Sustainable Wildlife Management

249ISSN 0041-6436

An international journal of forestry and forest industries Vol. 68 2017/1

SUSTAINABLE WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT

249ISSN 0041-6436

An international journal of forestry and forest industries Vol. 68 2017/1

Editor: A. Sarre Editorial Advisory Board: S. Braatz, I. Buttoud, P. Csoka, L. Flejzor, T. Hofer, Contents F. Kafeero, W. Kollert, S. Lapstun, D. Mollicone, D. Reeb, S. Rose, J. Tissari, Editorial 2 P. van Lierop Emeritus Advisers: J. Ball, I.J. Bourke, R. Cooney, C. Freese, H. Dublin, D. Roe, D. Mallon, M. Knight, C. Palmberg-Lerche, L. Russo R. Emslie, M. Pani, V. Booth, S. Mahoney and C. Buyanaa Regional Advisers: F. Bojang, P. Durst, The baby and the bathwater: trophy hunting, conservation A.A. Hamid, J. Meza and rural livelihoods 3 Unasylva is published in English, French J. Stahl and T. De Meulenaer and Spanish. Subscriptions can be obtained CITES and the international trade in wildlife 17 by sending an e-mail to [email protected]. Subscription requests from institutions Y. Vizina and D. Kobei (e.g. libraries, companies, organizations, Indigenous peoples and sustainable wildlife management universities) rather than individuals are in the global era 27 preferred in order to make the journal accessible to more readers. D. Roe, R. Cooney, H. Dublin, D. Challender, D. Biggs, D. Skinner, All issues of Unasylva are available online M. Abensperg-Traun, N. Ahlers, R. Melisch and M. Murphree free of charge at www.fao.org/forestry/ First line of defence: engaging communities in tackling unasylva. Comments and queries are welcome: wildlife crime 33 [email protected]. FAO encourages the use, reproduction and J.-C. Nguinguiri, R. Czudek, C. Julve Larrubia, L. Ilama, dissemination of material in this information product. Except where otherwise indicated, S. Le Bel, E.J. Angoran, J.F. Trebuchon and D. Cornelis material may be copied, downloaded and Managing human–wildlife conflicts in central and printed for private study, research and teaching southern Africa 39 purposes, or for use in non-commercial products or services, provided that appropriate N. Yakusheva acknowledgement of FAO as the source and Wildlife conservation policy and practice in Central Asia 45 copyright holder is given and that FAO’s endorsement of users’ views, products or N. van Vliet, F. Sandrin, L. Vanegas, L. L’haridon, J.E. Fa services is not implied in any way. and R. Nasi The designations employed and the High-tech participatory monitoring in aid of adaptive presentation of material in this information hunting management in the Amazon 53 product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and M. Silalahi, A.B. Utomo, T.A. Walsh, A. Ayat, Andriansyah Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and S. Bashir (FAO) concerning the legal or development Indonesia’s ecosystem restoration concessions 63 status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation M. Rautiainen, J. Miettinen, A. Putaala, M. Rantala of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of and M. Alhainen specific companies or products of manufacturers, Grouse-friendly forest management in Finland 71 whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or FAO Forestry 78 recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. World of Forestry 80 The FAO publications reviewed in Unasylva are available on the FAO website (www.fao.org/ Books 81 publications) and can be purchased through [email protected].

Cover: An African elephant is silhouetted against the setting sun © Marsel van Oosten EDITORIAL

ildlife management is the focus of considerable greater cooperation among indigenous peoples and supporters international debate because of its importance for at the global scale. biodiversity conservation, human safety, livelihoods Roe and co-authors report on a recent symposium on wildlife Wand food security. The Collaborative Partnership on Sustainable management, which concluded that enforcement alone is insuf- Wildlife Management (CPW) – comprising a range of interna- ficient to combat the illegal wildlife trade; if done poorly, it tional organizations, including FAO – was established in 2013 can even have major negative consequences. A better approach, to increase cooperation and coordination among its members according to symposium participants, is community engage- and other interested parties in the sustainable management of ment based on listening, trust-building, respect for traditional terrestrial vertebrate wildlife. Still in the early stages of develop- authority, the development of shared, co-created approaches, ment, the CPW has plenty to work on. and, crucially, recognition of the rights of communities to use One of the most controversial topics in sustainable wildlife and benefit from wildlife. management is trophy hunting, which is recreational hunting Following on from these general articles are regional and local that targets wild animals with specific desired characteristics, examples of efforts to promote sustainable wildlife management. such as large size or antlers. There are moves at various levels to Nguinguiri and co-authors describe recent efforts to better man- end or restrict the practice for ethical and conservation reasons, age human–wildlife conflicts in central and southern Africa, including through bans on the importation of hunting trophies. which have become more frequent in recent decades. Among other In the opening article of this edition, Cooney and co-authors, efforts, a regional partnership of organizations has developed a however, make the case for the positive role of trophy hunting in toolbox of approaches to enable communities to deter wildlife supporting conservation and local rights and livelihoods, illustrat- from damaging their crops and property and from posing risks ing it with six case studies in Africa, Asia and North America. to human lives. They conclude that, although the governance of trophy hunting Yakusheva describes an initiative in Central Asia – one of the needs reform in many countries, bans and import restrictions world’s few remaining regions in which large-scale migrations of would undermine successful conservation and community- large mammals still occur – under the auspices of the Convention driven development programmes that are funded largely by on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals to trophy hunting. improve regional cooperation on wildlife conservation. Van The article by Stahl and De Meulenaer reviews the role of the Vliet and her co-authors show how indigenous hunters in the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Amazon are using smartphone technology to monitor and regu- Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in regulating the international late their hunting. Silalahi and co-authors provide an overview wildlife trade and encouraging sustainable wildlife manage- of an emerging form of forest licence in Indonesia that offers ment. The international wildlife trade is worth many billions companies – including those formed by civil-society organiza- of dollars annually and involves thousands of species. About tions – opportunities to restore and manage logged-over forest 3 percent of the species regulated by CITES are under threat for biodiversity conservation and to generate local economic and of extinction, and CITES generally prohibits their trade. The social benefits. Finally, Rautiainen and his co-authors provide an remaining 97 percent are not threatened but could become so example of best practice in Finland, where forest management if the trade was unregulated. The authors explain how CITES is being adapted to accommodate the habitat requirements of works and present case studies in which CITES regulation has grouse species, populations of which had previously declined helped promote sustainable wildlife management. Nevertheless, but are now on the rebound. the illegal trade of terrestrial vertebrate wildlife, estimated to Local people have been managing wildlife for millennia, includ- be worth up to US$10 billion per year, can undermine such ing through hunting. Sufficient examples are presented in this efforts; there is a continued need, say the authors, to improve edition to show that sustainable wildlife management is also the governance of wildlife management and trade. feasible in the modern era. In some cases, a sustainable offtake – The role of indigenous peoples has often been sidelined in by local people, trophy hunters and legitimate wildlife traders – is international debates on wildlife conservation. The article by proving vital to obtain local buy-in to wildlife management and Vizina and Kobei shows that this is changing, with indigenous to pay the costs of maintaining habitats. No doubt the debate voices becoming more audible in forums such as the Convention will continue on the best ways to manage wildlife; this edition on Biological Diversity and CITES and through the CPW. of Unasylva is a contribution to that. u Indigenous peoples have acquired a wealth of knowledge over many generations, which they have used to sustainably manage and conserve their lands. Revitalizing this traditional knowledge, say the authors, is an important pathway for long-term wildlife conservation, and one way to do it is to encourage 3 © JOACHIM HUBER 2.0 (HTTP://CREATIVECOMMONS.ORG/LICENSES/BY-SA/2.0)], BY-SA [CC VIA WIKIMEDIA COMMONS The baby and the bathwater: trophy hunting, conservation and rural livelihoods

