Field D a Y Review

Home , German Corpse Factory, Michael Keogh (soldier)

Cultural History/Irish Studies History/Irish Cultural

UNIVERSITY OF NOTRE DAME NOTRE OF UNIVERSITY – PUBLICATIONS DAY FIELD

FIELD DAY REVIEW DAY FIELD 8. 2012 8.

8. 2012 Inside Back: Murlough Bay and Fair Head, Co. antrim, antrim, Co. Head, Fair and Bay Murlough Back: Inside Images) 1916. Pictures/Getty Friday life Good on submarine vandivert/time German a william from by landed (Photo Casement Roger where Bay, tralee Strand, Banna showing view a Front: Inside collection. private Photo: 1953. antrim, Co. Bay, Murlough commemoration, Casement Roger Cover: c . 1890. (Photo by Robert welch/Sean Sexton/Getty Images) Sexton/Getty welch/Sean Robert by (Photo 1890. .

Editors Seamus Deane Ciarán Deane

Design Red Dog Design Consultants www.reddog.ie

Fonts Headlines — Gill Sans 24/28 Body Copy Essays/Reviews — Sabon 9/12

Paper Stock McNaughton’s Challenger Offset

Field Day Review is published annually by Field Day Publications in association with the Keough-Naughton Institute for Irish Studies at the University of Notre Dame.

ISSN 1649-6507 ISBN 978-0-946755-54-7

Field Day Review Keough-Naughton Institute for Irish Studies 58 Merrion Square Dublin 2 Ireland [email protected] www.fielddaybooks.com FIELD DAY REVIEW 2012

Angus Mitchell 5 ‘A Strange Chapter of Irish History’: Sir Roger Casement, Germany and the 1916 Rising Roger Casement 23 Diary of Roger Casement, 1914–16 Part I: My Journey to the German Headquarters at Charleville, annotated by Angus Mitchell Roger Casement 47 A Last Page of my Diary, with an Introduction by Angus Mitchell Angus Mitchell 85 ‘Phases of a Dishonourable Phantasy’ Amy E. Martin 127 Representing the ‘Indian Revolution’ of 1857: Towards a Genealogy of Irish Internationalist Anticolonialism

Willie Smyth 149 Atlas of the Irish Rural Landscape (2nd Ed) and Historical Geography

Joseph A. Buttigieg 167 The Alternative Communism of Lucio Magri

Ronan Sheehan 181 ‘Sub Nomine Columbae / In the Name of Columba’

Seamus Deane 207 The End of the World Field Day review

4 We Are Making a New World, painting by Paul Nash (1889–1946) from WW1 ‘A Strange series. Courtesy Imperial War Museum © Lebrecht Music & Arts/Corbis Chapter of Irish History’: Sir Roger Casement, Germany and the 1916 Rising

Angus Mitchell

These two previously unpublished excerpts from the diary kept by Roger Casement during his eighteen months in Germany, from October 1914 to April 1916, provide some critical insight into the international context of the 1916 Rising. They show Casement to have had a candid, prophetic grasp of the tragic turmoil of his age and Ireland’s historic location within that turmoil. Why then, in the writing of the history of the First World War, has Casement’s voice been so unremittingly ignored and sidelined? Part of the reason lies perhaps in the narrative of these two essential moments on his path to the gallows: his journey to the Western Front in November 1914 and his negotiations with the

Field Day Review 8 2012 5 Field Day review

Roger Casement, 1915. © Hulton-Deutsch Collection/ CORBIS

German government in the weeks before renegade traitor and done its utmost to his return to Ireland aboard a submarine in forget the inconvenient truths exposed by April 1916. the clear logic of his ‘treason’. Both these positions are expediently simplified in and Independent Ireland has found it hard to by the toxic dualism of his reputation as incorporate into its foundational history British ‘traitor’ or Irish ‘martyr’. From his the narrative of this decorated imperial years working within the inner circle of official who played a pivotal role in both imperial power, Casement had developed the intellectual and practical formation an intimate knowledge of international of the Irish Volunteers and then returned diplomacy and an acute awareness of the to Ireland to try and stop the Rising. intensifying use and power of propaganda Equally, Britain has turned its back on the and of covert actions as instruments of

6 ‘A Strange Chapter of Irish History’

