DEVON IN THE FIRST WORLD WAR WAR AND THE HOME FRONT: DEVON IN THE FIRST WORLD WAR, 1914-1918 By BONNIE WHITE, B.A. Hons., M.A. A Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies in Partial Fulfillment ofthe Requirements for the Degree Doctor ofPhilosophy McMaster University © Copyright by Bonnie White, October 2008 ii DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (2008) McMaster University (History) Hamilton, Ontario TITLE: War and the Home Front: Devon in the First World War AUTHOR: Bonnie White, B.A. Hons. (Saint Mary's University), MA. (University of New Brunswick SUPERVISOR(S): Dr. Stephen Heathom, Dr. Martin Hom NUMBER OF PAGES: vi, 344 iii Abstract This investigation contributes to the existing scholarship on Britain and the First World War by examining the war's impact on the county of Devon in southwest England. More specifically, this study pays particular attention to how communities, families, and individuals responded to the pressures ofwar and to what extent social unity was achieved at the county level. By exploring the relationship between the state and its citizens, this dissertation questions the extent to which Devonians were passive and accepting of the sacrifices and hardships that the government required from them, how their experiences were informed, and to what extent class, gender, and religious differences limited public support for the war? While this dissertation argues that Devonians were generally supportive ofBritish participation in the war, that support was provisional and based on the perception of 'equality of sacrifice' - the expectation that the burdens ofwar would be shared equally throughout the county and across all segments of society. This study reveals that the inequalities of sacrifice and inconsistencies ofgovernment policies burdened some groups more than others and led to social disaffection. Rather than promoting solidarity, the war often exacerbated rural/urban tensions, highlighted the social and economic divisions that characterized relations between the communities ofnorthern and southern Devon, and led to frequent and public criticisms ofthe government's management ofthe war. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The completion ofthis doctoral dissertation attests to considerable assistance, advice, and support that I have received from my supervisors, colleagues, friends, and family over the past five years. I would first like to acknowledge the support and feedback provided by my supervisory committee. Dr. Stephen Heathom has been a source of intellectual and professional guidance. This dissertation has benefited from his incisive feedback and advice. To him I will always be grateful. Dr. Martin Hom has been a wonderful mentor from the moment I arrived at McMaster and has consistently aided me throughout the evolution ofthis dissertation. I am also indebted to Dr. Pamela Swett for her hard work and constructive criticism. Thank you for your kind words and encouragement. In addition, I would like to extend my thanks to the examining committee for their participation and feedback. The thoughtful comments provided by the external examiner are sincerely appreciated. I am also grateful to the archives and libraries where I carried out the research for this project. The staff members ofthe Devon Record Office, the Plymouth and South Devon Record Office, and the North Devon Record Office were knowledgeable and helpful both in person and via-email with my research questions. In addition I would like to thank the staff at the Devon and Exeter Institution, the National Archive, the Imperial War Museum, and the West Country Studies Library for their informed assistance. I would like to extend a special thank you to Tony Rouse and Catherine Dunhill whose v patience and advice were enormously helpful in carrying out my research. I am also thankful to the members ofthe Research Collections and Interlending and Document Supply for their dependable and diligent work. I am grateful to the faculty and staff of the History Department. This includes the chairs, Dr. Virginia Aksan and Dr. Ken Cruikshank, and the Graduate Chair Dr. Michael Gauvreau, as well as the administrative staff, especially Ms. Wendy Benedetti, Ms. Debbie Lobban, and Ms. Rita Maxwell. A portion of Chapter Three is forthcoming in the Historical Journal under the title 'Volunteerism and early recruitment efforts in Devonshire, August 1914-December 1915.' Material from this article has been reprinted here with the permission of Cambridge University Press. I would also like to thank Claire Jackson and the anonymous reviewers ofthis article for their feedback. I am also thankful to my friends and family who have provided constant help and support throughout this process. Yvonne your boundless energy has been a source of comfort. You