R. Cooney, C. Freese, H. Dublin, D. Roe, D. Mallon, M. Knight, R. Emslie, M. Pani, V. Booth, S. Mahoney and C. Buyanaa

There is substantial evidence that the controversial practice of trophy rophy hunting is the subject of hunting can produce positive outcomes for wildlife conservation and intense debate and polarized posi- local people. tions, with controversy and deep Tconcern over some hunting practices and their ethical basis and impacts. The Rosie Cooney is Chair of the International Union Institute for Environment and Development and for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Commission a member of the IUCN CEESP/SSC Sustainable controversy has sparked moves at various on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy Use and Livelihoods Specialist Group. levels to end or restrict trophy hunting, (CEESP)/Species Survival Commission (SSC) David Mallon is Co-chair of the IUCN SSC including through bans on the carriage Sustainable Use and Livelihoods Specialist Antelope Specialist Group and a member of Group and Visiting Fellow at the University of the IUCN CEESP/SSC Sustainable Use and or import of hunting trophies. In March New South Wales, Australia. Livelihoods Specialist Group. 2016, for example, a group of members Curtis Freese, Marco Pani and Vernon Booth Michael Knight is Co-chair of the IUCN SSC of the European Parliament called (unsuc- are independent consultants and members of African Rhino Specialist Group and a member the IUCN CEESP/SSC Sustainable Use and of the IUCN CEESP/SSC Sustainable Use and cessfully) for the signing of a Written Livelihoods Specialist Group. Livelihoods Specialist Group. Declaration calling for examination of Holly Dublin is Chair of the IUCN SSC African Richard Emslie is Scientific Officer with the the possibility of restricting all imports of Elephant Specialist Group, Senior Advisor at IUCN SSC African Rhino Specialist Group. the IUCN East and Southern Africa Regional Shane Mahoney is Chief Executive Officer at hunting trophies into the European Union. Office, and a member of the IUCN CEESP/SSC Conservation Visions and Deputy Chair for North Sustainable Use and Livelihoods Specialist America of the IUCN CEESP/SSC Sustainable Group. Use and Livelihoods Specialist Group. Dilys Roe is Principal Researcher and Team Chimeddorj Buyanaa is Conservation Director Above: Elephants bathe in the Leader (Biodiversity) at the International at the W W F Mongolia P rogram me Office. Chobe River, Botswana

