrieve, for it guides us to the Campbell would, I believe, diagnose the accelerating proposition that in the active life of the imagination of rapacity of the earth’s resources as yet another conse- a culture, language too is crucial, in the way we both quence of an earlier malady wherein “matter and spir- disabuse and pollute, or nurture and elevate the status, it begin to separate;” Campbell refers to such a divorce of words themselves. What we do to words mirrors as “mythic dissociation” (1972/1993, p. 74). with exacting frequency what we do to the world. As I continue to read and absorb his elegant Language and landscape are intimate first cousins. insights into the essential place of a shared and coher- And both are showing signs of permanent exhaustion. ent mythos in the life of the individual and of an entire In his incisive study on the importance of our people, and now, of an entire planet, I detect his ancestors, in The Dominion of the Dead (2003), Robert impulses moving in two directions: into the body and Pogue Harrison observed that “in the age of the new into the natural order in one direction, and towards barbarism, words lose their moral memory. For even the transcendent in the other, perhaps even to the our morality—indeed, our morality above all— transcendent Other that is in fact—tat tvam asi—thou depends on the historical resonance of its foundation-

The Nature of Myth 29

al words: liberty, duty, sacrifice, compassion, equality,” these two impulses that allow for some new creation to none of which brooks “the false eloquence of the enter the world when he reflects that “spiritual creativ- times” (p. 86). ity is a gentler, more blissful and enduring repetition of I believe that carelessness in speech, in self-expres- physical desire and satisfaction” (p. 38), which implies sion, and in writing is directly yoked to a disrespect that psyche, nature, and spirit are more aligned than and indifference to the matter and, indeed, the world alien to some fundamental hidden unity that perhaps spirit that the philosopher Georg W.F. Hegel (1770- the metaphors of poetry are best equipped with a 1831) believed was the nugget resting deep in the greater alacrity than other forms of expression, to heart of the earth. Joseph Campbell’s entire work con- transmit to a receptive audience. Campbell under- tains a Hegelian impulse; more needs to be cultivated scores Rilke’s insight when he coins the phrase “myth- regarding the intimate connections in thought ic identification” (1951/2002, p. 160) to capture the between these two titans. Here is Hegel early in his sense of a hidden transcendent unity of truth, sub- epic work, The Philosophy of History (1834/1991): stance and energy. It must be observed at the outset, that the phe- The latter part of this essay must, then, include a nomenon we investigate—Universal History— brief exploration of “Ode to a Nightingale” by the belongs to the realm of Spirit. The term 19th century English poet, John Keats, who in his “World,” includes both physical and psychical short but gifted life created some of the most remark- Nature….But Spirit, and the course of its devel- able poetry on the themes that Campbell and others opment, is our substantial object. (p. 16) believed were at the heart of any pulsating desire to restore the mythic impulse to the heartbeat of the Hegel’s insight comes seductively close to a key common citizen. This ode recollects and records a tenet of Campbell’s reflections on world mythologies transcendent pilgrimage into the imaginal realm, guid- as he continues: “the rational necessary course of the ed by the song of an invisible bird that turns an ordi- World-Spirit—that Spirit whose nature is always one nary event in the life of an exhausted soul into a myth- and the same,…unfolds this its one nature in the phe- ical journey that revitalizes and shifts his vision nomena of the World’s existence” (1834/1991, p. 10). towards the mysteries of a transcendent realm. This Campbell, deploying similar words to delineate an languid soul has indeed heard and heeded the call and analogous idea, believed, following the Irish writer, entered the vocational woods of poetic creation. James Joyce who gave him the term “monomyth,” that What Keats’ ode exposes is an essential and all the varieties of world mythologies are inflections of exhausting poverty inherent in literalism, which I take one story. Phil Cousineau, in his Introduction to the as the expression of the everyday shorn of its transcen- revised The Hero’s Journey, writes that “the monomyth dent reverberations. The function of the poet, is in effect a metamyth, a philosophical reading of the Campbell asserts, is “to see the life value of the facts unity of mankind’s spiritual history, the Story beyond round about, and to deify them, as it were, to provide the story that everlasting reiteration of unchanging images that relate the everyday to the eternal” (2004, principles and events inflected in particular and p. xvi). The symptoms of literalism’s malady include an unique ways” what Joyce called a universal monomyth arresting or blockage of psychic energy’s flow, which that imbeds itself in the various localities of a specific Carl Jung observes in Mysterium Coniunctionis in a sec- culture in time. ((1990/2003, p.xix). He furthers this tion entitled “An Alchemical Allegory,” “is the source revelation at the heart of The Hero With a Thousand of your fantasy, the fountain of your soul….You would Faces in writing that “to grasp the full power of mytho- like to make gold because poverty is the greatest logical figures, we see that they are symptoms of the plague, wealth the highest good” (1963/1989, par. unconscious, but also controlled and intended state- 191). Jung believed, in this last book which he com- ments of spiritual principles which are as constant in pleted in his eightieth year, that the image of “the ever- history as the human nervous system” (1948/1968, p. flowing fountain expresses a continual flow of interest 257). toward the unconscious, a kind of constant attention In this vein, let us link for a moment both Hegel or ‘religio,’ which might also be called devotion” (par. and Campbell to one more crucial historical figure, 193). Ranier Maria Rilke, who writes in his thoughtful Perhaps in entertaining the hero’s journey, we have responses to a young poet that “Spiritual creativity read it too literally. I say this because there is implicit originates from the physical; they are of the same in the metaphor of this journey the possibility that the essence” (Rilke, 1929/1992 p.38). He further links hero is an encompassing metaphor for the life energy

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itself that flows, becomes sidetracked, end-stopped, (p. 40). decreased, increased, diluted, or polluted. The hero Only metaphor has this exclusively powerful qual- may be imagined as energy itself, the life force that ity of allowing us to enter domains not readily accessi- permeates all matter, but which finally shares a univer- ble to the rational mind. The word “metaphor,” he sal origin, a common source, even a mythic heritage. explains, is from two Greek words: meta=to pass over, At the heart of the hero’s journey is this proposal: to go from one place to another; and phorein=to move “The effect of the successful adventure of the hero is or carry. Metaphors carry us from one place to anoth- the unlocking and release again of the flow of life into er; they allow us to cross boundaries otherwise impos- the body of the world” (1948/2004, p. 40). Campbell sible; they also transport us past time, space; and they reveals in his writing how both the world’s material, its center us in the connotative dimensions of a world physicality, and its metaphorical or symbolic reso- that is essentially and furiously denotative (2001, p. nances, matter. “There seem to be only two kinds of xvi). people: Those who think that metaphors are facts, and Within this field of metaphor, which is a mode of those who know that they are not facts” (2001, p. 48). transportation, an efficient and very economic delivery The first group are the atheists and the second are system of sorts, for the psyche, myths, according to “religious.” However, he writes earlier in the same vol- Campbell, serve four functions: 1. they align con- ume that “The divine is transcendent even of the cat- sciousness to the mysterium tremendum, the universe as egory of transcendence, for that too is a category of it is; 2. they are interpretive, providing a consistent thought…”(p. 39). Given this metaphorical quality image of the order of the cosmos; 3. they help carry the that points to and exposes a mystery beyond contra- individual through various stages and crises of life; 4. diction and duality, he affirms that “myth is a constant they carry a religious function: to awaken and main- regeneration, an identification with the life process” tain in the person an experience of awe, to know and (2003, p.8). What for Campbell is the life process respect that ultimate mystery that transcends all forms comprises for Hegel the World Spirit that animates (2001, pp.3-4)). and informs the World soul. Thus, the vitality and Myths, therefore, as he writes in Flight of the Wild energy of the metaphors and symbols we create to Gander, are the “texts of rites of passage” (p. 34) hav- describe the ineffable bear directly on what intensity of ing their origins in the energies of the organs of the value the divine lives within and among us. body, both in conflict and in complement to one Campbell insists that “the life of a mythology another. He furthers this idea in The Power of Myth springs from and depends on the metaphoric vigor of (1988): “the archetypes of the unconscious are mani- its symbols…which can convey some realization of the festations of the organs of the body and their powers. infinite” (2001, p. 6). A new mythos must therefore be Archetypes are biologically grounded… (p. 51). A diligent and dedicated to preserving speech as well as renewed or revisioned mythos might then include an preserving species. The death throes of the soul reveal ability to reimagine the relation of spirit, body and themselves in, among other venues, the death of lan- earth in a constant but benevolent dialogic tension guage—its cadavers are strewn around us everywhere: between the body’s interiority and the world’s matter, in clichés, slogans, worn out phrases, vulgarity and mediated by the social customs that comprise a specif- profanity, empty words, strict denotation, newspeak, ic historical time and place. Finally, and to reveal the sound-bytes and a general lack of vitality in self- underlying unity of human embodiment and the cos- expression. mos, he asserts in The Inner Reaches of Outer Space that For Campbell, this metaphorical quality lying “the energy by which the body is pervaded is the same as vibrantly at the heart of myths and myth-making, that which illuminates the world and maintains alive all begins in the body, in its energetic language; it is the beings, the two breaths being the same” (2002, p. 41). interior of flesh, even as it connects us to the natural, A new mythos would gain much energy if it planted physical world at the same time that it clears a space Campbell’s observation in the forefront of its assertion for accommodating the transcendent, to allow us as a central tenet of its development. “transparence” to the latter. In allowing the energy of A key to this web of relationships, even a partner- the world soul to permeate one’s own body, one’s own ship between energy flows through shared matter, is psyche, one opens oneself to the mythic impulse which offered more than once by Campbell when he quotes is to make us “transparent to transcendence” (2003, p. the 19th century poet Novalis: “The seat of the soul is 40), which is another way of asserting that myths pro- there, where the outer and the inner worlds meet” mote our “learning to live the divine life within you” (2002, p.5). Perhaps analogies are birthed right here,

The Nature of Myth 31

in that “marsupial pouch” that for Campbell character- and reflect unconsciously “the history which formed it izes, in an organic and animal way, the place of socie- and which its continuity would uphold…” (p. 60). By ty where the human body breathes itself into the social contrast, each of us is influenced by “history’s hundred matrix, a second womb of sorts, that shapes it and is channels” which “show culture at work in the channels contoured by it. of the soul. The land of the dead is the country of I offer the following wobbly neologism to capture ancestors, and the images who walk in on us are our something of such a partnership: mythophysiology—a ancestors…. They are the historical progenitors, or mythos of flesh, the body, which my colleague Robert archetypes, of our particular spirit informing it with Romanyshyn has eloquently described as “a gestural ancestral culture” (p. 60). So, perhaps less an emphasis body, [which is ] a magnetic, gravitational, erotic on historical events and facts at this juncture, and field…“ (2002, p. 93). more on the nature of a historical sensibility imaginal- Campbell intuited something profound about the ly kindled that arouses one’s soul within a larger fabric body’s relation to myth and meaning but chose not to of meaning and intentions, may assist us in reclaiming pursue it in depth. He observed that “mythos and the ancestral imagination to allow for a fuller vision of dream are motivated from a single psycho-physical our place in historical time. source. The human imagination is moved by the con- By the same token, a new or renewed mythos flicting urgencies of the organs—including the brain, would also ideally push against the blind obsession of the human body” (2002, p. xiv). He called these with the individual in order to allow one to see that a “bioenergies, which is the essence of life itself; but myth of a communal, global order is necessary and when unbridled become terrific, horrifying, destruc- must take precedence over the rights and appetites of tive” (p. xix). Human embodiment, like mythology the seemingly autonomous self. Campbell writes in generally, for Campbell, has its own organizing struc- Flight of the Wild Gander (1990/2002) that “myths and tures; learning to read the body as metaphorical of rites constellate a mesocosm, a mediating middle cos- something beyond and within itself constitutes an mos through which the microcosm of the individual is angle of seeing in the construction of a revitalized brought into relation with the macrocosm of the uni- myth in order that an individual, or an entire people, verse” (p. 123). Given such a connection, life on earth grasp in a sensate way an intuition of place and of “is to mirror in the human body the almost hidden, belonging to something beyond themselves. yet now discovered order of the pageant of the spheres” This is not a new myth but a reclaimed one, and (p. 130); such an observation rests on a fundamental we can here highlight the indispensable place of a his- premise in all of Campbell’s musings on world torical imagination in retrieving the humanity of our mythologies: “the highest concern of all myths, cere- species. Human history may then be understood as a monies, etc, is to get people to identify with something biography of an entire species, as well as a record of the outside of themselves” (1990/2002, p. 130). pilgrimage of humanitas, which Robert Pogue His most cogent and sustained opus, the four vol- Harrison tells us, citing the work of Gimbatisto Vico, ume The Masks of God, serves as a compendium of his reveals that the word “humanitas in Latin comes first thought on the matrix of mythic consciousness that and properly from humando, burying” (2003, p. anticipates or is in tandem with Stan Grof’s vision of a xi)…. The human is bound up with the humus and is wholistic order. Early in the beginning of volume 4, why burial figures as the generative institution of Creative Mythology (1968), Campbell reiterates and in human nature, taking the word nature in its full ety- truth, redesigns his list of four qualities, goals and pur- mological sense (from nasci, “to be born”; p. x). A new poses of a people’s mythology. The fourth point is the or revitalized mythos, then, would seek to reclaim the only one I wish to access here: wisdom of the dead, for the quality of being connect- The fourth and most vital, most critical func- ed to ancestry has been muted considerably in today’s tion of a mythology, then, is to foster the cen- future-obsessed consciousness, whose mythos is sur- tering and unfolding of the individual in charged with planned obsolescence. A new mythos integrity, in accord with d) himself (the micro- would exchange hubris for humus. cosm), c) his culture (the mesocosm), b) the James Hillman, undoubtedly influenced by Vico, universe (the macrocosm), and a) that awesome writes in Healing Fiction (1983) of the central impor- ultimate mystery which is both beyond and tance of history’s qualitative hold on psyche. He argues within himself and all things. (p. 6) convincingly against the preoccupation with the “his- torical ego,” whose organizing impulse is to remember Stanislav Grof’s own work, to which I have only

32 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2005, Volume 24

recently come, resonates a similar holistic view, espe- analogy a mimetic representation of some vision, some cially in Psychology of the Future (2000): “Spiritual insight that has particularly powerful mythic reso- intelligence is the capacity to conduct our life in such nances. As such, poetry is capable of producing an a way that it reflects [a] deep philosophical and meta- organic mythology, a mythology of organs and origins, physical understanding of reality and of ourselves” (p. for poets do not eschew the world so much as they 298). Such a shift of capacity—a key and critical word enter it more fully than the rest of us may be capable. here—rests on the ability to recognize the myth of They are the figures in the culture to whom we turn, mechanism that has dominated a vision of nature and for, as the poet Wallace Stevens observes, in writing of her structure for hundreds of years. Instead of “the Allen Tate and John Crowe Ransom, two southern image of the cosmos as a mechanical system” that poets of the last century, “the poets’ sensibilities have assumes it can then be understand by “dissection” and large orbits” (1997, p. 711). And from that penetra- explanation (p. 299), cultural forces shifted the inflec- tion through the boundaries that might inhibit or tion to one of the image of the cosmos as a mythical or resist the rest of us in our tracks, the poet is a partner series of overlapping mythical tonalities, organisms in the hero’s journey who, having suffered through the and the interfaces of both divine and human orders concrete world in a unique way, returns with a boon commingling and mutually influencing one another. that is worth contemplating as we tend to the right Such a shift would, I believe, be in line and in the spir- measure of our own voyage. it of both Grof’s life’s work and Joseph Campbell’s sus- Poets are the antithesis of those souls caught in tained project of uncovering the “elementary ideas” of hell. For Campbell, “Hell, properly, is the condition of Adolf Bastian and the archetypal principles at the people who are so bound to their ego lives and selfish bedrock level of the psyche ordained and given values that they cannot open out to a transpersonal authentic currency by C.G. Jung. grace” (2001, p. 100). In other words, these souls are In such a relationship, nature becomes trans- landlocked, even drydocked, such that they find it formed into narrative, as Richard Kearney develops impossible to leave their safe harbors and sail towards this idea in a powerful little book, On Stories (2001). the transcendent. When asked about the experience of There the nature and structure of the narratives we the transcendent and how one might achieve its status, tell, are in a sense homologous—and perhaps even Campbell reflected on it in a “Discussion” transcribed holotropic?—of the structure of the world we inhabit. at the back of Thou Art That, and drew this conclu- Nature and narrative grow like seedlings from the sion: “How does the ordinary person come to the tran- same plot of ground, are fertilized by the same princi- scendent? For a start, I would say, study poetry. Learn ples that organize and order the cosmic as well as social how to read a poem. You need not have the experience and individual orders. In such a paradigm, a full and to get the message, or at least some indication of the authentic mimesis, or imitation of a psychic action, message” (p. 92). that Aristotle discovered in the 5th century BCE in I want to lean on his words a bit to complete this Greece, would finally reach its fullest expression. Both essay by briefly exploring one of the finest poets in our Joseph Campbell and Stan Grof would find a strong tradition who successfully and securely wedded the partnership in the observation expressed by the latter imagination to the mundane, in order to shatter those writer in The Holotropic Mind (1990): boundaries that Stan Grof believes keep us arrested New scientific findings are beginning to sup- within limits that are more arbitrary than absolute port beliefs of cultures thousands of years old, (2000, p. 318). The Odes of John Keats (1795-1821) showing that our individual psyches are, in the are among the most famous and finely wrought in lit- last analysis, a manifestation of cosmic con- erature by such a young poet. While written in the sciousness and intelligence that flows through early part of the 19th century, they could have been all of existence. We never completely lost con- etched yesterday or even tomorrow. tact with this cosmic consciousness because we As I stated in the title of this paper, there exists an are never fully separated from it. (pp. 202-03) intimacy between the myth of nature, perhaps a mytho-poiesis of nature, that unveils and makes more Let me turn in the last part of this excursus to the transparent, the nature of myth. Keats’ “Ode to a realm of poetry, to the process of poiesis that only the Nightingale” (1819) renders that dual awareness in human being is fully equipped to create. For the dramatic form as he implicitly outlines the lineaments Greeks, poiesis is a making or a shaping of something of a mythological sensibility we must retrieve, as both that has been apprehended; its praxis is to create by Stan Grof and Joseph Campbell rightly insist on. Any

The Nature of Myth 33

hope for a viable future of the planet and the politics drunk,/Or emptied some dull opiate to the drains”( that outline and contour its habitation must include 1819, p. 205) as he (in fact it could be a man or a the dual tasks of retrieval of the past and the renewal woman) falls Lethe-wards into the ennui of forgetful- of the future. In short, our response must be both ness. What this voice seeks is some vitality in his own mythic and poetic. Wallace Stevens, one of our tough- life, “a draught of vintage” that has been cooled a long est and most elegant voices of the poet and the critic, time “in the deep-delved earth/Tasting of Flora and could have been musing on Keats’ Ode when he wrote: the country green,/Dance, and Provencal song” (p. “There is always an analogy between nature and the 205), some elixir of life that would revive and restore a imagination, and possibly poetry is merely the strange connection to the natural order. He hears at the same rhetoric of that parallel” (1997, p. 715). time, and in fact is inspirited by, the song of an invis- In an earlier poem,”Ode to Psyche” (1819), Keats ible nightingale singing in the dark shadows of the for- lamented the loss of psyche’s place in the natural order est’s trees. Such will be his catalyst to heed the sound through the “strange rhetoric” that Stevens confirms is of the call and venture out, “entering the forest at its the poetic response to the ordinary; Keats envisioned darkest part,’ that is, where no one had cut a path already the growing pulse in the Western psyche in the before; Campbell insists the heroic journey must orig- 19th century to denude matter of its mystery through inate in pathlessness and in isolation; otherwise one is a stranger metaphysic that also felt the need to confirm following another’s path (2001, p. xvii). Bliss eventu- the loss of divinity from the created order. The poet’s ates out of personal blisters. task, as Keats reveals it in that ode, is to become a The narrator’s desire seems motivated, in part, by priest of the imagination who utters psyche’s presence the oppressive sense of life’s decay and death, “where back into the world as both a sacramental mission and palsy shakes a few, sad, last gray hairs/Where youth as a sacred imperative. grows pale, and spectre-thin, and dies” (p. 206). The In “Ode to a Nightingale” he renders an experi- response he feels—for odes convey as much feeling as ence that is no less epiphanic, namely, to reclaim from thought or action—is moved by desire for a life of the past, from the dead, a living testimony of the depth, for an élan vital, spawned by imagination, by future. His ode is like a remembrance, for it returns to the poetic impulse of the psyche, and perhaps by poet- conscious awareness the absolutely essential role of the ry’s innate wisdom. Now, suddenly, through the invis- imagination as an instrument for reclaiming of the ible bird’s song as guide, the languid soul is immedi- dead, for disinterring a relation that has been truncat- ately transported into another level of consciousness ed and buried, between soul and matter. Said another which transcends the boundaries of time and space, way, the poet’s task is not just concerned with the yet is anchored securely in the voice of the bird—an world’s body, but with words’ bodies themselves—the image, I suspect—of the animal mundi herself—not power of words’ organic vitality to form a world and to seen, only heard: “Already with thee! tender is the transcend the ordinary world of sense by such a con- night,/And haply the Queen-Moon is on her veyance. Stevens completes his brilliant reflections on throne,/Cluster’d around by all her starry Fays” (p. the nature and effects of analogy regarding poetry by 206). His soul is, in a moment of eternal time, re-ani- stating what seems so appropriate to Keats’ poem: mated by the feminine light of the moon and the dark their words [the poets’] have made a world that vegetation, where he moves slowly “Through ver- transcends the world and a life livable in that durous glooms and winding mossy ways” (p. 206). transcendence…. Thus poetry becomes and is a The almost instantaneous transformation into the transcendent analogue composed of the partic- mysterious realm of nature through an imaginal leap ulars of reality, created by the poet’s sense of the instills in him what I would call a natural imagination, world, that is to say, his attitude, as he inter- one which is attuned not just to the foliage but to the venes and interposes the appearances of that smells of “the coming musk-rose, full of dewy wine,/ sense. (1997, pp. 722-23) [and] the murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves” (p. 206). His world darkens as he reflects on his attrac- Keats’ “Ode to a Nightingale” testifies to such a tion, transcendent possibility as well as our capacity to nest to easeful Death, imaginally in just that brooding domain. Call’d him soft names in many a mused rhyme The voice of the figure in the poem, its narrator, To take into the air my quiet breath; begins in lethargy: “My heart aches, and a drowsy Now more than ever it seems rich to die. (p. 206) numbness pains/My sense, as though of hemlock I had

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This call by Death is both crucial and necessary, it transformed, via the mystery of language, to a mythi- seems to me, in the construction of a new mythos for cal experience, which at the same instant has married the world; for unless the dead are now acknowledged this sole soul to history, to the vast community of the as the central core of our legacy of the living, the same dead. But as suggested in the archetypal pattern of patterns of responses will remain stubbornly in place, Joseph Campbell’s hero’s journey, he or she must not both cadaverous and calcified. But with a reverent bow rest content with the new experience or challenge; the to the dead emerges a recognition of history’s legacy: heroic figure must return to the ground from which The voice I hear this passing night was heard one originated to complete the cycle of departure, ini- In ancient days by emperor and clown: tiation, and return—with some gift of remembrance. Perhaps the self-same song that found a path The heroic is never completely unmoored from its Through the sad heart of Ruth, when, humic and humble foundations: sick for home, Forlorn! The very word is like a bell She stood in tears amid the alien corn; (p. 207) To toll me back from thee to my sole self! (p. 207)

This passage bears witness to an entry in one of On his return, however, and with a clever oral pun Wallace Stevens’ notebooks: “The poet is the priest of on the word “sole,” he continues to hear the fading the invisible” (1997, p. 908). As priest, he consecrates echoic resonances of the bird’s song, a catalyst or a the mundane into the transcendent. Within such a transport vehicle that led him from the isolated and sacred posture, two losses most in need of retrieval solitary regime of the personal into the more commu- grow from the soil of lament in the poem’s voice: the nal and historically imbedded transpersonal, or the dead, as well as a sense of the historical connection that “transcendent” realm cited earlier by Wallace Stevens binds us all as one into a common humanity: what we and given several currency values in Campbell’s work. all share each in our separate ways is a relation to the But now the nightingale’s song fades “over the still past and to the dead. Harrison offers a dramatic image stream,/Up the hill-side; and now ‘tis buried deep/In of this observation: “Our psyches are the graveyards of the next valley-glades” (p. 207). It has found its earth impressions, traumas, desires, and archetypes that con- home once again. found the law of obsolescence” (2003, p. xi). He fur- In the metaxis of dream and perceptual waking is ther asserts that any salvific impulse in humanity to the space of contemplation, remembrance, reflection, preserve itself must be based on a humic foundation, and renewal: “Was it a vision, or a waking dream? “one whose contents have been buried so that they /Fled is that music:—Do I wake or sleep?” (p. 207). may be reclaimed by the future” (p. x). Indeed, to One possible answer is “yes” to both, a waking and move into the natural order, as the voice of the poem sleeping experience, a form of death of the self as it does, is to simultaneously enter by analogy into the enters through the shining corridor of reverie, the world of the dead and the unborn at the same stroke. thinly-bordered imagined realm “of silence and slow By the same token, the voice of Keats’ poem not time,” a line Keats crafts in “Ode On a Grecian Urn” only retrieves the numinous quality inherent in the (p. 207). natural order, but that voice is also led to it by a kind If we are able to slow down sufficiently to hear of poesy, the song of the bird, which has now achieved Keats’ call, then we could suggest that a revitalized in his imagination mythical status. Or, his imagination mythology must then include a poetic and imaginal has uncovered the transcendent quality alive in the response to the matter of the world, a connection to song’s immanence, or perhaps more accurately, in its the natural and transcendent orders of being, to histo- mythopoetic veracity: “Thou wast not born for death, ry, to a renewed relationship with the dead, with the immortal Bird!/ No hungry generations tread thee past, with a historical sensibility, with an awareness of down” (p. 207) for the particular bird whose song led mythic time and space which situates us between flux him into his initial reverie now swells its orbit, if not and permanence, the permanence of flux and the flux increases its volume, to become the sound that has of permanence itself; it includes as well a shift from a echoed through the corridors of history from time strictly solar to a lunar consciousness, to a deeper con- immemorial; the solitary and lifeless voice of the nar- nection to one’s “sole” self, and a return to share, to rator at the beginning has been revitalized by this voice, to make public in a larger venue what one has seemingly ordinary connection to nature that has ges- discovered, in a language that is clean and freshly tated in the poetic imagination and now leafs into a strewn with original analogies to wake the imagination mythological experience. A temporal event has been from its dreary and often habituated slumbers.

The Nature of Myth 35

Only by taking this last step in the journey—mak- Campbell, J. (2001). Thou art that: Transforming reli- ing public, not in shrill outcries of literal laments, but gious metaphor. Novato, CA: New World Library. in a more imaginal and reasoned response, founded on Campbell, J. (2004). Pathways to bliss: Mythology and a fertile loam of intuition, will there by any hope, to personal transformation. Novato, CA: New World my mind, for the vitality of the magic of metaphorical Library. and symbolic realities to be heard by those suffering Grof, S. (1993). The holotropic mind: The three levels of from “a drowsy numbness” which pains their senses, human consciousness and how they shape our lives. numbs their souls and provokes increased consump- San Francisco: Harper. tion. Grof, S. (2000). Psychology of the future: Lessons from Harrison ends his Preface to The Dominion of the modern consciousness research. Albany, NY: SUNY Dead (2003) with this observation: “sometimes the Press. best way to retrieve a legacy is by freeing it from its Harrison, R.P. (2003). The dominion of the dead. original framework and reinscribing it in new ones” Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (pp. xi-xii). Surely the pioneering work of Joseph Hegel, G. (1991). The philosophy of history. (J. Sibree, Campbell, Stan Grof, Rick Tarnas, John Keats, Carl Trans.). Great Books in Philosophy Series. Buffalo, Jung, James Hillman, Marie Louise von Franz, Marion NY: Prometheus Press. Original work published Woodman, Christine Downing, Ginette Paris and 1822. others, each with his or her uniquely beveled and Hillman, J. (1983). Healing fiction. Barrytown, NY: honed eloquent language, have all exercised just such a Station Hill Publishing. profound liberation of the past so that it can don and Huxley, A. (1970). The perennial philosophy. New York: wear the shimmering and shadowy new wardrobes of a Harper and Row Publishers. Original work pub- revitalized and freshly languaged future. lished 1944. Jung. C.G. (1989). Mysterium coniunctionis. (R.F.C.Hull, Trans.), Bollingen Series XX. Author Note Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. This paper is based upon a presentation at the Original work published 1944. Sixteenth International Transpersonal Conference in Kearney, R. (2001). On stories. New York: Routledge Palm Spring, California: 13-18 June 2004. Press. Redford, R. (2004). Natural resources defense council pamphlet on the environment. New York: NRDC References Publications. Bush, D. (Ed.). (1959). Selected poems and letters by Rilke, R.M. Letters to a young poet. (Joan M. Burnham, John Keats. New York: Houghton Mifflin. Trans.). The Classic Wisdom Collection. Novato, Campbell, J. (1968). Creative mythology. The masks of CA: New World Library. Original work published God, vol. 4. New York: Viking Press. 1929. Campbell, J. (1972). Myths to live by. New York: Romanyshyn, R. (2002). Ways of the heart: Essays Penguin Publishing. toward an imaginal psychology. Pittsburgh, PA: Campbell, J. (1990). Flight of the wild gander: Trivium Books. Explorations in the mythological dimension. Novato, Stevens, W. (1997). Stevens: Collected poetry and prose. CA: New World Library. Original work published New York: The Library of America. 1951. Campbell, J. (2003). The hero’s journey: Joseph Campbell on his life and work. Novato, CA: New Correspondence regarding this article should be World Library. Original work published 1990. directed to the author at [email protected] Campbell, J. (1973). The hero with a thousand faces. Bollingen Series XVII. Princeton: NJ: Princeton University Press. Original work published 1948. Campbell, J. (2002). The inner reaches of outer space: Metaphor as myth and as religion. Novato, CA: New World Library. Original work published 1986. Campbell, J. (1988). The power of myth. (B. S. Flowers, Editor.) New York: Doubleday.

