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Home , Aurelio Saffi, Bersaglieri, Giuseppe Garibaldi, Giuseppe Mazzini, Statuto Albertino

Santa Reparata International School of Art Academic Year 2016/2017 Contemporary professor dr. Lorenzo Pubblici Study Guide 1. The Italian Unification The notion of Risorgimento in Italian history What is the Risorgimento? • Traditional view: 1815-1871 • Modern view: 1789-1918 • Political Risorgimento and Literary Risorgimento Vittorio Alfieri (1749-1803) and other intellectuals

Italy is a Country where the national culture was born before the Nation itself. Let’s see the steps towards the creation of the idea of Italy • Ancient Roman Empire: Augustus and the reform of the provinces • Free citizens were Roman citizen • 476: fall of the Roman Empire, the peninsular unity is not broken • VI Century: Byzantine-Gothic war • End of the VI Century: Lombard invasion, the Peninsula loses its geographical unity • The fusion of the two elements: germanic and latin

The Franks • The invasion of the Franks (Charlemagne) breaks the Regnum Langobardorum • The Franks and the desire of autonomy of the Northern Italian cities • The attempts for an unitarian kingdom by Frederick 2nd, and birth of the Communes • The Roman Church remains the only identitarian power in Italy The intellectuals

• The Regional States and the Signorie, late Middle Ages • The Humanism and the Rinascimento: Italy, heir of . • Complaining of the actual situation (all the rulers in Italy are foreigners) Dante, Petrarca and Boccaccio and the Italian language • Cosimo dei Medici and Lorenzo as Pater Patriae • Machiavelli and Guicciardini: the central State and the Federal one

The French and the Napoleonic period

• The French Revolution, the Enlightenment and the results in Europe and in Italy • Napoleon invades Italy (1796). It’s the first unification of modern times • The unitarian ideals penetrates in depth of the Italian ... • 1815: Gioacchino Murat and the Proclama di Rimini

The ideals The Bourgeoise and the two Liberal and Enlightenment ideas Romantic ideals: The different souls of the Italian patriotic movement: 1. Romantic (see in Europe) 2. Republican (see and his ) 3. Early-socialist (see here to know more about early ) 4. Filo-Savoy (the Royal House that ruled -) 5. Anticlericals 6. Catholics and filo-papals 2. The Risorgimento Since the 1820’s riots to the Expedition of the Mille • After the (1815) Napoleon is defeated. • It’s the beginning of the Restoration • The Santa Alleanza is stipulated by the winners Austria--Russia (then also GB and France joined the Alliance)

The secret and the 1820’s riots and the 1820’s riots • The ideas of the French Revolution were not swept away: the literary saloons • Many of these saloons turned soon into secret societies, with conspiracy aims • The CARBONERIA, founded in 1814 with anti-Napoleonic purposes in • 1817: first riot provoked by the Carboneria, in Macerata • 1820: Rebellion of Cadice, Spain • It was the beginning of an European phenomenon • 1820-21: Constitutional Riots

The 1820’s riots in Europe • July 25, 1820: rebellions in • July 1820: Naples is conquered by the rebels, leaded by general Guglielmo Pepe • March 1820: the Austrian army intervenes in Naples and breaks the resistance of the rebels, the situation ante quem is re-established • January 1821: The riots explode in • Same situation in , where the revolt could not start because of spies who collaborated with the Austrian police. • Many patriots were arrested and executed • 1823: the 1820’s riots can be considered settled, but the ideas were more than alive.

The 1830’s The 1830’s revolutions began in France, why? • The new King, Charles X was a reactionary 1. Abolished the drafted by his predecessor, Luis XVIII 2. Gave many privileges to the Aristocracy and the Clergy 3. Started a military campaign against Algeria

The events • July 1830: Charles X drafted new laws 1. Right to vote just for Aristocracy 2. New Parliament, devote to him 3. Abolished of the press

It’s the Revolt! The people force the king to escape in England New King: Luis Philippe. A Constitutional King

In the rest of Europe • Belgium: the riots were successful Poland: the revolution was a disaster • : a total failure • March, 3rd 1832: The arises against the Austrians • Same year: in Turin, the memoirs of (Milanese patriot) are published in Turin • Pellico openly reported the hard conditions of the Austrian jails • The book was a heavy hit against the credibility of Austria • The anti-Austrian feeling is enforced in Italy • July 1837: revolt in Sicily. arises against the Burbons.

Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872) and the Republican ideals1 • Genoese, revolutionary, convinced republican and member of the Carboneria • 1831: is forced to quit from Italy, as rewarded by the police • Founds a new secret association: the Giovine Italia • Federal and Republican State and Federal Europe • , shared Mazzini’s program

The 1848 and the “spring” of the peoples • The 1848 is the year of scientific congress • 1846-48: the biennium of the Reforms: , Papacy and others • 1848: Europe is burning! Revolts occur all over the continent • It is the beginning of the preparation decade for Italy • March: Riots in Milan against AustriaTHE CINQUE GIORNATE: 18-22 March, the Milanese people rises against the Austrian, it’s an heoric fight and the Austrian army is forced to leave the city • Piedmont declares war on Austria • The Papacy and the Kingdom of Due Sicilie Join the Piedmontese army • The king of Piedmont, Carlo Alberto, invades Lombardy

1 Take a look at this important text written by Mazzini. You will understand his ideas very clearly. On Mazzini’s life there is a good page here. On Wikipedia the voice “Giuseppe Mazzini” is good even if not excellent. Take a look at it anyway. • It’s the First War of Independence, 1848

Meanwhile, the Revolution moves from France, to Italy, Poland Raising in Berlin and Vienna April 1848: All the Italian States join the Piedmontese in the war against Austria

But: April, 29th: • The turns back, and recalls his army (Austria is a catholic empire!) • The others do the same, Piedmont is left alone against Austria May, 30th • Piedmont defeats Austrian in Goito, but do not take advantage of this victory and the Austrians can reorganize the army

1849 February The Granduca of Tuscany escapes from his region and hides in Temporary govern in Florence March • Piedmont attacks Austria again, is defeated • In Rome is formed a new govern, the Repubblica Romana, leaded by the three: Giuseppe Mazzini, and Aurelio Saffi • Very “soft” policy in order not to attract too much attention in Europe, but France cannot accept the pope to be dethroned • French intervention in Rome, but the Republicans resist, also thanks to a young general: Giuseppe Garibaldi • July 3rd, 1849: the French army entered Rome and established the Papal power in the city.

1850 April, 12th • Pope, Pius 9th is settled back under French protection • The Republican Constitution is abolished and a strict reactionary policy is adopted November 1850 Count Camillo Benso di Cavour (see below), leader of the Piedmontese Liberal party is nominated Minister of Trade of the Kingdom of Piedmont: Cavour will be a key figure in the Unification of Italy

Failure of 1848/49 riots •The failure of the 1848/49 riots was the failure of a moderate and democratic program (fall of the Roman and Florentine ): 1.The romantic feeling fades 2.The Risorgimento assumes now a political feature • In Italy, the patriotic movement is now in the hands of the Sabaudian Monarchy (Savoy), and Count Camillo Benso of Cavour

Italy would have been unified not by the people, but by three fundamental elements: 1. Diplomacy 2. French military support 3. Annexing

• The modest popular participation to the unification process is a big problem, never solved completely in Italy • For example, the popular revolts in , around the 1860’s, were mostly for the peasants to obtain the property of uncultivated lands, they had nothing to do with an idealistic project of unified Italy

However, still in the 1850’s, the situation in Europe was not back to normality at all • 1850’s: revolts in Milan, Naples, Sicily. Mazzini’s ideals

Camillo Benso di Cavour2 (1810-1861), the “architect” of the Risorgimento • 1850: Cavour enters the Piedmontese (see above)

2 See here. • 1850: is appointed Prime Minister

The crucial years: 1859-60 • 1858: Cavour signs the alliance with France. • Accordi di Plombieres • Piedmont needed now a casus belli • Cavour provokes the reaction of Austria...