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Although there is a pressing need for the or to enable forest regeneration; being in trade is generally far more damaging in reform of hunting governance and practice nature; continuing a culturally important both scale and demographic impact, with in many countries, calls for blanket restric- or traditional set of practices; and inter- breeding females and calves often killed. tions on trophy hunting assume that it is acting with family and friends. In many In Africa, for example, 1 342 African rhi- uniformly detrimental to conservation; contexts, trophy hunting overlaps substan- nos (including both species) were reported such calls are frequently made based on tially with hunting for food. Many deer poached in 2015 – almost 20 times more poor information and inaccurate assump- hunters, for example, may hunt animals than the 69 that were hunted legally that tions. Here we explain how trophy hunting, with larger antlers if encountered, but will year (Emslie et al., 2016). All revenue from if well managed, can play a positive role hunt others (for meat) should the desired poaching for the illegal wildlife trade flows in supporting conservation as well as local animal not be found. to criminals; on the other hand, revenues community rights and livelihoods, and we A wide variety of species is subject to from legal hunting are used in a number of provide examples from various parts of the trophy hunting, from common to threat- cases to fund law enforcement or provide world. We highlight the likely impact of ened. Most are native, but some (e.g. deer community benefits that counter the incen- blanket bans on trophy hunting and argue in Australia and New Zealand) are intro- tives to engage in illegal wildlife trade (see, for a more nuanced approach to much- duced. The hunting of introduced species for example, case studies 1, 2 and 4 later needed reform. constitutes a small proportion of hunting in this article). and raises different conservation issues In some contexts, all decisions on hunt- WHAT IS TROPHY HUNTING? to those associated with the hunting of ing quotas, species and areas are made by Here we define trophy hunting as hunting native species; it is not discussed further government wildlife agencies (for example carried out on a recreational basis (i.e. not in this article. in the United States of America – case “subsistence” hunting carried out as part Although there is a tendency for the study 3). In many trophy-hunting gover- of basic livelihood strategies) targeting media and decision-makers to conflate nance systems, however, local landowners animals with specific desired characteris- “canned” hunting (hunting of usually and community organizations participate tics (such as large size or antlers). Trophy captive-bred animals in enclosures from alongside governments in deciding these hunting generally involves the payment which they are unable to escape, or of questions and sometimes are the key of a fee by a foreign or local hunter for recently released animals unfamiliar with decision-makers, at least for some species an (often guided) experience for one or the area) with legitimate trophy hunting, (e.g. in Namibian communal conservan- more individuals in hunting a particular canned hunting is a limited practice (pri- cies – see case study 5). species with desired characteristics. The marily involving lions in South Africa) This is not to say that no illegal practices hunter generally retains the antlers, horn, and is condemned by major professional take place – as, to a certain extent, they tusks, head, teeth or other body parts of hunting organizations. It raises different do in most sectors. Widespread anecdotal the animal as a memento or “trophy”, issues to those associated with the hunt- reports indicate that regulatory weak- and the local community or the hunter ing of free-ranging animals and is not nesses and illegal activities exist in the usually uses the meat for food. Trophy discussed further in this article. trophy-hunting sector in some countries, hunting takes place in most countries of Trophy hunting is also frequently (and sometimes at a very serious scale and Europe, the United States of America, incorrectly) conflated with poaching sometimes involving official corruption. Canada, Mexico, several countries in for the organized international illegal Such activities include hunting in excess East, Central and South Asia, around wildlife trade that is devastating many of quotas or in the wrong areas, the tak- half the 54 countries in Africa (Booth and species, including the African elephant ing of non-permitted species, and “pseudo Chardonnet, 2015), several countries in (Loxodonta africana) and African rhinos hunting” (case study 1). Central and South America, and Australia (black – Diceros bicornis – and white – The prices paid for trophy hunts vary and New Zealand. Ceratotherium simum). Trophy hunting enormously, from the equivalent of hun- We note, however, that the term “trophy typically takes place as a legal, regulated dreds to hundreds of thousands of United hunting” can be misleading. Hunting takes activity under programmes implemented by States dollars; at a global scale, such hunts many forms, and hunters have diverse government wildlife agencies, protected- involve a substantial revenue flow from motivations. Gaining trophies may be a area managers, indigenous or local developed to developing countries (e.g. minor or incidental motivation for some community bodies, private landowners or Booth, 2009; Saayman, van der Merwe hunters, who may also be motivated by, conservation or development organizations, and Rossouw, 2011). In developing coun- for example, the prospect of obtaining whereas poaching for the illegal wildlife tries, landowners and land managers often food; managing a population in order to trade is – by definition – illegal and un- negotiate with hunting operators (or “con- conserve other species of plants or animals managed. Poaching for the illegal wildlife cessionaires”) to decide who will get the

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hunting right or concession on their land, (such as reduced horn size); the intro- sub-Saharan Africa, lands set aside and on what terms. Terms may include duction of species or subspecies beyond for wildlife in hunting concessions (and, in some countries, must include, if their natural ranges (including into other cover as much land (or more) as on state land) obligations to carry out anti- countries); and predator removal. national parks (Lindsey, Roulet and poaching and community development It is clear, however, that, given effective Romañach, 2007) and are often part activities. The operator, in turn, secures governance and management, trophy hunt- of national protected-area systems contracts with foreign clients and runs the ing can and does have positive impacts (usually in IUCN categories IV and hunting trips. The fees paid by hunters (as shown in the six case studies in this VI).1 Given the intense and escalat- generally include three things: article). Habitat loss, fragmentation and ing pressures on land in developing 1. the operator’s costs (where applicable); degradation, driven primarily by the countries, particularly to produce 2. payments to the local entity (e.g. com- expansion of human economic activities, food, the future of these lands and the munity, private or state landowner or is the most important threat to terrestrial wildlife that inhabit them would be land manager) with which the opera- wildlife populations (Mace et al., 2005), highly uncertain without the benefits tor has the contract; and along with other threats such as poaching flowing from wildlife management. 3. official government payments of for bushmeat and illegal wildlife trade and • Generate revenue for wildlife man- various types (e.g. permits and fees), competition with livestock. Demands for agement and conservation, including which typically help finance wild- food, income and land for development anti-poaching activities, for gov- life management and conservation are rising in many biodiversity-rich parts ernmental, private and communal activities. of the world, exacerbating threats to wild- landholders (see case studies 1–6). In developing countries, generally 50–90 life and increasing the urgency of finding In most regions, government agencies percent of the net revenues (excluding viable conservation incentives. depend at least in part on revenues operator costs) are allocated to local Well-managed trophy hunting can be a from hunting to manage wildlife and entities, with the remainder going to gov- positive driver of conservation because protected areas. State wildlife agen- ernment authorities. The local community it increases the value of wildlife and the cies in the United States of America, benefit can be as high as 100 percent and habitats it depends on, providing crucial for example, are funded primarily by as low as nearly zero. Meat from hunts is benefits that can motivate and enable hunters (both trophy and broader recre- often donated or sold to local community sustainable management approaches. ational hunting) through various direct members and can be highly valued locally Trophy-hunting programmes can have and indirect mechanisms, including (Naidoo et al., 2016). In most countries the following positive impacts: the sale of trophy-hunting permits in Europe and North America, a share of • Generate incentives for landowners (Heffelfinger, Geist and Wishart, hunters’ fees usually goes to governmental (e.g. government, private individu- 2013; Mahoney, 2013). The extent of wildlife authorities to help finance wildlife als and communities) to conserve the world’s gazetted protected areas, management and conservation activities. or restore wildlife on their land. many of which are in IUCN catego- Benefits to landowners from hunting ries IV and VI and include hunting WHAT IMPACTS DOES can make wildlife an attractive land- areas, could decline significantly if TROPHY HUNTING HAVE ON use option, encouraging landowners hunting areas were to become inop- CONSERVATION? to maintain or restore wildlife habitat erable. Private landowners in South Trophy hunting takes place in a wide and populations, remove livestock, Africa and Zimbabwe and com- range of governance, management and invest in monitoring and management, munal landowners in Namibia also ecological contexts and, accordingly, its and carry out anti-poaching activi- use trophy-hunting revenues to pay impacts on conservation vary enormously, ties. Policies enabling landowners guards and rangers, buy equipment, from negative through neutral to positive. to benefit from sustainable wildlife and otherwise manage and protect Good evidence on the impacts is lacking or use have led to the total or partial scarce in many contexts, making it impos- conversion of large areas of land 1 The aim of IUCN Protected Area Category IV sible to fully evaluate the overall effect of from livestock and cropping back areas (“habitat/species management areas”) is trophy hunting. to wildlife in, for example, Mexico, to protect particular species or habitats, and management reflects this priority. The aim Negative conservation impacts of poorly Namibia, Pakistan, South Africa, of IUCN Protected Area Category VI areas managed trophy hunting may include over- the United States of America and (“protected areas with sustainable use of natu- harvesting; artificial selection for rare or Zimbabwe (case studies 1 and 3–6). ral resources”) is to conserve ecosystems and habitats together with associated cultural values exaggerated features (e.g. abnormal colour This benefit applies to state protected and traditional natural resource management morphs); genetic or phenotypic impacts areas as well as to private lands. In systems (IUCN, 2017).