36 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2005, Volume 24

Myth, Archetype and the Neutral Mask: Actor Training and Transformation in Light of the Work of Joseph Campbell and Stanislav Grof

Ashley Wain University of Western Sydney

This paper explores the influence of transpersonal thinking, including the mythological perspec- tive of Joseph Campbell and the holotropic perspective of Stanislav Grof, on actor training using the neutral mask. An outline of training in the neutral mask is given, focusing on the approach of David Latham, as experienced by the author in his own training. Points of correspondence with the vision of Campbell and Grof, and their influence, are discriminated and discussed. These correspondences open up two areas of inquiry: the transformative effect of the mask work when conducted in a transpersonally-oriented set, and the use of the neutral mask as an approach to the study of myth and archetype. Both are discussed, and some preliminary conclusions drawn based on experiences reported by student-actors and the author’s observations during his own research and his practice as actor and teacher.

n his preface to The Masks of God, Joseph mation that this work represents. The nature of this Campbell writes that within its four volumes are transformational environment will be further illumi- Igiven all the motifs contained in the unified sym- nated by setting it alongside Stanislav Grof’s model of phony of humanity’s spiritual heritage, “with many healing in non-ordinary states of consciousness (Grof, clues, besides, suggesting ways in which they might be 1985, 1987). The second part of the paper will put to use by reasonable men to reasonable ends—or describe the experience of actors who do this work— by poets to poetic ends—or by madmen to nonsense the transformations they report—and how the mask and disaster” (Campbell, 1991a, p. xx). In the years can be a way of research into the myth, archetype and since the publication of The Hero with a Thousand journey, and what it has revealed regarding these in my Faces (Campbell, 1993), Campbell’s insights into this own research. symphony—the artefacts of which, whether works of philosophy, psychology, theology or folklore, he placed Personal background and mask training together under the umbrella of “myth”—have been There are many different approaches to the neu- put to use in fields as varied as screenwriting and tral mask, and while there are many similarities and organisational learning. In this paper, I will offer an common or recurring elements in these different account of how those clues, and the larger vision put approaches, there are also important differences. forth in his writings, have served poetic ends in actor Joseph Campbell’s vision of myth has come to be a training and performance, particularly in work with part of the mask work through my teacher, David the neutral mask, a powerful contemporary mask Latham. When I write of “the mask work” in this con- widely-used in actor training in Europe, Australia and text, I am acknowledging that there is a broad tradi- North America. The influence of Campbell on this tion but specifically referring to the neutral mask work area of the arts can be seen to have two major ele- as I learned it from David Latham. Artists tend, how- ments: his monomyth is used as a guiding structure for ever, not to stay the same for too long, so I should also improvisations in the training process and his vision, add that I am referring to how David was teaching it because it is amazingly congruent with mask work, ten years ago, when I trained with him, and to my own provides an excellent orienting vehicle for the unique interpretation and development of that work. The fol- combination of creative work and personal transfor- lowing account of the neutral mask, based on my own

Neutral Mask 37

experience as an actor, observer and teacher, will trace tion: the way the teacher handles the masks; the pres- the broad outlines of the work. entation of definite taboos; the fact that students are I trained as an actor at the Victorian College of the only permitted to wear black, plain clothing; the divi- Arts in Melbourne, Australia. When I arrived from my sion of the room, like a theatre, into a performance hometown of Perth, a few thousand miles away, to space and an audience space; those who are not per- begin training, I had just finished a degree in philoso- forming are always in the audience. There is never any phy and politics and I was intellectually-oriented—not clapping. Masks, of course, have long been an impor- very aware of my body or my feelings. Our training tant part tool of initiation and transformation. It has was three years full-time—a very intense three years— been argued that the mask is the most ubiquitous of and in the first six weeks we were completely human artifacts. It is found in nearly every culture and immersed in exercises to increase our awareness of its association with ritual and with non-ordinary states body, breath, impulses, and imagination. In voice, we of consciousness is well-known (Eldredge, 1996). spent six weeks lying on the floor sensing our breath, First, students are asked simply to wear the mask lengthening our spines, and releasing all kinds of tiny in front of the group, sometimes in conjunction with muscles. In movement we practised Feldenkrais work an image, such as being in a desert, often without. This (Feldenkrais, 1980), Alexander (Alexander, 1984), simple exercise yields a range of often powerful experi- ideokinesis, stretching, and many other exercises. In ences, which demonstrate the extraordinary capacity acting we did a great deal of work to become aware of of the mask to induce shifts in consciousness. The stu- impulses, and specific exercises to prepare us for the dent-actors often report experiencing a sense of peace, mask, exercises that loosen and awaken the body and freedom, or terror. Some pull the mask off quickly, imagination and connect these with the breath, exer- others say that they felt “possessed.” One student cises to evoke movement that is inspired by breath and reported that she felt “her breath” moving through her infused with image. We worked to make the spine in a circle, up her spine and down the front of her responsive, flexible and present to awareness. body, another spoke of an intoxicating and seductive Preparation for the mask also involves work with power like he had never experienced before (Holloway, the various centres in the body (chest, groin, solar 2001). The students are not told what they should plexus), imagining the breath moving down the front experience, and they are told very little about the of the spine into the centres, attending the images and nature of the mask. It it is up to the students to discov- energies that emerged there, and then moving from er what it is through their own curiosity, by acting in these energies. David Latham never used the word it, and by observing it as an audience member (Saint- “chakra,” however, which for novice actors carries asso- Denis & Saint-Denis, 1982). For the actor under- ciations with the new age or Hinduism. Using con- standing is a matter of action, of doing. cepts like chakra in an acting class causes some people While it is important to allow the performer to to become resistant and others to become over-excited. make their own sense of the work, based on their own It is unnecessary. In acting, the immediate experience experience, it is possible to make some general remarks and one’s capacity to communicate it is the important about its nature. The neutral mask is not a particular thing—the actual energetic freedom and creative mas- character. It has no psychology, no problems, no past. tery of the actor. Too many concepts associated with It has no inner conflict; it lives in a state of inner calm. other realms of endeavour and modes of discourse can It has no differentiated attitude. It does not hold to a become a serious obstacle. fixed point of view. It does not do one thing on the We also began to journey inwardly, lying on the inside and another on the outside. It is what it sees; it floor, simply telling the story of our imagination to a is action. It is totally transparent. It has no plans, no single witness as it unfolded. These inner journeys and agendas. It teaches an actor to be simple, and to be the movement improvisations might begin with per- present. sonal themes but they soon move through violence, Jacques Lecoq, the late, renowned teacher of neu- sexual places, religious places, or just plain weird tral mask, writes that “To enter into a mask means to places. David Latham always affirmed wherever we feel what gave birth to it, to rediscover the basis of the went. mask and to find what makes it vibrate in yourself. When the mask is introduced, it is done quite for- After this it will be possible to play it from within” mally. It’s a definite moment: “Today we begin work (Lecoq, 2000, p. 55). The story of the birth of this with The Mask.” Various elements come together to mask is very illuminating. It was discovered in the the- create a sacred space and the impression of an initia- atre of Jacques Copeau, a Frenchman, the founder of

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the Vieux-Colombier theatre and its school (Copeau, has no past, it lives outside time, in a world that is Rudlin, & Paul, 1990). Copeau was disillusioned with “prior” to culture, in which everything is done “for the the superficiality and clutter of the French theatre first time.” It is a world of essences, of elemental begin- before World War 1 and with the Vieux-Colombier he nings. It is always interestingly, an outdoor world, inti- attempted to create performances that had simplicity, mately connected to nature. Jacques Lecoq, the late, resonance, freedom and elemental aliveness. One day great French acting teacher says that it “allows one to in the rehearsal of a difficult emotional scene, an find the essential…the word of all words” (Wylie, actress found herself blocked, unable to play it, how- 1994, p. 78). He calls it “the mask of masks” and says, ever hard she tried. In desperation, Copeau took his “Beneath every mask…there is a neutral mask” handkerchief and covered the actress’ face. To every- (Lecoq, 2000, p. 40). one’s amazement, she was then able to play the scene The actors begin to discover this through per- freely and truthfully. forming simple human actions—waking up for the After this Copeau asked his students to make first time, throwing a stone, the last goodbye to the themselves simple “neutral” masks, simply to cover beloved. They discover that for the mask to work, to their faces. Copeau’s son-in-law Jean Daste, wrote have life, they must pare back unnecessary gesture and about how this became “the discovery of a mysterious action; they must shed their idiosyncrasies, and so world.” They “would make up very simple exercises release what Reich would call their character armour. with various themes: waiting, discovery, fear, anguish” The mask covers the face, the persona, the “daily such as “the families of sailors, watching from the mask.” The actor must adapt their body and action to shore for the arrival of a boat. It has been shipwrecked; the mask; it must be the body of the mask, a body we wait; we realize the sailors will not return.” without conflict, without attitude. Its actions must be Somehow these simple themes and simple actions prior to culture, prior to conditioning, “for the first brought forth, in the mask, great emotion and a power time.” We are searching for simplicity and universality, that astonished their audience: “the characters pos- so that any person, from any culture, would be able to sessed a greater reality and a greater vitality” (Copeau understand: “ah, she said goodbye; ah, he discovered et al., 1990, pp. 237-238). something.” In the simplest terms, what a mask does is make The work moves on to identifications, with the ele- the invisible visible. It shares with ritual and spiritual ments (Water, Fire, Air and Earth), with archetypes practice an interest in a normally invisible reality. (e.g., The Warrior, The Innocent, The Seven Deadly Unlike many spiritual practices, which seek to touch Sins, the Major Arcana of the Tarot), with substances this reality inwardly, mask, theatre and often ritual are (Plastic, Olive Oil, Aluminium Foil, Glass, Rubber, concerned with making this invisible reality visible on and so on), and even onto colours, music and words. this plane1. This invisible inner reality could be a realm These identifications often begin with an invitation to of spirits, the eternal archetypes, the imagination of a the students to contact an image. The mask improvi- playwright or the psychological world of a character. sation involves “completing the image.” Completing The important thing is that some facet of this unman- the image—entering into it, embodying the invisible ifest world is made manifest through the body, voice presence (which is, at the beginning, felt within) while and speech of the performer or shaman. The use of a in contact with an audience—makes up the crux of the particular mask determines, of course, what invisible actors work; it is what we practice again and again. thing or being will come through. We can begin to see This is what Lecoq calls mime but it is mime de the affinity between mask and Campbell’s vision of fond, mime of depth, not mime of form. He explains myth when he suggests that “the basic theme of all it like this: “Take for example, the observation of a mythology—that there is an invisible plane supporting tree: in going beyond the ideas which surround it, and the visible one” (Campbell, 1988, p. 71). There’s a the personal feelings it arouses, one encounters a phys- roughly equivalent duality in Stan Grof’s work in ical sensation which reveals the dynamism of the life of which he distinguishes “holotropic” and “hylotropic” this tree… It is as if the body had a skin for touching states or realities (Grof, 1985, p. 38). The actor’s trans- the space within and another for touching the space formation into the mask character could be seen as the without” (Wylie, 1994, p. 80). The same process is holotropic reality emerging into the hylotropic. applied even for identifications with elements that do If masks reveal the invisible, one approach to not, on the surface, appear to have movement, like understanding a mask is to ask, “What of the invisible colours. We ask: what is the living gesture of a certain world does it make visible?” Because the neutral mask colour? How does yellow move? Mime de fond

Neutral Mask 39

“involves an identification with things in order to Campbell’s work, was extraordinary. There was a sense make them live…mime is a way of rediscovering a of remembering, as if I was touching something archa- thing with freshness” (Lecoq, 2000, p. 22). This work ic within myself. frees and connects the imagination and the body and My first journey was spread out over two classes: expands the actors’ range of expression and feeling. I rode a dragon, killed a giant snake, and got stuck on a beach-wasteland facing the ocean, Journey & the Monomyth until I understood that my journey was into the Beyond these simple identifications there are ocean, where I was torn apart by fish, ending up Journeys based on the monomyth (Campbell, 1993), in the arms of a great Silence I knew was God. in which many possible identifications are integrated into I lay there for a long time, not wanting to leave, an unfolding story of transformation. This represents until He told me to “Do it with love.” Then I one major influence of Campbell on my teacher David got up and took off the mask. Latham. The actor will be told something like: You wake up. You receive the call to set out on A powerful element of this experience was the a journey, and you answer the call. You cross a sense of necessity which imbued my actions, as if there threshold and enter a new world. You travel was only one way the story could unfold, according to along a road of trials where you meet forces that a precise inner logic that was at once my own and help you and forces that hinder you. At the end beyond me. The mask knew what had to happen, and of the road of trials you face a great test. When I knew too, in an archaic place inside myself. All the you pass this test you are given a gift, you return personal associations, the mythic metaphors and the with this gift to the world you came from. You actual physical actions in all their rhythms, were one share the gift and you sleep. harmonious and necessary unfoldment. Afterwards David Latham told me he thought I They must improvise this with complete physical had died. I tried to explain that I had and there was and imaginal commitment, with no planning or guid- some confusion until I realised that he thought I had ance about the specific content this structure brings actually died, because I had lain there so still for so forth. The details of the journey are changed all the long. He asked if I had been given a gift. I said “no,” time. Sometimes it occurs in pairs or groups; some- but he kept digging until I mentioned what I had been times it is given in great detail, sometimes very simply. told just before the end. He said “that’s your gift.” Many students will ask for the structure to be After that I understood how being an actor, an artist, repeated, but they are told, “what happens, happens. could be a truly profound journey. David talks about You will remember what you remember.” The point is this work as nourishing the roots of one’s talent, and not to tick the boxes: that would be a travesty of the this first experience remains for me a touchstone, one work. The point is that, like the elements and arche- at the roots of both my artistic life and personal being, types, is in the actor, and it can come out. The point is and one which has proved both unexpectedly rich and to go through the personal associations to the mythic difficult to live out fully. resonance. The point, because we are actors, is to real- By way of contrast, Lecoq’s journey relies for its ly do it, to find it truthfully and become it completely structure on the natural world, with very specific con- so that the invisible is made visible and palpable. Of tent. He will tell students: course, it is not about making something up; it is not At daybreak you emerge from the sea; in the about “acting it out.” The forms arise from the deeper distance you can see a forest and you set out physical and imaginative connection with the struc- towards it. You cross a sandy beach and then ture itself. In experience they seem to arise from the you enter the forest. You move through trees body. You see the image, you are the image; the image and vegetation which grow ever more densely as is in you and you are in it. you search for a way out. Suddenly, without David Latham has a way of talking so that the warning, you come out of the forest and find words resonate in the body, they have impact, so that yourself facing a mountain. You ‘absorb’ the one can feel memories waking up inside. When he said image of this mountain, then you begin to “You Wake Up,” it was clear that it was no ordinary climb, from the first gentle slopes to the rocks waking up—that “You Wake Up” was an action of and the vertical cliff face which tests your intensity and scope. The impact of hearing this for the climbing skills. Once you reach the summit, a first time, as a student before any contact with vast panorama opens up: a river runs through a

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valley and then there is a plain and finally in the tion of the craft thus reaches into the deepest distance, a desert. You come down the moun- source of our being, the essence of our human- tain, cross the stream, walk through the plain, ness, individually, communally and culturally. then into the desert, and finally the sun sets. (Latham, 1992, p. 4) (Lecoq, 2000, p. 41) Although it might be simplistic to try to analyse, It’s important to remember that as the mask moves in the space available, something as profoundly inte- through these environments it becomes them; it is grated and organic as an individual teacher’s art, devel- what it sees. The image is in the actor and the actor is oped over long years of personal struggle and innova- in the image. tion, I would like to point to two elements that seem Later, the actors rerun the journey in extreme con- important. Firstly, David Latham affirms wherever his ditions: students journey to in their imagination and their There is a raging sea and the wave throws you improvisation. To use Campbell’s phrase, he says “‘yea’ up onto the beach. The sand is being swept by to it all” (Campbell, 1991c, p. 20). This distinguishes a rainstorm. The forest is on fire. Once you are him very clearly from the Lecoq tradition, which uses on the mountain there is an earthquake fol- the via negativa. Although it seems simple, such an lowed by avalanches, and you slide down attitude has depth and richness, to maintain it honest- towards the river, which is in flood. You manage ly requires great personal trust, heart and openness and by grabbing hold of the trees. Finally you reach its effect on the working atmosphere are profound and the desert, where a sandstorm is blowing up. significant. (Lecoq, 2000, p. 42) I remember David’s appreciation of all the places we went—not just allowing but appreciation of the Campbell’s orientation as a facilitating vision or “set” powerful, perverse, sexual, violent, emotional. He was Lecoq encourages his students to be aware of the interested in all of you—whatever you wanted to bring “symbolic overtones” of the natural environments they out, he affirmed it. I once asked him what he began move through—crossing the river can be a metaphor with when he started teaching. He told me that he just for adolescence, for example. In David Latham’s work, knew that he wanted people—his students and however, metaphor is central, and this points to the actors—“to bring out what was in them.” Something second significant way that Campbell’s work has influ- deep within responds to this attitude. Underlying it is enced it: it serves as the cornerstone of an overarching, a sense of trust that wherever you go will be OK, an facilitating vision, a kind of meta-framework—what understanding that the depths of the individual are Grof would refer to, in non-ordinary states of con- universal and that these depths will eventually emerge. sciousness work, as the “set” (Grof, 1976, p. 14). In this way, we can go to the universal through the per- By the time I met David Latham and began work- sonal, not by negating it. We can experience how, ing with him, he had been absorbing Joseph beneath our surface characteristics, the profoundly Campbell’s work for nearly twenty years, and the personal, the most intimate places, are universal. philosophical basis of his work had become the trian- The second element of Campbell’s vision that gle of myth, art and psychology. He was interested in David brought to the work was a profound and “training an actor in such a way that the actor’s work intensely lived understanding of metaphor. For David, exists in the duality of that which is psychological and the mask is a metaphor, myth is a metaphor and the- that which is universal” (Latham, 1992, p. 2). Part of atre is a metaphor (Latham, 1992). Even the physical doing this is uncovering the “roots” and nurturing exercises serve as metaphors, for acting, for inner these roots, the universal depths, and this is where the states. More than this, the work occurs within an neutral mask is very effective. David writes that his atmosphere of play, but also a holy atmosphere; it is, as work Campbell would say, “a highly played game of ‘as if’” is not about invention; it is not about methods; (Campbell, 1991b, p. 28). The power of the images is it is about revealing; revealing at a deeper and deeply respected, but even the most powerful identifi- deeper level, making connections that have psy- cation is regarded as a symbol: it lives in and through chological connotations and universal connota- the body of the actor, sometimes in terrifyingly power- tions, and not only bringing those to the work, ful ways, but nevertheless it is still theatre. At the end, but allowing them to be the driving force of the the actor takes off the mask. The only thing David work in its content and its form. The founda- said more than “yes” was “let it go.”

Neutral Mask 41

There are many connections and correspondences peutic work” (Grof, 2001, p. 196). In other words, one between Campbell’s vision of myth and metaphor and can get stuck by literalizing one’s experience, by masking generally, as he eloquently demonstrates at “menu-eating.” the outset of his four-volume masterwork, in Primitive Latham’s approach to the mask also shares with Mythology (Campbell, 1991b, pp. 21-26). The affinity Grof’s work a willingness to affirm whatever comes up, is even more acute when we consider the neutral mask a trust in the overall trajectory of the psyche, the specifically. The essence of the neutral mask is silence movement of the process from personal to universal or and stillness. In it, the actor transforms into the ele- transpersonal, and the use of non-ordinary states of mental forms of reality and lives through the move- consciousness. Grof writes that “The main objective of ments of the world, and yet mask remains the same. In the techniques of experiential psychotherapy is to acti- Campbell’s terms, it is the World Axis, the centre of vate the unconscious, to unblock the energy bound in “the turning wheel of terror-joy.” Neutral is “a fulcrum emotional and psychosomatic symptoms, and to con- point which doesn’t exist” (Eldredge & Huston, 1995, vert the stationary balance of this energy into a stream p. 123). The seeming paradox within these images is of experience” (Grof, 1987, p. 166) and “The NOSC literal with the mask: it doesn’t move; it is made of tends to change the dynamic equilibrium underlying papier mache. It is the still point and the silence that the symptoms, transform them into a stream of unusu- makes movement and speech possible. Campbell says, al experiences, and consume them in the process” “Myth is the revelation of a plenum of silence within (Grof, 1987, p. 167). From my description above, it and around every atom of existence” (Campbell, 1993, should be clear that there is a similar process going on p. 267); and “Myth is a directing of the mind and in the mask. Finally, the journey of the student heart, by means of profound informed figurations, to through the mask training looks like a journey that ultimate mystery which fills and surrounds all through the transpersonal level of Grof’s cartography: existence” (Campbell, 1993, p. 267). The forms that identifying with Fire, with The Tree, with different arise in the mask are nothing if not “profound kinds of matter, with archetypes, as well as the acting informed configurations.”2 Like myth, the mask is out of the monomyth, which Campbell explicitly asso- prior to time, and all are playful: between the stillness ciated with the spiritual journey (Campbell, 1988). at the centre and the dynamism of the world’s and the The structure of the mask training therefore parallels mask’s movements, when both are present in aware- the transformative path that the soul can take sponta- ness, there comes the sense of play. Finally, Campbell’s neously in other kinds of non-ordinary states of con- whole conception can be seen to turn on the metaphor sciousness work. It is, given these similarities, a power- of masking: he writes about the “Masks of God,” the ful crucible for deep personal transformation, and I costumes of that transcendent Source from which will now discuss the kinds of changes actors report in words (and, I would add, particular forms) turn back.3 this work. Behind all the masks, there is the neutral mask, the principle of masking itself, the principle of play and Effects of Journey Work transformation. David Latham would say, more sim- The transformation mediated by the mask train- ply, “the mask is theatre.” ing is not aiming at therapy or at some version of Once I came across Stanislav Grof’s writings, a enlightenment: it is a transformation of the talented whole other set of common elements and parallels beginner into an artist-craftsman in the service of the- became apparent, some of which his model shares with atre. The point is to support the actors in discovering Campbell. These are important because they bridge in themselves deep sources for their work while at the Campbell’s vision with the process of personal and same time developing their capacity to express those transpersonal transformation that is so much a part of sources in performance. The craft of actors is in large such in-depth performance training. The first of these part to do with the development of their instrument, is the ‘as-if’ framework and the idea of the cosmos as a themselves. The practice of “completing the image” play of the divine: in Grof’s cosmology, realms of the brings actors up to and through their physical limita- unconscious are like movies the creative principle is tions again and again, and so clears the channels of screening on different channels (Grof, 1998, p. 73)— expression and feeling in the body. The transformation another version of the masks of God metaphor. In of the actor-person builds the actor-instrument; the LSD Psychotherapy, Grof writes about the importance body becomes not just a vehicle for the imagination, of the “as-if framework,” calling it “that territory of but in a sense saturated with imagination; it becomes experiential ambiguity which seems optimal for thera- permeable to essences. The journey awakens the chan-

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nels of energy in the body and after the training, the was as if the mask work opened the inner floodgates, body remembers the forms—the rhythms, weights, emotionally, imaginatively and energetically. At vari- gestures, actions—that evoke particular connections. ous times, I would experience, outside of the class, an The actor becomes the metaphor, the one who carries enormous upsurge of elemental energies, sudden, huge across the meaning of the invisible, who brings the waves of emotion, and powerful dreams that would invisible into forms that point back to the silence.4 continue after I woke up, like another reality overlay- This offers an actor an incredible range of physical ing this one. One actor wrote, after a powerful experi- expression he or she probably has not imagined up ence of Water: “I couldn’t sit still, from deep inside of until this point. More importantly, it opens up inner me was flowing a stream of clear, bright, clean energy experience, new rhythms and feelings, sensations of and it wasn’t stopping. I had forgotten that life could greater weight or sublime lightness, a whole universe feel like this, and it wasn’t stopping, I couldn’t even sit of body memories, which are more than merely phys- down, I kept jumping up on my feet and even that ical. These become sources for the actor, for characters wasn’t enough… it was another day and night before it (fiery revolutionaries, air-heads, slippery characters), began to subside” (Holloway, 2001, para. 1). For this or for whole theatrical creations. student the mask was one catalyst for a powerful spir- While the main trajectory of discovery in the neu- itual emergency that continued for months afterwards. tral mask is toward the theatre, nobody could work with the neutral mask, I am convinced, without dis- Awakening of Energy and Essence covering, as Lecoq says, that it also points toward life. Various energetic experiences frequently occur. It He writes that “For everyone, the neutral mask is quite common for the energy of the elements to becomes a point of reference” (Lecoq, 2000, p. 38). keep flowing for some time. One student reported that For myself, it became a reference point not only for she “noticed quite a lot of heat in [her] life...an inside acting but, perhaps even more so, for the world; it has heat, like [she was] burning up.” Another after becom- become like a pendulum that swings between theatre ing fire talked about “the fire in [her] belly consuming and life. The experiences and insights of the mask and burning through [her] resentments” in the days point both ways, and I have kept returning to it, each after her Fire identification. time making discoveries about theatre, the world and Many actors also report energetic effects not myself. In my own research I wanted to include this specifically related to the specific identifications. One second trajectory, and actors were invited to comment, actor, who had done some work with the Diamond if it seemed appropriate, on the effects of the mask Approach (Almaas, 2004), reported that she felt what work on them beyond the studio. she called, “little poofs of magic cloud” in her chest. One research intensive I conducted involved During the mask work, these “happenings” would actors working with the monomyth on a daily basis for sometimes be the source of her mask work, but they two weeks, in conjunction with many other exercises, would also occur outside of the studio, often when she which were chosen specifically to support the develop- thought of the work. Her description suggests more ment of their journey work. I’ll talk about two things than an emotion, and is more reminiscent of the lataif that emerged from this research: what the participants level as Almaas describes it—a level between energy reported about changes in themselves, and what we and the substance of essence (Almaas, 1998). She learned about archetype, the monomyth and myth describes “sifting through the thoughts, the emotions, generally. The following accounts are based on the the ratty commendations and condemnations to get experiences reported by the actors during this inten- close to the POOFS.” Other students give reports that sive, on the reports of other actors I have trained or suggest something similar, “qualities opening up observed and on my own experiences with the mask. inside” and “intimate movements that are more than physical.” An increase in their sense of presence and Spiritual Emergence(y) the presence of their fellow actors is also a common Perhaps not surprisingly, one of the rare effects is observation. something like a spiritual emergence(y), in the Grofs’ terms (Grof & Grof, 1995), by which I mean that the Changes in perception of the world work provokes a transformational process that contin- Participants often report a change in their percep- ues explicitly and strongly outside of the class, and tions: thinking new thoughts, the world becoming which can include powerful experiences likely to be new and different, seeing in a different way. This pathologized by mainstream psychiatry. For myself, it makes sense if we consider that once you have identi-

Neutral Mask 43

fied with a tree, for example, in its depth, you will research by mime because any personal idiosyncrasies never look at trees the same way again. are starkly illuminated by it and create a sense of dis- One participant in the two-week intensive report- sonance in the observers and often the performer, ed quite a remarkable change, which began to infuse which leads us to move beyond our conditioned her personal life more as the work went on: responses, to enter the essence of a thing. An actor can For a short while after each session, I experience understand a lot about Fire by becoming it, by seeing a type of bliss—a re-experiencing of myself in an actor become it: how it consumes, how it is related the world, in my environs. I feel enveloped by to inspiration; its extraordinary leaps and lunges, and the world, literally held by it, as if it is guiding the resulting bruises, teach about courage. An actor me, and yet I feel my own profound stillness becoming toothpaste can reveal its banality. Becoming within its flow, and within my own movement. Earth can reveal the beautiful unity of suffering, com- I am of the world and its greatness; it gleams passion and wisdom, or a movingly intimate under- brilliant intelligence—and I am part of that. It standing of ashes to ashes, the poignant and even is utterly beautiful, and each movement - of the beautiful humanness of the death and decay of our light, trees, people, cars and so on - is so bodies. astounding. I feel I have surrendered to the The process of research then is guided, by the world and have an immense trust of it - there is mask and our aesthetic responses, toward identifica- no fear. I am released from all burden and con- tion with essences, toward knowing as if for the first trol, I am basic and simple—PURE—and every- time, and toward knowledge by identity, which is a thing makes wonderful, indescribable sense. direct experience of the inner nature of the subject of the identification, usually accompanied by intuitive Discovery of intrinsic intelligence/non-mental knowing insights and visions in both the performer and observ- The same student talked about contacting a guid- er. Over time these insights accumulate and integrate ing intelligence through the work: “beyond our own with other, more mundane observations about the intellectual knowing or constructs… lodged in our qualities of presence that the mask manifests, what body’s instinct.” She found that this intelligent guid- releases and blocks these qualities, and so on, gradual- ance “came out of the clearness of the space.” ly building a body of knowledge about the world in its inner, aesthetic, metaphorical dimension. The follow- Mask and Mime as Research into the Mythic ing observations and discussion grows out of this Dimension process. The second line of inquiry in the research inten- sive was to study what the mask work can teach us— Archetype about myth, archetype and the monomyth generally. One thing I have observed about archetypes is that The performer’s craft distinguishes the mask work if the actor loses touch with the timelessness and still- from therapy and mysticism, but it also points to what ness of the mask, the numinosity of the archetype it can contribute to these areas. For the performer it is fades. It loses its mythic quality; it ceases to have that not enough to simply have the inner experience; you mythic, metaphorical presence. A connected phenom- have to find the form—etymologically, “per-form” is enon is that the clarity and precision in the outward “by means of” or “in accordance with” the form form seems connected strongly to the degree of open- (Soanes, 2001, p. 663). This means that, like a ness and not-knowing that the actor feels. An arche- shaman, the performer can then use their craft as a type that they think they know, and so partly build out kind of research. Lecoq is very explicit about this: of concepts, rarely has the richness and resonance in “Mime is pre-eminently a research art” (Wylie, 1994, performance of one that comes from that state of deep p. 75); “The action of miming becomes a form of stillness and mystery. The best form comes out of knowledge” (Lecoq, 2000, p. 22); “Man understands nothing, not-knowing. This is, however, a dualistic that which moves by his ability to ‘mimic’ it; that is, to way of putting it. I remember one actor who touched identify himself with the world by re-enacting it with something very deep, but it seemed to come out a bit his entire being” (Wylie, 1994, p. 80). One part of his messy. Afterwards he said “I was disturbed by how far school in Paris was a Laboratory for the Exploration of I went. I felt out of control.” David Latham said to Movement, where architects would mime the spaces him: “When you’re out of control, is there anything they designed. beyond that?” The neutral mask adds to the clarity of this Even though we speak of working with images, if

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an actor finds a deep personal connection with the designed to see to it that the intending hero should image, it can go to a depth where he no longer sees any really be a hero,” says Campbell (1988, p. 126). We image at all. He is being the stillness, centred in it, and often need to use a series of physical tasks to help the the form seems to emerge out of the body itself. The actor lift their energy to level of a true trial. What I’m body seems to shape itself, to find the forms independ- saying here is that the mask teaches us that an arche- ently as the actor observes it. You don’t know what will type divorced from the physical loses its grandeur. happen in the next moment. This experience of the For the sense of a mythic journey to emerge, there quality or archetype coming out of the body, or the is something important about going to the physical intelligence of the body is something that Tarnas limit and just beyond it. I once tried to make a per- points to in Grof’s work: participants often have the formance that would capture and express the magnifi- insight that the body is “the repository and vessel of cent theatre of mask class. We chose the most power- the archetypal” (Tarnas, 1993, p. 428). ful and dramatic identifications from the training and Another observation is that any archetype proves we worked, using a very detailed process, to gradually easier to contact when we have encountered its expres- find the impulses and the movement, so that the per- sions in the natural world deeply and concretely on formance had a repeatable form, and although the many levels. Most often the actor finds the useful work was fascinating and rich, and the relevant arche- sources in childhood or adolescence. Observing fire types came to life, the drama was lost because, as the between classes does not usually bring the same numi- students rehearsed, their bodies became more open to nosity, organic spontaneity and power that is often the archetype. What had, in the beginning, pushed present when the actor draws on the memory of a them to their limits was now something they could bushfire tearing through their hometown. The muscles encompass. In a sense, they expanded to meet it, and must remember. while the performance was interesting, and was per- haps a more “perfect” embodiment of the archetypal Journey form than the original improvisations, it didn’t live in In the case of the journey, this also appears to be the same way as it did in mask, when the energies took the case. Cirlot writes that “From the spiritual point of the actors beyond themselves, however imperfect the view, the journey is never merely a passage through form may have been. space but rather an expression of the urgent desire for When a thing is perfect, it is dead; it has no move- discovery and change.... Hence to study, to inquire, to ment. Pir Vilayat Inayat Khan writes of the train wheel seek or to live with intensity through new and pro- being turned from off-centre (Inayat Khan, 1994), and found experiences are all modes of travelling, or, to put actually the neutral mask is not really neutral: there is it another way, spiritual and symbolic equivalents of a deliberate imperfection. If it was symmetrical it the journey.... “ (Cirlot, 1971, p. 164). To live with would be dead. Symmetrical masks have no life. intensity through new and profound experiences—how Something a little off-centre has to be turning the many of the young actors that we see have really jour- wheel, and this seems to apply to the actor as well. neyed? What are their frames of reference, their associ- In the mask, the journey is about the intensity of ations? Everquest? Outward Bound? How many of us the experiences, not about ticking the boxes of a pre- have felt the long passage through different territories given structure. The structure is useless if the actor has on a journey that we did not know we would return no passion for adventure, no thirst for transformation. from? How many of us have come back from long Theatrically, it does not work unless we see the actor years away and faced our place of origin and only then transformed by the environments and events they are discovered that we were not at all the same? How experiencing, not only in the outward expression, but many of us have absorbed the loss and the maturity of more fundamentally in the centre, in the quality of that adventure? Divorced from its physical dimension, their presence. I would say this is true for the world the archetype of the journey can become a mere phrase, too: the journey isn’t a journey unless you are actually hackneyed and trite. changed by it, unless you are receptive to the terrain As teachers of mask, we work to shake the concept through which you move. loose of its easy associations, to wake up the actors’ The Great Test is the apex of the journey, the fun- imaginations to the profound reality of the universal damental transition at which the momentum—the dimension. We work physically to do this, calling on energy and the rhythms—of the journey thus far, con- the actor to find the limits of their strength in push- dense and reach their limit of intensity. The breaking ing, of their release in falling and so on. “The trials are open that happens with the gathering expression of all