state control. His insight into the modern officials in positions of influence. Some, like mechanisms of transnational power had the Celtic scholar and philologist Professor been deepened by his involvement with Kuno Meyer, were involved in the Cultural Irish revolutionary politics in the build- Revival and Irish language movement; up to the Rising. His unique composite of others, such as Count von Blücher and the establishment and revolutionary experience Baron von Nordenflycht, were friends he provided an international dimension to had made during his consular postings. Ireland’s revolution and bequeathed to it an Within days he had established contact ineradicable anti-colonial dynamic. with some of these people, and with the After undertaking two investigations German Foreign Office. Over the next into crimes against humanity in the Congo few weeks, he met with some of the most and northwest Amazon during twenty senior officials in the German government. years of official service, Casement resigned He remained in Germany for the next from his post as the British consul general year-and-a-half, engaged with the German in Brazil, in August 1913. His energies government in discussions of strategy and were then channelled into the Home Rule inciting anti-imperial subversion amongst crisis and the paramilitarization of Irish the groups of itinerant revolutionaries who politics that followed the signing of the passed through Berlin during these months. Ulster Covenant. He was a key figure in Casement had three fundamental aims the founding of the Irish Volunteers in during his mission to Germany. His first November 1913, taking part in a series of priority was to secure German help for recruiting rallies across Ireland over the the cause of Irish independence. This was next six months. In the summer of 1914, his partly achieved with the Declaration of plan to run guns into Ireland for the Irish Goodwill, circulated on 20 November Volunteers—hatched with the collaboration 1914, in which the German government of the historian Alice Stopford Green, and openly expressed its peaceful and non- the authors Erskine Childers and Darrell belligerent intentions towards the Irish Figgis—was successfully accomplished people. Over Christmas 1914, a more with the landing of the arms shipment at comprehensive treaty of ten articles was Howth on board the Asgard. The success agreed to, which set out the conditions of the plan so elevated him within Irish- for the formation and deployment of an American revolutionary ranks, that when Irish Brigade. Casement’s second priority Britain declared war on Germany a week was to work as a propagandist and to later, Casement was already in the US, educate the German people about the headlining a series of fund-raising rallies situation in Ireland so as to obtain public and being fêted by the IRB veteran John support once the German government Devoy and the Clan na Gael chief Joseph threw in its lot with the Irish people. This McGarrity. In early October, with the propaganda campaign involved Casement support of the German ambassador in the in a crusade against the British government US, Johann Heinrich von Bernstorff, he left and a number of its senior statesmen; the New York under a false identity. Having viciousness of the response had important successfully foiled an assassination plot in and disfiguring effects upon the status Norway hatched by the British Minister of his own earlier official investigations (ambassador), Mansfeldt de Cardonnel into crimes against humanity. His third Findlay, he arrived incognito in Berlin on objective was to raise an Irish Brigade from 31 October 1914. among captured POWs and turn them During his years in the British Foreign into an efficient fighting unit to help in the Office, Casement had built up an extensive independence struggles in Ireland and in network of international support: this Egypt. Some years later, when reflecting included a number of German friends and on these three dimensions of Casement’s

7 Field Day review

Johann Heinrich von Bernstorff, German ambassador to Mexico and the US 1908–17.

German mission, John Devoy commented: a secret visit to the German headquarters 1 John Devoy, Recollections ‘Casement did his best in all these things, at the Western Front to meet with senior of an Irish Rebel (New York, 1929), 432. but did the first ineffectively, succeeded representatives in the German Foreign admirably in the second, and failed badly in Office and at the German General Staff. the third.’1 His presence in Germany was still officially The two diary extracts published here unacknowledged and he travelled under the conveniently bracket the beginning and end assumed name of ‘Mr. Hammond’. After of his eighteen months in Germany. The successfully convincing the necessary senior first excerpt covers the days, from 17 to officials of the sincerity of his purpose, his 19 November 1914, when Casement made

8 ‘A Strange Chapter of Irish History’

2 Correspondence is held in identity was revealed on his return to Berlin During these months, a combination NLI MSS 17026 & 17027. on 20 November. of tropical fever and nervous exhaustion The news may have taken the public by forced Casement to retire to a sanatorium surprise, but the British security services near Munich, where he spent several weeks had been on Casement’s trail for many in early 1916; it was then that he heard the months by then; well in advance of this news that the plans for the Rising were well public admission of his treason, Casement advanced. Despite various ailments and low had become a priority of different levels of energy, he made one last effort to intelligence agencies in Britain. Such was exert his influence to stop the Rising or, the urgency of their need to capture, failing that, to return to Ireland to take overthrow and subsequently control his part in it. The second extract—covering the legacy, that it drove British intelligence period from 17 March to 8 April 1916—is chiefs into a vortex of conspiracy and the diary he kept in the last weeks of his intrigue. The recent releases of intelligence mission to Germany. It details his high- files held by different security services level meetings with representatives from show that Casement was prioritized as the the German General Staff, the German first serious counter-subversion target of Foreign Office and the Admiralty, before the war, and considerable resources were he embarked on board a submarine bound deployed to unveil his plans and capture for Ireland. him. The efforts to buy the loyalty of In the sixteen months separating these his manservant, Adler Christiensen, by two extracts, it is apparent how his attitude the British Minister Findlay, provided to Germany’s political authorities had Casement with plenty of ammunition undergone a sea-change. His initial belief in for his propaganda campaign against the the sincerity of the support of the German nefarious activities of the British Foreign General Staff for Irish independence had Office; he spent much time and energy evaporated well in advance of his departure exposing the assassination plot. from Germany. Negotiations with some By the spring of 1915, as the plans to of the most senior officials in the German raise the Irish Brigade had largely failed Foreign Office and German General and as Germany began to pull back Staff had turned acrimonious and were from its support for the cause of Irish undermined by suspicion and distrust. independence, Casement’s health began to At times, Casement’s inner reflections deteriorate under the increasing pressure border on the paranoid. His sympathies of the worsening situation. Much of his lay with the German people who were in time was consumed in writing articles for thrall, as he saw it, to the curse of Prussian The Continental Times and the Gaelic militarism. In November 1914, Casement American, revealing secrets about the had believed Germany would win the war; British state and contesting Britain’s this was a view he no longer entertained justification for going to war. In an effort when he boarded the submarine in to improve matters, the Supreme Council April 1916. of the IRB in Ireland sent out Joseph Mary Plunkett to try to revitalize relations with the German General Staff. Plunkett’s mission was followed by the arrival in The Mystery of the Casement Diary the autumn of Robert Monteith, who took over the day-to-day running of the Shortly before leaving Germany for Brigade. But the Brigade never attained the Ireland, Casement left extensive and proposed target of two hundred volunteers explicit instructions with his friend Charles and the German General Staff lost faith in Curry for the safekeeping and eventual the project. publication of his German diaries.2