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Hunting for food and trophies overlaps for species such as red deer (Cervus elaphus)

The incentives and revenues from trophy- hunting programmes are not just important for the conservation of hunted species: site protection exercises a “biodiversity umbrella” effect and may help conserve non-hunted species, too. Populations of African rhinos and the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) in the Savé and Bubye conservancies in Zimbabwe are not hunted, but proceeds from trophy hunting support their conservation (case study 4). In the Pamirs in Tajikistan, trophy-hunting concessions for argali (Ovis ammon) and ibex (Capra ibex) (wild sheep and goats) are showing higher densities of the threatened snow leopard (Panthera uncia) than nearby areas without trophy hunting, likely due to higher prey densities and reduced poaching (Kachel, 2014). High densities of snow leopard have also been recorded in a markhor (Capra falconeri) conservancy (Rosen, 2014). In the United States of America, the threatened grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) population in the Yellow- stone National Park region has benefited from the retirement of areas of land from livestock grazing and thus reduced bear–livestock conflicts, paid for partly by revenues from trophy hunting for bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) (K. Hurley, personal communication, 25 February 2016).

© JÖRG HEMPEL [CC BY-SA 3.0 DE (HTTP://CREATIVECOMMONS.ORG/LICENSES/BY-SA/3.0/DE/DEED.EN)], DE 3.0 HEMPEL JÖRG © BY-SA [CC VIA WIKIMEDIA COMMONS Concern is frequently expressed that trophy hunting is driving declines of wildlife (case studies 1 and 5). Reve- wildlife killings and human–wildlife iconic African large mammals such as nues from trophy-hunting operations in conflicts. Retaliatory killings and the elephant, rhino and lion (Panthera Mongolia, Pakistan and Tajikistan are local poaching are common when leo). Although there is evidence in a small used to pay local guards to stop poach- wildlife imposes serious costs on local number of cases – particularly concerning ing and to improve habitat for game people – such as the loss of crops and the lion – that unsustainable trophy hunting animals (case studies 2 and 6). Trophy- livestock and human injury or death has contributed to declines (e.g. Loveridge hunting operators and the patrols they – and there are no legal means for et al., 2007; Packer et al., 2011), it is not directly organize, finance and deploy people to benefit from it. This is a par- considered a primary threat to any of can reduce poaching (Lindsey, Roulet ticularly important factor in Africa, these species and is typically a negligible and Romañach, 2007). where elephants and other species or minor threat to African wildlife popula- • Increase tolerance of wild- destroy crops and where large cats tions (Lindsey, 2015). The primary causes life and thereby reduce illegal kill humans and livestock. of current and past population declines

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of the large mammals subject to trophy and region. In many cases, trophy hunting TROPHY HUNTING IN ACTION: hunting – such as the African elephant, takes place without meaningful community CASE STUDIES OF POSITIVE IMPACTS African buffalo, white rhino, black rhino, participation in decision-making around In the intense ongoing debate over trophy zebra (Equus zebra and E. quagga), argali, wildlife management, without adequate hunting, broad statements are often made ibex, bighorn sheep and various deer and respect for community rights and consent, suggesting that all trophy hunting threatens bear species – are habitat loss and degrada- and with insufficient or poorly functioning conservation or is driving declines in spe- tion, competition with livestock, illegal or benefit-sharing mechanisms, with most cies. For this reason, and because many uncontrolled poaching for meat and trade value captured by hunting operators or of these examples are not widely known, in animal products (e.g. ivory and horn), government agencies. In a significant we set out here a number of case studies and retribution killings in human–wildlife number of trophy-hunting programmes, where trophy hunting is generating positive conflicts (Schipper et al., 2008; Ripple however, it is clear that indigenous peoples benefits for conservation and community et al., 2015). For lions, the most important and local communities have freely chosen rights and livelihoods. Although examples causes of population declines are indis- to use trophy hunting as a way of generat- of poor approaches to trophy hunting also criminate killing in defence of human life ing incentives and revenues for conserving exist and deserve similar scrutiny, these and livestock, habitat loss, and prey-base and managing their wildlife and improving typically involve illegal or non-transparent depletion (usually from poaching) (Bauer their livelihoods (case studies 2, 3, 5 and behaviour, making verifiable information et al., 2015). For many of these species, as 6). In many other cases, communities have difficult to obtain. noted in the case studies, well-managed less decision-making power over trophy trophy hunting can promote population hunting but nevertheless gain a share of Case study 1. Rhinos in Namibia and recovery and protection and help in main- hunting revenues (see Lindsey et al., 2013). South Africa taining habitats. Communities can benefit from trophy The history of rhino hunting in Namibia hunting through hunting-concession pay- and South Africa demonstrates clearly its TROPHY HUNTING AND INDIGENOUS ments or other hunter investments, which sustainability in terms of population num- AND LOCAL COMMUNITY RIGHTS typically provide improved community bers. Since trophy-hunting programmes AND LIVELIHOODS services such as water infrastructure; were introduced for white rhino in South The contributions of trophy hunting to the schools and health clinics; jobs as guides, Africa, numbers have increased from livelihoods of indigenous peoples and local game guards, wildlife managers and other around 1 800 individuals in 1968 to just communities vary enormously by context hunting-related employment; and greater over 18 400 today (Emslie et al., 2016; access to game meat. Typically, indigenous Figure 1), with many more individuals also and local communities in and around hunt- reintroduced to other countries in the spe-

