The Rising Tide of Colour

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The Rising Tide of Colour 1 The rising tide of colour Indonesische studenten en de ontdekking van hun wereldgemeenschap Klaas Stutje Eindscriptie onderzoeksmaster geschiedenis 2 The rising tide of colour Omslag: Mohammad Hatta (vooraan aan het hoofd) bij een congresvergadering van het ‘Kongress gegen Imperialismus und koloniale Unterdrückung’ in Brussel in februari 1927. Bron: Gibarti, Fimmen en Hatta, Das Flammenzeichen vom Palais Egmont, 140. 3 Klaas Stutje The rising tide of colour Indonesische studenten en de ontdekking van hun wereldgemeenschap Eindscriptie onderzoeksmaster geschiedenis Universiteit van Amsterdam Amsterdam, 9 juni 2010 Contactgegevens: Egelantiersgracht 544c Universiteit van Amsterdam 1015 RR Amsterdam Faculteit der Geesteswetenschappen Email: [email protected] Onderzoeksmaster geschiedenis (Mphil) tel.nr.: 06-55530077 Studentnummer 0410373 Begeleider: dr. Marieke Bloembergen Tweede lezer: prof. dr. Susan Legêne 4 5 Inhoudsopgave Inleiding ……………………………………………………………….…………….….…. 9 Transnationale geschiedschrijving …………………………………………….……. 11 Lokale actoren op het transnationale toneel ……………………….…………….…... 13 1 Indonesisch nationalisme in Nederland …………………………….…………….….. 17 Het rijke Indonesische studentenleven ……………………………….…………….... 17 Ethische idealen ……………………………………………………….………….….. 20 Het Indonesisch Verbond van Studeerenden ………………………….……………... 22 Politieke kenteringen tussen 1919 en 1923 …………………………….………….… 23 Een nationalistische coup in de Indische Vereeniging ………………….………….... 27 Gemeenschapsvorming in de Perhimpoenan Indonesia als buitenpost en voorpost.... 30 Wantrouwen en repressie door de Nederlandse overheid ………………..………..… 34 Het communistisch gevaar ………………………………………………………..…. 37 Nationalisme en communisme: de PI en de groeiende invloed van Moskou …….….. 38 Een tweede wending binnen de Perhimpoenan Indonesia ……………………….….. 41 Conclusie …………………………………………………………………………..… 43 2 ‘Ginds…’, het nationalistische perspectief …………………………………………... 45 Geringe aandacht voor het buitenland in Hindia Poetra (tot 1922) ……………….… 45 Nationalistisch internationalisme: van Hindia Poetra naar Indonesia Merdeka …..… 48 1923-1931: De aandacht voor het buitenland. Welk buitenland? ................................ 50 Het lichtend voorbeeld van Brits-Indië ……………………………………………… 50 Selectieve inspiratie uit Brits-Indië ………………………………………………….. 52 Indrukwekkend patriottisme in Turkije ……………………………...………………. 56 De waarschuwing van China …………………………………...……………………. 59 Een verbeelde gemeenschap van nationale bewegingen …………….………………. 64 Het communisme en het Indonesisch wereldbeeld ………………………………….. 66 Een veranderend wereldbeeld na de communistische wending …………...………… 69 Conclusie …………………………………………………………………………….. 71 3 Nous sommes partout ! ................................................................................................... 73 Ethisch internationalisme ……………………………………………………………. 73 De Société d’Etudiants Asiatiques: het begin van een Aziatische studentenbeweging. 75 Cultureel activisme in Parijs …………………………………………………….….... 77 De pan-Aziatische integratie met linkse Europese netwerken ………………………. 79 6 7 Het Brussels Congres tegen Imperialisme van 1927 ………………………………… 82 De resultaten van het Congres tegen Imperialisme ……………………………...…... 86 Vrees voor de internationale connectie en de arrestatie van enkele PI-leden ……...... 89 Communistische wendingen en het Ligacongres te Frankfurt …………………….… 91 Conclusie ………………………………………………………………….……….… 94 Conclusie …………………………………………………………………………..……… 97 Bronnen- en Literatuurlijst …………………………………………………………...…. 101 Archieven ………………………………………………………………………….… 101 Gedrukte bronnen ………………………………………………………………..…... 102 Gedrukte bronnen: tijdschriftartikelen …………………………………………….… 102 Literatuur …………………………………………………………………………….. 106 8 9 Inleiding Vanaf de eeuwwisseling van de twintigste eeuw kwam een groeiend aantal Indonesiërs naar Nederland. Aanvankelijk waren dat vooral particuliere dienstbodes, zeelieden en bedienend personeel op de vracht- en passagiersschepen die voortdurend tussen Nederland en de Indonesische Archipel heen en weer reisden. Later, vooral na de Eerste Wereldoorlog, kwamen ook studenten uit de welvarende en aristocratische milieus van Nederlands-Indië naar ons land. Hoewel de laatste groep in aantal bescheidener was dan de groepen dienstbodes en zeearbeiders – hun aantal passeerde, ook in de hoogtijdagen van de jaren twintig van de vorige eeuw, op geen moment de tweehonderd terwijl de arbeidersgroepen jaarlijks met honderden tegelijk arriveerden1 – heeft ze in de literatuur relatief veel aandacht van historici gekregen. Niet alleen lieten de studenten meer bronnen na dan hun niet-studerende landgenoten. Ook kregen zij van historici een belangrijke rol toegedicht in het politieke ontwaken van Indonesië. Dat