9 Field Day review

Casement believed that by publishing his National Library of Ireland [NLI]. It is 3 There was also a German version of events explaining why he went clear, however, that a certain part of this translation of the diary Sir Roger Casement: Meine to Germany, and why he was determined correspondence was picked up by British Mission Deutschland to internationalize the issue of Irish intelligence. A typed list of documents, während des Krieges independence and to raise an Irish Brigade, compiled by N. C. Harrington of the G-2 und die Findlay-Affaire (Altenburg/Thüringen, the manifest honesty of his motives and Branch of the Department of Defence 1925). Extracts from the sincerity of his beliefs would add to after the war, lists the German papers the Curry edition, with the logic of his ‘treason’ an appealing, intercepted and carefully scrutinized by some supplementary materials, were serialized affective dimension. But ultimately, his the British intelligence services, before in the Nation between political views were rooted in a reasoned they were returned to the family.4 Like 30 November 1921 and 8 response to imperial violence. By the time so much of Casement’s extensive archive February 1922. 4 NLI MSS 13085 he set sail for Germany from New York, his it is often difficult to trace the precise 5 Angus Mitchell (ed.), The reputation was so enmeshed in the impasse provenance of papers and what happened Amazon Journal of Roger of First World War propaganda and the to them before they were made available for Casement (London and Dublin, 1997). ramifying intrigues of the confrontation independent scrutiny. 6 Roger McHugh, ‘Casement between British secret services and Irish There is compelling evidence to suggest and German Help’, in F. X. revolutionary conspiracy, that the most that Casement kept diaries at many of Martin (ed.), Leaders and Men of the Easter Rising: straightforward ‘truth’ was impossible to the critical junctures of his life, although Dublin 1916 (London, distinguish or decipher. Casement was well a number of them have disappeared. The 1967). McHugh also aware that there were special forces at play extended diary of his 1903 Congo journey, published some excerpts from A Last Page of My determined to undermine his reputation for instance, has not survived. His 1910 Diary in his edition Dublin and, by deliberate misinformation, to Amazon voyage was covered in immense 1916 (London, 1966). shape public opinion about his aims and detail in a daily journal, which was later 7 Reinhard R. Doerries, ‘Die Mission Sir Roger purposes. He realized that the publication submitted as evidence to the parliamentary Casements im Deutschen of his own version of events was therefore select committee inquiry.5 Casement Reich 1914-16’, vital to his eventual exoneration from the admitted to throwing ‘diaries overboard’ Historische Zeitschrift, Bd. 222, H.3 (June 1976), 578– calumnies that besieged him. on leaving the US in 1914, fearful that they 625; ‘Hopeless Mission: Sir Curry followed Casement’s instructions, contained incriminating information, which Roger Casement in Imperial and the diaries were carefully stowed might fall into the hands of the British Germany’, The Journal of Intelligence History 6 away until after the war. In 1922, Curry authorities. In Germany, he deliberately (Summer 2006), 25–39. published a carefully edited version in a faked pages of his diary in a strategy of 8 John Devoy, ‘Sir Roger small Munich edition Diaries of Sir Roger misinformation against the British Foreign Casement and the Irish Brigade in Germany’, The Casement: His Mission to Germany and Office—an incident referred to in the Gaelic American, 28 June the Findlay Affair.3 He chose to edit out extract published here. He realized that the 1924. Timothy Quinlisk, quite significant parts of the complete diary, rationale of his revolutionary turn would ‘The German Irish Brigade: Diary of Casement’s including the narrative of Casement’s trip one day be explained through his version Lieutenant’, in Land to the Western Front reproduced here. The of events—and much of that explanation and Water (6 November aim of Curry’s edition was to highlight the was evident in the narrative of his diaries. 1919). Also see Bureau of Military History Witness ‘Findlay Affair’—the efforts by the British But he could not have predicted that British Statement 551 Thomas Minister in Oslo to bribe Casement’s secret services would fabricate a sexualized Canon Duggan. comrade Adler Christensen to have diary narrative of his investigations Casement either captured or assassinated. in the Congo and the Amazon, with The fate of his papers became an the sole purpose of assassinating his increasing concern to Casement in character and thereby denying him the his last days in Berlin. He distributed moral authority necessary for the impact different parts of his German archive of his investigations into crimes against to various friends. Some of these papers humanity and, ultimately, for the creation were eventually deposited in the New of an authentic and coherent historical York Public Library among the William legacy to which his recognition of imperial Maloney papers, others reached the criminality in Ireland was integral.

10 ‘A Strange Chapter of Irish History’