Lions: trophy hunting is not ing areas are very poor, with few sources cies’ natural range. Since the Convention considered a primary threat of income and sometimes no other legal on International Trade in Endangered to their conservation and can source of meat. Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) generate benefits

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1 20 000 3 900 Estimated number 18 000 of white rhinos in South Africa 3 400 16 000 (left) and black rhinos in South 14 000 Africa and Namibia 2 900 (right) before 12 000 and after trophy hunting started () 10 000 2 400 in 1968 and 2005, respectively 8 000 1 900 6 000

4 000 1 400 2 000

0 900 1948 1963 1978 1993 2008 1989 1994 1999 2004 2009 2014 Year Year Source: Redrawn from Emslie et al. (2016).

approved limited hunting quotas for black (to other reserves) to cover operating restrictions that threaten the viability of rhino in late 2004, the number of indi- costs. For example, one self-funded South hunting would likely further reduce incen- viduals in Namibia and South Africa has African reserve manages an increasing tives and exacerbate the trend. increased by 67 percent, from about 2 300 population of 195 white rhinos and many Hunting may also directly contribute to in 2004 to about 3 900 today (Figure 1). other species.2 An analysis of eight years population growth by removing males that As of the end of 2015, Namibia and South of data showed that only about 18 percent might (for example) kill or compete with Africa hosted 90 percent of Africa’s total of that reserve’s total operating costs was calves and females. The hunting of small black and white rhino population. generated from tourism, with trophy hunt- numbers of specific individual “surplus” Hunting has played an integral role in ing generating the bulk (63 percent) of male black rhinos is approved in South the recovery of the white rhino by provid- income needed to fund operations. The Africa only if criteria set out in the coun- ing incentives for private and communal reserve allocates all the proceeds from try’s black rhino biodiversity management landowners to maintain the species on their rhino hunting to rhino protection and plan are met to ensure that hunting furthers lands; generating income for conservation conservation management. The reserve demographic and genetic conservation. and protection; and helping manage and manager has noted that a recent ban on Generating revenue for conservation is promote the recovery of populations. lion-trophy imports by the United States of a bonus rather than the main driver of In South Africa, the limited trophy hunt- America has already caused the cancella- this hunting. ing of rhinos, combined with live sales and tion of some hunts, with a negative impact In recent years, “pseudo hunters” have tourism, has provided an economic incen- on income for conservation (M. Knight, used legal trophy hunting to access rhino tive to encourage more than 300 private R. Emslie and K. Adcock, personal com- horn for illegal sale in Southeast Asia, landowners to build their collective herd munication, 18 March 2016). driving a spike in the number of individu- to about 6 140 white rhinos and 630 black Increasing security costs and risks due als hunted to a high of 173 in 2011. The rhinos on 49 private or communal land- to escalating poaching and declining introduction of control measures in South holdings, representing around 1.7 million economic incentives have resulted in a Africa in 2012, however, has brought the hectares of conservation land – equiva- worrying trend, in which some private number of white rhinos hunted back down lent to almost another Kruger National landowners and managers are no longer to previous levels (Emslie et al., 2016). Park (Balfour, Knight and Jones, 2016; keeping rhinos; if this trend continues, Emslie et al., 2016). The contribution of it could threaten the expansion of the Case study 2. Argali in Mongolia trophy hunting to increasing the range and species’ ranges and numbers. Import Trophy hunting became legal in Mongolia numbers of these iconic species, therefore, in 1967, with argali, particularly the Altai 2 is significant (and increasing). The identity of this reserve is known to the IUCN argali (Ovis ammon ammon), the coun- SSC African Rhino Specialist Group (a highly Many private reserves rely heavily on credible and trusted authority), but we do not try’s most highly valued trophy animal. trophy hunting and the sale of white rhinos reveal it here for rhino security reasons. An inadequate management framework,

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however, led to largely unmanaged, Hunting is managed by the Gulzat tripled from its historic low to roughly open-access hunting. Argali populations Initiative, a non-governmental organization 80 000 today (Hurley, Brewer and declined significantly, possibly with addi- formed entirely of local community mem- Thornton, 2015). tional pressure arising from competition bers, with guidance from experts in wildlife Restoration of the bighorn sheep popu- with a rapidly growing domestic goat management, including certain hunting lation in Canada and the United States population (Page, 2015; Wingard and companies. Trilateral contracts between of America was brought about largely Zahler, 2006). hunting companies, the Gulzat Initiative by hunters working with provincial and WWF Mongolia initiated a community- and the district governor enhance trans- state wildlife agencies to support research, based wildlife management project in the parency and accountability (C. Buyanaa, habitat acquisition and management. In the Uvs administrative region in northwest personal communication, 28 January 2016). American state of Wyoming, for example, Mongolia in 2007. The objective was to Recent legal developments in Mon- auctions of bighorn sheep hunting tags replace uncontrolled open-access use with golia have established a sound basis for yield approximately US$350 000 annually, community wildlife management by seven community-based wildlife management, of which 70 percent goes to conserving local groups, with revenues to be gener- informed by experiences from communal bighorn sheep and 10 percent goes to the ated by trophy hunting, mainly of the Altai conservancies in Namibia (see case study 5). conservation of other wildlife. These funds argali. The 12.7 million-hectare Gulzat were used to cover approximately one- Local Protected Area was established Case study 3. Bighorn sheep in third of the more than US$2 million paid to and an initial ban on hunting was put in North America producers of domestic sheep to voluntarily place to enable population restoration. Euro-American settlement and the cor- remove sheep from 187 590 hectares of With protection from local herders, the responding surge in livestock numbers and public grazing lands (with the other two- population grew from about 200 in the uncontrolled hunting led to a rapid decline thirds of the cost met from fees paid by years immediately preceding the ban to in bighorn sheep in North America, from other hunting, fishing and wildlife groups; more than 1 500 in 2014 (Figure 2). This roughly 1 million individuals in 1800 to K. Hurley, personal communication, growth continued as managed hunting fewer than 25 000 in 1950. Since then, 23 February 2016). was initiated. Twelve Altai argali were based primarily on more than US$100 mil- Indigenous-managed trophy hunting has harvested in the four years following lion contributed by trophy-hunting groups also driven recoveries of bighorn sheep the lifting of the ban, generating around through fees and donations, hundreds of in Mexico. In 1975, 20 individuals were US$123 400 in income at the local level thousands of hectares have been set aside reintroduced to Tiburon Island in the Sea (C. Buyanaa, personal communication, for bighorn sheep and other wildlife, and of Cortez, an island owned and managed 2 March 2016). the bighorn population has more than by Seri Indians. The original cause of the extinction of the species on the island is

