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England Goes to War 1914-15

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E ngla nd Goes to War 1 9 14-1 5 Thesis submitted in accordance with the requirements of the University of Liverpool for the degree of Doctor in Philosophy by Kit Good September 2002 Abstract August 1914 is one of the great pivots of European history. The crowds cheering the outbreak of war raise the curtain on a century of war, genocide and tragedy. Cultural narratives of the Great War have absorbed the values of every generation since 1914-1918, honing the conflict into a number of potent shared images. This thesis examines the period between late July 1914 to May 1915, attempting to find the roots of such a powerful historical and cultural belief in `war enthusiasm'. The thesis begins with a study of the days surrounding the outbreak of war. It identifies the widespread fear and anxiety that greeted the threat of conflict in 1914. Drawing its source material from, across the country, the chapter discusses how region and locality shaped the response to war. We can see how the nation looked back to the experience of the South African War as an example of how not to act in wartime. `War enthusiasm' is reassessed and remodelled, representing an inward looking celebration of the community, rather than a bellicose desire for war. The second chapter develops these ideas across the period from August 1914 to May 1915, with the emerging narrative of a `regenerated' England at war. `War enthusiasm' is expressed in charitable contribution and pageantry and a new unity of purpose that rejected the divisions of Edwardian society. Chapter three debates some of the tensions and contests beneath the ideal of `war enthusiasm', encompassing the economy, politics and the growing awareness of the horrors of war. The fourth chapter covers recruitment. Firstly, it interprets the recruitment meeting as an extension of the pageantry of the home front. Secondly, it discusses the extent to which the volunteer army was a symbol of the new, unified `community'. Thirdly, it traces the way that English manhood was `regenerated' to fulfil this symbolism. Chapter five examines the anti-German riots on the home front in 1914-15, and defines the unrest as a continuance of pre-war meanings of collective violence - the symbolic exclusion from community. The sixth chapter details the East Coast bombardments of December 1914 and the first Zeppelin raids, revealing the extent to which civilians were subject to the `realities of war'. Acknowledgements A PhD thesis is a long and convoluted process. The historical period under consideration within this study is roughly ten months, while the thesis is four years in the making, with its initial idea as far back as 1996. A popular image might be of the lone scholar toiling away, but a project like this draws support and inspiration from countless sources. These acknowledgements recognise the `team effort' that helped me get this far. If they seem expansive, it perhaps reflects the extent to which I am indebted to all the people who helped out. Of course, responsibility for the conclusions of the following study is mine alone. Money is, unfortunately, the eternal worry and obsession of the PhD student. I begin by thanking the British Academy, who awarded me a three-year scholarship, without which this project would have remained a promising undergraduate essay. The University of Liverpool Faculty of Arts also helped out with a number of invaluable research expenses. I supplemented my income with some part time work at the University of Liverpool library, and I express my thanks to my former colleagues Alan Law, Stephanie Allen, Irralie Doel, Ian Martin and Ian Jobes at the library for making the work fun and enjoyable. Thanks - or should it be apologies - to the Librarians staff football team for letting me join the squad. In fourth year of my thesis I have worked full-time, and I thank Guy Barnes, Ollie Toogood and Chapelle Preko at e-street.com for helping me to pay my rent. Any writer/researcher is the product of his/her environment, and I have been very fortunate in the quality of the School of History at the University of Liverpool as an undergraduate and postgraduate. Thanks to: Christopher Allmand, Alan Cobban and Paul Booth for medieval history; Jenny Kermode and Pat Starkey for gender history; David Dutton for twentieth century British politics; Michael Hughes for my first teaching experience; Dmitri Der Van Bersalaar, Elizabeth Harvey, Marios Costamboys, Charles Esdaile, Mike Tadman and Mike Power, for their input and help at various seminars and lectures; Robert Lee, John Belchem and Pauline Stafford for their help in the various schemes, programs and booze-ups I organised as postgraduate representative; Paula Mills, Arthur and Gill for being great whenever I asked for help or advice. Outside of the School of History, I have