9 Andreas Roth, ‘The Both extracts published here are held from the specialized perspective of German soldier is not in the original manuscript in the National intelligence history, his studies have tended Tactful’: Sir Roger Casement and the Irish Library of Ireland. The journey to the to marginalize the diary narrative and Brigade in Germany during Western Front is excerpted from a diary the propaganda war waged by Casement the First World War’, The notebook [MS 1689], which forms part against the British Empire that is contained Irish Sword 19, 1995, 315. Joachim Lerchenmueller, of the larger diary published by Curry in in a series of quite inaccessible essays “The wretched lot”—a brief 1922. The entries are written in reverse: written in 1915.7 Doerries’s defence of history of the Irish Brigade the narrative begins on folio 97 and ends the German Foregin Ofiice and German in Germany, 1914–1919’, in Yearbook of the Centre on folio 46. The second extract [NLI General Staff is founded on his belief that for Irish-German Studies 5244] was written on 134 numbered Casement’s mission was ‘hopeless’. (University of Limerick, sides of script with additional comments The history of the Irish Brigade 1998–99), 95–113. 10 Michael Keogh, With and marginalia added on 8 April 1916. has been treated in several essays and Casement’s Irish Brigade At the start of this extract, Casement memoirs.8 On the Brigade itself, there (Drogheda, 2010), contextualized his situation at this critical has been good recent scholarship, most originally published in the 9 indispensable Catholic juncture by recounting some of the most notably by Andreas Roth. Various Bulletin, (January– important events from the previous months. memoirs were written by volunteers about December 1928). See He was aware that these last three weeks the organization. The most extensive Bureau of Military History W.S. 741. would prove crucial in determining the published account is by Michael Keogh, 11 A typescript of the memoir historical fate of the Irish Brigade and With Casement’s Irish Brigade.10 An of Sean Kavanagh, justifying his own break with the German intriguing memoir by Sean Kavanagh is The Betrayal of Roger 11 Casement and the Irish General Staff and their intelligence chiefs. yet to be published. Two accounts of Brigade, circulated among However, this narrative is selective and the Irish Brigade were written by Joseph publishers in Dublin in deals predominantly with Casement’s Zerhusen, who served as interpreter and 1998, but has yet to find its 12 way into print. meetings with German officials; it does not liaison officer to it. The most reliable and 12 NLI MS 43 570/1–2 record Casement’s liaisons with members of most intimate witness to Casement’s last contains a 98-page the Irish Brigade. weeks in Germany was Robert Monteith, typescript of Zerhusen’s 13 recollections about the Much ancillary correspondence relevant who wrote a gripping version of events. Irish Brigade from 1915 to both these extracts, but principally to the The important chronicle of the propaganda to 1918. A second, shorter second of them, is held among the Maloney war fought between Britain and Germany reminiscence is held in NLI MS 31 728. Papers at the New York Public Library. for American support is intriguingly told 13 Robert Monteith, This includes copies and originals of the by Thomas St John Gaffney, with chapters Casement’s Last Adventure 1916 correspondence between Casement on Casement and his last weeks in Berlin.14 (Chicago, 1932) republished and revised edition (Dublin, and Robert Monteith. Casement’s The memoir of the politically biased, 1953), with a foreword extensive correspondence with the German English-born, Evelyn, Princess Blücher is by Franz von Papen. His Foreign Office is held in Politisches Archiv atmospheric but untrustworthy.15 Karl diary was published in the biographical study by his des Auswärtigen Amtes Berlin (Archive Spindler, the Captain of the arms ship, daughter Florence Monteith of the German Foreign Office). Roger the Aud, wrote his account of events Lynch, The Mystery Man McHugh undertook comprehensive work soon after the war; it was translated into of Banna Strand: The Life 16 and Death of Captain on Casement in the build-up to the 1966 French and widely read. Most recently, Robert Monteith (New commemoration.6 Much of the more the journeys of the Aud and the U-19 York, 1959). important correspondence by and about have been exhaustively researched in the Casement’s months in Germany appears work of Xander Clayton.17 Casement’s in Reinhard R. Doerries, Prelude to the time in Germany was treated in various Easter Rising: Sir Roger Casement in studies. The often sentimental hagiography Imperial Germany (London, 2000). This by Dr Franz Rothenfelder, Casement is an indispensable supplement to both in Deutschland, includes important these diary extracts and I refer to this information about Casement’s network of work extensively throughout. Although German friends and contacts in Dresden, Doerries has pioneered scholarship on Hamburg, Munich and Leipzig.18 Eduard Casement’s activities in Germany, especially Meyer, Kuno Meyer’s brother, also left

11 Field Day review

Kurt von Lersner (1883–1954), German diplomat and politician, whom Casement met in New York.

14 Thomas St John Gaffney, Breaking the Silence: England, Ireland, Wilson and the War (New York, 1930). Another relevant study is James K. McGuire, The King, the Kaiser and Irish Freedom (New York, 1915), which begins with a chapter explaining Casement’s mission to Germany within the wider republican movement. 15 Princess Blücher later wrote a memoir, An English Wife in Berlin: A Private Memoir of Events, Politics and Daily Life in Germany Throughout the War and the Social Revolution of 1918 (New York, 1920). 16 Karl Spindler’s memoir was published originally as Das geheimnisvolle Schiff: Blockadedurchbruch S. M. Hilfskreuzer ‘Libau’ zur irischen (Berlin, 1921). This was first translated into English as Gun-Running for Casement in the Easter Rebellion, 1916 (Glasgow, 1921) and into French as Le Vaisseau Fantôme (Paris, 1929). Spindler wrote an introduction to a new updated version, published as The Mystery a memoir.19 The understanding of banned by the Nazis and hastened Olden’s of the Casement Ship [with authentic documents] Casement’s internationalism—evident exile, first to France and later to Buenos (Berlin, 1931). This was in his subversive dealings with other Aires and Montevideo.20 Despite the republished in a paperback revolutionaries residing in Berlin in 1915, extensive literature on the Irish Brigade and edition (Kerry, 1965) with an extensive foreword by notably Virendranath Chattopadhyaya and Casement’s adventures in Germany, this Florence O’Donoghue, Rosa Luxemburg—was greatly amplified gripping supplement to the Irish revolution where he takes issue with with the publication of a biography of has yet to be properly integrated into the several aspects of Spindler’s account of events. Casement by the anti-colonial, Weimar wider history of Ireland and of the First 17 Xander Clayton, Aud intellectual, Balder Olden. The work was World War. (Plymouth, 2007)

12 ‘A Strange Chapter of Irish History’