Neutral Mask 45

the hero’s resources (catharsis), often seems to be a views as essential to all art and a crucial element of the shedding of a coarser way of moving. It provides an actor’s art (Chekhov, 1991, p. xl). These correspon- opening into which—speaking in terms of energy not dences point to the integrity of David Latham’s trian- action—The Gift can descend. We observe that the gle of myth, art and psychology, in that all three might moment of The Gift is almost always a transition into be called, in Grof’s terms, holotropic—oriented greater subtlety. On many occasions, this is when the toward the whole, expressing the movement toward journey really opens to a sacred dimension. wholeness, toward the reality of the inner, of presence, Interestingly, it can come without a huge physical the soul and the spirit, rather than toward matter. The struggle, and yet this often the point at which rhythm use of mask and mime as a means of research also and quality of the actor’s movement will become most points to the importance of aesthetics to the processes clearly numinous. of knowledge in this domain.5 Unless the call is strong and specific (but not nec- essarily “known”) at the beginning, the hero very easi- Author Note ly becomes transformed into the surrounding environ- This paper is based on a presentation to the 16th ment. There is no interest, no drama or epic energy in International Transpersonal Association Conference: the journey unless there is a powerful forward move- Mythic Imagination and Modern Society, Palm ment, usually given by the call, facing enormously Springs, California, June 2004 powerful obstacles. Without this, it is boring; it is bad theatre. Without a strong need to complete the jour- Footnotes ney, in the face of a raging river the mask becomes the 1 river. We also find that an insipid call draws forth only The mask is “engaged in making present a pres- a trickling stream. The question for the actor is “What ence and making present an absence” (Eldredge, 1996, p. 15). is the quality of your adventure?” 2 “A hero is someone who has given his or her life to Because the mask has no character, the actor something bigger than oneself,” Campbell writes must, in order to embody it, shed her idiosyncrasies. (1988, p. 122), and indeed we find that the urge to go Because the mask has no past, the actors cannot carry on the journey, the pull of the call, must be stronger, their baggage in their body-armour. They have to find in fact, than death. If it isn’t the work can attain a a neutral body, and this means that the primary images puffed-up, sticky-significant quality, which I call the are not usually personal associations, as you might find “fake mythic.” The chest lifts a little too high; the body in an actor trained in Strasberg’s method, but timeless becomes more rigid, less permeable. Significance is not or mythic associations. The neutral mask actor may be given by the focused and specific intensity of the per- aware, and usually is aware, of all kinds of personal former’s presence as they face a specific trial, but connections, as she moves through a mythic landscape, attempted by creating a kind of honey quality in the or performs an action like the last good bye, but the movement, as if trying to expand the movement mask is innately universal. It has a mythic, not a beyond itself. The mythic quality doesn’t exclude the domestic resonance. If we find the right body and lightness and simplicity, the directness of the mask. In behaviour, the mask tunes us into the mythic depths to fact the true mythic quality requires them. I would say actions that have universal resonance. That’s the invis- that the journey becomes mythic when there is a true ible world of the mask, and it is also one of the invisi- and specific call that is stronger than death, when there ble worlds within us, the mythic dimension of our own depth. is nothing that is added to the action, when it is pared 3 down to the essential. The crucial thing though is that words, and A strong call is connected to the principle of the forms, point to, if they are good metaphors; they point end being present at the beginning. The presence of beyond themselves to the source of life, and carry new the mask is more than time, so the end is implicit in life across from that source into the manifest world. its presence at the beginning. As Joseph Campbell says The metaphor is therefore the bridge, and metaphor means “to carry across.” “The basic principle of all mythology is this, of the 4 beginning in the end” (Campbell, 1993, p. 269). We Compare Grotowski: “Performer knows how to might also say that it is to do with the end in the link body images to the song. (The stream of life is beginning and the stillness within the movement. All articulated in images.) The witnesses then enter into of these elements together comprise, according to states of intensity because, so to say, they feel presence. Michael Chekhov, the “feeling of the whole” which he And this is thanks to Performer, who is a bridge

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between the witness and this something. In this sense, psychotherapy and inner exploration. New York: Performer is pontifex, maker of bridges” (Grotowski, State University of New York Press. 2001, p. 377). Grof, S. (1998). The cosmic game: Explorations of the 5In Wilber’s model, he deems the validity claims frontiers of human consciousness. Albany, NY: SUNY for knowledge in the interior-subjective domain of Press. reality (the “I” quadrant) to be “aesthetic” (Wilber, Grof, S. (2001). LSD psychotherapy. Sarasota, FL: 1996, p. 122). Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies. Grof, S., & Grof, C. (1995). The stormy search for the References self: Understanding and living with spiritual emer- Alexander, F. M. (1984). The use of the self. Downey, gency. London: Thorsons. CA: Centreline Press. Grotowski, J. (2001). Performer. In R. Schechner & L. Almaas, A. H. (1998). Essence. York Beach: ME. Woolford (Eds.), The Grotowski sourcebook (pp. Samuel Weiser. 376-380). New York: Performing Arts Journal Almaas, A. H. (2004). The inner journey home: Soul’s Publications. realization of the unity of reality. Boston: Holloway, N. (2001). Anglesea. Unpublished manu- Shambhala. script, Melbourne. Campbell, J. (1988). The power of myth. New York: Inayat Khan, P. V. (1994). That which transpires behind Doubleday. that which appears: The experience of Sufism. New Campbell, J. (1991a). The masks of God: Creative Lebanon, NY: Omega Publications. mythology. New York: Arkana. Latham, D. (1992, 17th July). The actor and the jour- Campbell, J. (1991b). The masks of God: Primitive ney. Paper presented at the Theatre Training mythology (Revised ed. Vol. 1). Ringwood, Conference, National Institute of Dramatic Art. Australia: Penguin Arkana. Lecoq, J. (2000). The moving body (D. Bradby, Trans.). Campbell, J. (1991c). Reflections on the art of living: A London: Methuen. Joseph Campbell companion. New York: Harper Saint-Denis, M., & Saint-Denis, S. (1982). Training Collins. for the theatre: Premises & promises. New York, Campbell, J. (1993). The hero with a thousand faces. London: Theatre Arts Books; Heinemann. London: Fontana Press. Soanes, C. (Ed.). (2001). Oxford dictionary of current Chekhov, M. (1991). On the technique of acting. New English (Third ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford York: Harper Collins. University Press. Cirlot, J. E. (1971). A dictionary of symbols. Tarnas, R. (1993). The passion of the Western mind. Burlingame, CA: Redwood Press. New York: Ballantine. Copeau, J., Rudlin, J., & Paul, N. H. (1990). Wilber, K. (1996). A brief history of everything. Copeau—texts on theatre. London; New York: Melbourne, Australia: Hill of Content. Routledge. Wylie, K. (1994). Satyric and heroic mimes: Attitude as Eldredge, S. A. (1996). Mask improvisation for actor the way of the mime in ritual and beyond. Jefferson, training and performance: The compelling image. N.C.: McFarland & Company. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press. Eldredge, S. A., & Huston, H. (1995). Actor training in the neutral mask. In P. B. Zarrilli (Ed.), Acting Correspondence regarding this article should be (re)considered. New York: Routledge. directed to the author at [email protected] Feldenkrais, M. (1980). The potent self. New York: or 11 Prospect Grove, Northcote VIC 3070, Australia. Penguin. Grof, S. (1976). Realms of the human unconscious: Observations from LSD research. New York: E.P. Dutton. Grof, S. (1985). Beyond the brain: Birth, death and transcendence in psychotherapy. New York: The State University of New York Press. Grof, S. (1987). The adventure of self-discovery: Dimensions of consciousness and new perspectives in

Neutral Mask 47

The Sources of Higher States of Consciousness

Steve Taylor

In this paper, it is argued that “higher states of consciousness”–or mystical experiences–have two main sources: they can be caused by a disruption of the normal homeostasis of the human organ- ism and also by an intensification of the “consciousness-energy” that constitutes our being. (These are termed HD and ICE states). The author investigates examples of both types of expe- rience, and compares and contrasts them. It is concluded that the second type of experience is the only one which is truly positive and which can become a fully integrated and permanent higher state of consciousness.

he question of why and how higher states of decreased activity in different parts of this soggy clump consciousness occur has never received a clear of matter might produce higher states of conscious- Tanswer. There are, of course, attempts to ness. explain mystical experiences in neurological (or neu- Alister Hardy’s research (1979) showed that, while ropsychological) terms. Persinger (1987) has linked they may sometimes seem purely to be a matter of mystical/religious experiences to stimulation of the chance–or “grace”–there are many potential triggers of temporal lobes, and even claimed to induce such expe- spiritual/mystical experiences. These include nature, riences with a “helmet” which produces weak complex music, despair or depression, music, prayer, and quiet magnetic fields. D’Aquili and Newberg (2000) have reflection. Alexander’s extensive research (e.g., 1990) suggested that mystical experiences of “oneness” corre- has shown a clear link between the regular practice of late with decreased activity in the posterior superior transcendental meditation and such experiences. This parietal lobe of the brain, which is responsible for our research establishes an important link, but does not awareness of boundaries. They have also linked mysti- seek to explain the cause of the experiences. Tart’s “sys- cal experiences with the autonomic nervous system, tems model” of consciousness (1983) provides a use- claiming that meditative experiences of serenity may ful–if tentative–view of the problem. He suggested stem from a high level of activity in the parasympa- that states of consciousness are the result of the inter- thetic half of the autonomic nervous system, while action of a large number of neurological and psycho- ecstatic high-arousal states may be induced by logical processes–such as attention, perception, cogni- increased activity in the sympathetic half. But as tion, emotions–and that if any one process is altered Wilber (e.g., 1996) has pointed out, we can just as eas- sufficiently (e.g., if we concentrate our attention to an ily see these brain states as results of higher states of intense degree or if we experience intense emotion), an consciousness rather than causes of them. These overall consciousness shift may result. This view researchers may only be investigating the “footprints” applies to altered states of consciousness rather than to of mystical and spiritual experience, rather than the higher states in particular, but has some similarities experience itself. At the same time there is the difficul- with the explanation I am going to suggest. Ludwig’s ty of explaining subjective experience in purely objec- model (1966) is also helpful. He suggested that there tive terms. Physicalist theories of higher states of con- are five basic ways of producing alterations of con- sciousness are subject to the same “explanatory gap” as sciousness: (1) by reducing exteroceptive stimulation theories which suggest how the brain might produce and/or motor activity; (2) by increasing exteroceptive consciousness itself. The philosopher Colin McGinn stimulation and/or motor activity and/or emotion; (3) (1993) has written that “You might as well assert that by increasing alertness or mental involvement; (4) by numbers emerge from biscuits or ethics from rhubarb” decreasing alertness or relaxing the critical faculties; as suggest that the “soggy clump of matter” which is and (5) by changes in the body chemistry or neuro- the brain produces consciousness (p. 160). And we can physiological functioning. This again applies to altered say the same for the suggestion that increased or states rather than solely to higher states, and also has

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similarities with my model. causing a lower level of blood glucose, higher levels of insulin and a lower body temperature–appears to make Disrupting the Equilibrium the hold which ordinary consciousness has over us Fischer (1971) made an important distinction much looser. The shamans of native cultures often use between “ergotropic” higher states of fasting and sleep deprivation as preparation for soul consciousness–that is, “high arousal” active or ecstatic flights and vision quests, as also did the initiates of the states–and “trophotropic” higher states–that is, “low Roman and Greek mystery cults as a preparation for arousal” passive and serene experiences. High arousal rituals (Krippner, 2000; Burkhert, 1987). Sleep depri- states are associated with triggers such as drugs, danc- vation can certainly cause altered states of conscious- ing, fasting and breath-control, whereas low arousal ness. In Oswald’s experiments (1970), for example, states are associated with triggers such as meditation participants who went without sleep for five days dis- and relaxation. This distinction is valid, I will suggest, played symptoms identical to schizophrenia, with since these two types of mystical experience follow visual hallucinations and acute paranoia. But higher from the two distinct sources I intend to identify. states of consciousness can result too, particularly a Scholars–and mystics and spiritual seekers them- more intense perception of reality, an awareness of selves–generally agree that there are certain fundamen- what Becker (1973) called the “raw experience” of the tal features of mystical/spiritual experience. These world. The following report was given me by a nurse include: an intensified perception of the phenomenal who had been working night shifts without sleeping world, a sense of inner peace and wholeness, a sense of properly during the day. On the last morning she was oneness with the manifest world (or a sense of tran- “so tired that I was absolutely loaded with energy” and scending boundaries), and a sense of becoming a deep- decided to walk home instead of getting the bus: er and truer Self (e.g., James, 1902/85; Underhill, I was walking down a lane which had fields on 1911/60; Wilber, 2000b). However, as we will see, not either side of it. I walked past a tree and each all of these features are common to both types of high- leaf seemed to be coming out at me. They were er states of consciousness from both sources. all vivid, glowing, shining, and I felt a feeling of Throughout history human beings have made a ecstasy. Each leaf seemed to be pulsating and conscious effort to produce ergotropic high arousal growing. I’ve never seen anything as beautiful states. This is actually fairly easy to do, even though ever again. there is no certainty that they will occur. Our bodies continually strive to maintain a state of homeostasis, This connection between physical deprivation and the optimum condition of our biological functioning. higher states of consciousness may partly explain the This includes such factors as body temperature, blood tradition of asceticism, the conscious effort to mortify sugar, salt concentration, and so on, which must their physical desires made by many–particularly remain at–or quickly return to–an optimum level. Christian–saints and mystics. Asceticism is sometimes Maintaining homeostasis is both involuntary and vol- seen as a morbid and neurotic expression of the anti- untary. To a large extent our bodies maintain home- physical dualistic ideology of monotheistic religions ostasis automatically, by breathing, digesting food, such as Christianity, and this is certainly true to some sweating and shivering, for example. But we are also degree. But some ascetics were motivated by a desire to obliged to consciously aid the process by performing transcend ordinary consciousness and reach a higher physical functions like eating, drinking and sleeping. state in which they experienced the presence of God When we do not manage to do this for some reason (or Spirit) in the world and felt themselves one with and suffer an internal imbalance, we are liable to illness the radiance of his being. We will see later that asceti- and even death, especially if the imbalance continues cism achieves this partly through a long term process for a long period (Green, 1987). But there is also a of taming physical desires (thereby conserving “con- possibility that we will experience higher states of con- sciousness-energy”), but it is probable that ascetics also sciousness. used pain and discomfort in a more short term way, as Disrupting homeostasis can be used as what a means of inducing temporary higher states of con- Andresen and Forman (2000) refer to as a “technology sciousness. The 14th century German mystic, Henry of spiritual experience.” This may be, for example, the de Suso, spent years wearing a hair shirt and an iron basis of the longstanding connection between fasting chain, as well as a leather belt containing 150 inward- and both altered and higher states of consciousness. A facing sharp brass nails. He never had a bath in 25 prolonged lack of food–which disrupts homeostasis by years, never sheltered from the cold in the winter or

Higher States 49

touched or scratched any part of his body apart from unquestionably due to its power to stimulate the mys- his hands and feet (James, 1902/1985). The Sufi mys- tical faculties of human nature, usually crushed to tic, al-Shebli, took a bundle of sticks with him into his earth by the cold facts and dry criticisms of the sober cellar every day, with which he would beat himself hour” (1902/1985, p. 387). By far the most powerful whenever he found his attention wandering from con- in terms of their transcendental effects, however, are templation of Allah. At the end of the day he would psychedelic drugs. One acquaintance who experiment- dash his hands and feet against the wall (Attar, 1990). ed with magic mushrooms gave me the following It is likely that part of the motivation for these report: appalling practices was a discovery that by contraven- Everything I looked at, trees and stones and ing their physical needs and thereby disrupting home- blades of grass, seemed to have a powerful ostasis, they were able to free themselves from ordinary presence, an identity and being. They consciousness. seemed to have personalities or souls. At the By far the most direct way of disrupting the equi- same time they were all interconnected. I librium, however, is by using drugs. As Huxley point- looked at a meadow which was full of wild ed out: plants and bushes and weeds and in some For an aspiring mystic to revert, in the pres- way–which I can’t really describe–everything ent state of knowledge, to prolonged fasting in it was one. They were all separate on one and violent self-flagellation would be as level but on another they were all just one senseless as it would be for an aspiring cook thing. I lay down on the grass and looked to behave like Charles Lamb’s Chinaman, around and when I sat up I felt like I was who burned down the house in order to one of the blades of grass. Not in an “Oh my roast a pig. Knowing as he does (or at least god, I’m a blade of grass!” kind of way, but can know, if he so desires) what are the because there wasn’t this distinction between chemical conditions of transcendental expe- “me” and “it.” rience, the aspiring mystic should turn for This experience features many of the characteris- technical help to the specialists–in pharma- tics of higher states of consciousness I mentioned pre- cology, in physiology and neurology, in psy- viously: a heightened perception of the reality of the chology and psychiatry and parapsychology phenomenal world, an experience of oneness with the (Huxley, 1977, p. 121). cosmos, and an awareness of the oneness of all phe- nomena. It might seem controversial to suggest that Or as we might rephrase it: why bother with pain, drug-induced spiritual experiences are essentially the hunger or sleep deprivation when it is possible to dis- same in kind as the above experiences of sleep-depriva- rupt homeostasis more directly simply by ingesting tion and lack of food, but I would maintain that the certain chemicals? Of course, human beings have root of both types of experience is the same internal always used drugs for transcendental and ritualistic imbalance and that the only real difference is one of purposes, as a means of intensifying or altering con- degree, in that drug experiences are likely to be much sciousness. The Neolithic peoples of Europe smoked more powerful. opium and cannabis for apparent religious or ritualis- There are other methods of inducing higher states tic purposes 5,000 years ago; the Native Americans of consciousness through disrupting homeostasis, such ingested sacred plants such as fly-agaric mushrooms as altering our normal breathing patterns. Normally and peyote; the early Indo-European conquerors of we inhale and exhale at the same rate, and preserve a India worshipped their drink Soma (probably made balance of carbon dioxide and oxygen levels. But if we from “magic” mushrooms); while adepts of the Greek inhale faster and more deeply than usual we build up Eleusinian mysteries ingested kykeon (Rudgley,1993; a higher than usual concentration of oxygen, and if we McKenna, 1993; Smith, 1964). All drugs alter the exhale faster and more deeply than usual we build up normal chemical balance of the human organism, and a higher than usual concentration of carbon therefore disrupt homeostasis. Of course, not all drug dioxide–and both of these non-homeostatic states can, experiences are transcendental experiences, but all it seems, generate higher states of consciousness. Many drugs undoubtedly can generate them in the right cir- Native American groups–such as the Salish, the cumstances. Even our one socially-sanctioned drug, Algonquians and Kiowa–used both hypo- and hyper- alcohol, has transcendental properties. William James ventilation as a means of inducing higher states of con- maintained that ‘The sway of alcohol over mankind is sciousness (Jilek, 1989). Certain kinds of chanting

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practised by tribal peoples, such as the “throat music” anism. It screens out reality so that we can concentrate of the Inuit, also appear to involve a rapid rhythmic properly on the business of day to day survival. And at hyperventilation which produces altered and higher the same time it conserves energy. Our perception states (Metzner, 1987). Part of the purpose of the becomes automatized so that we can transfer energy pranayama exercises of yoga is to induce temporary that would normally be channelled into the act of per- higher states of consciousness. Although the essential ception into the business of practical survival. Or as purpose of pranayama is long-term regulation of Floyd W. Rudmin wrote: prana–and inseparable from the physical exercises of In line with evolutionary theory, it is widely hatha yoga, it is clear that a breath control technique accepted that this active mode of ordinary con- such as kevali-kumbhaka, in which the aim is simply sciousness is adaptive and functional and serves to hold the breath for as long as possible, would poten- to enhance the survival of the species. It simpli- tially induce a higher state of consciousness fies and actively processes information and (Feuerstein, 1990). guides and monitors our intra- and interperson- This may also be the root of the connection al actions (1994, p. 60). between dancing and higher states of consciousness. The initiates of the Greek and Roman mystery cults In view of this it seems justifiable to say that, at used frenzied dancing–as well as self-flagellation and least to some extent, homeostasis works to regulate and drugs–as a means of disrupting homeostasis so that maintain ordinary consciousness. The optimum phys- they could be, in the words of a contemporary observ- ical state of homeostasis equates with the optimum er, “filled with divine awe…assimilate themselves to psychological state (from the point of view of survival) the holy symbols, leave their own identity, become at of ordinary consciousness. As a result, when we disrupt home with the gods, and experience divine possession” homeostasis we also disrupt ordinary consciousness1. (in Spenser, 1950, p. 157). Similarly, the Dervish However, it’s important to point out that disrupt- orders of Islam used dancing as a means of inducing ing homeostasis certainly does not always result in a the state of consciousness which they called “passing higher state of consciousness. It almost always results away.” Here we can probably assume that prolonged in altered states of consciousness, but only infrequent- energetic dancing produces an internal imbalance ly in higher states. For example, extreme tiredness may because of a high body temperature, dehydration and often result in psychotic and delusional states, with exhaustion. We can put forward similar cases for other paranoia and hallucinations. Psychedelic drugs appear ritualistic and religious practices such as drumming to most reliable way of inducing higher states through (which may also, like chanting, involve a meditative non-homeostasis, but even they can frequently pro- concentrative aspect) and painful ordeals. duce psychotic symptoms. All of these are examples of the fifth category in The exact chemical nature of the disruption to Ludwig’s model: changes in the body chemistry or homeostasis–in the case of sleep deprivation, blood neurophysiological functioning. His second pressure, a depressed immune system and hormonal category–increasing exteroceptive stimulation and/or and metabolic changes; or in the case of pain, hormon- motor activity and/or emotion–can also be seen as al and metabolic changes and increased heart rate and related to disrupting homeostasis, since in most cases blood pressure, or the chemical changes produced the increasing level of these factors is likely to produce directly by drugs–does not seem to be so significant. an internal imbalance, as with the increasing motor Any disruption to homeostasis can, it seems, trigger activity of frenzied dancing. altered states of consciousness (including higher The question of why disrupting homeostasis can states). result in higher states of consciousness is difficult to This might suggest that I am attempting to reduce answer exactly. It seems clear, however, that ordinary higher states of consciousness to chemical causes. But consciousness and homeostasis are closely interlinked. the important point may be rather that ordinary con- From the point of view of survival, ordinary conscious- sciousness is strictly chemically moderated. Higher ness is our optimum mode of consciousness. It may be (and altered) states of consciousness occur when the that, as the “filter theory” of higher states of conscious- chemical conditions that regulate ordinary conscious- ness put forward by Huxley (after Bergson), and later ness are relaxed, as it were. Any change in any one of developed by Naranjo and Ornstein (1971) suggests, these conditions is enough to dismantle the whole the “shadowy” vision of reality which ordinary con- structure. This suggests that, rather than merely being sciousness gives us evolved as a kind of survival mech- chemically produced themselves, higher states of con-

Higher States 51

sciousness are ontologically more fundamental and damentally independent, but consciousness as aware- authentic, and that ordinary consciousness may be ness and as consciousness as cognition are bound up thought of as–at least to some extent–a more artificial, with psychic energy. chemically-generated construct. Psychologists often assume the existence of psy- chic energy (e.g., Novak, 1995; Csikszentmihalyi, Consciousness-Energy and 2003) or attentional energy (e.g., Deikman, 2004a; Higher States of Consciousness Csikszentmihalyi, 1992; Marchetti, 2004) without In a discussion on the psychological effects of making it clear exactly what this energy is. Others talk meditation, Novak (1996) makes an important con- more obliquely of mental effort (e.g., Gross, 1996) or nection between our normal shadowy vision of the “pool of attentional resources” (Kahneman, 1973), world and psychic energy. He notes that the “endless seeming to assume the existence of some form of men- associational chatter” of our minds monopolises our tal energy without actually using the term. psychic energy, leaving none available for us to devote Consciousness-energy is clearly distinct from energy as to what he calls the “open, receptive and present-cen- we normally think of it, and independent (at least to a tred awareness.” However, when a person meditates, large extent) to the chemical energy which we absorb she or he deprives the automatized structures of con- from food and which fuels the functioning of our bod- sciousness (which produce “thought-chatter”) of atten- ies. On an everyday level, we accept its existence tion. As a result, they begin to weaken and fade away, almost as a given, and we certainly feel subjectively which “frees up” the energy that they normally that it exists. As Marchetti (2004) puts it, paying monopolise. As a result, Novak claimed that energy attention towards an object spends attentional energy bound in defences and fantasies can be released in on it. We have the sense that our level of conscious- present-centeredness. Deikman also makes a connec- ness-energy continually fluctuates, according to how tion between mystical experiences and energy when he much we have expended through concentrating or suggests that they are attending to stimuli. If we have been concentrating brought about by a deautomatization of hierar- hard, we might feel lethargic or run down; if there is a chically ordered structures that ordinarily con- surplus of consciousness-energy, we feel alert and serve attentional energy for maximum efficien- vibrant. Our moods seem to be affected by our level of cy in achieving the basic goods of consciousness-energy too–when we feel mentally survival…Under special conditions of dysfunc- drained we often feel depressed, whereas when we feel tion, such as in acute psychosis or in LSD mentally buoyant, with a high level of consciousness- states, or under special goal conditions such as energy, we usually feel cheerful and optimistic. We also exists in religious mystics, the pragmatic sys- conserve this energy through the phenomenon of tems of automatic selection are set aside or automatization. Activities such as driving, typing or break down, in favour of alternate modes of playing a musical instrument are initially painstaking consciousness (Deikman, 1981, p. 259). conscious processes, but at a certain point there is a switch to fully automatic processing, the purpose of Both these views hint at what can, I believe, be which is to conserve attentional energy so that we can classified as the second major source of higher states of focus our minds elsewhere (Norman & Challice, consciousness. They can also occur when there is an 1980).2 intensification of what I term consciousness-energy. It might be said that we normally expend our con- This is roughly equivalent to the term “psychic ener- sciousness-energy in three main ways: through what gy”–I prefer consciousness-energy because it emphasis- Novak identifies as the “endless associational chatter” es the interrelationship between this energy and con- of our egos; through the concentrative effort we make sciousness. Consciousness-energy is the active princi- to deal with the tasks and chores which fill our lives, ple of consciousness, the energy which we use in being including the effort to communicate with other conscious, in the acts of perceiving the phenomenal human beings; and also through the effort we make to world, attending to our experience and thinking logi- process the various forms of information (e.g., percep- cally and discursively. This is not to say that conscious- tual stimuli such as sights and sounds, and verbal ness is in its essence a form of energy–De Quincey information from the media, books or the internet), (2002) has argued that this cannot be the case, since which are part of our lives. However, when, for some there is always a witnessing “I” which is apart from the reason, we halt this constant outflow of consciousness- flow of energy. Consciousness as a witness may be fun- energy, and build up a high concentration within our

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own being, we are liable to experience higher states of of consciousness resulting from homeostasis disrup- consciousness. As Novak suggests, this is one interpre- tion is that the former are–in Stace’s terminology tation of what may happen in meditation practice. (1964/88)–more introvertive. That is, whereas home- The thought chatter of the ego is fed by attention, so ostasis disruption (HD) states are centred around a when we focus our attention elsewhere, it fades away. different mode of experiencing the phenomenal world, In addition, during meditation we largely close the ICE states also often involve a profound sense of inner other main channels through which we expend energy. peace and contentment, or even bliss. ICE states have We process very little information from our environ- a powerful affective dimension that HD states lack. ment, and the only task we have to concentrate on is Meditators have, for example, reported great senses of focusing our attention. Our automatized perception peace, wholeness, and relief (Hardy, 1979). This sense means that we usually give very little consciousness- of inner peace appears to be generally absent from HD energy to the act of perceiving our surroundings. experiences, which is logical when we consider that it However, when the chatter of our minds fades is probably directly caused by the high concentration away–and when we conserve energy in the other ways of consciousness-energy which meditation can gener- I mentioned–there is a surplus of consciousness-ener- ate. As the Indian mystical traditions make clear, bliss gy, which means that perception no longer needs to be is the nature of being or consciousness–being-con- automatic, since there is no need for energy to be con- sciousness-bliss (Sat Chit Ananda) is the essence of served. As a result we perceive our surroundings with reality. We are, therefore, likely to experience this bliss first-time vision, and are awake to the is-ness and ani- when the energy of our being is intensely concentrat- macy of natural phenomena. Examples of these were ed. given by many participants of Deikman’s experimental There is another cause of this sense of inner peace meditation sessions (Deikman, 2004b). that requires explanation. As well as an intensification, Many mystics and spiritual teachers have spoken ICE states feature a stilling of consciousness-energy. At of mystical experience in similar terms to these. The the same time as monopolising a large portion of our Hindu text the Moksha-Dharma compares the tran- consciousness-energy, the constant thought-chatter, scendental Self to a sun, and notes that through the which runs through our minds, creates a constant psy- process of concentration (dharana), the rays of the chic disturbance. In Meister Eckhart’s (1996) phrase, sun–or the whirls of consciousness–are gathered up there is a constant inward storm of thought. In spiri- and focused inwardly. As a result, the yogin experi- tual states caused by an ICE this storm fades away. It ences the intense radiance of the Self, and attains a has to, otherwise consciousness-energy would not be state of samadhi (Feuerstein, 1990). In the Christian concentrated enough to produce a spiritual state. And mystical tradition, Meister Eckhart described how this contributes to the sense of bliss which spiritual mystical experience occurs when “you are able to draw ICE states feature. There is always a sense of inner still- in your [intellectual and sensory] powers to a unity ness, and a sense of purity–and this is not so much an and forget all those things and their images which you affective state, as a direct, literal experience of the still- have absorbed” (1979, p.7, italics added). Or again, he ness and purity of consciousness in these moments. states that to achieve union with God, “a man must Meditation is, we might say, a conscious attempt collect all his powers as if into a corner of his soul” to intensify and still our consciousness-energy, both in (1979, p. 20). Similarly, St. Gregory of Sinai described the short and long term. (In the long term it is an spiritual experience as “the total lifting of the powers attempt to permanently halt the associational chatter of the soul to what may be discerned of the entire of the mind, which may lead to a permanent alteration majesty of glory” (in Happold, 1986, p. 223). The of the structures of consciousness, if a point is reached terms “powers” and “powers of the soul” here are where the chattering ego becomes so weakened that it equivalent to the term consciousness-energy, and the disappears as a psychic habit.) However, there are situ- terms “drawing in,” “collecting,” and “lifting”–and ations in which ICE states may occur more accidental- also the “gathering up” of the whirls of consciousness ly, and give rise to higher states of consciousness. This described in the Moksha-Dharma–refer to what I is probably, for example, the reason why spiritual or describe as generating a high concentration of con- mystical experiences often occur in natural surround- sciousness-energy. ings. Usually if a person is, for instance, walking alone One of the main differences between ICE states in the countryside she is absorbing and processing (as I will term them from now on, standing for 'inten- comparatively little information and being relatively sification of consciousness-energy') and higher states inactive, and so largely closing two of the main chan-