Giuseppe Garibaldi3 (1807-1882) • Mazziniano, revolutionary and great soldier • Is banished and goes to South America (1835) • Leads revolutions in and Argentina

The wars of independence4 • Austria declares war on Piedmont: • April 26, 1859: France intervenes, the Italian States want to join the Kingdom of Piedmont and declare the annexation Napoleon 3rd can’t continue the war because: 1. Discontent in France because of the heavy losses (human and material) 2. Fear by the French Catholics of a possible conquest by Piedmont of Rome • The Unification wasn’t in the treaties signed in Plombierès, • France turns against Piedmont • France signs the armistice with Austria, it’s a disaster for Piedmont • But another possibility appears... The will of independence of all the central Italian states

3 See here.

4 See here. 3. The Unification of Italy The spedizione dei mille • The Southern kingdom was the biggest and hardest to conquer (a big State, with a big army and tightly allied to the main Catholic European Nations). • An army of circa 93,000 soldiers • One of the most modern sea fleet in Europe • Also, to go to the South, it was necessary to pass through the Papacy

• Cavour did not want to extend the national unification down south, too dangerous • But he knew that the Italy without the South would have been a mutilated Italy • Also The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was diplomatically isolated • Had a young, very inexpert king: Ferdinand II • The popular masses lived in discontent and claimed for a change

• Giuseppe Garibaldi offered to organize an expedition of volunteers to conquer the South • It was a great chance to transform the Risorgimento in a popular movement • Many people, especially young, left their own cities, studies, families to go into a far land and fght for an ideal of freedom and • Garibaldi promised he would have conquered Sicily and take the power to form a temporary dictatorial govern to abolish taxes on grain, abolish taxes on cereals, abolish rents on lands, reform the latifondo

La spedizione MAY 5, 1860 • 1162 men, all volunteers, sailed from Quarto (see map), the younger was 10! • MAY 14, the MILLE are in Sicily • February 13 1861 the Bourbons are exiled

MARCH 17, 1861 Italy is a Nation! In synthesis: • we can distinguish three phases of Risorgimento: 1. (1847-1849) Preparation • revolutionary movements • anti-Austrian wars (5 days of Milan) • failure of the republican program

2. (1859-1860). Realization • Alliance with France and the Emperor Napoleon 3rd • Piedmont of Cavour and Vittorio Emanuele II unified Italy

3. (1870-1919). Collapse • Conquest of Rome • Rise of Liberal State • WWI

4. A Nation, at last! Or not? Italy and the Liberal State In 1870: 1. Italy is a united Nation 2. Rome is the capital of Italy 3. The Constitution of Italy is the Statuto Albertino, drafted in 1848 by the king of Carlo Alberto

Italy can be defined a Liberal State why? Italy is a State whose objectives are: 1. Defense of liberty and inviolable of citizens 2. Constitution that recognizes and grants fundamental rights 3. State’s sovereignty controlled by the three powers Legislative, and Judicial

The Liberal State is not an absolutist Monarchy, nor a , why? • The Power of the king comes not from divine will (absolutist monarchy), nor from the People (democracy) • It depends on the NATION (those citizens actively involved in the Italian political life)

But the Liberal State in Italy is a newborn, and has many problems: In Foreign Politics: 1. Occupation of Rome (questione romana, harsh relations with the Pope especially after the conquest of Rome, in 1870) 2. Difficult relation with Great European Nations 3. The absence of a unique foreign politics

B. Internal politics: 1. Italy is not a State, but it is not a Nation yet, too many differences 2. Education 3. The creation of a unique, homogeneous Judicial system 4. Communications 5. Public offices 6. The creation of a National taxation system 7. The creation of a National Army (what to do with the Garibadini?) 8. The Brigantaggio 9. Economy, a huge difference between North and South

Brigantaggio, brothers in arms • Was it a civil war? Very different opinions • The name comes from Brigante/brigand, a person that usually lives in a gang and by pillage and robbery

1861-1866 Why was the Brigantaggio born? 1. Misery, social unrest, great disappointment after the Mille experience 2. No land to peasant (Garibaldi had promised it, the unified Kingdom did not give any piece of land to the peasants) 3. The Burbons’ Army had been disbanded, thousands of unemployed 4. The war had stopped industry and agriculture in the South 5. Hard taxation (Piedmont needed money): 10 new taxes were introduced 6. Compulsory military service (40,000 deserted)

1863: Pica Legislation • A hard repression of the pheonomenon: • This legislation caused more victims than the whole Risorgimento • The repression: 1861: 20,000 bersaglieri were sent to the South • The year after, they were more than 50,000, one year after: more than 100,000

Just born, Italy was already divided.