18 Dr Franz Rothenfelder, Over the years, the Irish-German of Belgium. On the route to Charleville the Casement in Deutschland connection has been the subject of several car passed through the frozen, forested hills (Augsburg, 1917). Also, Karin Wolf, Sir Roger important studies, which were never of the Eifel region, before crossing through Casement und die deutsch- translated into English. Fortunately, Luxembourg into the valley of the Meuse. irischen Beziehungen much of this scholarship has been recently Negotiations were still underway (Berlin, 1972). 19 Berlin-Brandenburgische synthesized and expanded by Jérôme aan between Casement and senior officials of Akademie der de Wiel.21 Aan de Wiel has persuasively the German Foreign Office about how they Wissenschaften, NL Eduard illuminated Ireland’s strategic value in the might co-operate in Casement’s plans to Meyer 357. 20 Balder Olden, Paradiese diplomatic discussions between France, further the cause of Irish independence. des Teufels: Das Leben Sir Germany, Austro-Hungary and Russia with Casement met with two officials: Kurt Roger Casement (Berlin, Britain and the tangled web of espionage, von Lersner, a senior German diplomat, 1933). Balder Olden and his brother, Rudolf, wrote subversion and propaganda linking whom he had contacted in the US during some of the earliest books Ireland’s revolutionary network to other his dealings with the German embassy in attacking the Nazi Party, anti-imperial networks across Europe and advance of his departure from New York, criticism which cost them dearly. Asia—often supported clandestinely by the and Wilhelm von Stumm, the head of 21 Jérôme aan de Wiel, The agencies of different European powers. The the Political Department at the German Irish Factor 1899–1919: situation of Casement within these wider, Foreign Office. The conversation with von Ireland’s Strategic and Diplomatic importance interlinking national and anti-colonial Lersner was largely about the Irish Brigade, for Foreign Powers associations raises important questions and but the meeting with Baron von Stumm (Dublin, 2008) is a vital opportunities for further research into the ranged widely and covered the larger, study for understanding the continental context overlapping and interconnecting European, geo-strategic implications of the war and for Casement’s months in Atlantic and global contexts for 1916. the future balance of power in Europe. Germany and the relevance Casement was determined that the German of Ireland as a determining factor in European foreign government should recognize Ireland’s policy in this period. Aan right to independence in the event of any de Wiel acknowledges The journey to the Western Front negotiated peace settlement. It was and is his debt to Wolfgang Hünssler, Das Deutsche well known that Casement pointed out that Kaiserreich und die Irische Roger Casement’s journey to the German the British Government’s justification for its Frage 1900–14 (Frankfurt headquarters at Charleville-Mézières, just going to war to defend the rights of small am Main, 1978), and Hans-Dieter Kluge, inside the French border with Belgium, nations was wholly contradicted by its Irland in der deutschen was arranged less than three weeks after policy towards Ireland. Geschichtswissenschaft, his arrival in Berlin. The journey was The discussion with von Stumm also Politik und Propaganda vor 1914 und im Ersten made incognito, with Casement travelling disclosed attitudes held at the highest level Weltkrieg (Frankfurt am under his adopted pseudonym of ‘Mr of the German command structure, most Main, 1985). Hammond’, an American from New York. notably the view that Germany did not This secrecy reflected both diplomatic believe Britain would go to war in August sensitivities and lingering suspicions about 1914. This prompted Casement to express his true purpose in Germany. The brief, his view that a conspiracy and crisis within three-day journey was undertaken in the the inner circle of the Liberal government, company of Count von Lüttichau of the combined with Britain’s desire to defend its German General Staff, Richard Meyer, his global economic interests, were responsible Foreign Office ‘assessor’, who would advise for the escalation of a European crisis into Casement during his eighteen months in a world crisis. His arguments on the causes Germany, and a driver, Herr Meckle, with of war had been expanded in his volume considerable local knowledge of the area. of essays—The Crime against Europe— Count von Lüttichau organized the trip and which had already appeared in English had orders to take Casement on a detour in the US and would soon be translated through the region to witness for himself into German. Here, Casement argued the condition of the people less than three why Ireland should stay out of the war months after the German army occupation and why Britain’s justification for going to