Higher States 53

nels through which consciousness-energy drains away. periods: “All the nagging impulses that are normally And at the same time the beauty of nature may have a distracting your mind dissolve…once they have dis- similar effect to a mantra in meditation. It becomes a solved, you enter one of the orders of bliss. Your whole focus for the attention, directing it away from the being rests lightly on your float, but not drowsily, very chattering of the ego. As a consequence the chattering alert” (1967, p. 72). might fade away, until an ICE state is generated, This may also be part of the reason why sex can be resulting in a sense of inner peace and wholeness and a powerful trigger of spiritual states. The sheer pleas- a familiarity-free perception of is-ness and all-pervad- ure of sex can shift our attention away from the ego- ing spirit. The following are good examples of higher mind, which may fall silent. As a result, after sex we states of consciousness (presumably) induced by may experience what D.H. Lawrence described as “the nature from Hardy’s The Spiritual Nature of Man strange, soothing flood of peace which goes with true (1979): sex” (1973, p. 54). Sex can, therefore, as Jenny Wade Last summer, when walking on Hampstead comments, “take people to the same realms as trance, Heath alone, feeling calm and at peace with the meditation, drugs” (p. 120). world, suddenly I became aware that there was Music, too, is a prominent trigger of spiritual no separateness between myself and other peo- states, for similar reasons. The following ple, that there was no such things as death, and example–again from Hardy–is a good example of an I was pervaded by a feeling of great peace and ICE state induced by music: joy. (p. 62) In my early twenties…in Wales, I I was sitting one evening, listening to a Brahms went out for walk one evening alone. The path symphony. My eyes were closed, and I must led up to a narrow precipice walk along the hill’s have become completely relaxed, for I became edge, and while I was there…the setting sun aware of a feeling of ‘expansion’, and seemed to blazed out turning the whole world crimson be beyond the boundary of my physical self. and gold, there was a gust of wind and felt as if Then an intense feeling of ‘light’ and ‘love’ I had been swept into the very heart of all that uplifted and enfolded me (Hardy, p. 85). glory and colour, taken over by something out- side myself if which I was yet a part. (p. 72) The fact that the person was inactive and had closed his eyes had already reduced his or her outflow The high incidence of spiritual experiences of consciousness-energy, and we can assume that the amongst athletes and sportspeople (e.g., Murphy & music acted as a concentrative device, quietening the Whyte, 1995; Taylor, 2002) can be explained in simi- chattering of the ego-self, reducing the outflow fur- lar terms. Some of these may be due to homeostasis ther. disruption, since the exertions of some sports can eas- In theory, almost any activity which involves a ily create internal imbalances. However, sports also degree of concentration and which takes place in a often involve an intense degree of concentration, quiet and still setting–and which can therefore result which may generate ICE states. This is particularly the in an intensification and stilling of life-energy–could case with sports that involve long periods of monoto- give rise to a spiritual experience. Other significant nous rhythmic activity, such as long distance running triggers of spiritual experience, such as literature, the or swimming. The activity itself serves as a focusing contemplation of art and creative work (Hardy, 1979; device, and quietens the chattering ego. As the psychi- Laski, 1961) might be explained in these terms. atrist Thaddeus Kostrulaba (1976) wrote, after dis- cussing the universal use of mantras to induce differ- Other Aspects of ICE states ent states of consciousness, “I think the same process So far I have discussed two different aspects of occurs in the repetitive rhythm of long-distance run- higher states of consciousness in relation to ICE states: ning. Eventually, at somewhere between 30 and 40 an intensified perception of the phenomenal world minutes, the conscious mind gets exhausted and other (perhaps including an awareness of the presence of areas of consciousness are activated” (p. 103). brahman in the world) and a sense of inner peace. Similarly, the poet Ted Hughes described a meditative However, we should give some attention to other state he often experienced while fishing. He notes how aspects of higher states of consciousness. For example, poetry depends upon the ability to focus the mind, how can we explain the sense of one-ness that comes and believes that he acquired this ability through fish- with spiritual experiences in these terms? ing. He describes the effect of staring at a float for long Unlike the sense of inner peace, this sense of one-

54 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2005, Volume 24

ness is–as we have seen–also a feature of spiritual expe- especially once the superficial thought-maintained self riences resulting from homeostasis disruption. This of the ego has faded away. According to the Yoga phi- suggests that the experience is not strictly related to losophy of Patanjali, the “restriction of the whirls of ICE states. The experience may be primarily related to consciousness” allows the transcendental Self to appear ego-dissolution, a transcendence or dismantling of the (in Feuerstein, 1990, p.171.) Since HD states do not separate-self system which creates the illusion of sepa- depend on an intensification of consciousness-energy, rateness and duality. This can be achieved through dis- we would not expect this aspect to feature in them. rupting homeostasis–since the separate self-system is And based on my own examination of reports of HD an integral part of our ordinary optimum survival con- states (e.g., Huxley, 1977; Ouspensky, 1984; Hardy, sciousness which homeostasis partly serves to main- 1979; McKenna, 1993) and my own personal experi- tain–or through a silencing of associational chatter. ences of them3, I believe this to be the case. Reports of Our sense of ego appears to be largely maintained by HD-induced higher states of consciousness do not, I this chatter. Therefore when the chatter becomes silent believe, generally feature this sense of becoming one the separate self-system may fade away. with a truer and deeper self. In this respect the term However, ICE states in particular may provide that is sometimes used for psychedelic drugs, another source of this experience of oneness. As many “entheogens” (e.g., Walsh, 2003)–literally, revealers of spiritual traditions hold, at the essence of our being, the god within–is misleading. If anything, they should we are one with the cosmos. As the Vedanta tradition be termed “extheogens.” tells us, atman is one with brahman. The conscious- ness-energy that constitutes our being is one and the Long Term Spiritual Development same as the consciousness-energy which pervades the Long-term spiritual development can also be cosmos. Therefore, when we experience a powerful interpreted in terms of an intensifying and stilling of intensification of consciousness-energy, we also effec- consciousness-energy. One way of looking at regular tively experience the essence of the whole universe. We spiritual practice–whether it is daily meditation prac- tap into the ocean of Spirit that pervades all reality. tice or mindfulness exercises or a monastic life of Another important aspect of spiritual experiences renunciation–is as a concerted effort to generate a per- is the sense of becoming who we really are, the sense manently high concentration of consciousness-energy that we have made contact with a deeper and truer (and to permanently still consciousness-energy to part of our own being. There is an identity shift from some degree), by permanently reducing or restricting the ego-self to the True Self, which can occur tem- its outflow. As mentioned previously, the practice of porarily in higher states of consciousness or as a grad- meditation does this by teaching the chattering ego the ually evolving feature of long-term spiritual develop- habit of quietness. But the spiritual life involves more ment. This new sense of self is vividly evoked in Paul than meditation. Traditionally, spiritual aspirants have Brunton’s famous description of meditating in the forced themselves to extremes of renunciation and presence of Ramana Maharishi: detachment in an effort to permanently transform The brain has passed into a state of complete their state of being. They might choose to live alone in suspension, as it does in deep sleep, yet there is the forest or desert, to take vows of silence or celibacy, not the slightest loss of consciousness. I remain to rid themselves of all possessions or to relinquish perfectly calm and fully aware of who I am and ambitions or interests of their own. This kind of radi- what is occurring. Yet my awareness has been cal spirituality is opposed to many contemporary spir- drawn out of the narrow confines of separate itual teachings (e.g., Cope, 1999), which insist that personality; it has turned into something sub- there is no distinction between the spiritual and the limely all-embracing. Self still exists, but it is a mundane and that every aspect of our lives–including changed, radiant self. Something that is far business, food and relationships–offers the opportuni- superior to the unimportant personality which ty for spiritual growth. Like asceticism, detachment was I, some deeper diviner being, arises into has been seen as part of the ascending world-rejecting consciousness and becomes me. (1972, pp. 304-5) tradition which posits an artificial and dangerous dual- ity between matter and spirit. It’s certainly true that, as The important point here may be that our true the Integral Philosophy recently developed by Ken sense of self is embedded in consciousness-energy. The Wilber, Michael Murphy, and others suggests, focus- energy is our Self, our true identity, so that an ICE ing our energies exclusively upon spiritual develop- state equates with a sense of connection to a truer self, ment is likely to cause an imbalance and a neglect of

Higher States 55

other important areas of our lives. However, the pur- this, we must exercise self-discipline; we must control pose of the life of a renunciate is clear: he or she is our physical appetites and passions” (p.102). Tapas attempting to drastically limit the outflow of con- usually involves chastity (brahmacarya) and the subju- sciousness-energy–or more specifically, making a gation of the senses (indirya-jaya) and is believed to determined effort to permanently close down the generate an intense form of energy, ojas, which is channels through which consciousness-energy drains sometimes experienced as heat (the literal meaning of away. This underlying purpose of detachment was the word tapas). The first two stages of Patanjali’s noted by Underhill (1960), who describes it as a eight-limbed path of yoga also involve rigorous self- process of “stripping or purging away of those super- control and an effort to tame the body of desire. The fluous, unreal, and harmful things which dissipate the purpose of yama (often translated as restraint) is, as precious energies of the self” (p. 204). The practice of Feuerstein (1990) puts it, “to check the powerful sur- voluntary poverty, for example, can be seen as a vival instinct and rechannel it to serve a higher pur- method of stopping our thoughts being occupied and pose” (p. 186). This frees up psychospiritual energy, our energies being drained away by possessions. As which the adept can use at the niyama (discipline) Meister Eckhart noted, ‘There are men who complete- stage, when he attempts to “harmonize his relationship ly dissipate the powers of the soul in the outward man. to life at large and to the transcendental reality” (p. These are the people who direct all their aims and 186). intelligence towards transient possessions’ (1990, p. We should note that both detachment and morti- 117). And similarly, Underhill (1960) noted that pos- fication (or asceticism) are not –at least ideally–ongo- sessions “are a drain upon the energy of the self, pre- ing or permanent processes. They are processes direct- venting her from attaining that intenser life for which ed to a particular end: a release from what Underhill she was made” (p. 212). In a similar way, we can see calls the selfhood’s tyranny and from the dominance the practice of celibacy as, on the one hand, a method (and energy-monopolisation) of our lower, hedonistic of freeing the monk or mystic from the responsibility impulses. Many mystics strove for years to attain this of having to care and provide for a family, and also a freedom, at which point they often relinquished their means of–hopefully, since there is always the danger lives of detachment and became extremely active. St. that the sexual energy may simply be repressed–freeing Catherine of Sinea, for example, spent three years liv- the consciousness-energy which is normally devoted to ing as a hermit and an ascetic until she attained a state sexual desires and activity. As Swami Prabhavananda of deification. At that point she abandoned her soli- (1952) wrote: “Sexual activity, and the thoughts and tude and was frenetically active for the rest of her life, fantasies of sex, use up a great portion of our vital teaching, converting non-Christians and serving the force. When that force is conserved through absti- poor and sick (Underhill, 1960). The same is true of nence, it becomes subliminated as spiritual energy” (p. other mystics such as St. Theresa, St. John of the 72). Silence and solitude are clearly two other ways of Cross, and St. Francis of Assisi. The purpose of detach- concentrating or intensifying consciousness-energy. ment and mortification is to produce a transformation This is another aspect of asceticism. We should of being, a permanent redistribution of consciousness- not see asceticism purely as a matter of punishing the energy, which equates with a permanently higher state body for its sinful desires. At the same time as serving of consciousness, or ascendance to the higher transper- as a means of inducing temporary spiritual states sonal realms. through homeostasis-disruption, it should be seen as a I should make it clear that I am certainly not question of taming or controlling what ascetics called advocating a retreat from the world, or implying that “the body of desire” in order to conserve–and redi- everyday life is opposed to spirituality. I personally rect–the consciousness-energy which it normally hold the non-dualist view that there is no distinction monopolises. As Underhill notes again, ‘The mortify- between spirit and the world and that in principle ing process is necessary…because those senses have every act of our lives–from eating to washing the dish- usurped a place beyond their station; become the focus es and sex and socialising–is sacred and spiritual. The of energy, steadily drained the vitality of the self” (p. effort to tame physical appetites does not 220). Underhill actually refers to a wrong distribution necessarily–and should not–entail a mind/body duali- of this energy. And similarly, the yogic ascetisicm of ty or a sense of disgust towards the body. The practices tapas was defined by Swami Prabhavananda (1969) as should be seen purely as a matter of economy, of per- “the practice of conserving energy and directing it manently taming our desires so that they no longer toward the goal of yoga…obviously, in order to do monopolise our consciousness energy, and of reducing

56 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2005, Volume 24

its outflow by keeping ourselves apart from the vertive void experiences of pure consciousness, or demands and the hectic activity of normal life. This extrovertive experiences of perceiving is-ness, wonder does not mean going to the extremes of the ascetics— and oneness. Whether ICE states are introvertive or in my view it is probably only necessary to follow the extrovertive depends simply upon the circumstances in “middle way” that Buddhism recommends, half way which they occur. An ICE state which is consciously between hedonism and asceticism, in which we avoid induced by meditation will be introvertive, simply excessive desires and excessive activity, but do not go because the meditator has closed her senses to the the extreme of punishing the body or neglecting other external world, by shutting her eyes, sitting in quiet- areas of our development besides the spiritual. ness and focusing her attention on a mantra (or anoth- er object of concentration). An ICE state that occurs ICE states versus HD states in the countryside, or while long-distance running or This is not the place for an extended discussion listening to music, will be extrovertive, simple because and comparison of HD and ICE mystical states. Many the individual is already in open communication with scholars have written at length on the question of the external world. whether drug-induced higher states of consciousness A major problem with HD states is their unrelia- are comparable with those induced by or related to bility. Often they will not generate any discernable long term spiritual practices or seemingly proffered by change in consciousness (this is especially the case with the grace of God (e.g., Huston Smith, 1964; Stace, forms of physical deprivation such as sleep and 1964/1988; Zaehner, 1961). However, there are a few hunger), and even when they do, they are likely to gen- salient points that I would like to mention. erate other altered states of consciousness besides high- HD and ICE states are two different technologies er states, such as hallucinatory experiences or psychot- of spiritual experience, and have been used as such ic episodes. As Walsh noted of psychedelic drugs in throughout human history. But the spiritual experi- particular, “[they] can induce genuine mystical experi- ences they generate are of a different character. Above ences, but only sometimes, in some people, under I have dealt with four different aspects of higher states some circumstances” (2003, p.2). ICE states, on the of consciousness: (a) an intensified perception of the other hand, have a very low risk of negative or psy- phenomenal world (b) a sense of inner peace and chotic states, and reliably generate transpersonal or wholeness (c) a sense of oneness with the manifest mystical states. world, or a sense of transcending boundaries and (d) a Probably the most important difference between sense of becoming a deeper and truer Self. As I men- HD and ICE states, however, is that only the latter can tioned above, one of the differences between ICE and build towards a permanently transformed conscious- HD states is that while the former feature all four of ness. In Wilber’s terms (e.g., 2000), only they can cre- these, the latter do not. HD states certainly feature (a) ate permanent, enduring structures of consciousness. and (c), but they do not appear to feature the affective HD states can only give “peek” experiences into the characteristics of (b) and (d). HD states are primarily transpersonal domains. These can be useful; they sensory or perceptual experiences. I also pointed out might come as a bolt out of the blue, rupturing the that in ICE states the characteristic (c) is likely to be familiar, taken-for-granted world and making the indi- more powerful than in HD states because of the essen- vidual aware that higher realms of reality do exist. tial oneness of consciousness-energy with the con- There is some evidence that drug-induced higher sciousness-force of the cosmos. states of consciousness encourage individuals to inves- HD and ICE states correspond to Fischer’s (1971) tigate methods of gradual long-term consciousness ergotropic high arousal and trophotropic low arousal transformation (e.g., Tart, 1991). This may not always experiences. HD states can never give rise to the low be the case though. Being given these experiences for arousal void experience of what Robert Forman (2000) free may create a passive attitude towards them, and a describes as the Pure Consciousness Event. This can reluctance to make the long term disciplined effort only come from ICE states, since these actually involve which permanent spiritual transformation requires. a purification and intensification of consciousness. For every Ram Dass, there is a Timothy Leary. Or as Similarly, we can say that HD states are never–in Smith puts it, “Drugs appear to induce religious expe- Stace’s terminology (1964/1988)–introvertive. They riences: it is less evident that they can produce reli- always involve the phenomenal world; they are always gious lives” (1964, pp. 528-9). extrovertive. On the other hand, ICE states can be HD states can also be dangerous. The individual both introvertive and extrovertive. They may be intro- may not actually be ontologically ready to process the

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experience, and their psychic equilibrium may be dis- mal-operational levels before they can stabilise them- turbed as a result. William Johnston argued that selves at the transpersonal realms (although Wilber “meditation is safer than drugs because the meditation, admits that they may have brief peek or peak experi- if properly instructed, and guided, can integrate the ences). However, if we see an intensification of con- new knowledge and preserve his equilibrium” (1988, sciousness-energy as the source of spiritual states, then p. 124). Particularly with intense use of psychedelic children and native peoples clearly do have access to drugs, there is the danger that the separate self-system the transpersonal realms. In fact, since in both cases may collapse altogether, and lead to schizophrenia or their sense of ego is less developed and less active than psychosis. In fact this is the only long-term psychic ours, and appears to produce less associational chatter, change which the regular inducement of higher states we might assume that there would be a reduced out- of consciousness through HD can lead to. Whereas flow of consciousness-energy in their case, and that meditative ICE states are constructive–that is, they they would be therefore more open to spiritual states gradually tame the chattering ego and produce a per- than us. This might not apply so much to children, manent intensification of consciousness-energy, and since the intensity of their instinctive desires and gradually create a new psychic structure–HD states are heightened emotionality would itself produce a large essentially destructive: they produce a powerful blast outflow of consciousness-energy, but could easily be which immobilises the ego, and if this blast is regular- true for native peoples (see Taylor, 2003 for a related ly repeated the ego-structure will be eroded away, to discussion). The important point is that, as so many the point where it is no longer able to re-form itself. spiritual teachers have stated, our over-active and over- This strongly suggests that ICE states are superior separate egos–although not the ego in itself–are an to HDs. However, at least HD states have the appar- enemy. As well creating a sense of “otherness” between ent advantage–which is part of their appeal–of requir- us and the world, and between ourselves and our own ing no effort, whereas ICE states usually involve some bodies, they monopolise our consciousness-energy, so form of mental concentration and a degree of self-dis- that we see the world as one-dimensional and inani- cipline. And I would certainly not degrade HD mysti- mate place, instead of the radiant, benevolent, mean- cal experiences to the extent that scholars such as ingful, Spirit-charged cosmos that it really is. Zaehner (1961) and Masters and Houston (1966) have done by claiming that psychedelic experiences may be analogous to mystical experiences but are not Endnotes the same thing—or else that they only superficially 1 Neurologically, higher states of consciousness resemble them. HD mystical experiences are clearly associated with homeostasis disruption appear to cor- genuine, but deficient in that they do not feature relate with hyperactivity of the limbic system. Rhawn aspects of higher states of consciousness common to Joseph (2000) recognises that practices such as food ICE states. We might say that they are one-dimension- and water deprivation, pain, drug use and self-mutila- al, in that they can only be extrovertive, and lack an tion have been traditionally been used to induce mys- affective dimension. tical or spiritual states, and links this to arousal of the This essay leaves some questions unanswered, of brain’s limbic system. As he sees it, when the limbic course. For example, why is it that disrupting home- system is denied its normal input, it becomes hyperac- ostasis does generate higher states of consciousness in tive and can no longer efficiently delete and filter out some instances but not in others? Or, how do ICE stimuli, resulting in intensified perceptual awareness. states correlate with the different levels of mystical or However, again, we can equally see the hyperactivity of transpersonal experiences (e.g., in Wilber’s model, the the limbic system as a correlate–or an effect–of the psychic, subtle, causal and non-dual)? (My suggestion mystical or spiritual state that is produced when home- would be, very briefly, that the greater the intensifica- ostasis disruption means that ordinary consciousness tion and purification of consciousness-energy, the can no longer be regulated and maintained. Following higher the level of consciousness.) Newberg and D’Aqulli’s research, there would also This model of higher states of consciousness sug- appear to be a correlate with increased activity in the gests a new view of the issue of whether children and sympathetic half of the autonomic nervous system. native or tribal peoples might be more spiritual than 2 The existence of this energy makes sense in adult Westerners. In Wilber’s model of transpersonal terms of the theory of consciousness put forward by development (e.g., 2000) this is impossible, since indi- Robert Forman and others, which suggests that the viduals first have to move through the egoic and for- brain itself doesn’t produce consciousness, but rather

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receives and transmits it. According to this view, con- Brunton, P. (1934/1972) A search in secret India. sciousness is a fundamental force of the universe, pres- London: Rider. ent everywhere and in everything, and at the cellular Burkert, W. (1987) Ancient mystery cults. Cambridge, level and above, entities become capable of receiving it, MA: Harvard University Press. and so become individually conscious. Extending this Cope, S. (1999) Yoga and the quest for the true self. New further, consciousness-energy–or psychic energy–is the York: Doubleday. portion of universal consciousness which is canalised Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1992). Flow: The psychology of into us, which is received and transmitted by our happiness. London: Rider. Csikszentmihlayi, M. brains. This accords very well with the spiritual con- (2003). Materialism and the evolution of con- cept that at the heart of being we are one with the uni- sciousness. In T. Kasser, & A. Kanner (Eds), verse, that atman is one with brahman. Our own con- Psychology and consumer culture (pp. 91-106). sciousness is of the same substance as the conscious- Washington D.C: American Psychological ness that pervades the universe. Association. 3 I made a number of experiments with LSD and De Quincey, C. (2002). Radical nature. Montpelier, magic mushrooms over a two-year period. With the VT: Invisible Cities Press.Deikman, A. (2004a). exception of one psychotic episode (with LSD), the Deautomatization and the mystic experience. In R. experiences did produce what I would class as higher Woods, (Ed.), Understanding mysticism (pp. 240- states of consciousness. I experienced an intense per- 60). London: The Athlone Press. ception of the phenomenal world; so-called “inani- Deikman, A. (2004b) Experimental meditation avail- mate” objects came to life, and natural phenomena able at http:/www.deikman.com/experimental.html such as stones and trees seem to possess a conscious- accessed 05/05/04Feuerstein, G. (1990) Yoga: the ness or being of their own. I was also occasionally technology of ecstasy. Wellingborough, UK: The aware of the presence of “spirit” in things. I felt I knew Aquarian Press. what brahman was when I looked at the sky and felt it Fischer, R. (1971). A cartography of the ecstatic and was filled with a harmonising, living presence. There meditative states. Science, 174(4012), 897-904. was also an awareness of the unity of superficially sep- Forman, R. (1998). What does mysticism have to arate things. I felt exhilarated by these perceptions, teach us about consciousness? Journal of even euphoric at the sense of meaning I could perceive, Consciousness Studies, 5(2), 202-223. but I never experienced a sense of inner peace and Green, S. (1987) Physiological psychology: An introduc- wholeness, or a sense of becoming one with a deeper tion. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. self. In fact the perceptual intensity was occasionally Gross. R. (1996), Psychology: The science of mind and accompanied with a sense of inner emptiness and behaviour. London: Hodder & Staughton. indifference. Happold, F.C. (1986) Mysticism. London: Pelican Hardy, A. (1979) The spiritual nature of man. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Hughes, T. (1967) Poetry in the making. London: References Faber and Faber. Alexander, C.N., Davies, J.L., Dixon, C.A., Dillbeck, Huxley, A. (1977). The doors of perception and heaven M.C., Druker, S.M. Oetzel, R., Muehlman, J.M., and hell. London: Grafton. & Orme-Johnson, D.W. (1990). Growth of higher James, W. (1902/1985). The varieties of religious expe- stages of consciousness: Maharishi’s Vedic psychol- rience. London: Penguin. ogy of human development. In C.N. Alexander Jilek, W. (1989). Therapeutic use of altered states of and E. Langer (Eds.), Higher stages of human devel- consciousness in contemporary North American opment: Perspectives on adult growth (pp. 286-341). Indian dance ceremonials. In C. Ward (Ed). Altered New York: Oxford University Press. states of consciousness and mental health: a cross cul- Andresen, J, & Forman, R. (2000). Methodological tural perspective (pp. 167-85). London: Sage. pluralism in the study of religion. Journal of Johnston, W. (1988) Silent music. London: Fontana. Consciousness Studies. 7(11-12), 7-16. Joseph, R. (2000) The transmitter to God: the limbic sys- Attar, F. A. (1990) Muslim saints and mystics. London: tem, the soul and spirituality San Jose: The Arkana. University Press California. Becker, E. (1973). The denial of death. New York: Free Kahneman, D. (1973), Attention and effort. Press. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

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Kostrulaba. T. (1976). The Joy of running. London: Arkana. Philadelphia: Lippencott. Life of Ramakrishna Persinger, M.A. (1987) Neuropyschological bases of god (Anonymous, 1929) Madras, India: Ramakrishna beliefs. New York: Praeger. Math. Prabhavananda, Swami & Isherwood, C. (1969). How Krippner, S. (2000). The epistemology and technolo- to know God: The yoga aphorisms of Patanjali. New gies of shamanic states of consciousness. Journal of York: Mentor. Consciousness Studies, 7(11-12), 93-118. Rudmin, F.W. (1994). Property. In W. J. Lonner and Laski, M. (1961). Ecstasy. London: The Cresset Press. R. Malpass (Eds). Psychology and culture. (pp. 55- Lawrence, D.H. (1973) John Thomas and Lady Jane. 59) Boston: Allyn and Bacon. London: Penguin. Rudgley, R. (1993) The alchemy of culture. London: Ludwig, A.M. (1966) Altered states of consciousness. British Museum Press. Archives of General Psychiatry, 15, 225-234. Smith, H. (1964) Do drugs have religious import? Marchetti, G. (2004). The role attention plays in Journal of Philosophy LXI, 517-530. building our subjective experiences. Journal of Non- Spencer, S. (1950) Mysticism in world religion. Locality and Remote Mental Interactions, 1 (2), (Available London: Penguin. at www.emergentmind.org/marchettiI2.htm. Stace, W. (1964/1988). Mysticism and philosophy. Accessed 11/10/04). Los Angeles: J.P. Tarcher. Mascaro, J. (Ed.). (1990). The Upanishads. London: Tart, C. (1983). States of consciousness. El Cerrito, CA: Penguin. Psychological Processes. Masters, R.E.L. & Houston, J. (1966) The varieties of Tart, C. (1991). Influence of previous psychedelic psychedelic experience. New York: Delta. drug experience on students of Tibetan Buddhism. McGinn, C. (1993). Consciousness and cosmology: Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 23, 139-74. Hyperdualism ventilated. In M. Davies and G.W. Taylor, S. (2002). Spirituality: The hidden side of Humphreys (Eds), Consciousness (pp. 155-77). sports. New Renaissance, 10(4), 6-9. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. Taylor, S. (2003). Primal spirituality and the McKenna, T. (1993) The food of the gods. New York: onto/phylo fallacy. The International Journal of Bantam. Transpersonal Studies, 22, 61-76. Meister Eckhart (1979) German sermons and treatises, Underhill, E. (1911/1960) Mysticism. London: vol. 1 (Trans. M. Walshe). London: Watkins. Methuen. Metzner, R. (1987). Shamanism, alchemy & yoga: Wade, J. (2000) Mapping the course of heavenly bodies: Traditional techniques of transformation. (Available The varieties of transcendent sexual experiences. at www.rmetzner-greenearth.org/research-articles. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 32, 103-22. Accessed 21/7/04). Walsh, R. (2003). Entheogens: true or false? Murphy, M. & White, R.A. (1995). In the zone: International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 22, 1-6. Transcendent experience in sports. London: Arkana. Wilber, K. (1996). Sex, ecology and spirituality. Boston: Naranjo, C & Ornstein, R. (1971). On the psychobiol- Shambhala. ogy of meditation. London: Allen & Unwin. Wilber, K. (2000a). One taste. Boston: Shambhala Newberg, A, & D’Aqulli, E. (2000). Wilber, K. (2000b). Integral psychology. Boston: Neurospsychology of religious and spiritual experi- Shambhala. ence. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 7, 111-122. Zaehner, R.C. (1961) Mysticism sacred and profane. Norman, D.A. & Shallice, T. (1980) Attention to Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. action: Willed and automatic control of behaviour, CHIP Report 99, San Diego: University of California. Correspondence regarding this article should be Novak, P. (1997). Buddhist meditation and the con- directed to the author at [email protected] sciousness of time. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 3(3), 267-77. O’Neal, D. (Ed.) (1996). Meister Eckhart: From whom god hid nothing. Boston: Shambhala. Oswald, I. (1970). Sleep. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin. Ouspensky, P.D. (1984) A new model of the universe.

60 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2005, Volume 24

Fear No Spirits: A Pilgrim’s Journey through the Brazilian Churches of Ayahuasca

Robert Tindall

This is an intimate account of a pilgrimage through the “Holy Land” of Daime, the Brazilian frontier state of Acre, in which the author weaves together accounts of his own healing experi- ence. It also portrays the extraordinary variation and vitality of the communities there, both indigenous and Catholic/Afro-Brazilian, who use ayahuasca as a sacrament.