5. Italy and its first challenge as a Nation In 1914 Europe was politically divided in two BLOCKS: 1. TRIPLE ALLIANCE (Germany, , Italy) 2. TRIPLE ENTENTE (France, , Great Britain)

1914. The World at war A graphic depiction of the state of international relations in pre-WWI Europe. Italy joined the Triple Entente in April 1915

CAUSES • Unification of Germany in 1871 • Uneasy balance of powers in Europe, among the Great Powers in the opening years of the 20th Century • French resentment over the loss territory to Germany in the 19th Century • Growing competitions on the Colonies between Britain and Germany • The Balkans question

Why the war? • June, 28th 1914 assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the Austro- Hungarian throne, by a Bosnian Serb. • Austria-Hungary's demands for revenge against the Kingdom of led to the activation of a series of alliances which within weeks saw most European powers at war. • Because of the global empires of many European nations, the war soon spread worldwide.

1914 • After new German attempt to involve Italy in the confict, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Sidney Sonnino, answers that Italy will remain NEUTRAL • The country is divided in two parts: 1. Interventisti, who wanted to join The Alliance 2. Neutralisti, who wanted to remain neutral

1915: Italy at war • August 3rd, 1914: Italy declares its neutrality • The Government is inclined to the participation, against the majority of the Parliament • The Parliament firmly contrary • April 26th, 1915: Italy decides to join the Entente • It’s the Pact of London: Alliance with the Entente and war on the Alliance • The Italian Prime Minister, Salandra, resigns, but is then confirmed • Italy goes off to war because of the will of a minority

THE FACTS • May 22nd - 23rd The Government approves several decrees to join the war. • Diplomatic relations with Germany are broken

May, 24th 1915 • The operations are leaded by General • Italy declares war against Austra-Hungary • Italian troops pass the Eastern Border, on the river Isonzo

The first year of war • June, 23 First Italian offensive of the river Isonzo • Frontal attack to Austria, many soldiers die, but with no results • July, Second offensive of the Isonzo, no results • Italy declares war to Turkey, but not to Germany (it will be in august 1916) • October, Third offensive of the Isonzo, until november 4th. • November, Fourth offensive of the Isonzo • In the 4 battles on the river Isonzo the loses 62,000 soldiers, 170, 000 seriously wounded (one fourth of all the forces) • August, 18th 1917: Great Italian offensive on the Isonzo river, 165, 000 men (dead or wounded) • September, 18th 1917: General Cadorna orders his generals the sospension of the offensive, and defend, but does not give any instructions for this defense

Caporetto! October, 24th 1917 • The Eastern Front collapses under German-Austrian pressure • The Austrian troops surround the , it is the disaster of Caporetto, thousands soldiers escape, sure that war is lost and over • This defeat was a tragedy for Italy: • 11,000 dead; 29, 000 injured; 280, 000 prisoners. • Almost 700, 000 soldiers left the army and escaped to the plans

Generals Cadorna is expelled General Diaz became the commander in chief of the Italian Army

• The USA declared the war to Germany on april, 7th 1917 • The Italian Army, after the defeat of Caporetto, reacted and won the great battle of the Piave river, june, 15th – 23rd 1917 • Austrian army is destroyed • The war ended in November 1918

Huge consequences, for the world 1. Embargo on Germany: more than 800,000 civilians died because of malnutrition. 2. The Versailles Treaty: June 28th, 1919. 3. The Spanish Epidemic. 4. The Russian Revolution In Italy • Italy lost 680,000 men + more than 150,000 dead because of disease, or after injures... • The most of the victims were peasants and workers • Only part of the territory promised to Italy was actually given • In Italy...

GERMANY High costs for the defeat, hard condition for the , huge public debt

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY The empire disappeared, too old, to out of date for the new political movements New States were created: Austria Hungary Bohemia Croatia Slovakia

BRITISH EMPIRE High costs, became one of the bigger debtors in the world

OTTOMAN EMPIRE The Empire disappeared and its territory divided by the winners

RUSSIA The revolution and the end of the empire

USA The real winners of the war, low losses, high international prestige.