13 Field Day review

war was false.22 The essays asserted the in the months before the declaration of war. 22 Andrew McGrath’s case for a German-Irish alliance able to Meyer’s reading of the First World War as forthcoming critique of Casement’s political work towards the peaceful and negotiated a determined counter-revolutionary strike writings in the light of just reconfiguration of European, Atlantic and by conservative and reactionary interests war theory are touched on global power relations. While these essays in Europe to protect their economic in his essay ‘The Anglo- Irish War (1919–1921): Just have been casually dismissed over the and hegemonic interests is confirmed War or Unjust Rebellion?’, last century as Sinn Féin propaganda, his by Casement’s rapid disillusion with a Irish Theological arguments have unavoidable parallels with specifically Prussian militarism in Germany Quarterly, 77 (1) (2012), 67–82. later analyses on the origins of the First and by his ruthless treatment at the hands 23 Casement’s essays might World War made by the Marxist historian, of the Conservative and Unionist bloc in be usefully read alongside Arno Mayer, and, more recently, by Niall Britain after his capture. Casement’s efforts Arno Meyer, ‘The Primacy of Domestic Politics’, in Fergusson in his controversial The Pity of to merge different revolutionary forces Holger Herwig (ed.), The War.23 Ferguson’s argument that Britain within Ireland and internationally were Outbreak of World War I could have stayed out of the conflict had it anathema to both sides. They contributed (Boston, 1997) and Niall Fergusson, The Pity of War: not been for reckless imperial policy carried towards his alienation from the German Explaining World War I out in secret over many years is a recurring General Staff and explain why the British (New York, 2000). theme in Casement’s writing: security services—in the widest sense of 24 Roger Casement, ‘The Crime against Ireland’, in that term—were so anxious for his capture The Crime Against Europe England fights as the foe of Europe and and silencing by assassination. (Belfast, 2003), 62. the enemy of European civilization. Yet in November 1914, Casement still In order to destroy German shipping, believed that Germany held the key to Irish German commerce, German industry, sovereignty. Once he had reassured senior she has deliberately plotted the military officials of the sincerity of his conspiracy we now see at work. The war intentions, he was escorted back to Cologne of 1914 is England’s war.24 through the towns and cities of Belgium that had stood in the front line during It was British aggression and not the German advance through Belgium in German militarism that was the real August 1914. His journey included brief causus belli. Enmity was founded upon stops in Dinant, Andenne and Liège. economic concerns and supported by an Along the way, he noted the physical insidious publicity campaign conducted by destruction—of bridges and buildings— the popular press in Britain, deliberately and the socio-economic condition of the aimed at demonizing Germany and German people reduced to prostitution, vagrancy culture and at stirring up feelings of hatred. and destitution. His escort car passed to Irish independence and neutrality, to the south of Brussels, close to the royal Casement’s way of thinking, served both palace at Tervuren, founded by King the interests of European relations and the Leopold II as an architectural monument greater cause of international humanity. to his colonial policy in central Africa. The independence of Ireland was and would At Andenne, the driver, Herr Meckle, remain critical and central to the balance recounted the story of the franc-tireurs, of power. For its day, this was a remarkably who had opened fire on a column of European position to take; much of German soldiers taking ammunition to the Casement’s speculation in this book has, front. In reprisal 350 men were arrested with a century of hindsight, proved both and shot against the wall. On hearing this relevant and prescient. story Casement was provoked to consider Casement’s experience as an advocate and review his own feelings about the war, for a revolutionary humanism within the about the politics of atrocities and German circles of European power supports Arno atrocities in particular. He did not deny Meyer’s argument that domestic policy was that appalling incidents had happened, a key factor in determining foreign policy but he saw then in the light of what his

14 ‘A Strange Chapter of Irish History’

25 The ‘demographic deficit’ own official investigation of crimes against interrogation of colonial power and the of 10 million lives resulting humanity had exposed. In a particularly destructive capacity of international venture from the rubber wars in the Congo was most recently revealing moment, as he stood before a capitalism had a revolutionary impact made by Adam Hochschild wall in Namur, site of a notorious atrocity that was at the heart of his dedication to in his best-selling history perpetrated by German soldiers against Ireland’s struggle. King Leopold’s Ghost (London, 1998). The figure Belgian civilians, he reflected: As a leading authority on the was also referenced in the investigation of crimes against humanity, dramatized documentary Sometimes, I must confess, when the Casement was well placed to observe the by Peter Bate, White King, Red Rubber, Black present ‘agony of Belgium’ confronts allegations made against the German Death (BBC 4, 2004). The me—and it cannot well be minimised, occupation of Belgium. He had journeyed claim provoked an official it is in truth a national agony—I feel through part of this region during a response from the Belgian Embassy in London ‘Congo that there may be in this awful lesson European holiday in May 1912, enabling under King Leopold II’, to the Belgian people a repayment. him to make an informed comparison which categorically denied All that they now suffer and far more, between the territory as it was then and the estimated figures, claiming that they are they, or their king, his government and in 1914. In 1914, he was of course aware ‘very inaccurate and, at his officers wreaked on the well nigh of how images and rumours of German worst, totally incorrect.’ defenceless people of the Congo basin. atrocities were being used by Britain to The matter was widely dicussed in the Belgium sway public opinion, both domestically press. For a discussion In this comment, Casement instinctively and internationally, against Germany, to of the debate see Geert dismantles the colonial hierarchy of justify Britain’s own entry into the war, and Castryk, ‘Whose History is History? Singularities humanity: in British propaganda, gallant to help in the conscription campaign. At and Dualities of the little Belgium was being subjected to the one point in his diary, on the road back to Public Debate on Belgian unprecedented inhumanity of the ‘Hun’, Cologne, Casement commented: Colonialism’, Csaba Lévai, Europe and the World in while the Congo—or any of the sites of European Historiography European massacre in Africa—had no Of all the lies England has distributed (Pisa, 2006) and Adam place in the accepted hierarchy of suffering in recent years throughout the world, by Hochschild, ‘In the Heart of Darkness’, New York ‘humanity’. Some estimates claim that the her admirable system called ‘free trade’, Review of Books, 6 casualties resulting from King Leopold I guess this lie of German barbarism October 2005, 39–42. II’s administration in the Congo Free and ‘German atrocities’ is the most State were as high as the death toll of the wilful, the most perverse and the most First World War.25 Comparison of such evil intentioned. statistics is hazardous, but the question of violence and its concealment within This is one of many such attacks on the the concept of ‘humanity’ arises directly strategic use of German atrocity stories from Casement’s visit to the Western to influence world opinion, especially Front. His comments on German atrocities American opinion, in the battle for and the ‘agony of Belgium’ are central hearts and minds. In his writing and to understanding his career and to the correspondence during 1914 and 1915, hypocrisy of the atrocity claims of the Casement claimed forthrightly that First World War and the propaganda much ‘official’ evidence in Britain was struggle for ownership of the terminology manufactured and invented. In his opening of civilization by the warring colonial essay in The Crime Against Europe powers. He had shown the merciless nature he claimed: of colonial rule in sub-Saharan Africa and in South America. The First World War To find the causes of war we should was being fought by the perpetrators of turn not to Blue Books or White Papers, those ‘crimes against humanity’; the phrase giving carefully selected statements was then and continues to be a central of those responsible for concealing trope of the propaganda of colonial and from the public the true issues that imperial powers. Casement’s pioneering move nations to attack each other, but