Horatio: Oh day and night, but this is are the native traditions underlying the lineage of wondrous strange! Mestre Irineu, as practiced for thousands of years by Hamlet: And therefore as a stranger give it the indigenous peoples of the Amazon basin, arising welcome. and co-evolving out of their seamless communion Shakespeare Hamlet 1.5.173-74. with the forest: the womb and gift of Pachamama. Through all the communities, seeds of distrust cre is the holy land for work with Daime in toward foreigners have been sown. Among the Indians Brazil. Bordering Peru and Bolivia, it is the bio-piracy by Westerners, who ingratiate themselves Awesternmost state of the Amazon rain into local tribes and smuggle out their healing plants basin, and still possesses 90% of its original forest. only to patent them and reap profits for themselves Acre is still very much raw frontier, hosting some of (sending back baseball caps and t-shirts by way of the heaviest cocaine trafficking in South America, a compensation), has so alienated the healers of the for- powerful presence of evangelical Christianity, and seri- est that they have begun keeping their medicines to ous rural poverty. It was also the home state of Chico themselves. The extent of this tragedy is not easily Mendez, who, in resistance to the massive land theft imagined until the degree of knowledge of these peo- and senseless deforestation being practiced by the ples is fathomed. As well, certain Daime communities wealthy newcomers to Acre in the 1980’s, organized have closed their doors to participation by Westerners and imbued with an environmental vision the forest after getting what they perceived as bad press, or will workers of the Amazon–a fight he continued up to the no longer donate bottles of ayahuasca to hipsters who day of his assassination by a local rancher and strong- smuggle them into the U.S. and sell the sacrament at man, Darly Alves da Silva. a huge profit. In spite of these abuses, the doors of Acre hosts a landscape dotted with the churches of most churches remain open, and the pilgrim is wel- Daime, which light up at night like phosphorescent come to join in the work. jellyfish floating in a dark, tropical sea. My botanist I first arrive in Alto Santo, a neighborhood thirty friend, Sean, and I had come in our pilgrimage minutes outside of Rio Branco, in the night, traveling through the churches of ayahuasca to the small city of dirt roads through area recently carved out of the jun- Rio Branco to experience the roots of the movement in gle. It is warm, the stars are bright, and the slat-board Brazil. pioneer houses we pass are dark. Then a vision leaps Within the movement originating with Mestre electric out of the night. Beneath blazing fluorescent Irineu, two main streams developed: The Church of lights, I see two lines of men and women dancing, fac- the Universal Flowing Light, or Santo Daime, which ing one another beneath a huge, open air structure. A claims to hold most truly to the original form trans- gigantic cross with two crossbeams (the Caravaca mitted by the Mestre; and the Barquinha, or “little Cross adopted from Northern Spain—the second boat,” whose work, with marked Afro-Brazilian ele- crossbeam represents the second coming of Christ), ments, was initiated by a disciple of Irineu, Daniel stands illuminated in the front yard. I get out of the Pereira de Mattos (known as Frei Daniel). And there car and hear music and singing—a sound like a polka

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band riding in the back of a flatbed truck on their way well of sadness within me. A proto-fascist ruling clique to heaven. As I draw closer, I see the women wear has seized power in my beloved homeland. I cannot white dresses with green sashes, multi-colored trailers speak for grief. Henrique looks at me with comprehen- descending from their shoulders. The men wear white sion. suits with a green pinstripe descending their pant legs. “The daime is working on you, isn’t it?” he asks, as As I enter, dazzled by the lights and colors and already waves of agony rise and break within me. buzzing from a shot of ayahuasca I had drunk earlier As the music commences again, I take a maraca at the Barquinha church, I see that the men also wear and join the line, getting down the four-step but give a silver brooch in the shape of a Star of David with a up trying to sing from the hymnal at the same time. crescent moon resting within, indicating they are far- Later I am taken to the altar and introduced to the fig- dados. (Fardado is sometimes translated as “star-per- ure in the photo: it is Mestre Raimundo Irineu Serra. son”–giving a New Age airiness to a fundamentally I study him. He looks as if he were wearing a Noh military conception: farda in Portuguese describes a mask, the one for representing vision into other “military uniform”). The women are wearing silver worlds. I make my bows. May the humble inherit the crowns. They are doing a four-step dance, moving earth. It appears to be happening right here. back and forth in a tightly disciplined line, beating out their steps with maracas they hold in their right hands. The Barquinhas wear sailor’s suits when they make A band, composed of accordion, conga drum, tam- a major journey, bright white with epaulettes and a bourine, electric guitar, bass and classical guitar, jams white cap like a fez with a braid wound around it. away in the space between the two lines. The high They are right to do so. During the ceremony I see my pitch of the women’s voices gives me the image of a guardian angel, my guiding spirit, as a blazing figure- psychedelic subway train charging, relentless and head on the prow of the ship of my soul, cutting happy, through the night. through the darkness with his omniscience, and I real- I am led in a numinous daze across the concrete ize the carven prows of those old Viking ships were no floor to a booth at the far end of the structure, where mere decorations. a dignified man with a bushy moustache waits like an Struggling with our bags and attempting to orient amiable bartender. I look within and see an altar with ourselves after the three-day bus ride from Rio de a candle burning before a photo taken during the Janeiro to Rio Branco, Sean and I encountered Luis, a 1930s of a stocky forest worker, his expression truly young lawyer from São Paulo who had recently trans- transported, gazing into another world. The altar is planted himself in Rio Branco to work on environ- covered with bottles of ayahuasca. mental issues and indigenous rights. He was small of The man smiles at me and pours, waiting for my stature, clean cut and alert, and seemed to engage the signal to stop. I drink and a seat is set out for me. I sit world around him with a boundless optimism. And he and try to follow the hymns of the dancers, but the spoke an English he had learned from his mother. It Portuguese is very fast. Someone sitting next to me turned out he was a Daimista, a member of a hands me a hymnal, which helps some, but then I Barquinha church. He offered his assistance, as well as close my eyes and listen and angelic mists and swirling his opinions about the communities we had come to mandalas begin to draw me on. I open my eyes. The visit. It gave me some pause. The usual rivalries among music has stopped. I see a new frontier, a new people groups existed in Rio Branco, too, I decided. without artifice, a world of exquisite possibilities. This, Some days later he met us at our hotel and orient- I realize, is the new frontier for humanity, open and ed us to the work of the Barquinhas, explaining that immeasurably happy. the church of the little boat is a synthesis of Catholic My language acquisition abilities have suddenly Christianity with Umbanda and Candomble, the been radically enhanced, and I can understand the Yoruba spiritual practices brought over by the slaves Portuguese being spoken around me. I enter into con- from Africa, and elucidated a very complicated system versation with Henrique, a professor of mathematics of correspondences between deities: Oxala, the mascu- and physics at the University of Acre, and we proceed line father spirit, related to Christ; Yemanja, the Holy to discuss the Buddhist doctrine of sunyata, emptiness, Mother, feminine power, related to Mary; and other and its relation to work with entheogens. Then Orixas, or spirits, such as Oxossi, the power of the for- Henrique begins to ask me penetrating questions est and native healing wisdom; or Xango, the power of about the United States, which instead of provoking justice, related to stones and through his spouse, my usual liberal self-righteousness stir an immense Oxum, to waterfalls. I scrambled to take notes,

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despairing of distinguishing mantra from yantra and Something very powerful begins moving, like a tantra. spiritual storm front, through the church. I see people But no matter. We were going to get to experience rising from their seats and standing, very erect, two Umbanda soon. The community was in the midst of a fingers of their right hand raised at the level of their twenty-day long romería, a cycle of worship of São faces like antennae. Piercing whistling tears through Sebastião in which they drank ayahuasca every night, the air, sounds I cannot imagine the human vocal and there was to be a major work soon. apparatus being capable of making. The spirits of the Arriving the following evening, we pass through a preto velhos, the old blacks, have come and the group wooden gate and enter an open structure like the one possessed by the old African spirits files out. where people danced in Alto Santo, except the floor is Then Luis reappears beside us, smiling. “Time to of hard packed, red earth. In the center, spread out on drink again,” he says. I look out and sure enough, the a surface of sand, I notice miniature figures arranged in line is forming anew. I start to say, “I think I may actu- a village scene. We continue down a flight of stairs and ally have had enough already,” but then I shrug and go enter the patio of the church, a cross lit up at the out and drink. entryway, a dirty little scamp of a dog curled up right The curtain is parting more rapidly now, in imita- on the threshold. It could be any Catholic church in tion of the opening of the heavenly realm, and then Latin America, with its little bell tower and niches for the ayahuasca strikes like a blinding cloud of light. saints, its exterior a muted orange painted over smooth Seated in profound miração I behold the blazing adobe. We and everyone else step over the dog, guardian of my spirit boat as an intricate ritual of pros- respecting its presence there, and enter. Within we tration is carried out by men and women in sailor’s cross a clean floor of white tile and face an altar cov- suits facing the altar before me. Then in the middle of ered with images of saints. A massive banquet table a song I come to Christ and lay my burden down with a white tablecloth surrounded by chairs sits in the before him, my long journey filled with wounds and middle of the room, a statue of São Sebastião, chained bewilderment. I feel his hand on my forehead as I to a tree and pierced by arrows, upon the table. Rows relinquish my addictions: to coffee, to hyper-vigilance, of seats line the back and side of the church. I wander to finding the perfect woman, and see the shell of my off and sit on the wrong side. A musician tuning his former self in California and feel deep compassion for guitar gestures me back. Women on one side, men on the man I have been. the other. I look around and note that most of the It all seems a blaze of light, a stupefaction, a van- faces are African in descent, unlike in the Santo Daime ishing; the guitar and Catholic liturgy weaving fresh church in Alto Santo. neural pathways through my mind. Luis leaves us, and Sean and I sit quietly in the Then the curtains slowly close, and the communi- pews. Finally a bell rings, and he reappears dressed in ty vanishes to doff their sailor suits. Luis comes up to white and gestures for us to come. We go out and see us and announces, “The evening is just beginning.” two lines have formed, one of women and the other of Sean and I look at each other in astonishment. How men, who are filing forward to drink ayahuasca. We can we take any more? We already feel irradiated by reach the head of the line, are given the sacrament, spirit. But the lines to drink are forming again outside. make the sign of the cross with the cup, and drink. “We’re moving on into the Umbanda portion of the The ayahuasca is very bitter and strong. work now,” he explains. We go back in and take our seats. The core of the We drink again and go out to the structure with community takes their places around the banquet the floor of packed red earth. I now have an opportu- table. A curtain has been drawn over the altar, cover- nity to study the figures arranged in the sand in the ing the entire front of the church. The mantric cycle of center. Luis explains they are the Holy Family, or praise commences, most of which I don’t understand, rather, the Holy Ancestors, the Yorimba. Their skin is except I can recognize the Credo being repeated over deeply black, their garments and eyes pearly white, and over, and the names of Jesus, Mary, the Heavenly and they are spread out in a tableau of village life, one Father, and São Sebastião. Musicians accompany the fellow playing the banjo, the white-haired, ample prayer. As the ayahuasca begins to take hold, I notice matriarch enthroned in the center, the patriarch, thin the curtains are slowly parting in front of the altar. I and tall like a reed, capable of walking a hundred miles hear a voice say to me, Fear no spirits. Okay, I think, I at a stretch through arid ground, standing beside her. don’t fear spirits. In fact, I feel completely comfortable At their backs, as if on the other side of the world, is with them. the European Holy Family, little white-skinned baby

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Jesus in cradle, Joseph and Mary and Donkey in atten- turns to me from the front seat and says, “Man, I don’t dance, angels guarding the way to his cradle. know how I am going to return to my life in California The band commences, conga drums prominent. after this.” My own life in California is so inconceiv- Luis turns to me and says, “Whatever you do, don’t ably distant and inapplicable; I can only nod in agree- stop dancing.” It’s a slow dance, widdershins, men and ment. My Western intellect, which I had imagined as women moving in two circles, a dance to draw energy being fairly open, has had all its fundamental premis- and life out of the earth. I begin, awkwardly, but even- es blown this evening. The only useful shred of the tually get the hang of it. A four step inside a square, Western Intellectual Tradition I can think of is, “There then a step forward. In the center, many women and a are more things in Heaven and Earth, Horatio, then few men are smoking pipes, using the tobacco for are dreamt of in your philosophy.” purification and to send messages to the divinity, spit- ting and bowing, hunched over close to the earth. Luis and I are supposed to meet in the center of After a time I see Luis, his arms folded behind his Rio Branco, not far from where I stood earlier in the back, pipe in mouth, stooped forward in a posture of day watching children leap from the girders of the aged dignity close to the altar. Somehow he makes me bridge into the brown swirling waters of the river think of a young Abe Lincoln. Young women are led fifty feet below. A smell of burning plastic wafts around and in by their elders; the sick and simple are through the marketplace, but bars selling pitchers of brought forward. The earth becomes wet with spit. juice made to order from the cornucopia of fruit grow- The drums beat. We move in a circle around the cen- ing in the Amazon compensate for the stench. It’s a ter, but the center does not radiate out. Rather it couple days later, and Sean has been pretty much shut absorbs our energy. It is dark, inchoate, liminal. A up in his hotel room since the night at the Barquinha, bardo space, the votive pit in Hades in which playing guitar and watching Brazilian television. I’m Odysseus spilled the blood of the ewe and ram, and out and about, but have the same problem as he: What poured libations to summon the unnumbered dead... does one do with one’s life after having gone to the a terminal where the spirits negotiate their transit to heavenly realms? The world seems dull and grey in other worlds. comparison. Then the power goes out, and candles are lit, blaz- This evening is solely a work of mantra, of praise, ing, scintillating around the forms of the dancers in and while I still don’t know what to make of tantra, I white. It’s breathtakingly beautiful, and I begin to have a deep feeling of gratitude for my experience of it. understand the dance. Power of old Africans, pulse ris- Luis appears and while we wait for a local bus to take ing from the earth, ayahusaca working through the us to the Barquinha church, a young man, his hair and body. I am grateful that I am allowed to dance on the beard gone wild, comes ranting through the station, a periphery and not drawn in. I do fear these spirits. I voice crying from the wilderness, and a sign of the am not ready to experience atuação, or mediumship, strength of the evangelical movement in Acre. The with the spirits of Umbanda. Brazilians don’t seem to do anything halfway in this An old man is dancing out there in the crowd; a land of spirits. What voice speaks through him? I won- mulatto, stringy from a life of hard work, dirt poor. der. Are we not all equal in this? Are we not all dream- Sean has taken a seat and I walk over and clap him on ing? the back. We’re both smiling in rapture. The bus comes and we board. We talk about the “See that old man?” Sean asks me, tipping his situations in Brazil especially designed to push a North head in the old forest worker’s direction. American’s buttons, and I hesitate the opinion that “Yep. He’s been checking us out.” sometimes anger can help set things straight. “I want to be an old man like him, drinking Luis turns and looks me in the eyes. “There is ayahuasca and dancing with the spirits.” never any reason to get angry. Ever.” We decide we love this old man. I look back and realize he is right. Fierce defense The old man comes around in the circle of dancers in preservation of the world is one thing. Anger at a again and we watch him. He pretends not to be person or situation is another. North Americans, I real- observing us, but I smile and give him the thumbs-up ize, have an illusion of a right to elbow room that sign. He breaks into a huge grin and nods back at us. Brazilians know doesn’t exist. In fact, we even accept He must love us too. anger as a kind of social lubricant. I fall silent. The The dance concludes in the dark of the early truth is, I’ve been sick. Changing the subject, he morning. Sean and I ride back together in a taxi. He explains to me that when the preto velhos come that

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evening and atuar in the bodies and minds of the Maria. I open my eyes and it is as if they have finally mediums of the church, I can go for an interview with focused: I am in a garden of eternity. The colored one of them. He will translate for me. I will need him lights on the cross that had drawn me upward go out, especially because the old Africans speak with very and a little girl runs up and leaves a candle burning thick, archaic accents. before us. Through the miração, I see a woman in Later that evening a little girl comes and taps my white kneeling across the way. As Maria speaks to me thigh while I sit in the church, gesturing for me to fol- waves of gentleness reach recesses of my heart I had low. I enter a back room with another floor of hard despaired of touching. I am crying with joy. packed red earth. Those who had been possessed by Laura joins us. The women are delighted, stroking the preto velhos earlier in the evening have taken up my back and laughing with me, and first Laura sings a their places within, lined up against the walls in their hymn to Maria, and then Margerie gets excited and consultories, altars of African and Christian figures by leafs through a book in the darkness and finds one of their sides, pipes smoking. It’s a scene transported her own. I feel left out because I don’t know a song to straight from Africa. Maria. But then I remember The Beatles’ “Let it Be.” Luis meets me at the door and leads me up to I sing. Cheesy as it sounds, it is exquisite, like breath- small black woman with a grave but pleasant expres- ing diamonds and stars out into the universe. sion, sitting close to the earth on a stool, a pipe in her hand. She is not old, but somehow she gives the The last time we see Luis he takes us to his home. impression of being wizened. I take another stool and We cross the Rio Branco and enter the park named sit before her. I’m told I can ask her any question, if I after Chico Mendez, pass the scored rubber trees and have an illness she can work on it, anything I want. I enter a small compound of slat-board houses raised ask a question and the answer she gives is simple and upon stilts. A family is washing themselves at the com- clear—grandmotherly wisdom. She adds it would help munity water trough as we file by upon the wooden if I light a candle to my guardian spirit and take a planks that provided a walkway through the mud. A shower with certain herbs. I relax. Whoever these old simple padlock hangs at his door. We enter the tiny Africans may be, they’re thoroughly down to earth. space, dominated by a refrigerator, fan, and an ironing “Open your hands,” she tells me. board. A few books sit on his shelf. The room bespeaks She stands and puts her palms on mine, and then his voluntary, disciplined frugality. We sit on his bed lightly feathers my forehead, saying prayers over me. and he pours us glasses of guarana, the ubiquitous She sits back down and regards me shrewdly. I thank Brazilian soft drink. Luis’ work is going well. He tells her. I tell her I am very happy to be here. us how his plans to set up collectives and train forest “You are very welcome to our church,” she replies. workers, allowing them to reap the wealth of the for- Luis, who has been translating, adds, “I think they est while sustaining it for future generations, are meet- like you.” ing acceptance in the new socialist-minded govern- I make a short bow and go out. ment of Lula. As well, the power to enforce these new The romería finishes for the evening, but the environmental and indigenous rights laws is being given, daime is not done with me. Standing outside trying to without which they would be meaningless in Brazil. speak I find my eyes closing and my consciousness In my last image of Luis he is standing with a drifting off. My interlocutor, Laura, realizes I am hymnal in his hand, singing for us about the stars beginning another miração and she finds me a chair guiding us on, about the caboclos–helping spirits of the and puts me at the foot of the cross in the garden. The Umbanda spiritual tradition related to the spirit of the daime is coming on very strong indeed, and I sudden- natives of the forest—and about Santa Maria, the ly feel nauseous with fear and adrift in a dark cloud. I sacred use of cannibas sativa, more commonly known take out my prayer beads and struggling to seize the as marijuana, to worship the Virgin Mary. The songs tiller of my consciousness, begin my abbreviated form have the simplicity and melodic beauty of medieval of the rosary. plainchant, as well as the depth of religious feeling. His Soon my head is tilted back and a warm light is high, clear voice competes with the television that his pouring down from above—am I imagining this? Is neighbors, right on the other side of the thin slat- this really a hand I feel on my forehead? board wall separating their domiciles, have turned on Margerie from São Paulo appears out of the night, and set blasting. Luis shows no impatience at all. delighted, and pulls up a seat beside me as I am swept into warm colors and light in profound adoration of A buffalo emerges out of the darkness with a slow,

Fear No Spirits 65

stately gait, an apparition of gentle strength in the natural world. As I have done so many times in my thick jungle surrounding the Forteleza. It is two weeks life, I lean against the fence and gaze with yearning after my visit to the Santo Daime community in Alto into the freedom outside. Santo, weeks filled with ceremonies that seem to have My head drops onto the post. A miração washes anointed my eyes with spirit: the buffalo moves as over me, and I hear the voice of grandmother ayahuas- symbol, both part of and transcendent to the world. As ca speaking to me. She says, “You have the ability to we had searched down roads of thick mud, pulling up transform into an animal. It’s a precious gift you have to fazendeiro’s shacks to ask directions, the sun set over been given, but not everyone can understand it. You the vast, open landscape dotted by cattle and gigantic can live in both worlds, the human and the animal, palm trees and I wondered if we would ever find this and move back and forth without impedance.” elusive “fortress” out there in the jungle. But we did, I am deep in this dream when I hear the sound of and as we ascend a winding path I can see on the hori- approaching footsteps behind me. I turn around and zon above another brilliantly lit open-air structure like see that two men in suits, fardadoes, have come out for the church at Alto Santo. The sound of singing reach- me. Ah yes, the Brazilian imperative to incorporate es our ears, accompanied by the hum of a generator. into the group. “Yes, I am fine. Quite well, actually. Beneath the Caravaca Cross, I attempt to scrape Thank you so much for coming to check on me. I will the mud off my shoes. The feeling out here is raw fron- return momentarily....” I dissemble, but to no avail. I tier, only the most basic essentials, the church floating realize they are concerned that in my state a spirit on its little concrete slab like a postage stamp on a ver- might attack me or I will be led off by a will-o’-the- dant sea. The scenario is similar to the one at Alto wisp into the forest. I surrender and return to the safe- Santo. Men and women are dancing opposite one ty of the church. I know I am radiating foreignness at another with the maracas, the band jamming away in the moment, but I cannot sit with the others, and I the center. But there are differences. Here the men find a seat on the outskirts and clutch my prayer wear business suits; blue slacks and jacket, white shirt beads, holding on for the rest that is to come. and blue tie. It gives me pause. While the guys in the It comes hard, waves of repressed material bub- suits at Alto Santo meant business, the fact the suits bling up and bursting in my mind. It is the apuração, were white with a green pinstripe gave them the aspect the stage of purification, the emptying out of the store- of a chorus line in a cabaret, taking the edge off of my houses of consciousness. Working my prayer beads, own Pavlovian reactions to the uniform. This seems struggling toward the light, I find myself gesticulating almost evangelical. A little alarm goes off in my mind. and grimacing and can imagine what I must look like Suits spell danger, the world of narrow-minded to the watchful fardadoes. But there is nothing for it. I authority I have never learned to fully trust. am holding on for dear life. I am taken to drink. A very ample cup is poured Then a spirit flashes into my consciousness. An for me. I toss it down and go and sit, feeling some Apollonian face, a superhero in green with eternal, resistance in myself and wondering what it could be. I beautiful young man’s vitality. Hermes, messenger of watch the little children of the Forteleza, who dance in the gods. His piercing eyes meet mine and I know him their own sections, singing the hymns from memory, and his hand flashes out and he slaps a jewel into my and then running off to play together. I attempt to fol- forehead and is gone. low the music, to surrender myself to the experience, “A spirit just came and put a jewel in my fore- but the reverse is happening. The monotony of the head,” I say to myself in the rich silence he leaves in his singing, the concrete, the florescent lights, are becom- wake. “Cool.” ing unendurable. Why can’t they use natural lights? I Jewels, of course, have medicinal properties. As complain. It is impossible to travel through florescent the miração unfolds further, I see how my masculine lights. They’re a brick wall into the world of spirit. I life was being subtly warped by my adversarial rela- stare at the concrete pad, feeling absolutely cut off tionship to my father, how my resisting of his conser- from the earth. Suddenly my body launches me out of vative perspectives was preventing the growth of the structure, across the lawn, past someone vomiting aspects of my own masculinity. I see the only possible in the darkness to the outer perimeter of the com- stance toward my father is veneration, and to allow all pound, where I lean upon a post and look off into the superfluous material to fall away. After all, he is the jungle. I’m feeling torn between worlds. The jungle is father that gave me life, and through him is one out there calling while I am stuck with my obligations avenue to the Father. Only through complete accept- within the compound. The human world against the ance of my own father could I develop as a fully real-

66 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2005, Volume 24

ized male in my own right, I realize. out for the long life of the United States of America. I can stand again, and I go in to join the congre- But now I understand. Venerate the father, and by so gation. As soon as I pick up a maraca to enter the line doing awake him to his true nature. the music stops. Standing there like the guy who missed the train, someone approaches me and takes The Kaxinawa Indians are sitting in plain view the me to meet the padrinho, Luis Mendez do entire time, but it takes me two weeks to notice them. Nascimento, who had been a disciple of Mestre Irineu. Finally, browsing through the brilliant seed necklaces He is a small, thin old man, a forest worker with a and bows and arrows in a little trading post in the cen- beaming face who when I am introduced asks me if the ter of the park in Rio Branco, I take a good look at the Forteleza had been difficult to find. I answer it was Indian behind the counter: small indeed in stature, “well-hidden,” and we both burst into delighted high cheekbones, jet black hair, a sing-song accent to laughter. his Portuguese, and a deep sense of self-possession in People are taking seats in preparation for some- his brown eyes. Suddenly inspired, I reach into my thing. I find myself seated smack in the middle of the backpack and pull out my journal, flipping hastily to congregation, fully integrated back into the human the back pages where I have my list of contacts. “You world listening to an impassioned, learned disquisition wouldn’t happen to know Fabiano Kaxinawa?” I asked on the economic history of Acre. The speaker, a uni- in my clumsy Portuguese. versity professor, orates before us without notes, focus- “Yes. I am him,” he responds with amusement. ing his story around the figure of the seringueiro, the According to the Kaxinawa1, knowledge of rubber-tapper whose impoverished, solitary existence, ayahuasca was received by their ancestor from a village as well as his heartless exploitation by the capitalists of anacondas. A hunter named Yube, seeing an ana- and landowners, is remembered and honored at the conda emerge from a lake and transform into a beau- Forteleza. It was, I realized, a Marxist analysis—or a tiful woman, made love to her and returning to her vil- Christian one—where the poor worker, the least of lage, married her. After a year his snake wife told him men, is the fundament of the entire economic super- there would be a ceremony with nixi pai, ayahuasca, structure, and as the gospels repeatedly stress, the very and warned him not to drink: “You will become scared person of Christ. The padrinho sits, his legs crossed and will call out the name of my people and they will like a gentleman, listening with rapt attention, as does kill you.” But the hunter drank anyways and cried out the rest of the congregation. As the narrative takes up in terror, “The snakes are swallowing me!” When the the story of Chico Mendez, given with great venera- hunter cried out, his wife coiled herself lovingly tion and a specificity of detail that reflects the depth of around him and began singing sweetly in his right ear. grief still existing within the elders of the community, Then his mother-in-law did the same thing, singing in I realize that the man has been speaking for over two his left ear. Finally, his father-in-law coiled himself hours and there is still no sign of restlessness in the around all three of them and placing his face upon the group. Nor is his energy flagging, unlike my own. The hunter’s forehead, accompanied the song as well. But discourse concludes with a vision of humanity’s collab- still, the anacondas were offended and he only man- oration with the forest, of the salvific power now aged to escape from the lake with the help of a little emerging from it, and of economic justice for all peo- bods fish who returned him to his human wife and ple of Acre. home. But his anaconda family got him in the end, I am again struck by wonder for this frontier of crushing all the bones in his body. He remained alive humanity. Where in the United States, I think, would only long enough to instruct the people in the making people sit and attend to a discourse of such depth and of the brew and the songs he had learned in the snake vision about their own community and its future, as world. He died and where he was buried four kinds of we once had done in the founding and early days of ayahuasca grew from his limbs, each of which when our own country? drunk show a different part of his life. The speechifying continues far into the morning. The work is held far outside of Rio Branco, at a I realize through my exhausted haze that the padrinho center the Kaxinawa have created as a bridge between is welcoming me to the church. Then to my astonish- cultures. Recognizing that isolation is no longer an ment, in the ultimate gesture of acceptance of me as a option for them, but also clear they do not wish to lose visitor, he cries out, “Viva os Estados Unidos!” “Long themselves into the maelstrom of dislocation and eco- Live the United States!” There are few places indeed nomic anonymity of Brazilian culture, they have opted upon this earth where the common people will still cry to become bicultural. The Kaxinawa themselves come

Fear No Spirits 67

to the center to learn Portuguese, how to ride a bicy- opening and creating a dreaming way through the for- cle, how to work an ATM and a cellular phone, while est, makes me lament anew the cold mechanisms of non-natives such as ourselves come to be educated in my own culture with its straight-cut roads lined with the ways of the Kaxinawa. Walking through the com- advertisements—the culture responsible for, as of this pound we encounter classrooms with chalkboards and date, the killing of 85% of the Kaxinawa people. ancestral figures, rough-hewn and primitive to unedu- As we leave a huge white bird cuts the early morn- cated European eyes. ing sky, a lean aerodynamic ascetic, all stomach and A fear is eating at me as we take our places for the bill, honed to transparency by his habitat. I watch him ceremony in an elegant wooden structure with a high with awe as he sails over the forest, from which a rich sloped roof of woven palm fronds, that ayahuasca real- symphony of sound is now emerging. I and the forest ly is just a sort of Prozac, temporarily lifting the mind and the albatross all caught up in the same dream of up, but not going to the root of our being’s dilemma. Pachamama. That I am fooling myself and will return to California with some good stories but the same old self. I am weary too of the fundamentalism of Daime. The doc- trine, salvadores, messengers, the weary repetition of Author Note the word Jesus—not as a mantra to enter the divine, “Fear no Spirits” is excerpted from a forthcoming but as a vaguely oppressive fixture of belief—and the book, “The Jaguar that Roams the Mind,” a narrative casting of the entire movement into a New Testament pilgrimage into the medicines of the Amazon rainfor- mold. Then a young guitarist who accompanied us est. After the Brazilian section, the pilgrim continues turns out to be a strange bird: a daime evangelist. His on his way to Takiwasi, a center for the treatment of attempts to dominate the group go on until I begin addiction, and then to an apprenticeship with the mas- grumbling that if I don’t have to hear the word “Jesus” ter healer Juan Flores Salazar at his Mayantuyacu cen- again for a year I won’t be at all displeased. ter in the jungle outside of Pucallpa, Peru. The Kaxinawa sit patient and vigilant, happily joining in with the songs about our precious savior Jesus. But the Kaxinawa work with ayahuasca, not daime, and I saw that evening that daime is only a End Note brief portion of the territory of grandmother ayahuas- 1 The Kaxinawa ayahuasca myth is adopted from ca. The brew they chose is a light one, a very gentle vis- “Two Ayahuasca Myths from the Cashinahua of itation which, when it comes, makes me put my hands Northwestern Brazil” by Elsje Maria Lagrou (2000). on the earth: things, dear, fresh, particular things; the earth, our ground, to bring me home again. We wear red stripes on our faces. The young men of the tribe wear headdresses and crowns of feathers, References feathers of flight spring from their upper arms. When Lagrou, E. M. (2000). Two ayahuasca myths from the the evangelical portion of the evening subsides, they Cashinahua of Northwestern Brazil. In L. E. Luna sing into the night like an animal sings into it, like the and S. F. White (Eds.). Ayahuasca reader (pp. 31- forest sings to itself, in its native tongue, accompany- 35). Santa Fe, NM: Synergetic Press. ing themselves with flute and maracas. Portuguese and English, even the guitar itself, seems a rude imposition upon this world, even as we attempt to praise it with our barbaric Indo-European tongues and instruments. Correspondence regarding this paper should be And so the natives rock us into the night with directed to Robert Tindall at [email protected]. invocations and sounds such as we have never encoun- tered before, ending each song with bursts of child-like giggling. At the end of one, Fabiano, who turns out to be an apprentice shaman, explains to us that the entire tribe gathers to sing that piece whenever someone is leaving the village for a long journey, to wish them happiness and good-fortune on their way. The image of a people gathering to sing for one another, thereby

68 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2005, Volume 24

Why Does the Universe Exist? An Advaita Vedantic Perspective

Adam J. Rock, Ph.D.

The University of New South Wales Wagga Wagga, NSW Australia

Debates concerning causal explanations of the universe tend to be based on a priori propositions (e.g., Edwards, 1973; Smith, 1995; Swinburne, 1978). The present paper, however, addresses the metaphysical question, “Why does the universe exist?” from the perspective of a school of Hindu philosophy referred to as advaita vedanta and two of its a posteriori derived creation theories: the theory of simultaneous creation (drishti-srishti vada) and the theory of non-causality (ajata vada). Objections to advaita vedanta are also discussed. It is concluded that advaita vedanta has the potential to make a significant contribution to contemporary metaphysical debate in general and our understanding of the question, “Why does the universe exist?” in particular.