1 800 unknown, but the population grew quickly after reintroduction to around 500, prob- 1 600 ably the island’s carrying capacity. In 1995, 1 400 a coalition of institutions initiated a programme to fund bighorn sheep research 1 200 and conservation while providing needed 1 000 income for the Seri through the international auctioning of exclusive hunting 800 permits on the island. 600 Initially, permits often garnered 6-figure No. of individuals of No. 400 bids (in US dollars). From 1998 to 2007, the Seri Indians earned US$3.2 million 200 from bighorn sheep hunting permits and 0 the sale of young animals for transloca- 2003 2004 2005 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2014 tion – funds that were reinvested in Seri Year

Note: Population figures are the numbers of animals observed in annual transect and point surveys, with a low likelihood of animals being counted more than once; figures therefore represent minimum estimates. 2 Source: Chimeddorj Buyanaa, WWF Mongolia, unpublished data. Population counts for Altai argali in the Gulzat Local Protected Area, Mongolia

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A bighorn sheep, New Mexico, United States of America PHOTO CREDIT: JWANAMAKER 3.0 (HTTP://CREATIVECOMMONS.ORG/LICENSES/BY-SA/3.0)], WORK) (OWN BY-SA [CC VIA WIKIMEDIA COMMONS

community projects, the management of Case study 4. Private wildlife lands in game ranching as the hobby of a few dozen the bighorn sheep population, and the Zimbabwe ranchers to, by 2000, some 1 000 land- maintenance of the island in an undis- In Zimbabwe, the devolution of wildlife owners conserving 2.7 million hectares turbed state. The funding of the island’s use rights to landholders in 1975 resulted of wildlife land, with trophy hunting a conservation through trophy hunting in a transition in the wildlife sector from primary driver of this change (Child, 2009; continues, with the Seri recently selling

permits for US$80 000–90 000 each. The 550 island has also been an important source 500 History population for the re-establishment of 450 1999 13 lions introduced into Samanyanga bighorn sheep populations in the Sonoran (+ 4 young males break in) Desert and elsewhere on the mainland. 400 2001 Lion monitoring ceases 350 2009 Conservation research initiated: Many ranchers in the Sonoran Desert have WildCRU team from Oxford greatly reduced or eliminated livestock to 300 focus on wildlife because of the substantial 250 Original lion monitoring data revenues that can be generated from trophy 200 Oxford WildCRU Predator Survey data hunting for bighorn sheep and mule deer No. of individuals of No. 150 (Odocoileus hemionus) (Valdez et al., 100 2006; Wilder et al., 2014; Hurley, Brewer and Thornton, 2015). 50 0 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Year 3 Note: The privately owned Bubye Valley Conservancy is on land previously used for farming and depends The lion population in the privately on trophy hunting to fund wildlife conservation. Samanyanga is an area in the east of the conservancy on owned Bubye Valley Conservancy, the banks of the Bubye River. Zimbabwe, 1999–2012

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Lindsey, Romañach and Davies-Mostert, SVC has around 1 500 African elephants, Case study 5. Communal 2009). The number of landholders involved 121 black and 42 white rhinos, 280 lions conservancies in Namibia and the area of wildlife land conserved and several packs of African wild dog. In the early 1990s, many residents of have since declined significantly under Hunting on the Sango Ranch, SVC’s largest Namibian communal lands viewed wildlife the land reform programme; neverthe- property, yields around US$600 000 annu- species as detrimental to their livelihoods less, despite the challenging economic ally and employs 120 permanent workers, because they destroyed crops and water conditions in the country today, private who represent more than 1 000 family installations and killed or injured livestock conservancies continue to play a crucial members (Lindsey et al., 2008; W. Pabst and people. In 2015, 82 communal conser- role in conservation. The two conservan- and D. Goosen, personal communication, vancies managed 1.6 million hectares for cies described below both rely on trophy 9 February 2016; Sango Wildlife, undated). conservation, lands that are also home to hunting as the primary source of revenue The 323 000-hectare Bubye Valley around 190 000 people, including indig- and would be unviable without it. Both Conservancy (BVC), also a converted enous and tribal communities (NACSO, have made efforts to attract nature-based cattle ranch, now has roughly 500 lions 2015). tourism that does not include hunting (Figure 3), 700 African elephants, Trophy hunting has underpinned (often referred to as photographic tourism), 5 000 African buffaloes, 82 white rhinos Namibia’s success in community-based but this does not contribute significant and, at 211, the third-largest black rhino natural resource management. Recent revenue (Zimbabwe’s political instability population in Africa. Trophy fees in 2015 analysis indicates that if revenues from tro- has had far more impact on photographic generated US$1.38 million. BVC employs phy hunting were lost, most conservancies tourism than on hunting tourism). about 400 people and invests US$200 000 would be unable to cover their operating The Savé Valley Conservancy (SVC), annually in community development proj- costs; they would become unviable, and covering 344 000 hectares, was created ects (BVC, undated; B. Leathem, personal wildlife populations and local benefits in the 1990s by livestock ranchers who communication, 17 January 2016). would both decline dramatically (Naidoo agreed that wildlife management could Note that the revenues generated by et al., 2016; Figure 4). be a better use of the land than livestock. trophy hunting protect and benefit many Overall, conservancies generate around Cattle-ranching operations had eliminated non-hunted species in these ranches, such half their benefits (e.g. cash income for all elephants, rhinos, buffaloes and lions as the black rhino, white rhino and African individuals or communities; meat; and (among other species) in the area. Today, wild dog. social benefits like schools and health clinics) from photographic tourism and half from hunting. Much of the revenue is reinvested into the management and protection of wildlife. Around half the conservancies gain their benefits solely from hunting, with most of the rest deriving parts of their incomes from hunting alongside tourism. Only 12 percent of conservancies specialize in tourism (Naidoo et al., 2016). Revenues from trophy hunting for 29 wildlife species in conservancies totalled NAD36.4 million (about US$2.7 million) in 2015 (NACSO, 2015). Communities directly receive payments of about US$20 000 for each elephant hunted, plus about 3 000 kg of meat (Chris Weaver, personal communication, 18 January 2016).