15 Field Day review

should seek the unavowed aims of those economy of Southeast Asia. Unofficially, 26 Roger Casement, ‘The nations themselves.27 Casement had used his investigations to Causes of the War and the Foundations of Peace’ in draw attention to the degenerative and The Crime Against Europe Casement’s determination to reveal destructive capacity of empires and to (Belfast, 2003), 64. the deceptive practices behind officially justify his own path to rebellion. Therefore, 27 See, for instance, James Connolly, ‘Belgian Rubber sanctioned truths was a principal theme in the account of his brief journey through and Belgian Neutrality’, his political writings in the last three years war-torn Belgium is an important and The Irish Worker, 14 of his life. It was not only the atrocities in vivid report because it is by the man who November 1914, and an anonymously written sub-Saharan Africa and the Amazon that had investigated more atrocities at first article, ‘Atrocities’, in had shocked him; it was the difficulty of hand than any other official of that era. The Hibernian, 1: 16, 18 reporting them that alerted him to how Despite his pro-German and anti-British September 1915, 2–3. 28 See the studies which have such allegations could be manipulated for sympathies, no one better understood the reignited the issue: John political ends. His innovative use of graphic potential for the use and abuse of atrocity Horne and Alan Kramer, descriptions and images of atrocities claims. Casement had been fastidious in his German Atrocities, 1914: A History of Denial to expose oppressive administration in own reporting of crimes against humanity (New Haven, 2001) and the Congo, Putumayo and Ireland had and rigorous in substantiating claims, Jeff Lipkes, Rehearsals, involved him in acrimonious disputes corroborating testimony and investigating The Belgium Army in Belgium, August 1914 and accusations of inventing evidence, allegations at first hand. He was well (Leuven, 2007). distorting truth, exaggeration and placed therefore to critically evaluate the 29 Joachim Neander and fantasizing. But Casement skilfully official investigative practices into German Randal Marlin, ‘Media and Propaganda: The defended his investigative practices and atrocities in Belgium. Northcliffe Press and the procedures and placed them indelibly on The historiographical controversy over Corpse Factory Story of the official record. In 1913, as he harnessed the allegations made by agencies of the World War I’, in Global Media Journal (Canadian his own investigations of crimes against British government against the German Edition) Vol 3: 2, 2010, humanity to the cause of Irish independence army in their invasion and occupation of 67–82. For a contemporary and his own overtly political purposes, a Belgium is extensive and endures.28 From analysis of the treatment of war crimes and the political counter-strategy was implemented to deny August 1914, Britain launched a highly use and abuse of the word him moral authority and undermine the effective publicity campaign detailing the ‘humanity’, see Danilo truth of his accusations. Nevertheless, in brutal treatment of the civilian population. Zolo, Invoking Humanity: War, Law and Global the exposure of colonial atrocities that The Rape of Belgium, as it was called, Order (London, 2002); would feature prominently in the advanced contained graphic accounts of gratuitous Victor’s Justice: From nationalist and socialist press in Ireland violence—rape, infanticide, the cutting off Nuremburg to Baghdad (London, 2009). in 1914, Casement’s hand was clearly of hands and mass executions. Many of at play.27 the rumours were later shown to have been black propaganda, most notably the story Casement’s earliest comments on the of the German corpse factory.29 Several politics of atrocity can be traced back to figures who campaigned most vigorously 1894, when he undertook survey work against the distortions of the truth and the along the contested frontier between the unhealthy alliance between state agencies of emerging British administrative district propaganda and the press were members of of the Oil Rivers Protectorate (Niger the Union of Democratic Control (U.D.C.). Delta) and German Cameroon. His The U.D.C. was the anti-war organization later investigations in the Congo Free established on the outbreak of war in State and the upper Amazon prompted 1914 by Casement’s main collaborator European diplomacy to rethink aspects in the Congo Reform Association, E. D. of international trade and the question Morel. It lobbied against secret diplomacy of native rights. His Putumayo report and worked as a pressure group for a had been deployed in the switching of more democratically accountable foreign international capital away from the policy. Numbered among its cohort of extractive rubber economy to the plantation recognised supporters and members were

16 ‘A Strange Chapter of Irish History’

Edmund Dene Morel (1873– 1924) c. 1905, British journalist, author and socialist politician. (Photo by Images of Empire/ Universal Images Group via Getty Images).

30 Report of the Committee the philosopher, Bertrand Russell; the power, he spoke out vehemently against the on Alleged German journalist, H. N. Brailsford; the activist, manipulation of truth and the circulation Outrages (London: Norman Angell; and Britain’s first Labour of falsehoods and exaggeration of German HMSO, 1915) Prime Minister, Ramsay MacDonald. atrocities. He took issue in particular The critical document in establishing with Bryce for lending his name to the both the legal and historical claims for commission officially appointed by Prime German atrocities was the Bryce Report, Minister H. H. Asquith to report on the named after the historian, jurist and nature and extent of German war crimes diplomat, James Bryce.30 From the spring in Belgium. of 1915, as Casement began to channel his energies towards writing about the war ‘I knew Lord Bryce well—he used to be and revealing secret dimensions of British an honourable man—but this lending