The Problem ment was advanced in Edwards’ (1973) influential Heidegger (1959) considered the question, “Why essay “Why?”: does the universe exist?”1 to be the “fundamental In any of its familiar senses, when we ask any- problem of metaphysics” (p. 61). A number of schol- thing of x, why it happens or why it is what it ars suggested that such a question can be answered. is- whether x is the collapse of an army, a case of For example, Gilson (1941, p. 139) asserted that the lung cancer, the theft of a jewel, or the stalling cause of the universe is a “pure Act of existence” that is of a car - we assume that there is some set of absolute and hence self-sufficient. In contrast, the conditions, other than x, in terms of which it question is frequently deemed an insoluble riddle and, can be explained. We do not know what this thus, inherently meaningless2 or simply ill-conceived. other thing is that is suitably related to x, but For instance, Huxley (1964, p. 108) suggested that unless it is in principle possible to go beyond x, one must learn to accept that the universe is an “irre- and find such another thing, the question does ducible mystery,” while Russell (Russell & Copelston, not make any sense. Now, if by “the universe” 1973) contended that there is no ground whatsoever we mean the totality of things, then our x in for the assumption that the universe as a whole must “Why does the universe exist?” is so all-inclu- have a cause. One particularly noteworthy argument sive that it is logically impossible to find any- for the meaninglessness of the question, “Why does thing which could be suitably related to that the universe exist?” is derived from the modern logic of whose explanations we appear to be seeking. Wittgenstein (1981/1922) and elucidated by (p. 809) Koestenbaum (1962), Waisman (1967; cited in Edwards, 1973, p. 806) and others. Essentially, the Edwards’ (1973) thesis may be summarised by argument is that “the question of why there is some- Wittgenstein’s (1981/1922, p. 183) statement that, thing and not nothing is either ill-formed or profitless, “the sense of the world must lie outside the world.” It since any intelligible answer will merely invite the seems rather obvious that an explanation as to why same question” (Blackburn, 1996, p. 40). This argu- someone, for example, engages in serial murder can

Why Does the Universe Exist? 69

only be provided by a set of conditions that exist “out- tual—knowledge is “state-specific” (Tart, 1972; 1998) side” and, thus, temporally prior to the act of serial or “state-dependent” (Fischer, 1980); that is, certain murder (e.g., the cognitive rehearsal of violent sexual knowledge may be obtained in altered states of con- fantasies, damage to the limbic system of the brain). sciousness (ASCs) that is inaccessible during one’s The explanation clearly does not exist within the defi- ordinary or normal waking conscious. Indeed some nitional boundaries of serial murder as “the premedi- ASCs (e.g., kevala nirvikalpa samadhi) purportedly tated murder of three or more victims committed over involve experiences of, for example, the manifestation time, in separate incidents, in a civilian context, with and dissolution of the universe (e.g., Maharaj, 1987a). the murder activity being chosen by the offender” It is arguable that such experiences may provide valu- (Keeney, 1992; cited in Keeney & Heide, 1994, p. able insights into the external and internal causal 384). mechanisms of the universe that are unobtainable a It is perhaps noteworthy that Edwards’ (1973) priori. thesis is illustrative of an anti-metaphysical position The purpose of this essay is to apply the school of that arguably pre-empts the answer by ruling out—on Hindu philosophy referred to as advaita vedanta to the a priori grounds-–the possibility of a transcendent question “Why does the universe exist?” The present entity that may function as a causal agent. Edwards’ author will take the question, “Why does the universe (1973) argument is sound provided that his a priori exist?” to mean, “What is the causal explanation of the definition of the universe and assumptions about universe?”3 Advaita vedanta is being consulted because knowledge are correct. Edwards’ (1973) acknowledges it consists—in part—of two creation theories that that if it can be convincingly argued that there exists a directly impinge on the preceding question. metaphysical entity that transcends and includes the Furthermore, in contrast to modern logicians, the universe, then it is possible that the question “Why ontology outlined in the doctrine of advaita vedanta does the universe exist?” can be answered, and is there- was purportedly constructed a posteriori using meta- fore meaningful. physical knowledge acquired through ASCs (e.g., More recently, philosophers have been engaged in samadhi). In the advaita system, mystical experience is intricate debate over internal and external causal expla- facilitated by the aspirant practicing one of four main nations of the universe. Swinburne (1979), for exam- yogas: Karma, Jnana, Bhakti, or Rajas (Prabhavananda ple, argued that, “if the only causes of its past states are & Isherwood, 1978). For these reasons, it is arguable prior states, the set of past states as a whole will have that advaita vedanta is well-positioned to address the no cause and so no explanation” (p. 78). Swinburne question, “Why does the universe exist?” (1979) maintained, however, that if it were such that The present paper will commence with a brief God causes the set of past states, then an external summary of the advaita doctrine. Second, discussion causal explanation would be possible. In contrast, will revolve around two creation theories associated Rowe (1989) contended that whilst each past state of with advaita: the theory of simultaneous creation the universe may be causally explained by prior past (drishti-shrishti-vada) and the theory of non-causality states, there is no causal reason for the set of states of (ajata vada). Finally, objections to the advaita theory the universe because a set is an abstract object and is will be considered. thereby precluded from entering into causal relations. Before proceeding, a number of qualifying state- Similarly, Smith (1995) concluded that “it is nomolog- ments need to be made. First, the present paper is not ically necessary that a beginningless universe has an concerned with the epistemological status of knowl- internal causal explanation (be it deterministic or edge claims made by practitioners of advaita. For the probabilistic) but no external causal explanation” (p. purpose of this essay it will be assumed that the yogi’s 310). perceptions are veridical as opposed to delusory. The present author suggests that a commonality Second, throughout this essay Kaufmann’s (1991) def- exemplified by the preceding arguments pertaining to inition of the universe as “all space, along with all the causal explanations of the universe (e.g., Edwards, matter and radiation in space” (p. 631) will be adopt- 1973; Rowe, 1989; Swinburne, 1979; Smith, 1995) is ed as opposed to Edwards’ (1973) definition of the that they were all formulated a priori. Consequently, universe as “the totality of things” (p. 809). there exists a lacuna in the literature with regards to an Kaufmann’s (1991) definition is being used on the application of theories constructed a posteriori to the grounds that it constitutes the orthodox view of the question, “Why does the universe exist?” Psychological term “universe.” Finally, this essay does not attempt to research suggests that some experiential—and concep- provide a definitive answer to the question, “Why does

70 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2005, Volume 24

the universe exist?” But rather, it sets itself the far more trine the individual soul (jiva) is held to be identical modest task of analysing the preceding question from with Brahman. This phase of Brahman is referred to as an advaitic perspective. Atman (Maharshi, 1988; Prabhavananda & Isherwood, 1981; Raju, 1967; Shastri, 1959). Advaita Vedanta: An overview In the Yoga-Vasishtha it is held that because Advaita (literally non-dualism) as articulated by Brahman is infinite it can produce no thing other than Sankaracharya is a doctrine of the vedantic school of itself (Shastri, 1969). Therefore the entire universe Hindu philosophy (Blackburn, 1996). Vedanta refers including mind (manas), intellect (buddhi), and intel- to the philosophy of the Vedas (Shastri, 1959). Veda ligence (chit) must be regarded as Brahman (Shastri, (from vid “to know”) may be defined as “knowledge.” 1969). In the Viveka-Chudamani, for instance, it is It is the “name of the most ancient Sanskrit scriptures, stated that: “It [Brahman] is that one Reality which considered to be a direct revelation from God to the appears to our ignorance as the manifold universe of mystics of the past” (Easwaran, 1986, p. 236). As pre- names and forms and changes” (Prabhavananda & viously stated, the doctrine of advaita vedanta was pur- Isherwood, 1978, p. 76). This thesis is echoed in the portedly constructed a posteriori using metaphysical three-fold logic of Sankaracharya in which it is con- knowledge acquired through various ASCs facilitated tended that: (a) Brahman is real, (b) The universe is by the aspirant practising one of four main yogas: unreal, and (c) The universe is Brahman (Maharshi, Karma, Jnana, Bhakti, or Rajas (Prabhavananda & 1985a, p. 187). It seems a logical absurdity that the Isherwood, 1978). These four Yogas represent different universe can be simultaneously unreal and yet identi- methods aimed at erasing the ego (ahamkara) through cal to an entity that is real. Ramana Maharshi (1985a) selfless work, the discriminative power of the intellect clarifies this apparent contradiction, however, by sug- (buddhi), devotion to a Personal God or spiritual gesting that when veridically perceived as Brahman the teacher (guru), and meditation, respectively. Such universe is real, however when perceived as distinct techniques facilitate ASCs referred to as samadhi in from Brahman (i.e., as a collection of discrete objects which one has a direct experience of Absolute Reality experienced through the various sensory modalities in (Brahman). Sri Ramana Maharshi (1985b) delineates space and time) the universe is considered an illusion three different grades of samadhi: (maya). This point may be further elucidated by what (1) Savikalpa samadhi. The lowest level of samadhi is referred to as the “rope and snake” analogy. A sub- in which one is required to maintain constant ject enters a dimly light room and sees a coiled up effort otherwise the obscuration of Brahman will piece of rope [Brahman] and mistakenly perceives it as occur. a snake [the universe]. At that moment the snake (2) Kevala nirvikalpa samadhi. The stage prior to appears as wholly existent to the subject whereas the liberation (moksha) characterised by effortless rope is considered non-existent. In reality, however, awareness of one’s true identity as Brahman and the the snake is an illusory substratum that has been pro- temporary cessation of ahamkara. It further entails jected onto the rope by the subject’s ignorance the absence of bodily awareness and an inability to (Maharshi, 1985a). perceive the sensory world. However, this state is It has been suggested that the universe in the transitory. Its conclusion is signified by the re- orthodox sense of “all space, along with all the matter emergence of bodily awareness and subsequently and radiation in space” (Kaufmann, 1991, p. 631) is ahamkara. not absolutely real. However, the universe is not (3) Sahaja nirvikalpa samadhi. The final attain- absolutely non-existent either for the simple reason ment of moksha in which ahamkara is irrevocably that it is present as a delusory perception in normal annihilated. In this state the cessation of all subject- waking consciousness (Prabhavananda & Isherwood, object duality occurs as one perceives that all is 1978). Insofar as a delusion is experienced it must be Brahman. (Maharshi, 1985b) accredited some degree of ontological status. An examination of the question “Why does the As previously stated, advaita postulates an universe exist?” will now be undertaken with refer- Absolute principle, an Ultimate Reality referred to as ence to two creation theories associated with the Brahman (Aurobino, 1995; Guenon, 1981; Maharshi, advaita doctrine: the theory of simultaneous creation 1997a). The three characteristics of Brahman are exis- (drishti-srishti vada) and the theory of non-causality tence (sat), consciousness (chit) and bliss (ananda; (ajata vada). Balsekar, 1982; Maharshi, 1997b). In the advaita doc-

Why Does the Universe Exist? 71

The Theory of Simultaneous Creation The second reason is contained in Sri Nisargadatta (Drishti-srishti vada) Maharaj’s (1987a) personal account of his experience Sri Ramana Maharshi (1985a, p. 184) stated that, of drishti-srishti vada: “All that you see depends on the seer. Apart from the In my original non-knowing state I did not know seer, there is no seen.” This sloka is an example of the my sense of Being. But all of a sudden that doctrine of “simultaneous creation” (Drishti-srishti Beingness was felt spontaneously; this is the first vada). It is suggesting that the universe comes into miracle. Then in a flash I observed this enormous existence simultaneously with the emergence of the “I” manifest world and also my body. Later, I con- thought (the seer’s sense of beingness), rather than ceived that the entire universe has manifested in there being a gradual process of creation (i.e., the “big the speck of my Beingness only. (p. 37) bang” theory). Drishti-srishti vada asserts that the cause of the seer’s sense of beingness and hence the The salient point contained in the preceding quo- universe is Brahman4. Statements attesting to this the- tation is Nisargadatta Maharaj’s (1987a) reference to sis abound in the advaitic literature. For example, in Brahman as a “non-knowing state” (p. 38). This state- Sri Sankaracharya’s commentary of the Bhagavad Gita ment requires further explanation. As Absolute subjec- it is explicitly stated that Brahman is the cause of the tivity Brahman cannot directly experience itself as a universe: “The Knowable supports beings during sthi- perceptible object, for then it would cease to be the ti, the period of the sustenance of the Universe; and It subject. Wilber (1993) illustrated this point by com- devours them at pralaya, i.e., at the time of dissolution. paring the situation to a sword that cannot cut itself, It generates them at the time of utpatti, the origin of an eye that cannot see itself, a tongue that cannot taste the Universe, just as a rope gives rise to an illusory itself, or a finger that cannot touch its own tip. This snake” (Sastry, 1992, p. 352). The Vedanta-sutras of argument is reiterated in Baladeva’s commentary to the Badarayana echo the sentiments of Sankaracharaya: Vedanta-sutras of Badarayana in which he wrote, “If the “From the Self (Brahman) sprang ether (Akasa, that Self could perceive His own properties, He could also through which we hear); from ether, air (that through perceive Himself; which is absurd, since one and the which we hear and feel); from air, fire (that through same thing cannot be both the agent and the object of which we hear, feel, and see)” (Vasu, 1979, p. 202). In an action” (Vasu, 1979, p. 331). This is what is meant a similar vein, the Aitareya-Upanishad holds that, “In in the Brihadaranyaka-Upanishad when it is stated the beginning all this was self, one only; there was that, “You cannot see the seer of sight, you cannot hear nothing else blinking whatsoever. He thought ‘shall I the hearer of sound, you cannot think the thinker of send forth worlds. He sent forth these worlds’” (Vasu, the thought, you cannot know the knower of the 1979, p. 202). known” (Swami & Yeats, 1970, p. 138). If the “initial Although drishti-srishti vada postulates a meta- conditions” (i.e., Brahman) are non-experiential and physical entity referred to as Brahman as the cause of hence unknowable then it is logically impossible to the universe, the nature of this cause is held to be formulate a complete causal explanation of the universe unknowable for two reasons. First, through Beingness if one accepts Popper’s (1959) assertion that the con- the “inner organ” (antahkarana) comprised of intelli- junction of universal statements with initial conditions gence (buddhi), ego or sense of self (ahamkara), and is required for a complete causal explanation. mind (manas) is generated (Chapple, 1990, p. 56). When the dissolution of Beingness into Brahman The Theory of Non-Causality (Ajata Vada)5 occurs during ASCs such as samadhi, the cessation of Whereas drishti-shrishti vada is considered a rela- buddhi, ahamkara, and manas also takes place. It fol- tive truth (i.e., it is true from the standpoint that we lows that if one’s previously existent cognitions and are human beings attempting to achieve liberation mental processes are rendered non-existent at the bor- from maya), advaita regards the theory of non-causal- derline of Beingness and Brahman then Brahman is a ity (ajata vada) as the ultimate truth. Crudely put, “non-experiential state” (Maharaj, 1987a, p. 38). ajata vada represents a denial of the orthodox view Nisargadatta Maharaj (1987b) delivers the following that the universe has a cause. Ajata vada argues that affirmation: “It is a non-attentive state. So where is the “nothing exists except the one reality [Brahman]” question of remembering? With Beingness attention which is eternal and unchanging (Maharshi, 1985a, p. starts later.… The borderline between Being and Non- 184). Hence, sense impressions relating to space-time, Beingness is intellect boggling, because the intellect causality and discrete objects are all regarded as non- subsides at that precise location” (p. 3, 58). veridical perceptions that take place in the mind of the

72 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2005, Volume 24

ignorant (ajani). Consequently, the universe in the Brahman are existence (sat), consciousness (chit), and orthodox sense of “all space, along with all the matter bliss (ananda)? and radiation in space” (Kaufmann, 1991, p. 631) Second, if Brahman is atemporal and therefore does not exist. It is noteworthy, however, that ajata unable to ‘step’ down into time and space as the ajata vada does affirm the reality of the universe but only vada doctrine argues, does this not place restrictions when veridically perceived as an uncaused appearance on a metaphysical entity which is supposedly unre- in Brahman. Proponents of this theory, thus, regard stricted? Furthermore, if the universe is an emanation the substance of the universe as being identical to of the eternal Brahman, as drishti-srishti vada con- Brahman (Maharshi, 1985a). Consequently, one is tends, and the universe is subject to space-time, logic unable to address the question, “Why does the veridi- dictates that space-time must also be enfolded in cally perceived universe exist?” with reference to an Brahman, existing in a state of latency. To quote external causal explanation. Furthermore, one is pre- Wittgenstein (1981/ 1922, p. 107), “if p follows from cluded from invoking an internal causal explanation of q, the sense of ‘p’ is contained in that of ‘q’,” where p is the universe—that is, asserting that the causes of the the universe and q is Brahman. It is arguable that the universe’s past states are prior past states (Smith, expression of atemporality as the manifest content of 1995)—on the grounds that space-time and, thus, Brahman does not necessarily preclude the existence of past states and prior past states are considered deluso- latencies such as temporality. ry perceptions from an ajata vada perspective. Finally, if the subject is unable to experience itself One may further enquire as to why a delusory per- as a perceptible object and if from an advaitic stand- ception of the universe as “all space, along with all the point everything is the subject (i.e., Brahman) then matter and radiation in space” (Kaufmann, 1991, p. one should be unable to experience a delusory percep- 631) exists? However, if delusory perceptions are con- tion of the universe as “all space, along with all the stituents of the universe—and the universe is an matter and radiation in space” (Kaufmann, 1991, p. uncaused appearance in Brahman—then delusory per- 631) for it too must ultimately be Brahman. If a = b, ceptions are also uncaused appearances in Brahman. and a is imperceptible, then, obviously, b is also imper- Consequently, if one accepts that the universe cannot ceptible. be a candidate for causal explanation by virtue of being an uncaused appearance in Brahman; then the ques- Modes of Knowing and Category Errors tion, “Why does the universe exist?” is clearly unan- Extrapolating from St. Bonaventure, Wilber swerable provided that one takes the question to mean, (1996) explicated three modes of knowing: “the eye of “What is the causal explanation of the universe?” flesh, by which we perceive the external world of space, time, and objects; the eye of reason, by which we attain Objections to Advaita Vedanta a knowledge of philosophy, logic, and the mind itself; In the present author’s view there seem to be cer- and the eye of contemplation, by which we arise to a tain logical problems with various components of the knowledge of transcendent realities” (p. 3). It is advaita doctrine. First, if as drishti-srishti vada suggests arguable that modern logicians commit a category Brahman is a non-knowing state in which one’s sense error by using rationalism rather than a posteriori of Beingness and cognitive functioning have been knowledge of transcendent realities to address the extinguished, then how does one come to know that metaphysical question, “Why does the universe exist?” such a state exists? Furthermore, if the cessation of To utilise Wilber’s (1996) terminology, it is an exam- one’s long-term memory system (a cognitive function) ple of confusing two different modes of knowing: the occurs during this state, one would be unable to recall eye of reason with the eye of contemplation. As Wilber the experience. Yet, surprisingly, practitioners have (1996) stated, “Reason cannot grasp the essence of provided phenomenological reports of this altered absolute reality, and when it tries, it generates only state in various advaitic texts. Even if, for the sake of dualistic incompatibilities” (p. 19). Furthermore, logi- argument, one’s long-term memory system was still cal problems associated with advaita vedanta are also functioning during this state, there would be nothing based on a category error. One may recall that the term to recall because, if Brahman is non-experiential, it “advaita” translates as “nondual.” Wilber (1996) must be phenomenologically contentless and therefore argued that if one attempts to translate attributeless. This raises a further question. If Brahman nondual Reality into dualistic reason, then you is attributeless, on what grounds are proponents of will create two opposites where there are in fact advaita justified in asserting that the characteristics of none, and therefore each of these opposites can

Why Does the Universe Exist? 73

be rationally argued with equal plausibility-and when veridically perceived the universe is an uncaused that, to return to Kant, shows why reason only appearance in Brahman. generates paradox when it tries to grasp God or Clearly the a posteriori perspective used in the the Absolute (p. 19). present paper may be applied to other metaphysical “problems” (e.g., personal identity, the mind-body Consequently, an advocate of the advaita doctrine “problem,” time). For instance, the injunctions used may argue that the aforementioned logical problems by practitioners of advaita vedanta (e.g., Karma, are the result of a misguided attempt to use mind to Jnana, Bhakti and Rajas yogas) are, in essence, meth- transcend mind, that is, employing the human intel- ods of self-inquiry (Maharshi, 1988) that are held to lect for the purpose of reasoning about a metaphysical provide experiential knowledge regarding, for exam- entity constitutes a category error. ple, the nature of personal identity. Furthermore, dur- ing the various grades of samadhi, one experiences Conclusion alterations in the “inner organ” (antahkarana) com- It was argued there exists a lacuna in the literature prised of intelligence (buddhi), ego or sense of self with regards to an application of theories constructed (ahamkara), and mind (manas) and also one’s bodily a posteriori to the question, “Why does the universe awareness that may provide insight into the mind- exist?” The present author suggests that, in contrast to body problem. One may also experience Brahman as modern logicians, the ontology outlined in the doc- the eternal and unchanging reality (Maharshi, 1985), trine of advaita vedanta was purportedly constructed a thereby facilitating the recognition that sensory posteriori using metaphysical knowledge acquired impressions relating to time and causality are non- through ASCs (e.g., samadhi). It was further contend- veridical perceptions that take place in the mind of the ed that experiential knowledge of the manifestation ignorant (ajani). Consequently, the present author and dissolution of the universe is accessible during cer- suggests that a posteriori derived philosophical systems tain ASCs associated with advaita vedanta (e.g., kevala such as advaita vedanta have the potential to make a nirvikalpa samadhi), but not during ordinary or nor- significant contribution to contemporary metaphysi- mal waking conscious—and is thus “state specific” cal debate in general and our understanding of the (Tart, 1972; 1998) or “state dependent” (Fischer, question, “Why does the universe exist?” in particular. 1980). It was suggested that such experiences might provide valuable insights into the external and internal causal mechanisms of the universe that are unobtain- Author Note able a priori. The author would like to thank Stanley Krippner Two a posteriori derived creation theories associat- and Peter Baynes for valuable suggestions and com- ed with advaita vedanta (e.g., the theory of simultane- ments. ous creation and the theory of non-causality) were subsequently applied to the question, “Why does the universe exist?” It was argued that, from the stand- End Notes point of drishti-srishti vada, the question “Why does 1. The question “Why does the universe exist?” the universe exist?” is unanswerable because: (1) The may be differentiated from the question “How did the human intellect is annihilated at the precise location at universe come into being?” on the grounds that, whilst which the universe dissolves into its purported cause (a the former is a metaphysical question, the latter is a metaphysical entity referred to as Brahman). (2) As scientific cosmological question. Absolute Subject-ivity, Brahman cannot be rendered 2. Wittgenstein (1981/ 1922) wrote that “for an an object of conscious awareness and thus experienced. answer which cannot be expressed the question too Consequently, a complete causal explanation of the cannot be expressed. The riddle does not exist. If a universe cannot be formulated on the grounds that the question can be put at all, then it can also be “initial conditions” (i.e., Brahman) are unknowable. answered.” (p. 187) Extrapolating from the theory of ajata vada, the ques- 3. Popper (1959) asserted that: tion, “Why does the universe exist?” may not be To give a causal explanation of an event means to addressed via a causal explanation because: (1) the uni- deduce a statement which describes it, using as verse in the orthodox sense of “all space, along with all premises of the deduction one or more universal the matter and radiation in space” (Kaufmann, 1991, laws, together with certain singular statements, the p. 631) is held to be a delusory perception; and (2) initial conditions...We have thus two different

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kinds of statement, both of which are necessary Chapple, C. (1990). The unseen seer and the field: ingredients of a complete causal explanation. They Consciousness in Samkhya and Yoga. In R.K.C. are (1) universal statements, i.e. hypotheses of the Forman (Ed.). The problem of pure consciousness character of natural laws, and (2) singular state- (pp. 53-70). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ments, which apply to the specific event in ques- Easwaran, E. (1986). The bhagavad gita. London: tion and which I call ‘initial conditions.’ It is from Arkana. universal statements in conjunction with initial Edwards, P. (1973). Why? In P. Edwards & A. Pap conditions that we deduce the singular statement, (Eds.). A modern introduction to philosophy (3rd ‘This thread will break’...The initial conditions ed.) (pp. 796-810). New York: The Free Press. describe what is usually called the ‘cause’ of the Evans-Wentz, W. Y. (1954). The Tibetan book of the event in question (pp. 59-60). great liberation. Oxford, UK: Oxford University 4. Interestingly, the vast majority of mystical Press. philosophies assert that a metaphysical entity of some Fischer, R. (1980). State-bound knowledge: “I can’t kind is the cause of the universe. For example, in the remember what I said last night, but it must have writings of the Kabbalah in regard to the mystical phi- been good.” In R. Woods (Ed.), Understanding losophy of Jerusalem, it is held that in the beginning mysticism (pp. 306-11). London: Athlone. there is only the “Root of all Roots,” the “Great Franklin, R. (1990). Experience and interpretation in Reality,” the “Indifferent Unity,” En-Sof (Scholem, mysticism. In R.K.C. Forman (Ed.). The problem of 1961, p. 12) from which emanate the ten seifrot (liter- pure consciousness (pp. 288-304). Oxford, UK: ally rays) which constitute the physical universe Oxford University Press. (Hoffman, 1980; Idel, 1988; Matt, 1996; Scholem, Gilson, E. (1941). God and philosophy. New Haven: 1961, 1969). Similarly, Mahayana Buddhism postu- Yale University Press. lates a Transcendental Reality, the One-Mind, which is Guenon, R. (1981). Man and his becoming: According the “Outbreather and Inbreather of infinite universes to the vedanta. New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint throughout the endlessness of duration” (Evan-Wentz, Corporation. 1954, p. 1). One may also find in the literature per- Heidegger, M. (1959). An introduction to metaphysics. taining to Taoism (Chinese mysticism) the assertion New York: Yale University Press. that universe was created by a Nameless principle Hoffman, E. (1980). The Kabbalah: Its implications sometimes referred to as the tao: “It was from the for humanistic psychology. Journal of Humanistic Nameless that Heaven and Earth sprang” (Huxley, Psychology, 20, 33-47. 1985, p. 44). Huxley, A. (1985). Perennial philosophy. London: Triad An important question is whether all of these var- Grafton Books. ious mystical philosophies are referring to the same Huxley, J. (1964). Essays of a humanist. London: metaphysical entity or whether, for example, Brahman Chatto & Windus. and En-sof are qualitatively distinct. For an excellent Idel, M. (1988). Kabbalah: New perspectives. New discussion of this ontological issue, see Katz (1978) Haven, CT: Yale University Press. and Franklin (1990). Katz, S.T. (1978). Language, epistemology, and mysti- 5. Many aspects of the ajata-vada doctrine have cism. In S.T. Katz (Ed.). Mysticism and philosophi- already been alluded to in a previous section of this cal analysis (pp. 22-74). New York: Oxford essay entitled “Avaita Vedanta: An Overview.’’ University Press Therefore my comments in this section shall be neces- Kaufmann, W. J. (1991). Universe (3rd ed.). New sarily brief. York: W.H. Freeman and Company. Keeney, B. T., & Heide, K. M. (1994). Gender differ- ences in serial murder: A preliminary analysis. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 9, 383-398. References Koestenbaum, P. (1962). The sense of subjectivity. Aurobindo, S. (1995). The bhagavad gita and its mes- Review of Existential Psychology and Psychiatry, 2, sage. Twin Lakes, WI: Lotus Light Publications. 47-65. Balsekar, R. S. (1982). Pointers from Nisargadatta Maharshi, R. (1985a). Creation theories and the reali- Maharaj. Bombay: Chetana. ty of the world. In D. Godman (Ed.). Be as you are: Blackburn, S. (1996). The Oxford dictionary of philoso- The teachings of Ramana Maharshi (pp. 181-192). phy (2nd ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. London: Arkana.

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Maharshi, R. (1985b). Samadhi. In D. Godman (Ed.). Shastri, H. P. (1959). Direct experience of reality Be as you are: The teachings of Ramana Maharshi (Aparokshanubhuti). London: Shanti Sadan. (pp. 155-162). London: Arkana. Shastri, H. P. (1969). World within the mind (yoga- Maharshi, R. (1988). The spiritual teaching of Ramana vasishtha) (4th ed.). London: Shanti Sadan. Maharshi. Boston: Shambhala. Smith, Q. (1995). Internal and external causal expla- Maharshi, R. (1997a). Self-enquiry. In A. Osborne nations of the universe. Philosophical Studies, 79, (Ed.). The collected works of Ramana Maharshi (2nd 283-310. ed.). (pp. 17-38). York Beach, Maine: Samuel Swami, S. P., & Yeats W. B. (1970). The ten principle Weiser, Inc. upanishads (2nd ed.). London: Faber & Faber. Maharshi, R. (1997b). Who am I? In A. Osborne Swinburne, R. (1979). The Existence of God. Oxford, (Ed.). The collected works of Ramana Maharshi (2nd UK: Clarendon Press. ed.). (pp. 39-47). York Beach, Maine: Samuel Tart, C. T. (1972). States of consciousness and state- Weiser. specific sciences. Science, 176, 1203-1210. Maharaj, N. (1987a). Beyond the Upanishads. In R. Tart, C. T. (1998). Investigating altered states of con- Powell (Ed.). The nectar of the Lord’s feet: Final sciousness on their own terms: A proposal for the teachings of Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj (pp. 37-44). creation of state-specific sciences. Journal of the Longmead, UK: Element Books. Brazilian Association for the Advancement of Science, Maharaj, N. (1987b). To realize the Absolute, even 50, 103-116. Beingness has to be transcended. In R. Powell Vasu, R. B. S. C. (1979). The vedanta-sutras of (Ed.). The nectar of the Lord’s feet: Final teachings of Badarayana. New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj (pp. 51-58). Longmead, Corporation. UK: Element Books. Wilber, K. (1993). The spectrum of consciousness (2nd Matt, D. C. (1996). The essential Kabbalah: The ed.). Wheaton, IL: Quest Books. heart of Jewish mysticism. New York: Wilber, K. (1996). Eye to eye: The quest for the new par- HarperSanFrancisco. adigm (3rd ed.). Boston: Shambhala. Popper, K. R. (1959). The logic of scientific discovery. Wittgenstein, L. (1981/1922). Tractatus logico-philo- London: Hutchinson. sophicus. London: Routledge. Prabhavananda, S., & Isherwood, C. (1978). Shankara’s crest-jewel of discrimination (viveka chu- damani) (3rd ed.). Hollywood, CA: Vedanta Press. Prabhavananda, S., & Isherwood, C. (1981). How to Address correspondences to the author at: know God: The yoga aphorisms of Patanjali. School of Psychology Hollywood, CA: Vedanta Press. Deakin University Raju, P. T. (1967). Metaphysical theories in Indian 221 Burwood Hwy philosophy. In C.A. Moore (Ed.). The Indian mind: Burwood VIC 3125, AUSTRALIA. Essentials of Indian philosophy and culture. (pp. 41- 65). Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. Phone: +613 9244 6357 Rowe, W. (1989). ‘Two Criticisms of the Fax: +613 9244 6858. Cosmological Argument”, in W. Rowe and W. Email: [email protected] Wainwright (eds.), Philosophy of Religion, San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers. Russell, B., & Copelston, F. C. (1973). The existence of God—A debate. In P. Edwards & A. Pap (Eds.). A modern introduction to philosophy (3rd ed.) (pp. 473-490). New York: The Free Press. Sastry, A. M. (1992/ 1897). The bhagavad gita: With the commentary of Sri Sankaracharya (7th ed.). Madras, India: Samata Books. Scholem, G. (1961). Major trends in Jewish mysticism. New York: Schocken Books. Scholem, G. (1969). On the Kabbalah and its symbol- ism. New York: Schocken Books.