White rhino: under threat from poaching, but trophy hunting can be beneficial for conservation. This rhino is in the Thanda Private

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Unprofitable Unprofitable Break-even Break-even Profitable Profitable

Source: Reproduced from Naidoo et al. (2016).

4 Wildlife populations have shown dra- that uncontrolled illegal hunting for Revenue generated by trophy hunting matic increases in Namibia since the food had greatly reduced populations underpins the success of the Namibian beginning of the communal conservancy of both the Suleiman (straight-horned) communal conservancy programme. The maps illustrate the economic viability of programme. On communal lands in the markhor (Capra falconeri megaceros) community conservancies in Namibia northeast, the population of the sable (<100 individuals) and the Afghan urial under (a) the status quo; and (b) a antelope (Hippotragus niger) increased (Ovis orientalis) (around 200 individu- simulated trophy-hunting ban from 724 in 1994 to 1 474 in 2011, and als). After unsuccessfully petitioning the the impala (Aepyceros melampus) popula- government to protect these two species, tion grew from 439 to 9 374 over the same the Pathan leaders developed the Torghar period. In the conservancy region in the Conservation Project based on a simple Similar examples exist elsewhere in northwest, the population of the threatened concept: that community members would Pakistan and in Tajikistan (and see also Hartmann’s mountain zebra (Equus zebra give up hunting in exchange for being the article on page 17 of this edition). Such hartmannae) increased from fewer than 1 hired as game guards to prevent poaching, developments have contributed to a recent 000 individuals in the early 1980s to an and the project would be financed by rev- improvement in the conservation status of estimated 27 000 in 2011, and the number enues derived from a limited trophy hunt markhor in the IUCN Red List, where it of black rhinos more than tripled, mak- of markhor and urial by foreign hunters. is no longer listed as Threatened. Outside ing it the largest free-roaming population The project covers about 100 000 hect- protected areas, stable and increasing in Africa (conservancies are unfenced). ares inhabited by 4 000 people. Between populations are found only in areas where The growth of communal conservancies 1986 and 2012, hunting of the two species there is sustainable hunting (Michel and and protection offered by national parks generated US$486 400 for the provincial Rosen Michel, 2015). has led to an increase in the population government and US$2.71 million for the of elephants from around 7 500 in 1995 local community, the latter covering the HOW WOULD TROPHY HUNTING to more than 20 000 today. The Kunene salaries of more than 80 game guards, BANS AFFECT CONSERVATION Conservancy’s lion population grew from funding various community projects, AND INDIGENOUS AND LOCAL roughly 25 in 1995 to 150 today, and including schools and healthcare facilities, COMMUNITIES? Namibia now has a large free-roaming and supporting actions to reduce graz- Outright bans on trophy hunting, as lion population outside national parks ing competition with livestock. Illegal well as import or transport restrictions (NACSO, 2015; C. Weaver, personal com- hunting declined dramatically: by 2012, on high-value species, especially in the munication, 18 January 2016). the markhor population had grown to an European Union and the United States estimated 3 500 individuals, while a 2005 of America, could end trophy hunting Case study 6. Markhor and urial in survey of urial estimated the population by making programmes economically Pakistan at 2 541 (Woodford, Frisina and Awun, unviable (see Figure 4). The case stud- In Pakistan in the mid-1980s, local 2004; Frisina and Tareen, 2009; Mallon, ies presented here make it clear that, in Pathan tribal leaders were concerned 2013). the absence of effective and sustainable

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Photo tourism: rarely a full substitute for trophy hunting in Africa

© JORGE LÁSCAR FROM AUSTRALIA (ELEPHANT SWIMMING. UPLOADED BY PDTILLMAN) [CC BY 2.0 (HTTP://CREATIVECOMMONS.ORG/LICENSES/BY/2.0)], VIA WIKIMEDIA COMMONS alternatives, removing the incentives and land, less access to meat, and lost employ- year (already reduced from US$2.2 million revenue provided by trophy hunting would ment options. The indigenous Khwe San by import bans on elephant trophies in likely cause serious population declines and Mbukushu (around 5 000 people) in the United States of America) (C. Jonga, for a number of threatened or iconic Bwatwata National Park, who are among personal communication, 27 August 2015). species, potentially stopping and revers- Namibia’s poorest people, have earned These are substantial amounts of money ing the recovery of (for example) some around NAD2.4 million (US$155 000) in countries where the average income of populations of African elephant, black and per year from trophy hunting in recent rural residents is a few dollars or less per white rhino, Hartmann’s mountain zebra years (R. Diggle, personal communica- day. Even more fundamentally, perhaps, and lion in Africa, markhor, argali and tion, 18 March 2016); stopping trophy unilateral trophy restrictions by import- urial in Asia, and bighorn sheep in North hunting would be an enormous setback ing countries would reduce the power of America. Populations of threatened species for them because of both a loss of income already-marginalized rural communities not subject to trophy hunting – such as the and reduced access to meat (and living in to make decisions on the management of snow leopard and African wild dog – could a national park means they cannot graze also be negatively affected. livestock or grow commercial crops). If 3 The CAMPFIRE [Communal Areas Manage- For some indigenous and local com- trophy hunting became unviable, thou- ment Programme For Indigenous Resources] is munities, making trophy hunting illegal sands of rural Zimbabwean households that Zimbabwe’s community-based natural resource 3 management programme, one of the first such or unviable would mean the loss of cash directly benefit from CAMPFIRE would programmes globally (Mutandwa and Gadzirayi, income from hunting concessions on their collectively lose about US$1.7 million per 2007).