encountered numerous scholars who have taken time out to answer questions and suggest lines of enquiry. Many thanks to: Jane Elliott for her invaluable guidance on the question of narrative; Ian Maghera for his encouragement at inter-disciplinary seminars; Adrian Gregory for his generosity when we both requested the same document at the Imperial War Museum; Niall Ferguson, Nick Mansfield and Keith Grieves for friendly responses when I cornered them at conferences over the past four years. The skills and ideas formed during my Masters degree at Lancaster University are still with me. Thanks to John MacKenzie for his supervision on Mafeking and his thoughts on Bruckner; Eric Evans and John Walton for their lively and thoughtful teaching; Paolo Palladino for getting me to read Foucault; Kieran Foley for his friendship and our collaborative work. There are few who understand the PhD experience - I suspect most lecturers have repressed the memory - so the friendships with fellow students has been among the best things of the last four years: Tim Crumplin, always a source of humour, support and eccentric political views; Sharon Messenger for her help and inspiration when I was an undergraduate; Julie Marie Strange for her thoughts on art and literature; Kirsten McMillan for her ideas and help on the postgraduate training; Marisa Chambers for putting up with my messy office; Sari Menappa, Sherilyn Haggerty Linda Craig and Sandra O'Leary; Mike Finn for his brilliance - can't wait to see what he writes next. A big thanks to friends outside of academia who - though often bemused at my moans about the student's lot - have offered continual help and support: Tom Hemmings, film expert and guitar guru; Mark Sansom the cleverest man I've met; Hannah Chantler for being a great housemate; Fr. Paul McDermott for spiritual guidance and Guinness; Malcolm Mann for trying to make me read The Silmarillion (I haven't); Bruce Renshaw for being a bonafide rock star where the rest of us failed; Orflait Magee for knowing all the words to U2 songs. This PhD student marches on his stomach, and he has been extremely lucky in the hospitality he has received. Thanks to: Mossy & Anne Lee for offering me a home when they already had a house-full - your kindness will never be forgotten; Carolyn Good for excellent food and wine; Bronagh Lee, who was major influence throughout the research; Mark Lee and Jarlath Lee for letting me share their room; Jane Elliott for being a great folksinger; Helen & Said Nouar for some great Oxford weekends. Looking further back, a special mention for Christopher Dempster, whose modern history teaching during GCSEs and A-levels sent me down this road. The mark of his influence and enthusiasm are to be found throughout his study. Neil `Champ' Hammond and Tarek `Taz' Nouar, we went through it together. I never understood their physics PhDs, and never will. Their friendship and support was the backdrop for three great years at 15 Newcastle Road. Jon Lawrence and Andrew Davies answered to the title `Supervisor' beyond all reasonable duty. Their supervision was of the highest standard. Outside of the research they were brilliant hosts, valuable sources of football knowledge, generous with their record and book collections and great friends. Simon Good is a great big brother, though he now has a lot to answer for buying me that book about the Vikings when I was six. I thank my parents Susan and Peter for their infinite love, generosity and encouragement. I dedicate this thesis to them. Finally, I offer all my love and thanks to Deirdre Lee. This has been a fantastic four years because she was around to share it with. Contents Abstract Acknowledgements Introduction 1 Chapter One August 1914 14 Chapter Two `Settling Down' to War 14 44 Chapter Three `Business as Usual'? 82 Chapter Four `I Will be a Man and Enlist' -'War enthusiasm' and recruitment 132 Chapter Five The Violence of Belonging - The anti-German riots of 1914-15 171 Chapter Six The Realities of War 207 Conclusion 248 Bibliography 252 Introduction What, then, was war? No mere discord of flags But an infection ofthe common sky Robert Graves, Recalling War August 1914 is one of the great pivots of European history. It hinges the vibrant expansion and progress of the nineteenth-century with the cataclysmic thirty years of war that followed. It saw the beginning in earnest of Europe's decline, the last gasp of an ancien regime of empires, monarchies and aristocracies. It raises the curtain on Hobsbawm's `age of extremes', a harsh world where war and inequality overshadow rapid technological growth and medical innovation, an age where the nineteenth-century ideals of nationalism and imperialism are replaced by the modernist ideologies of communism, fascism and international capitalism. l The date - no, perhaps more the phrase - August 1914 is inseparable from the image of cheering crowds.
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