17 Field Day review

his name to a faked and obviously wrecked and ruined houses; I passed 31 NLI MS 33726 Roger fraudulent investigation, undertaken for through some of the stormed and Casement to Fräulein 31 Meyer, 1 July 1915. one object only, is beneath contempt.’ battered cities Namur, Liège, Dinant; I 32 Continental Times, 3 conversed with Belgians in the streets of November 1915. The When serving as British ambassador in those terrorised towns and I formed a essay was reproduced in Roger Casement: The Washington, Bryce had helped Casement judgement of my own, not derived from Crime against Europe broaden his Putumayo investigation hearsay in another land or the lips of (Belfast, 2003). into the U.S. State Department and had fugitives afar, but from the scenes and 33 J. H. Morgan, The New Irish Constitution: An arranged a meeting in early 1912 between spots and human wreckage I passed Exposition and Some Casement and the U.S. President, William through … Wrongs were undoubtedly Arguments (London, Taft. Bryce was also highly regarded for committed in Belgium, but they 1912) This was published under the auspices of the his measured historical writings and as an were not all committed by Germans Eighty Club, a London- architect of the Anglo-American special upon Belgians. based political club, closely relationship. Furthermore, he had spoken aligned to the Liberal Party, and of particular out against the Bulgarian atrocities and The shadow of the war on truth consequence to the the genocide of the Armenians under entangled with the controversy over political careers of both Ottoman rule in 1915. Casement’s attack German atrocities and the fabrication H. H. Asquith and David Lloyd George. Morgan’s on Bryce was therefore more than an attack of historical evidence might also be read introductory essay argued on the government’s manipulation of the into the secret history of Casement’s how a delegation of truth for the purposes of war; it read as trial. Professor J. H. Morgan, part of authority at the level of both the executive and an attack on the politics of what might be Casement’s defence counsel and the amicus legislative would make cautiously termed the ‘atrocity culture’ and curiae during his trial and appeal, was the imperial government how the historical record was vulnerable deeply implicated in compiling testimony stronger. Home Rule, he argued, was a way to deliberate acts of management and and statements about German atrocities by which the Imperial manipulation for official purposes. The in Belgium. For over a decade, Morgan parliament could reorganize argument was most assertively developed had been personally known to Casement and strengthen its own constitutional attachments in his essay The Far-Extended Baleful and, as a professor of constitutional through the establishment Power of the Lie, published in 1915.32 law at the University of London, he had of an Irish parliament. Here the unequivocal accusation was made edited an important collection of essays Devolution, he believed, 33 was not a step backwards that Bryce had been co-opted to lead the on Irish Home Rule in 1912. In the but a step forward. commission in order to attach his name autumn of 1914, Morgan was appointed and reputation as a historian to a report to the adjutant-general staff as Home which was based upon unsubstantiated Office representative with the British evidence: ‘by lending weight to an official expeditionary force to inquire into the campaign of slander, defamation and conduct of the German army in Belgium. calumny conducted on a scale unparalleled Over the next two years, he published in any war between civilized nations during numerous articles, pamphlets and books the last three centuries’. It is a claim that on legal aspects of the war. In his co- was not lightly made and which Casement, authored study War: Its Conduct and as a former Foreign Office official and Legal Results, he wrote on the Defence troubleshooter was in an informed position of the Realm Act and the question and to make. This attack also made explicit meaning of treason in war time. His reference to Casement’s journey to the writings on German atrocities in Belgium Western Front and his direct witnessing of were widely circulated through articles German-occupied Belgium. and various mass-circulation books. His most important publication was German Unlike Lord Bryce I have been in Atrocities: An Official Investigation. His Belgium since the war began. I was case exposing German war crimes was there within a few weeks of the passing published in a more accessible version of the great wave of invasion. I saw the in Germany’s Dishonoured Army,

18 ‘A Strange Chapter of Irish History’

Dinant, Belgium, August 1914, Captured by the German Third Army under General Von Hausen, who ransacked the town and rounded up and shot 612 civilians (Photo by Popperfoto/Getty Images).

34 George Gavan Duffy Papers printed by the Parliamentary Recruiting and historical management. On 4 August NLI MS 10763 (20)—J. Committee—the state agency responsible 1916, the day after Casement’s execution, H. Morgan to Home Secretary, Herbert Samuel, for issuing propaganda posters justifying Morgan wrote to the Home Secretary, 4 August 1916. the war and conscription. In 1917, he wrote Herbert Samuel: Gentlemen at Arms under the pseudonym ‘Centurion’—a series of sentimental there is a very strong feeling abroad— short stories about the experience of The Times gives expression to it this war. Morgan was closely involved in the morning that someone in authority construction of an official narrative of ‘inspired’ a campaign of malignant and the war, which dichotomized the public studied calumny against the prisoner imagination between the brutal, scheming which was not only necessary to the and dishonest ‘Hun’ and British heroism, course of justice but calculated to fair play and sacrifice. His writings on pervert it.34 German atrocities supplemented the official government report produced by the Bryce Morgan had inside knowledge on the commission and helped to popularize parts use of the ‘diary’ to destabilize his defence of the evidence for popular consumption. and undermine the different petitions for Whether Casement knew about clemency. Because of his close personal Morgan’s work for the Bryce commission knowledge of Casement, he was also in is unknown. Nothing in his trial notes a position to know whether the rumours would suggest that he did know, and he about Casement were founded in truth. In maintained complete trust in Morgan to the immediate aftermath of Casement’s the bitter end. Likewise, Morgan persisted execution, Morgan contacted Casement’s in his defence of Casement and wanted to solicitor, George Gavan Duffy, seeking his take on unnamed government agencies over views on a letter he wished to send to F. E. the use of the ‘Diary’ (acknowledged today Smith, the arch-Unionist attorney general as the Black Diaries) which helped railroad and founder of the Ulster Volunteer Force, Casement to the gallows and have ever who led the Crown’s prosecution against since dominated his public mythologizing

19 Field Day review