76 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2005, Volume 24

SPECIAL TOPIC: RUSSIAN SOUL: A REPORT FROM THE EUROPEAN TRANSPERSONAL ASSOCIATION

Russian Soul: A Report from the European Transpersonal Association 2005 Conference in Moscow

Glenn Hartelius

he 2005 European Transpersonal Association an esoteric approach. Mark Burno (Russia) shared (EUROTAS) conference exemplified its theme fruits from 30 years of practice using “spiritual culture” Tof “Human Consciousness and Human Values as an avenue to therapy. He made an insightful distinc- in an Interconnected World.” The Russian Association tion between idealist and materialist approaches to of Transpersonal Psychology and Psychotherapy, with spirituality. Rupert Tower (UK) used an enchanting the support of several other organizations, graciously Russian fairy tale to lead us into the shadow, frankly hosted over 200 participants from more than 20 coun- broaching issues of power and leadership in psy- tries. Vladimir Maykov, Gennady Brevde, and a team chotherapy training organizations. Tanna Jakubowicz of volunteers guided us through four days of presenta- (Poland) rounded out this special topics section with tions (June 23-26), translating tirelessly between an inspiring call to direct action. English and Russian. The following pages constitute a small tour of the conference, offering a series of six presentations drawn Correspondence regarding this introduction, any from the 70-some offerings on the program. These articles in this special topic section, or the EUROTAS were selected for their ability to reflect the flavor of the conference can be directed to the author at payatten- conference and for highlighting topics that were more [email protected] original in character or less widely known. Vladimir Maykov (Russia) opened the conference by situating it in the context of a Russian transpersonal project that reaches back to antiquity. He spoke from a uniquely- informed vantage point, as one of the most accom- plished members of the Russian transpersonal commu- nity and part of the underground transpersonal move- ment in the late Soviet era. Jason Wright (UK) drew on his work with addicts to weave a story of how psy- chological healing can grow out of rebuilding narra- tives that are the very fabric of “self.” Jason’s work reaches deep into theoretical and scientific realms to understand experiences of transformation he witnesses with his clients. Vitor Rodriguez (Portugal) offered a glimpse into his clinical experience with the diagnosis and treatment of psychic attack. He began with a fas- cinating clinical story that shows the practical value of

Special Topic: Russian Soul 77

The Transpersonal Tradition in Russian Culture

Vladimir Maykov

he transpersonal tradition is deeply rooted in special place in Russian consciousness. Russians experi- Russian culture. Unlike any other country in the ence space as open sky, as the pure potentiality of life Tworld, Russia is geographically connected to that pulls you out of bondage. Asia, the Near East and Europe. In addition, Russia has There is an archetypal wounding of the Russian its own shamanic culture, Celtic pagan tradition, and soul, typified by the image of St. George lancing the Russian Orthodox Church. This rich tapestry underlies dragon. This symbol has been central to Russian nation- Russian thinkers and writers of recent centuries who al imagery for five hundred years. How does this embody within their works the principles and spirit of wounding manifest itself? Personal development is dif- transpersonalism. Even though the transpersonal vision ferent in Russia than in the West. In the West, the body is new in the West, it is traditional in Russia. is born, it becomes a personality, and then it spends its We can see three distinct layers underlying the life striving to become a spiritual being. In Russia, the Russian transpersonal tradition, which establish its ori- body is born and, through wounding, it becomes a spir- gins in distant antiquity. First, there is an ancient layer itual being. But there is almost a full absence of person- of shamanism—a practice that continues in Russia to ality in the Western sense of the word, with its correla- this day. Contemporary shamans live and work in places tives of civil society, lawful state, democracy, market such as Buryat, Tuvinia, Altai, Yakutiya, and economy and declaration of human rights. Rather, the Khakassiya. Second is a layer of Russian paganism: Russian soul must spend its life striving to become a Celtic paganism held sway over western Russia for cen- personality—trying to become functional in society. turies and left its imprint. Then there is a more modern The continuous historical development of this layer, covering the last thousand years. transpersonal urge was interrupted early in the 20th cen- In the modern layer, I identify seven different roots tury. The gap between that time and ours was bridged of Russian transpersonalism. The first of these is the by a small cohort of thinkers and practitioners who Russian Orthodox Church, which includes the mystical escaped from Stalin’s terror and raised Russian transper- doctrine of hesychasm. Although there are many aspects sonalism from the ashes: men such as V.V. Nalimov, to hesychasm, it includes both a practice in which the M.M. Bakhtin, A.F. Losev, M.K. Mamardashvili, A.M. saying of prayers is synchronized with the breath, and a Pyatigorsky and V.N. Mihejkin. In the 1970s and 80s a contemplative phenomenon in which one’s chest begins broader transpersonal underground developed, laying to vibrate and shake. Clearly, Russian Orthodox mysti- the groundwork for the founding of the Russian cism invokes altered states of consciousness. Association of Humanistic Psychology in 1990, shortly In addition to Russian Christianity, there is the after Perestroika. In May of 2002 we took a further step Russian religious philosophy of N. Berdyaev and L. toward professional development with the founding of Schestov, the theosophy of E.P. Blavatsky, the anthro- the Russian Association of Transpersonal Psychology posophy of R. Steiner, the existentialist writings of and Psychotherapy. authors such as L. Tolstoy and F. Dostoevsky, the Fourth The Russian transpersonal project of today is more Way of G.I. Gurdjieff, and the tradition of Russian cos- highly professional and many-sided than ever before. mism of such visionaries as S.N. Fyodorov, K.E. Many academic scientists have been drawn to this per- Tsilokovsky, and academician V. Vertnadsky. Together spective, yielding a community in which intensive these inform the modern transpersonal project in searches are conducted in many directions; there is no Russia. strict adherence to any one epistemology or theoretical Transpersonalism is thus inherent in the Russian framework. Russia, a country with centuries-old soul. Yet it is not easy to explain our inner being, the transpersonal roots, is poised to speak with the entire soul behind Russian transpersonalism. It has been said world in the common language of the transpersonal. that excavating the Russian soul is like peeling an onion: the more you penetrate its layers, the more you cry. In the end, you are left with empty nothingness. In fact, as Correspondence regarding this article should be noted by the academician D.S. Lihachev, space holds a directed to the author at www.transpersonal.ru

78 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2005, Volume 24

Synthesis and Plurality: Stories of the Self

Jason Wright

his essay was inspired by an epiphany, which that alters with the ever-changing tides of inner and occurred whilst on a lonely holiday to Turkey in outer narrative. T1997. As I lay beside my hotel pool exhausted Here I am thinking about process as does Pickering from looking at rocks piled up by the ancients, it (1999) in terms of Alfred North Whitehead’s process occurred to me that ideas live in us as we live in the philosophy. Whitehead (1933) considers transitional world. We are the medium of ideas—they live, breed, processes, structures of activity, and the evolution of and die in us. I became fascinated with this as process, those structures to be inherent in the character of reali- and as imagery that helps me describe the work I have ty, in the “continual creative advance of nature.” done over the last 12 years treating people who are If the self is also such a process, then the key to struggling with addiction. transformation in psychotherapy is moving beyond the I work at the CORE Trust, a London-based center personal self to the process behind it: transcending the that uses a holistic multi-disciplinary approach to addic- fixed ideas of self and encountering the self as an ongo- tion involving complementary therapies and psy- ing process. The focus moves away from the artifact of chotherapy (individually and in groups), with the whole this process (i.e., the personal self) and into the process project held as a community. In this context we under- itself. Following Pickering’s argument, I would view stand the unifying intention to all the therapies is a spir- these processes as being essentially semiotic in nature — itual one: we work within a transpersonal metaphor and that is, composed of culturally-meaningful signs—and see the fundamental issue facing the addicted person is negotiated through narrative. Here then we return to the choice of whether or not to live: to live even in the the inspirational images that open this short paper. face of devastating early-life trauma and alienation, Access to this process would then mean access to the inadequate parenting and dysfunction. possibility of more effective and more useful narratives, In its raw form this basic question is an insoluble a process that can radically change the self-experience of and often torturous dilemma: Should I live, or not? the client. Here we meet James Hillman’s (1983) idea Here, the assumptions about the nature and qualities of that you need to heal the story, not the person. the self that are at stake remain unexamined. In therapy How do we approach this? What might be the this question can and often does transform into the mechanism of this self-process? In his book, Approaches more useful question, What self am I, that I might want to Consciousness (2004), Les Lancaster brings together to live? Although narcissistic, this question opens the cognitive neuroscience and mysticism to explore the door to useful inquiry. From here it becomes possible to nature of consciousness. I shall use his ideas here to explore how the self-image of the client is organized, think about how we might generate and sustain the and how its organization might be made secure enough process of self, how we might think about redefining to be sustained over time. those narratives, and the cultural milieu from which From a Buddhist perspective, of course, this self is they arise. an illusion. However, this is not simply the end of the For the purposes of understanding consciousness, matter. Rather, it piques us with the question, What is Lancaster recognizes the link between cognitive neuro- this self that I experience? Following from the imagery science approaches and mystical approaches. For exam- above and my multidisciplinary work at the CORE ple, consider the following elucidation of the perceptu- Trust (note, readers interested in learning more about al process as understood by Abhidhamma practice seen CORE are encouraged to visit www.coretrust.co.uk), I in conjunction with processes of consciousness as was unable to sustain my image of self as a “thing” (i.e. defined by cognitive neuroscience. Lancaster identifies onticly and diachronically secure). Rather, it seems to the fact that the process of identifying a “self,” or “I-tag- me, in a semiotic and narrative context, that an image ging,” comes late in this sequence of six events that of self exists at the point where a person’s inner con- make up the perceptual process. scious and unconscious stories and outer stories of com- There are six stages in Lancaster’s model of this munity and culture meet. This self-image is identified process: as me. However this is not a self as thing but as a process 1. In the process of seeing an object, a set of neurons fire

Special Topic: Russian Soul 79

and are analyzed through the visual cortex. enables the client to cope with his or her experience cre- 2. The memory process responds to the input. atively rather than destructively—a narrative that is 3. Various schemata are activated through neural reso- open and containing rather than destructive and con- nance. straining. Sometimes I feel as if I lend an alternate self 4. Identity of an “object” is established separate from the to the client—both as a stop-gap tool for coping and as background information. an example of the narrative reconstruction process— 5. For Lancaster, this is the moment when the I-narra- until such time as the client grasps the process enough tive and the perceptual process come together. The to do his or her own reconstruction. perceived object is incorporated in the individual’s Working with a client in this way requires some ongoing meaning narrative. In Abhidhamma this is skill and art at perceiving the individual content streams known as javana. There is no literal translation for within the client’s narrative and then helping the client the word javana, but it conveys an active role in the to re-weave them. Perhaps the best way to illustrate it is perceptual process—there is a clear transition from with a brief clinical example: perceptual mechanism to narrative. B was 41 at the time of presentation. Her father had 6. Finally, memory is updated by relaying back the cur- been deceased for 10 years, her mother was still alive, rent perception, including the narrative interpretation. and she had one sister. She had been treated violently by both parents throughout her childhood. She left home The important feature to grasp is that this activity and school at age 15, but had gone on to work in goes on outside of normal awareness. The sense of I-ness demanding and prestigious jobs. These are the bare is added prior to the normal waking experience of con- bones of the personal narrative, with significant defin- sciousness, but late in the perceptual process. Under ing features such as violence, death, and action in the mundane conditions the nature of I-tagging is powerful. world. The sense of self is continually reinforced by registering The client presented to CORE with alcohol, poly- new I-tagged perceptions into the individual-meaning drug habits and difficulties with eating. In individual narrative. therapy she identified her violent and abusive experi- The advantage of studying this process from a mys- ences in childhood as causing problems, particularly tical perspective such as Abhidhamma is that it points with respect to difficulties in relating to people, a ten- out this deconstruction of the perceptual process. dency to isolate herself, chronic low self-esteem and Lancaster suggests that such deconstruction, through habitual self-destructiveness. The client’s narrative of meditation or other mystical processes, offers the oppor- these symptoms as drivers of her addictive behavior tunity to decrease the reinforcing nature of the I-tag, indicated a compatibility between her ideas and those and thereby allows the possibility for a greater number held by CORE as an institution. Here is the experience of associative schemata to reach consciousness. of shared narrative ideas that is essential to developing Here then we are back to the key for transforma- the therapeutic work. tional process in psychotherapy: moving beyond the B attended well during her time at CORE, but personal self-image to the process behind it, to the experienced initial ambivalence toward the community. thoughts of the world, or the mind of God. Through She found it difficult to talk in group, and would lay altering the relationship between the narrative of self down on the floor hiding her face, speaking rarely, and and the narratives of experience, it becomes possible to then not in a self-disclosing manner. Here the CORE develop more effective and more useful narratives. Here narrative and her personal narrative came into conflict. we are immediately into the ground of psychotherapeu- It was not possible for her to determine the safest way to tic work, be that in a classical psychoanalytic frame such meet the needs of the CORE project as caregiver, so she as a Winnicott’s (1951) model of transitional space or a attempted to control the situation by evoking her famil- Hillman’s (1983, 1996) view of narrative reconstruction iar narrative cycle of non-compliance and the violence it or soul making from a case history to teleological soul historically evoked. Within the analytic frame of repeti- history. tion compulsion, the kernel of the story is here. How does this operate in my practice as a transper- Concurrently in her individual therapy, the client sonal psychotherapist working with addicted people? and her therapist explored issues of trust and relation- The essential frame is to effect a de-identification with ship, examined her difficulties with shame, and her link- the self- image within “me” in order to imagine differ- age of violence and intimacy. Toward the end of the fifth ing possibilities. The goal, if there is one, is to develop month, B was beginning to recognize that she had an overarching narrative with the client, one that agency in relationship and was not simply the victim of

80 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2005, Volume 24

circumstance. Here we evidence a fundamental alter- As of this moment, the client is still in psychother- ation of the client’s narratives in relation to herself, apy and has remained clean for 15 months since leaving CORE, and perhaps to a normative narrative. She was CORE. She is continuing in higher education. able both to contain and reveal difficult feelings and the It is through the interaction of differing narratives story behind them, whilst developing a new overarching that such changes in the client’s narrative stream were narrative in which she was no longer trapped in her cir- possible. She became capable of tolerating her experiences cumstances as a victim. and re-envisioning herself; this new and more useful self- However, the client’s non-compliant behavior in image better contains her narrative and her experiences. group was still at issue. The conflict between the two We are back to the main idea for defining self: a set narrative streams became unbearable and she relapsed of confluent narratives woven into a master narrative, into addictive behavior. Ultimately the newfound story, which through time and the process of the psyche devel- and new self-image, contained her and, in this context, op into the image or icon called “self.” Through decon- historic experiences that had previously been unbearable struction of the narrative stream it is possible to engage began to emerge into consciousness. Over the next few the underlying process and avoid over-identification months the client explored many of her intimate rela- with the images it throws up. Transpersonal psychother- tionship, particularly with members of her immediate apy is not just about the content of our being, but also family. Most significantly, she was able to bear the mem- learning to be aware of the context within which we ory of her father’s sexual abuse. She considered that she experience being itself. might be able to pull the parts of her self together to feel That the self advances and confirms the myriad more whole. things is called delusion. Her personal narrative was being negotiated within That the myriad things advance and confirm the the containing narrative framework of CORE, and a self is enlightenment. deeper sense of self slowly emerged. As part of this (Aitkin, 1985, p. 232). process, she read her own case history. In response she wrote: It’s very strange, and enlightening, to read a case his- Correspondence regarding this article should be tory of yourself, someone else’s version of your nar- directed to the author at [email protected] rative. Firstly of course it isn’t long enough; it doesn’t begin to explain the circumstances or the level of dis- tress that I felt to start using when I was 12. Before References alcohol, I self-harmed: burning myself, bouncing my Aitken, R. (1985). “Gandhi, Dogen, and Deep head off walls, stitching my fingers together, trying Ecology.” In B. Devall & G. Sessions (Eds.), Deep to find a way I could cause myself more pain than Ecology: Living As If Nature Mattered (pp. 232–35). what I already felt, but couldn’t understand. My lin- Salt Lake City, UT: Peregrine Smith Books. ear narrative didn’t start until I was nine, just frag- Hillman, J. (1983). Healing fiction. New York: Stanton mentary memories of agues. Alcohol made me not Hill Press. feel pain, as later did heroin, tranquilizers, and Hillman, J (1996). The souls code. New York: Random cannabis; cocaine and speed made me not care House. whether I felt pain or not. When I got to CORE, I’d Lancaster, B. L. (2004). Approaches to consciousness, New used alcohol for 29 years and drugs for 26…. York: Palgrave Macmillan. Substance free, it became apparent that there wasn’t Pickering, J. (1999). The self as semiotic process. In S. a time without the feelings that made me want to Gallagher & J. Shear (Eds.).Models of the Self (pp. self-destruct…. Through CORE I have repaired 62-83.) Exeter, UK: Imprint Academic. myself enough to attempt a fulfilling, clean and Whitehead, A. N. (1933). Science and the modern world, sober life, and I am fortunate that support is avail- Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. able through CORE’s weekly after-care treatment Wiley, N. (1994). The semiotic self. Cambridge, UK: that I attend. Another strange thing is how com- Polity Press. pletely different I feel for the vast majority of the Winnicott, D.W. (1951). Transitional objects and tran- time. I still have bad days when I plummet to the sitional phenomena. In Through paediatrics to psycho- depths of despair and self-hatred instantaneously, analysis (pp. 229-242). London: Institute of Psycho- but I can contain my feelings without using. That is Analysis and Karnac Books. true liberation.

Special Topic: Russian Soul 81

The Psychic Defense

Vitor Rodrigues

want to introduce my subject by telling you about ity of psychic attack is something we cannot directly the case of a client who came to me. Picture an test for empirically due to ethical constraints (we Iindependent young woman who suddenly begins would have to consider the fact that if the attacks were to have fainting spells. As a result, she cannot work or effective, they would be damaging to the subjects). drive. Although she is an excellent swimmer, she can- However, parapsychology research suggests it is not not swim; even in waist-deep water, she is likely to only possible to influence thoughts at a distance faint and end up floating facedown in the water. (Radin, 1997; Dalton, 1997; Bem & Honorton, Medical tests detect no problem. Her EEG and EKG 1994), but also possible to influence biological systems are normal; she is not epileptic. at a distance (Nelson, Bradish, Jahn & Dunne 1994; I bring this young woman into deep relaxation Nelson, Jahn, Dunne, Dobyns & Bradish, 1997; and, using particular techniques, I help her approach a Ostrander & Schroeder, 1997; Schlitz & Braud, state where she can access information about her con- 1997). dition. Then I ask her to tell me what is happening. I myself had to learn a lot about psychic attacks. She describes that she sees a man, the father of a From my adolescence onward, I underwent many of friend. This is a man who had recently died. She tells them over a period of 20 years. Gradually I came to me that he had had sort of a crush on her. She sees that understand how these episodes were constructed and at times he suddenly pulls her out of her physical body, how to deal with them. In my experience there are causing her to faint. three sources of such attacks: 1) the presences of those After giving the woman some instructions for cre- who have died, as illustrated by the previous story, 2) ating a psychic defense against his unwanted presence, other entities, and 3) living persons. I speak to this man that she is experiencing. I say, “Do Many teachers picture the wonders of conscious you know you are dead?” expansion, the glories of penetrating other realms. The young woman reports that he says, “What do This is all true: it is nice to learn a spiritual path, to you mean? I am alive!” have meaning in your life, to expand. But if the folk- I ask him to remember when he died. After a few tales speak truly, then there are some dangers in these moments, he is apparently able to recall his death. realms—even for those who are not on a path. These Then I ask, “Do you know you are harming this dangers include more than the souls of the deceased. woman?” Some teachers naively tell you that you should “No I am not! I just love her.” meditate a lot. If you follow their advice, it may hap- “But you are harming her, threatening her life, by pen that you end up in some trouble. You have your causing her to faint.” moments of light, but then you hit anxiety. You go to After some further conversation, the man agrees to the teacher for help, and he or she tells you it is only leave the young woman and goes “across” with a being coming from inside you—so, meditate more. If you of light. Within a few days the fainting spells cease, follow this advice, there is at least some chance that and the young woman is able to resume her life. you may experience a serious breakdown. Here we have a scientific problem: there is no What such teachers say is partially true: you are proof of an afterlife, but a therapeutic strategy that dealing with your inner demons. But all religious tra- involves the soul of a dead person is effective in reliev- ditions talk about outer demons as well. In the end, I ing a condition that standard treatments cannot believe they are right—even if you do not speak about resolve. On the other hand, many religions and tradi- “demons,” but only about aggressive “entities.” For the tions describe the phenomenon of psychic attack. psychologist who encounters these phenomena, it is Perhaps we should take seriously the possibility that necessary to understand such attacks. They are a real these occurrences are on some level real. In the end, it feature of the spiritual dimension of human life, and is not as important to argue about what kind of reality those who suffer from them need and deserve skilled is represented by such processes as it is to find ways to assistance. Until we have more scientific-sounding assist those who suffer them. In any case, the possibil- words to talk about this dynamic, it will be necessary

82 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2005, Volume 24

to use traditional terms—at the risk of speaking in lan- 2. A persistent stinging in parts of the body, produc- guage associated with medieval superstition. ing a specific pain; Unfortunately I have found very few authors deal- 3. Strange pains that do not respond to painkillers; ing with the matter of psychic attacks in a somewhat 4. Unexplained illness that cannot be diagnosed by realistic way (Bailey, 1930; Fortune, 2001). If we medicine; assume there is some kind of real phenomenon behind 5. Pressure on the back of the neck, spine, or back of such reports, what kind of a model can we use to head, as if someone is pressing with a finger; understand outer “demons?” “Inner demons,” of 6. Panic attacks (while most such attacks result from course, are our own unfinished business—unwhole- stress and worry, some are different in origin and some fears, greeds and ambitions. Left unchecked, come on when everything in life is OK, occurring these unwholesomenesses lead to evil actions. One way as a sudden feeling of intense anguish or fear, or the to understand outer demons is as subtle presences that sensing of a threat that may occur with nausea); connect with us through these inner flaws and who 7. Nightmares (most are from indigestion, stress, cultivate those flaws. worry, and personal problems, but other incidents Psychic attacks can also come from humans. Some have a quality of vividness and may feel as if an will try to perform interesting rituals, some will try to octopus or some other threatening thing is grab- project their own negative energy onto you, and some bing the person, or as if some specters or demons will ask for help from demonic entities. Two of the are present—-sometimes the dream experience is main procedures of classic witchcraft are the dajida one of being encaged or otherwise imprisoned); and the charge. 8. Direct visions (e.g., a girlfriend of mine was comb- A dajida is a witchcraft doll prepared by the prac- ing her hair in front of the mirror, and saw black titioner of dark arts and sympathetically connected to serpents in her hair, while other clients have seen a the victim by means of a sample, such as a bit of that vampire at the door, or a bedcover has seemed to person’s hair, nails, blood, sperm, saliva, photograph, become a python); or a piece of clothing that has been worn for some 9. Hearing threatening voices, which of course, to a time. Once the connection is established, it is believed psychologist, is a probable sign of schizophrenia, that what the practitioner does to the doll will happen but in my experience many people who hear voic- to the victim at a distance. Fortunately, this is not so es clearly are not schizophrenic—that is, they are easy to accomplish. Part of the effect is through sug- living normal productive lives and some small per- gestion, reinforced by the folkloric beliefs of the vic- centage of these may result from psychic attacks); tim. But in some ways the doll also helps the practi- 10. A sense of constriction and despair, a feeling of tioner project his or her own energy and intention. oppressive darkness that is darker than the absence Some classical experiments seem to produce interest- of light; ing effects, though it is difficult to do such experi- 11. Fatigue, weakness, feeling a burdensome weight; ments ethically. However, a few related experiments 12. Unexplained fainting; have been done under laboratory conditions (for some 13. Waking up and feeling as if movement is impossi- hints at a modern version, see Ostrander & Schroeder, ble, as if a force is preventing full return to the 1997). body that can be felt as total paralysis lasting for A charge is an object filled with bad feelings and some minutes or even hours; bad intentions, such as a dead cat. Typically, the sor- 14. Sudden, intense, uncontrollable emotion; cerer gets a cat or rat, connects it to the victim in the 15. Repulsive odors, such as rottenness, that are sus- same manner as a dajida, then puts it some place to pended in a precise location; rot. The rotting process is intended to have repercus- 16. A sound of bells that comes from nowhere; and sions on the victim. Another variation is a cursed stab- 17. Paranoia—the feeling that someone or something bing knife that is placed where the victim will find it. is after you. The intended outcome is that the negative qualities in the knife will induce the victim to use the blade to kill Naturally, all of these symptoms may arise from himself. causes other than psychic attack. However, when more conventional causes or cures do not work, it is possible Symptoms of psychic attack include the following: that the symptom may result from such an attack, 1. A feeling that someone is blowing on the back of mostly if several symptoms like the ones above are your neck, but no one is there; showing up together, and “normal explanations” have

Special Topic: Russian Soul 83

first been ruled out. There are specific protocols for Correspondence regarding this article should be treatment of such conditions, which are omitted from directed to the author at [email protected] this review. Vulnerability to such attacks can also be decreased by the development of personal and spiritu- al power. If a person such as my client wants to develop her power, she must deal with her inner demons. If done properly, she will have power—but she must use that power with love. If not, eventually it will amount to black magic: the manipulation of psychic energies for your own purposes. As power develops, we learn to let go of our own personalities so something different can happen spontaneously inside of us. According to the spiritual traditions of the world this different thing, which is really our soul, will start moving in harmony with God’s plan for the purposes of love, justice, and beauty. This is a coincidence: moving in unity with everything, so God’s plan is your plan.

References Bailey, A. (1930). Letters on occult meditation. New York: Lucis. Bem, D. J. & Honorton, C. (1994). Does psi exist? Replicable evidence for an anomalous process of information transfer. Psychological Bulletin, 115(1), 4-18. Dalton, K. (1997). Exploring the links: Creativity and psi in the Ganzfeld. Proceedings of presented papers at the Parapsychological Association 40th Annual Convention held in Conjunction with The Society for Psychical Research, Cary, North Carolina: Parapsychological Association. Fortune, D. (1930/2001). Psychic self-defense. York Beach, ME: Samuel Weiser. Nelson, R. D., Bradish, G. J., Jahn, R., & Dunne, B. J. (1994). A linear pendulum experiment: Effects of operator intention on damping rate. Journal of Scientific Exploration, 8(4), 471-489. Nelson, R. D., Jahn, R. G., Dunne, B. J., Dobyns, Y. H., & Bradish, G. J. (1997). FieldREG II: Consciousness field effects: Replications and explo- rations. Journal of Scientific Exploration, 12(3), 425-454. Ostrander, S. & Schroeder, L. (1997). Psychic discover- ies. New York: Marlowe & Company. Radin, D, (1997). The conscious universe. New York: HarperEdge. Schlitz, M. & Braud, W. (1997). Distant intentionali- ty and healing: Assessing the evidence. Alternative Therapies, 3(6), 62-73.

84 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2005, Volume 24

On Therapy by Means of Spiritual Culture

Mark E. Burno

herapy by means of spiritual culture is a psy- one’s own nature, one must study one’s own natural chotherapeutic approach in which the leading features; these then become real orienting points for Tpsychotherapeutic mechanism is that of cre- following one’s own spiritual nature: one’s own nature, ative self-expression, creative inspiration. Yet the state emitting spirit. of creative inspiration can be felt in different ways This method helps not only people of a material- according to the nature of the particular soul. For istic outlook, but also those with a more idealistic example, an individual with a more idealistic nature nature, to find their own psychotherapy. Here is an will experience spirituality and creative inspiration excerpt from a group session on creative self-expression quite differently than one with a more materialist that helps individuals to feel their own outlook and bent. understand whether they are more idealistic and reli- In Western tradition, the state of creative inspira- gious or natural-scientific in their own nature. This tion is often understood as something sent from session is called “Polenov and Rublev.” It begins by Above, as to a receiver. As such, this state is called viewing a painting by the Russian artist Vasiliy Freedom (Fromm), Logos (Frankl), Self-Actualization Polenov entitled “Christ and the Sinner.” In Polenov’s (Maslow), Personal Growth (Rogers), Psychosynthesis picture, Jesus is a young but wise man: wholly human, (Assagioli), Transpersonal State (Grof), and so forth. realistically depicted. This is realistic pictorial art on a This approach is more of an idealistic relationship to a religious theme. Then we view an icon by Anton transcendent spirituality. Roublev, the famous Russian artist and monk of the In Russia, there are more people of a materialistic 15th century. Here we see the face of Jesus, but we do nature of soul than in the West or the Far East. Such not know whether the neck is male or female. The people feel the state of creative inspiration as an emis- nose looks rather like a duck’s bill, and the hair is just sion of their own bodies. Because of this, the Russian an inarticulate mass. For the idealist it must be this notion of spirituality is broader; it includes not only way: the face of Christ should not be full-blooded and what is sent to us from Above, but is also Something alive, for it is the origin of Spirit. If the face were life- emitted by ourselves. In this way, we can say that like, we would not see the stream of Spirit flowing Pushkin and Chekov are spiritual writers, but without from his eyes. This image of Christ is the glance of the an idealistic, religious worldview; they are more in the transcendental world, of God. It reminds us of how natural-scientific stream. the girl in Gogol’s story speaks of the stars in the sky. This same distinction can be seen in psychotherapy. She says, “The angels open the windows of their houses.” Alexander Yarotsky (1908, 1917), a physician with a So, we have one image of spirit for idealists and materialistic worldview, is one of the fathers of Russian another for materialists. Spirit is no less important to clinical psychotherapy in the natural-scientific the materialist, but it is secondary: body (matter) emits approach. Yarotsky named his classical book, Idealism spirit. For such a person, his or her own body is the as a Physiologic Factor (1908). He understood idealism source of spirit. So, therapy by means of spiritual cul- as a state of captivity to altruistic ideals. In Russia, ture may be creative inspiration that takes a more reli- there are many intellectuals with this materialistic gious, idealistic form, or it may take the natural-scien- understanding of spirituality. tific form of creative self-expression. The approach is With the help of many others, I have worked out different for differing patients. this psychotherapeutic method over more than 30 years (see Burno, 2002, 2005). The essence of the method is as follows: The patients with painful feelings of inferiority study elements of clinical psychiatry, characterology, natural history, and psychotherapy in order to learn to express themselves creatively in har- mony with their natural characterological peculiarities. In order to live naturally, that is, in accordance with

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References Burno, M. E. (2005). Native psychotherapy in Russia. Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 7(1), 71-76. Burno, M. E. (2002). Therapy by means of creative self expression. Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 4(2), 49-53. Yarotsky, A. I. (1917). O psykoterapii pri hronicheskih vnutrenih boleznyah. Russky Vrach, 3(25-28), 433-444. Yarotsky, A. I. (1908). Idealizm kak fiziologichesky factor. Yuruev: Yuryevsky Universitet.