never let me lose sight ofthe task at hand. To my colleagues at Sir Wilfred Grenfell College, Olaf Janzen, Jim Greenlee, and Edwin Bezzina who provided much needed support and a great atmosphere in which to complete the final stages ofthis project. I would especially like to thank my husband John for his patience, encouragement, and unquestioned faith in me. You have always respected the amount of time required to complete this project. Lastly, I would like to thank my parents, Judy and William White, who gave me a love ofhistory and the necessary perspective and discipline to see this project through. vi CONTENTS Abstract iii Acknowledgements IV Table of Contents vi List of Maps vu INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER 1: 30 Refugees, Housing, Price Hikes, Conscientious Objectors, and State Intervention CHAPTER2: 99 Devon's Farming Community at War CHAPTER3: 172 Recruitment Patterns and Techniques CHAPTER4: 247 Denominational Responses to the First World War CONCLUSION 302 APPENDICES 314 BIBLIOGRAPHY 320 vii List of Maps and Tables: viii Map 1: County of Devon lX Map 2: Counties of England viii Combe Martin • South Molton • Tiverton Chulmleigh • • Bradworthy • Uffculme • Holsworthy North Tawton • Cullompton Northlew Crediton • • • • Ashwater Okehampton Chagford •Exeter • • 0ttery St Mary Salcombe Map 2: County of Devon ix Map 1: Counties of England 1 PhD Thesis-Bonnie White McMaster-History Introduction On 4 August 1914 the people ofthe county ofDevon in south-west England received news that Britain was at war with Germany. Devonians, with few exceptions, acknowledged that Britain's military effort was a just cause, and most accepted that sacrifice would be an essential part ofthe civilian contribution to the war effort. However, the First World War generated two seemingly contradictory responses: uniting society against a common enemy and, at the same time, revealing existing pressure points around differences of class, gender, or religion. The government and propagandists presented the war as a necessary reaction to German aggression and so the expected response was one ofpopular support for the British state. Yet, unity was always conditional and old antagonisms were not easily forgotten. This dissertation seeks to understand how Devonians responded to the challenges ofthe war, to note how attitudes and beliefs changed between 1914 and 1918, and to determine the extent of change or stability in Devon during this period. More specifically, this study aims to understand how wartime experiences were shaped by geographical, occupational, temporal, and religious factors. It asks what a local study can reveal about the relationship between the state and its citizens, and what impact a study of a single county can have on our interpretation and understanding ofBritain in the First World War? This dissertation argues that although Devonians were generally supportive of British participation in the war, their support was based on the expectation of 'equality of sacrifice' - that the burdens ofwar would be shared equally throughout the county and across all segments of society. However, given the economic, religious, and social divisions already existing in the county, it is not surprising that the perception ofthis 2 PhD Thesis-Bonnie White McMaster-History equality was not uniformly shared. The various social, political, economic, and religious groups that comprised Devon society approached the war with different objectives and expectations. Yet, each group wanted the government and the rest of society to recognize that their sacrifices and hardships made a meaningful contribution to the war effort, which could only be done iftheir needs, whether in regard to housing, food, or labour, were met. However, as this dissertation will show, because each group viewed the war in terms of their own experiences there could be no objective interpretation of the war or its management. Instead, military and civilian needs were always in competition and both, separately, were always in flux. The end result was that hardships burdened some groups more than others, or were at least perceived to, and the government's handling ofthe war was often criticized. The response ofDevonians to the First World War fits into to an extensive historiography on the British home front and connects with a number of issues covered in the secondary literature: state intervention, housing, shortages and restrictions, social unrest, pacifism and dissent, volunteerism and conscription, manpower, and religion. But the majority of studies on the war are concerned with the national picture, and the extent to which the war was responsible for cultural, social, political, religious, and economic change. The value of a county focus is that by disaggregating the national picture it throws the