was niet zonder reden. Vooral in de Perhimpoenan Indonesia (‘Indonesische Vereniging’, PI) verzamelden zich radicaliserende studenten en ballingen; mensen die vanwege politiek werk door het koloniaal gouvernement gedwongen werden Nederlands-Indië te verlaten. Voortdurend, en met toenemende felheid, vielen zij de Nederlandse overheid aan op haar koloniaal beleid. In hun midden ontstond een nieuw gevoel van eenheid. In hun teksten werd de naam ‘Indonesia’ voor het eerst in politieke zin gebruikt.2 Veel van de studenten die eens in Nederland studeerden – Mohammad Hatta, Nazir Pamontjak, Soetan Sjahrir, Roestam Effendi – hebben een vooraanstaande rol gespeeld in de Indonesische nationalistische en communistische bewegingen. In de literatuur over de Indonesische studenten werd de groep tot nu toe ofwel in een verhaal geplaatst over de ontwikkeling van de Indonesische politiek en de opkomst van de nationalistische beweging, ofwel beschouwd in de context van de Nederlandse antikoloniale politiek. In het eerste relaas namen de studenten hun letterlijk excentrieke plaats in tussen de verschillende Indonesische politieke organisaties in de jaren twintig, zoals Boedi Oetomo, de Indische Sociaal-Democratische Vereeniging/Partai Komunis Indonesia, de diverse 1 Harry Poeze, In het land van de overheerser, I: Indonesiërs in Nederland 1600-1950 (Dordrecht 1986) 155, 236. Precieze aantallen ontbreken omdat plannen voor centrale administratie nooit van de grond kwamen. Om een indruk te krijgen: rond het jaar 1925 stonden in een Haags arbeidsbureau voor Indisch personeel driehonderd diensthulpen als werkzoekende geregistreerd. 2 John Ingleson, Perhimpunan Indonesia and the Indonesian nationalist movement, 1923-1928 (Melbourne 1975) 5. 10 nationalistische studieclubs en de Indonesische Nationalistische Partij PNI.3 In de literatuur van de tweede categorie stond de ingewikkelde verhouding van de nationalistische studenten met de Communistische Partij Holland, met revolutionair socialisten en met de Nederlandse sociaaldemocratie centraal.4 In beide contexten namen de Indonesische studenten en vooral de Perhimpoenan Indonesia een uitzonderlijke positie in, die hen tot onderwerp van onderzoek de moeite waard maakten. De beide perspectieven droegen echter als consequentie dat een deel van het werk van de Indonesische studenten onderbelicht is gebleven: het werk buiten de grenzen van het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden. Centraal in deze scriptie staat het feit dat de Indonesiërs op twee manieren onderdeel waren van een internationaal politiek toneel. Enerzijds werd hun politieke denken over de toekomst van Nederlands-Indië voortdurend beïnvloed door gebeurtenissen op het wereldtoneel. In Rusland vond een spectaculaire sociale revolutie plaats. In landen als India en Egypte ontstonden machtige nationalistische bewegingen. In China won de nationalistische Kwomintang terrein maar groeiden ook de spanningen met de eveneens groeiende communistische partij. In Japan en Turkije werd bewezen dat een autocratische en nationalistische politiek enorme resultaten kon behalen. De buitenlandkaternen van het PI- tijdschrift Indonesia Merdeka hielden de Indonesiërs een veelvoud aan ontwikkelingsmodellen en toekomstscenario’s voor. De revolutionaire gebeurtenissen elders bewezen dat koloniale rijken niet onverslaanbaar waren en stuurden het kritisch denken van de Indonesiërs in belangrijke mate. Anderzijds hadden Nederlandse Indonesiërs veelvuldig contact met belangrijke figuren en organisaties uit de gekoloniseerde wereld; mensen als Anton de Kom uit Suriname, kopstukken uit de Kwomintang-partij uit China en Jawaharlal Nehru uit India. Ze bezochten regelmatig internationale congressen waarin de antikoloniale strijd door vertegenwoordigers 3 Zie bijvoorbeeld Ingleson, Perhimpunan Indonesia; John Ingleson, Road to Exile, the Indonesian Nationalist movement 1927-1934 (Singapore, Kuala Lumpur en Hong Kong 1980); Ruth T. McVey, The rise of Indonesian communism (Ithaca 1965); George MacTurnan Kahin, Nationalism and revolution in Indonesia (New York 1952). 4 Zie bijvoorbeeld Harsja W. Bachtiar, ‘The development of a common national consciousness among students from the Indonesian Archipelago in the Netherlands’, Majalah Ilmu-Ilmu Sastra Indonesia, 6, 2 (mei 1976); Anne van Leeuwen, De Perhimpoenan Indonesia 1929-1941 (Masterscriptie Universiteit van Utrecht 1985); Poeze, In het land van de overheerser; Joop Morriën, Indonesië los van Holland : de CPN en de PKI in hun strijd tegen het Nederlands kolonialisme (Amsterdam 1982). Biografieën over Indonesische studenten en ballingen richten zich overigens minder op één van de twee contexten, al naar gelang de centrale persoon in Indonesië, Nederland of elders actief was. Zie Harry Poeze, Tan Malaka, strijder voor Indonesië’s vrijheid.
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