Correspondence regarding this article should be directed to the author at Weshniakowskaja Street 4-1-101 Moscow 111402 Russia

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Creativity lies at the Edge of Disintegration: Addressing the Shadow of Power and Leadership within Psychotherapy Training Organisations

Rupert Kinglake Tower

“One does not become enlightened by cut off the youth’s head (and found great pleasure in imagining figures of light, but by making the his evil game). The next day the czar issued the same darkness conscious. The latter procedure, how- challenge and again a bold young man suffered the ever, is disagreeable and therefore not popular.” same fate. (Jung, 1967, par. 335) On the third day there was another dinner party and the czar made the same offer. There was a third want to begin by telling you a Russian fairytale bold young man who said he could escape him, but loosely taken from Marie-Louise Von Franz (1987, only on the third attempt. He went out of the city and Ipp. 236-9). This tale, called “The Black Magician shape-changed into a weasel, a drill, and then a falcon Czar,” describes an encounter with the Shadow and and flew in front of the czar’s daughter’s window. She how to cope with it. In the discussion that follows, I saw him and opened the window and he flew in. will also draw upon six informal qualitative interviews Inside her room he turned himself back into a young that I conducted with senior, experienced psychother- man and had a nice private dinner with the czar’s apy colleagues outside of the Centre for Transpersonal daughter. Then he turned himself into a ring she put Psychology who act as representatives for their training on her finger. organisations within the Humanistic and Integrative However, the czar again consulted his magic book Section of the U.K. Council for Psychotherapy. Based and discerned the youth’s hiding place. “So,” he said, in large part on their experiences of encountering the “now your head must come off your shoulders!” But Shadow during difficult transitions and periods of the youth replied that it had been arranged that he conflict within their organisations, I will examine how should have three tries, and the czar let him go. power and leadership are held, and how later genera- The youth departed once more, shape-changing tions may unconsciously carry the Shadow for the into several animals, and was again admitted to the founders. Finally I wish to suggest innovative forms of czar’s daughter’s room where he turned into his own holding authority and leadership for the 21st century. form. They had a nice feast and spent the night togeth- er and tried to plan a way to escape the czar. The next The Black Magician Czar day he went to open fields and turned himself into a There was a czar who was a black magician and a blade of grass. But once again the czar consulted his very powerful ruler. One day he gave a dinner party for magic book, found the youth and demanded that his all his subjects and said to them: ”Whoever can run head must come off his shoulders, but the youth said away and hide himself from me shall have half my “No,” as he still had another chance to hide, the last kingdom and my daughter as his wife, and after my one, and the czar agreed. death he can rule over my whole empire.” Everybody The youth left the palace, and shape-changed into who sat there remained silent and turned pale. But a a grey wolf, a pike, and then a falcon. Flying over very bold young man got up and said, “Czar, I can mountains and cliff, he saw the nest of the Magovei hide from you and escape.” And the czar answered, bird (a magic bird in Russian fairy tales) on a green oak “All right, bold young man, hide yourself. Tomorrow I tree and dropped down into her nest. The bird was not will hunt for you and if you don’t succeed in hiding there at the time, but when she came back and saw the yourself, your head must come off!” The bold young bold youth sitting there, she said, “What imperti- man went off to hide, but the czar read his book of nence!” She seized him by the collar and flew with him magic and found out where the youth had gone, and out of the nest, across the blue sea and put him on the sent his servants to find him and bring him before magician czar’s window. The youth changed himself him. And he himself, the czar, took a sharp sword and into a fly, flew into the palace and then became a piece

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of flint, a firestone, and lay down by the fireplace. motivation to possess power. He is unable to recognise Meanwhile the black magician began to read and the limits of reality or the existence of the other. Any search his magic book, which told him the youth was possibility of dialogue is prevented through an atmos- in the Magovei bird’s nest, but his servants found the phere of terror and dehumanisation (Biran, 2003). nest but no youth. The czar looked in his book and An organisation is an ongoing drama enacted by thought that he must be there. The czar himself joined fallible players, where the idea of the organisation as a in the hunt. They hunted and hunted. The czar unity (the ego ideal) contrasts radically with reality, thought that, since he had not found the youth, he where the character of organisational life more viscer- could no longer be alive on the earth. ally resembles a “snakepit” in which “there must be for So they went back to the empire. The second and each of us, individually and collectively, a shameful, secret third day passed. One morning the maid got up and underside to organisational life” (Schwartz, 1990, p. started to lay the fire. She took the flint stone and 10). rubbed it on some steel; the stone flew out of her hand Experience of power dynamics within psychother- and there stood the youth. apy organisations seemed to indicate that more often “Good morning, mighty czar”, he said. than not leaders promoted initially a visionary drive “Good morning, bold young man. Now your towards personal and professional excellence and inte- head must come off your shoulders.” gration, which contained many inherent strengths, but “No, mighty czar,” the youth said, “you have over time this gradually tipped over into a narrow sought me for three days and had given up the search. form of perfectionism and inflated “magnificence” I have now come voluntarily. Now I should have half with an exaggerated focus on an organisational ideal the kingdom and your daughter as my wife!” that denied and became rapidly out of step with reali- The czar could do nothing, so the two were mar- ty, eventually in some cases leading to organisational ried and had a wonderful wedding feast. The youth decay and breakdown. became the czar’s son-in-law and got half the empire, What seemed increasingly to be held in the and on the death of the czar he was to ascend the Shadow in these instances were the qualities of ordi- throne. nary humanness–the permission to express fallibility, The “Black Magician Czar” describes a kind of fragility, or vulnerability, to be unsure or unclear some- incestuous situation between the father and the daugh- times about where the project was going, and to ter where the feminine principle is a captive of the acknowledge limitation–and a degree of trust in stay- masculine principle. The czar is a diabolical “negative ing with the mess and chaos of a creative, processing shadow” figure whose primary drive is to dominate space of not knowing, where it felt safe enough to and retain power. Those young men who also attempt question, debate, disagree and voice criticism. to adopt a power attitude are swiftly beheaded. Alongside this, there was a loss of recognition that a The black czar’s magical book seems to represent necessary part of being human was the acknowledge- a closed system of magic, which misinterprets the way ment and ownership of one’s own capacity for envy, of the feminine, misuses power, and seeks possession competitiveness, nastiness and destructiveness. through personal will alone. The hero in this tale suc- It was the denial of this reality, the failure to rec- ceeds because he is able to receive knowledge directly ognize faults within themselves and to discern the fan- from its natural source, which cannot be misused by tasy nature of the organisational ideal, that caused a rot evil forces, and he knows a way to approach the femi- to gain hold from within. Typically, any perceived nine principle so that he is helped three times. He rep- challenge to the leaders’ authority, or anyone who resents openness to a wider, deeper consciousness that dared to hold a different vision to the status quo would utilises wit and emotional intelligence, connects us be isolated, and these shadow qualities would be pro- with our spontaneity, immediacy, and an instinctual jected onto the imagined perpetrators. Anyone that living basic nature of the psyche. metaphorically speaking wished to “grow up” and assume responsibility for new ideas and new input that The Abuse of Power and Authoritarian Leadership deviated from or appeared to threaten the organiza- The tale of “the Black Magician Czar” expresses tional norm, was likely to be cut down in czar-like the debilitating effects of the ruthless drive and desire fashion. for power. The czar’s willingness to kill the bold fresh- The interviews also showed that when an organi- ness of ardent youth reflects a drama prevalent with an zation goes through the demise or departure of a omnipotent fantasy of omniscience, and his primary founder, a distinct transitional stage showed itself

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amidst the vacuum and chaos, prior to finding a re- devolve, and be shared by individuals that are able to framed identity. The Jungian analyst Robert Hobson provide many differing qualities of leadership in differ- calls this the “therapeutic community disease” (Hobson, ing circumstances according to their particular style, 1979, p. 232). He outlines three phases: (1) The com- strengths and personal attributes. ing of the Messiah; (2) the Enlightenment; and (3) the Creative methods such as these may help us to Catastrophe. A gifted individual steps forward within own, name and respect the destructive and creative the vacuum with revolutionary ideas opposed to the forces of the personal and archetypal Shadow that will original Vision and is experienced by self and others as always be present in some form or another within our magical, a potential Saviour Hero who will bring revi- organisational life. It is within the oft unspoken, talizing purpose to the organization. Initially a period unnoticed, unassuming acts of determination to bear of intellectual stimulation follows, there seems to be difference, and in open-hearted gestures of kindness inner cohesion; but outer groups are constellated, indi- and the courage of forgiveness, that possibility lies to vidual differences and anxieties are denied, and the co-habit more fruitfully with our Shadow sides and Shadow goes underground. However, inevitably the remain open to our unruly complexity amidst all its pain, death, rage and mourning for what was lost with savagery and beauty. the original founder has to be faced, and disillusion- ment, breakdown and usually unnamed destructive components of the process force themselves into con- References sciousness (Perry, 1991). The saviour fantasy must be Biran, H. (2003). The difficulty of transforming terror relinquished, and only then can the organization begin into dialogue. Group Analysis, 36(4), 490-502. to remain present with what Nigel Wellings and Bollas, C. (1987). The shadow of the object. London: Elizabeth McCormick refer to as “Fallow Chaos” by Free Association Books. facing the unpalatable but unavoidable journey that Gordon, L. W. (2005). Introduction to social dreaming: “to do or be something new we must first let go of some- Transforming thinking. London: Karnac. thing or some part of ourselves that is old” (Wellings & Greenleaf, R. (2003). The Servant-leader within: A McCormick, 2005, p. 98). transformative path (H. Beazley, J. Beggs, & L. C. There is an African proverb that holding power is Spears, Eds.). New York: Paulist Press. like holding an egg. Hold it too loosely, and it may Hobson, R. (1979). The Messianic community. In R. drop and fall; hold it too tightly, and it may break. It Hinshelwood & N. Manning, (Eds.), Therapeutic is in the holding of the tensions of these polarities that Communities (pp. 103-112). London: Routledge & the “unthought known” (Bollas, 1987) of the transcen- Kegan Paul. dent function can reveal itself. Jung, C. G. (1967). The collected works of C. G. Jung: There are several methods for mediating with Vol. 13. Alchemical studies (Bollingen Series 20, R. shadow influences that can aid such a process of inter- F. C. Hull, Trans.). Princeton, N.J.: Princeton nal self-examination. “Social Dreaming” is increasing- University Press. ly used within analytical training institutes and main- Perry, C. (1991). Listen to the voice within: A Jungian stream organisations to build a communal relationship approach to pastoral care. London: SPCK with the Shadow and unconscious processes. (Gordon- Publishing. Lawrence, 2005). Another emerging approach to lead- Schwartz, H. (1990). Narcissistic process and corporate ership and service is “servant-leadership” which decay: The theory of the organisational ideal. New emphasises an ethical awareness and appropriate use of York: New York University Press. power by the encouragement of a long-term, transfor- Von Franz, M-L. (1987). Shadow and evil in fairytales. mational philosophy to life and work – in essence a Dallas, TX: Spring Publications. way of being – that is committed to an individual’s Wellings, N. & McCormick, E. (2005). Nothing to personal growth within organisations and promotes a lose: Psychotherapy, Buddhism and living life.” sense of community (Greenleaf, 2003). Collective London: Continuum. leadership is yet another paradigm in which mutual interconnection configures the presence of collective leadership, where difference, messiness and diverse Correspondence regarding this article should be ideas remain and flourish but are held. The nature of directed to the author at leadership is no longer that of a spiritual parent to a [email protected] child, but of peer to peer, allowing leadership to shift,

Special Topic: Russian Soul 89

We Were Made for These Times

Tanna Jakubowicz-Mount

aving Jewish roots, studying mysical Judaism, el Sarraj (2002) observed, “The hopelessness that Buddhism and shamanism, I have followed comes from a situation that keeps getting worse, [is] a Hmany paths, finally arriving at this place with despair where living becomes no different than dying.” no name. Ain Sof, Holy Spirit, Great Spirit are among Even if spiritual emptiness is a phenomenon particular the many names for this one ground from which all to the West, it has great impact on the entire human life springs. But if you ask me what I believe in, I civilization. It is the spiritual starvation of the so-called might confess that I practice the religion of love, developed world that causes physical poverty and star- because re+ligare means reconnecting and love has the vation in underdeveloped nations. These “developed” greatest bonding power. My concern is how to make societies pump natural resources out of the soil of the this world a better place to live. Third World and dump back their junk and toxic Czech president Vaclav Havel, speaking at waste, thereby stripping of natural dignity and spiritu- Harvard University, said, “I am persuaded again and ality the inhabitants, who are left naked like slaves and again that, lying dormant in the deepest roots of most, beggars of a “better” world. In this way, both rich and if not all, cultures there is an essential similarity, some- poor nations are left spiritually bereft. thing that could be made—if the will to do so exist- Earth is being devoured because most people are ed—a genuinely unifying starting point for that new disconnected from the Source of Life, uprooted from code of human coexistence that would be firmly the earth, spiritually homeless, thirsty, unsated. This is anchored in the great diversity of human traditions” the cause of deep despair, fear, anger, oppression and (1995). Deep down in the ground there are the same wars—the emptiness inside us that leads us to reach seeds of truth, love, wisdom, compassion, peace and for everything outside us, to conquer other territories justice. It takes new moral energy to create new polit- and exploit natural resources. We have an ongoing his- ical will. We need politics of awareness based on tory of genocide and holocausts—a long chain of cruel morality and a new morality based on love for all liv- wars between oppressors and victims, and victims who ing beings. become oppressors. When we look at the world from an eagle’s eye How can we respond to this situation? How do we view, we see two struggling forces. The old order is a heal and seal the hole in the soul of our society? As Ian fragmented world based on the illusion of separate- Gordon Brown (1994) used to say, “The future is ness, battling for spheres of influence and control over brought into the present by people who conspire territories and human minds. The new order, set by together—that is, breathe together.” A saying attrib- unitive consciousness, perceives the world as one uted to the Hopi Indians says, “We are the ones we organism based on the shared ground underlying all have been waiting for.” In my vision I saw that the spiritual traditions. most urgent and beautiful task is helping people to tap There are no spectators in this struggle. We need into a deep source of spiritual abundance. A second, to establish direct connection between our spiritual equally important work is to learn how to transform practice and service for the world. My intention is to and reconcile inner conflict so we do not cast our join all people who are concerned about the state of shadow on the world. When we are deeply connected affairs in our world right now and who are awake to the whole, we feel relieved and happy, willing to enough to contribute to the process of healing, trans- contribute to common goodness. In this state of mind formation and reconciliation. We can all see that we can embrace and respect all diversities as a manifes- transpersonal and holistic awareness is becoming more tation of the One. popular. Why? Because this is the right answer to the In practical terms, I imagine this work to be one burning problems of the world and the painful dilem- of supporting already-existing trends in our culture ma of being human. such as: The real pain in the lives of most people may not 1. Promoting the renaissance of holistic culture, be about starvation as much as about lacking trust—a drawing from old spiritual traditions, cultivating deprivation of higher purpose and meaning. As Eyad the real nature of man as a manifestation of the

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true nature of all creation, reclaiming the sacred- References ness of life and death; Brown, I. G. (1994). Brochure of the third conference, 2. Enhancing the evolution of humankind from European Transpersonal Association. London. homo tribus to homo holos. The tribal human is el Sarraj, E. (2002). Suicide bombers: Dignity, despair, preoccupied mostly with the tribal drives of the and the need for hope. Journal of Palestine Studies, first three chakras—basically having to do with 31(4), http://peaceuk.co.uk.mdl-net.co.uk/ archive territory and survival. The holistic human is able /modules.php?name =News&file=print&sid=193, to raise awareness to the heart and the crown retrieved July 30, 2005 chakra level, and embrace the entire Earth com- Estes, C. P. (2003). “Letter to a young activist during munity; troubled times,” 3. Inspiring new women’s movements to reclaim http://www.mavenproductions.com/estes.html, feminine power and wisdom, and to bring in retrieved July 30, 2005 more love and respect for the Earth and all living Havel, V. (1995). Address delivered at Harvard University. beings; http://www.znak.com.pl/eurodialog/ed/0/havel.html.en, 4. Developing the politics of awareness, fostering a retrieved July 31, 2005. new sense of planetary consciousness that is inter- faith and multicultural; 5. Supporting culture and communication without Correspondence regarding this article should be violence; and directed to the author at [email protected] 6. Co-creating a new code of co-existence based on the values that underlie the great spiritual tradi- tions.

Indra’s diamond net is an ancient vision of the world in which all beings have the nature of a dia- mond, and exist in a boundless network of reflections and relationships. My personal vision is to set up a net- work of international action so we can inspire each other to do this most urgent work with the people who are within our reach. My idea is to create INDRA-net, standing for International Direct Radiant Action Network. We need to think about what kind of actions we can develop, so more people can gain access to spir- itual experiences, and find their way home. The guardians of the old order are very well armed and organized. We need to encourage each other to inten- sify our activities and make them more effective. I believe we have a special responsibility in this time in history. This is our opportunity to trigger the tipping point, to transform a minority perception into a majority embrace. In the words of Clarissa Pinkola Estes, “we were made for these times” (2003).

Special Topic: Russian Soul 91

READERS’ COMMENTARY

A Love Letter

Kidder Smith Bowdoin College

Suppose you see right through someone and that per- This is unrelationship. Already perfect, so son does not want you to see right through and becomes anybody’s promising would wreck the scene, horrified and runs away…. When you want something would turn the sweet free flow of flirt into an very badly, you do not extend your eye and hand auto- embarrassed stain, someone’s blood suddenly all matically: you just admire. Instead of impulsively making sticky between your fingers. So she hides, dis- a move from your side, you allow a move from the other torts, fabricates, seduces, betrays. Ah, pretty side, which is learning to dance with the situation. much that’s what happens, let’s hope I’m a good (Trungpa, 1976, pp. 88-89) dancer. And who will flirt with me? Maybe only So I fell for Kathleen. Sure, she’s a beauty queen, a Kat. Who else is pink enough, gone enough, heap smart, exceptionally sensual. She’s even a tantric. here enough? Who else could drop dyadic part- But here’s the thing: her whole mode of interaction nership (ugh, is that a psychiatrist’s evalua- with the world is seduction. Elusive, does anything tion?), meet in a jiffy, change minds forty times ever land? And how, then, to engage her? So I wrote by tiffin, and slam your breakfast clear against this love letter. the wall?

Dear Kat, Much love, I, an earnest young man, have been won- dering and wondering how you and I might Kidder truly meet. In preparation I have cleansed myself so staunchly, repairing all my kinks and Sounds like an ideal solution, right? Grand elusion’s crevices, sanding down the dance floor so that game, the ball as it hits the gut strings. But maybe it our dear feet wouldn’t get scuffed as we fox-trot wouldn’t be that much fun. So I wrote some codas. Here up and back the hall. But then it struck me that is the first, that of the romantic. there might be something else: dancing in The above comes from a great loneliness, and it space, no floor at all. It was flirt. tries to be all so exalted. Yet after all, there is still ordi- Flirt is just joydreadful, all delight and hor- nary life and ordinary desire. ror on the spot: nothing implies nothing. No I read The Myth of Freedom autobiographically, as means to measure sweet or slimy, to tell safe Trungpa’s own love story. Who will really play with from sex. Surface and depth closer even than him, who will stay with us all the way through? skin and flesh, it’s as if you give it all away every Elsewhere he writes: second, and get it all dribbling right on top of Do not trust. you, only nothing happened, and do tell me If you trust you are in your name again, sweetheart. Others’ hands. Short: no time for “pure” or “need” or It is like the single yak “fear” before it all moves off away. And in that That defeats the wolves. . . . absence she is as present as ever, or never, owned Remaining in solitude only in the sense that her smile seemed once to You can never be defeated. belong to her. So do not trust.

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For trust is surrendering oneself. Is there anyone who will ensure that your Never, never trust. corpse will be taken off the hook on the wall (Trungpa, 1998, pp. 13-14). behind Ereshkigal’s throne, fed the food and water of rebirth, and brought to the surface Ah, such an invitation, invocation of trust, such again? Yes, whispers Jesus, yes, I will come for romantic longing, such a flirt! you over and over and over until your immortal What does Kathleen want? To be the single yaki- soul no longer needs me. ni, yes. And, maybe, and surely beyond telling, to trust. In the goddess that she is, yes, and in the love I hold you, Kathleen, in my love. that she is, yes, and maybe in a human partner, I can- ** * not say, I must ask her at some point. The Last Word What does Kidder want? Ah, he’s blushing. He There is no last word, nor can there be a resolution wants it all: unrelationship’s brutal beauty, deep trust, in this. That’s the point, where bliss is pain is bliss. playflirt, kindness, all the faces of love. For Kali is ulti- *** mate love, and so is Kidder’s tender joy. May I have A friend of mine read this letter, he’s twenty-two, he e- this dance, Kat? Ever in the big truth. mails me: *** It is so fine, with your well-sharpened, almost Perhaps a bit demanding. So here is the second coda, that ancient tools. Kat flutters there in her constant of the goddess and dakini. pure aversion, turning her head to giggle when But what if Kali’s cutting isn’t the only play? What you are there admiring her loud HARKING if Kat and I were both the goddess, with full breasts neck. You don’t see the giggle. It is still so seri- and hips, swaying, bringing life as well as death, hold- ous, no, so fine, no, so sharpened, your tools. ing all warm forms, sisterhood, holding Kathleen’s Drop the tools more, drop your arm, don’t use warm hand, in her red turtleneck and jeans, side by your skin, trust your hairs, let that sway of your side. hairs dissolve into her body, it is more com- And the goddess can make love with the goddess, pelling to her insides. She can run from the always is: the sex of the ocean with the ocean, churn- truck’s interior designs, the large truck of ing, genderless, transshaping, the sea that never breaks, almost-flying concoctions, but if you spill the has no necessity of further opening. It is a very deep materials, break open the huge churning barrel passion, hard for humans to hear. of the truck, there it will splash for so long she Yes. But Kidder is also dakini, a sky-goer. If the will BATHE in it. The flirtdreadjoy is a place of goddess is all places at once, he shows up in all places, shaking invisible sheets, look out for the tiny all at once. If the goddess is love, giving and receiving, razors. he dances her love songs, in and out of key. If the god- * ** dess is form, he is the emptiness aspect of her forms, So Jesus wins this hand, his clear radiance and dissolving at touch, reuniting from within. If the god- gentle voice, calling. And in the end Kathleen didn’t dess glows her fullness, he dwells in the secret inter- want to play, that’s all. stices of her womb. When she has urgent play, he is utter stillness. When she is silent, his speech splashes like light warm June drops of rain. When the goddess References is seductive, dakini comes up behind and tweaks her Trungpa, C. (1976). The myth of freedom and the way boo. of meditation. Boston: Shambhala Publications. And when they sex, who is who is who? Which Trungpa, C. (1998). Timely rain—Selected poetry of rain falls, where is up or down? What wind, earth, Chogyam Trungpa. Boston: Shambhala whose water, swirl and swirl and swirl. Publications. * * * There is one more coda, that of Jesus. Trungpa, the goddess, Jesus. That’s a progression. Correspondence regarding this article should be T. is primal That. The goddess is his first manifesta- directed to the author at [email protected] tion, moving outward toward the human realm. Jesus emerges from her, is her intense refinement into pure love. Kathleen writes:

Reader’s Commentry 93

ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS

Mark Burno (Russia) holds a Doctor of Medical Vladimir Maykov, Ph.D. (Russia) is a leader of Science degree and is professor in the Department of transpersonal studies in Russia. He was one of the Psychotherapy of the Russian Medical Academy of first Soviet teachers of transpersonal psychology and, Postgraduate Education in Moscow and president of since 1990, has developed and taught more than 20 the Professional Psychotherapeutic League (national training programs in transpersonal therapy. In addition umbrella organization of the psychotherapists of to authoring several books, he founded an interna- Russia). He has 234 published works in English, tional project to publish transpersonal psychology French, Russian and other Slavic languages. texts in Russian, through which he has edited approx- imately 50 books. He also founded the Transpersonal Burton Daniels (United States) has been a counselor Institute in 1994 and the Institute of Transpersonal since 1987. He has had a wide range of training from Psychology in 1997, and serves as president of the psychodynamic to transpersonal psychotherapy, and Russian Association for Transpersonal Psychology and is currently working as a family therapist. He received Psychotherapy. a master’s degrees in psychology from Sonoma State University and Argosy University. He has been a Adam Rock (Australia) received a Ph.D. in psychology practitioner of Adidam since 1983 and currently lives from Charles Sturt University in 2005. His research in the ashram of his spiritual master, Avatar Adi Da interests include altered states of consciousness, the Samraj. ontology and epistemology of shamanic journeying imagery, and philosophical problems associated with Glenn Hartelius (United States) is a mind/body the- psychology. orist, clinician and teacher. He has a particular inter- est in developing critical methodologies for the felt Vitor Rodrigues (Portugal) has a private psychology/ sense. He is completing a Ph.D. in East-West psy- psychotherapy practice and is president of both the chology at the California Institute of Integral Studies. European Transpersonal Association and the Portuguese-Brazilian Transpersonal Association. He is Tanna Jakubowicz-Mount (Poland) is a psychothera- the author of eight books and has taught at the pist specializing in transpersonal therapy. She holds a University of Lisbon, the Nursing School of Evora, master’s degree in clinical psychology from Warsaw and the University of Algarve Faculty of Medicine. University and completed postgraduate studies in the He regularly lectures and conducts workshops and U.S. in Gestalt Therapy and Bioenergetics. She is journalistic interviews on transpersonal subjects. president of the Polish Transpersonal Forum and, as former vice-president of the European Transpersonal Dennis Patrick Slattery (United States) is Core Association, she organized the fourth European Faculty in the Mythological Studies and Depth Transpersonal Conference in Warsaw in 1997. Psychology Programs at Pacifica Graduate Institute. He has taught for 37 years, is author of over 225 arti- cles, reviews and popular culture essays for newspapers and magazines, as well as author or editor of eight books on psychology, literature, human embodiment, and poetry. His most recent books are: Grace in the Desert: Awakening to the Gifts of Monastic Life (2004) and Just Below the Water Line: Selected Poems (2004).

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Kidder Smith (United States) is Professor of History Ashley Wain (Australia) is a Ph.D. candidate in social and Asian Studies at Bowdoin College where he ecology at the School of Contemporary Arts at the teaches courses on East Asian cultures and religions. University of Western Sydney, where he is researching numinous and essential experience in actor training Steve Taylor (United Kingdom) Steve Taylor teaches and performance. He trained as an actor at the at the University of Manchester and Salford College, Victorian College of the Arts and has appeared in England. His essays and articles have appeared in a leading roles at various theatres, as well as devised variety of publications, including The Journal of and directed performances. He has also taught at var- Consciousness Studies, the Journal of DH Lawrence ious schools and companies for nearly a decade. In Studies and New Renaissance. His essay Primal addition, he trained in Holotropic Breathwork with Spirituality and the Onto/Phylo Fallacy appeared in Stanislav Grof and Tav Sparks and is the author of an IJTS vol. 22. He is the author of a study of time per- article on this experience, published in Radical Spirit: ception, Out of Time (Paupers' Press, UK). His book, Spiritual Writings from the Voices of Tomorrow. The Fall: the Evidence for a Golden Age, 6000 Years of Insanity and the Dawning of a New Era, was recently published by O books, with a foreword by Stanley Harald Walach (Germany/United Kingdom) is a Krippner. It was a Book of the Year in the research professor in psychology with the University Independent (UK) newspaper, and has been called of Northampton, and director of the European office "an astonishing work" (Colin Wilson) and "one of of the Samueli Institute. He holds a Ph.D. in clinical the most notable works of the first years of our cen- psychology and a Ph.D. in theory and history of sci- tury which I am convinced will become one of the ence. He is also the director of the Section for the most important books of the whole century" (Elias Evaluation of Complementary Medicine at Freiburg Capriles). He is married with a 2 year old son, and a University Hospital, Germany, where he has conduct- new baby boy. This may be the last paper he writes ed work in the evaluation and conceptual founda- for some time. tions of complementary medicine (mainly homeopa- thy, acupuncture and spiritual healing). Recently his Robert Tindall, M.A. (United States) is a long-time research interests have covered mindfulness medita- Zen student in the tradition of the Diamond Sangha tion and spirituality. He is cofounder and vice presi- and now practices at Ring of Bone Zendo. He has dent of the German Association of Transpersonal also worked extensively on the medieval genres of the Psychology, editor of the journal, Research in chivalric quest and has investigated Amazonian medi- Complementary Medicine/Forschende cines in Peru. He lives and teaches in Oakland, Komplementärmedizin, and is on the editorial board California. of a number of journals in the area of complementary medicine. Rupert Tower (United Kingdom) is a UK Council for Psychotherapy Registered Transpersonal Jason Wright (United Kingdom) is a transpersonal Psychotherapist working in private practice and and psychoanalytic psychotherapist. He is currently Director of the Centre for Transpersonal Psychology Chair for The Centre of Transpersonal Psychology based in London. He has worked in management and Clinical Director for the CORE Trust. He holds roles over the last 20 years in the arts and qualitative positions as a board member for both the European marketing, focusing on leadership and organization- Transpersonal Association and The College of al/group dynamics. More recently, he has led process Psychoanalysts, and has a private practice in central groups with addicts. He has presented and published London. As a UK Council for Psychotherapy regis- research papers for the UK Market Research Society, tered psychotherapist, he has held the office of Chair the European Society for Opinion and Marketing of the Psychoanalytic and Psychodynamic section. Research, and the British Journal of Social Psychology.

About the Contributors 95

BOARD OF EDITORS

Harris Friedman, Ph.D. Professor Emeritus Saybrook Graduate School and Research Center

Douglas A. MacDonald, Ph.D. Associate Professor University of Detroit Mercy

BOARD OF EDITORS

Manuel Almendro, Spain Liora Birnbaum, Israel Jacek Brewczynski, USA Søren Brier, Denmark Elias Capriles, Venezuela Michael Daniels, Great Britain John Davis, USA Don Diespecker, Australia Wlodzislaw Duch, Poland James Fadiman, USA David Fontana, Great Britain Joachim Galuska, Germany Laura Boggio Gilot, Italy Loyd Henriksen, Norway Daniel Holland, USA Bruno Just, Australia Sean Kelly, Canada/USA Jeffrey Kuentzel, USA S. K. Kiran Kumar, India Charles Laughlin, Canada Olga Louchakova, USA Axel Randrup, Denmark Mario Simões, Portugal Charles Tart, USA Rosanna Vitale, Canada John Welwood, USA

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EDITORIAL POLICY AND MANUSCRIPT SUBMISSION GUIDELINES

The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Special Topics: The second section contains several (IJTS) is dedicated to theory, research, practice, and articles dedicated to a specific theme or topic germane discourse in the area of transpersonal studies. to transpersonal studies. Examples of potential Transpersonal studies may be generally described as a themes/topics include the following: Qualitative and multidisciplinary movement concerned with the quantitative methodologies in transpersonal studies, exploration of higher consciousness, expanded contributions of specific disciplines to transpersonal self/identity, spirituality, and human potential. studies (e.g., transpersonal approaches in anthropolo- The IJTS publishes original theoretical, analytic, gy, psychology, medicine, sociology, ecology, biology, methodological, empirical (both qualitative and quan- art, and music); conceptions of consciousness; ecstatic titative), practice-oriented, and artistic articles which experience; systems of knowing; entheogenic/psyche- focus upon topics falling within the domain of delic research; applications of transpersonal theory transpersonal studies. The Journal is committed to and/or practice (e.g., related to global sustainability, maintaining a focus on transpersonal experience, con- health care, organizational systems, and psychothera- cepts, and practices while embracing theoretical, py); issues important to the development of transper- methodological, and cross-disciplinary pluralism; that sonal studies (e.g., history of transpersonal studies, is, IJTS is committed to ensure that the fullest possible transpersonal studies in designated geographically or range of approaches to inquiry and expression are rep- politically bounded areas such as in Europe or China); resented in the articles published. Though there is no and postmodern perspectives on transpersonal studies. restriction on who may publish in the IJTS, emphasis is given to the publication of articles from a spectrum Reader Comments: A third section of the journal is of international contributors. dedicated primarily to reader reactions, responses, and comments to articles published in IJTS. Emphasis is Each edition of the IJTS consists of three sections: given to reader comments that are scholarly in nature and which clarify and/or extend concepts and/or ideas General: The General section is dedicated to original discussed in published articles. However, also included articles of high quality which are judged to be of are reviews of notable recently published books, arti- potential interest to a wide audience of readers. cles from other journals, and special events (e.g., profes- Articles published in this section embody eclectic top- sional conferences). ics of study and/or approaches to inquiry and expres- sion. Ideally, a diversity of articles on theory, research, and practice/application will find representation in each edition of the journal.

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Manuscript Submission scripts as an IBM PC-compatible attachment in Word All manuscripts should be written in English and pre- or Wordperfect format. pared in accordance with the guidelines of the most If submitting on disk, send an IBM PC formatted recent edition of the Publication Manual of the CD rom or 3.5" floppy disk containing a copy of the American Psychological Association. When submit- manuscript to the address below. The disk should be ting manuscripts for the General or Special Topics sec- clearly labeled with authors’ names, title of submitted tions, include an abstract (up to 120 words) and a manuscript, file name, and format (e.g., Word, biographical statement for each author (up to 175 Wordperfect). words). For manuscripts submitted to the Reader For hardcopy submissions, send four copies of Comments section, an abstract and biography are not manuscripts to the address below: required. Manuscripts for the General and Special Topics Douglas A. MacDonald, Ph.D. Editor sections should not exceed 10,000 words (including International Journal of Transpersonal Studies text, references, notes, etc.). Submissions for the Department of Psychology Reader Comments section should not exceed 4,000 University of Detroit Mercy words (including text, references, etc.) and the cover 4001 West McNichols Road letter should specify the IJTS article, book, article Detroit, Michigan, USA 48221 from another source, or special event which is the basis of the manuscript. Manuscripts submitted to IJTS must be original and neither previously published nor under considera- tion for publication elsewhere. Submission of a manu- script assumes commitment to publish it in the IJTS if it is accepted. All statements are the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the editors or staff of IJTS. Contributing authors are responsible for obtaining written permission, where appropriate, to reprint copywritten material. Back Issues Editors review all manuscripts at time of submis- The following back issues are available: sion to assess their general suitability for publication in the IJTS. Manuscripts submitted for the General or IJTS Packet 1 $50 Special Topics sections which are deemed suitable for Volumes:- 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, and 22 consideration for publication are subsequently peer- reviewed. Manuscripts deemed unsuitable are returned IJTS Packet 2 $30 to the corresponding author without undergoing the Volumes: 17, 18, and 19 peer-review process. Manuscripts submitted for the Reader Comments section may or may not receive peer review. To Order: www.saybrook.edu, 415.249.1380, or When a manuscript is accepted for publication, the Send Order Request to: author will be asked to send a hard copy of the final Saybrook Graduate School and Research Center draft accompanied by a matching disk or, if possible, 747 Front Street, 3rd Floor provide the final draft to the editors in the form of an San Francisco, CA 94111 e-submission. Thereafter, page proofs and a copyright transfer agreement will be sent to the first author and Destinations in the USA are sent via media mail. For must be returned within one week. Priority mail, add US$3.95 per volume, or US$7.50 Manuscripts may initially be submitted in hard per IJTS packet. Non-USA destinations are sent via copy, on disk, or, most preferably, through electronic surface mail. For airmail, add US$15.00 per volume, means. The Publisher and Editors are not responsible or US$20.00 per IJTS packet. (Canada and Mexico for the loss or damage of materials sent to them. add US$4.00 per volume or US$6.00 per packet). Electronic submissions should be emailed to Douglas A. MacDonald, Editor, at the following email Make checks or money orders payable to: address: [email protected]. Please send manu- Saybrook Graduate School and Research Center

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