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their lands and wildlife in ways that respect habitats. An example – albeit limited by countries in addressing, for example, their right to self-determination and that the difficulty of obtaining stable funding transparency in funding flows, commu- best meet their livelihood aspirations. – is the land-leasing scheme carried out nity benefits, the allocation of concessions by Cottar’s Safari Service with Maasai and quota setting; the rights and respon- CAN ALTERNATIVE LAND USES communities in Olderkesi, Kenya (IUCN sibilities of indigenous peoples and local REPLACE TROPHY HUNTING? SULi et al., 2015). REDD+4 can provide communities; and the monitoring of popu- Trophy hunting is not the only means of incentives and revenue flows to local com- lations and hunts. Hunting stakeholders increasing the economic value of wild- munities in some areas, although with – importing countries, donors, national life and generating local benefits. It is many caveats. PES schemes are difficult regulators and managers, community often assumed that photographic tourism options and risk donor dependency. A organizations, researchers, conservation could replace trophy hunting: this is cer- crucial challenge is ensuring that revenue organizations, and the hunting industry tainly a valuable option in many places flows are sustainable over the long term and hunter associations – have important and has generated enormous benefits for and not contingent on highly changeable roles to play in improving standards. conservation and local people, but it is donor priorities. In certain cases, conditional, time- viable in only a small proportion of the limited and targeted moratoria aimed wildlife areas now managed for trophy REFORMING TROPHY-HUNTING at addressing identified problems could hunting. In contrast to trophy hunting, PRACTICES help improve trophy-hunting practices. photographic tourism requires political Despite the positive examples outlined Bans, however, are unlikely to improve stability, proximity to good transport here, we are fully aware that, in many conservation outcomes unless there is a links, minimal disease risks, high-density countries, trophy-hunting governance and clear expectation that improved standards wildlife populations to guarantee viewing, management have many (typically undocu- will lead to the lifting of such bans and scenic landscapes, high capital investment, mented) weaknesses and failures, and the country has the capacity and political infrastructure (hotels, food and water sup- action by decision-makers to support effec- will to address the problem. It is crucial, plies, and waste management), and local tive reform should be strongly supported. at least in developing countries, therefore, skills and capacity. Photographic tourism Import restrictions are often attractive that moratoria are accompanied by funding and trophy hunting are frequently highly interventions for remote decision-makers and technical support for on-the-ground complementary land uses when separated because they are easy to implement and management improvements and by a plan by time or space. Where photographic can be carried out at low cost to decision- to review the status of the initial problem tourism is feasible in areas also used for making bodies, which do not bear formal after a specified period. trophy hunting, it is typically already being accountability for the impacts of their deci- pursued (e.g. case studies 4 and 5). Like sions in affected countries. Conservation CONCLUSION trophy hunting, photographic tourism – if success, however, is rarely achieved by Trophy hunting is increasingly under not carefully implemented – can have seri- single decisions in distant capitals; rather, intense scrutiny and facing high-profile ous environmental impacts and return few it typically requires long-term, sustained and often-effective campaigns calling for benefits to local communities, with most multistakeholder engagement – in-country broad-scale bans. There are valid concerns value captured offshore or by in-country and on the ground. about the legality, sustainability and ethics elites (Sandbrook and Adams, 2012). As an alternative to unilateral, blanket of some hunting practices, but calls for To be effective, alternatives to trophy restrictions or bans that would curtail bans or import restrictions risk “throw- hunting need to provide tangible and effec- trophy-hunting programmes, decision- ing the baby out with the bathwater”, tive conservation incentives. They need makers could consider whether specific undermining programmes that are having to make wildlife valuable to people over trophy-hunting programmes meet require- substantive and important positive effects the long term, and they should empower ments for best practice (IUCN SSC, 2012; on species recovery and protection, habitat local communities to exercise rights and Brainerd, 2007). Where there are gover- retention and management, and commu- responsibilities over wildlife conserva- nance and management problems, it would nity rights and livelihoods. tion and management. Various forms of be most effective to engage with relevant In some contexts, there may be valid and payment schemes for ecosystem services feasible alternatives to trophy hunting that (PES schemes) have considerable potential 4 REDD+ is the term given to the efforts of coun- can deliver the above-mentioned benefits, for mobilizing investments or voluntary tries to reduce emissions from deforestation but identifying, funding and implementing contributions from governments, philan- and forest degradation and foster conserva- these requires genuine consultation and tion, sustainable management of forests, and thropic sources and the private sector and enhancement of forest carbon stocks (www. engagement with affected governments, motivating the conservation of species and forestcarbonpartnership.org/what-redd). the private sector and communities. Such

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alternatives should not be subject to the Child, B. 2009. Game ranching in Zimbabwe. Combating Wildlife Crime”, 26–28 February vagaries of donor funding and, crucially, In H. Suich, B. Child & A. Spenceley, eds. 2015, Glenburn Lodge, Muldersdrift, South they must deliver equal or greater incen- Evolution and innovation in wildlife con- Africa. International Union for Conservation tives for conservation over the long term. servation, pp. 127–145. London, Earthscan. of Nature (IUCN) Sustainable Use and Liveli- If they do not, they could hasten rather Emslie, R.E., Milliken, T., Talukdar, B., hoods Specialist Group (SULi) (available at than reverse the decline of iconic wildlife, Ellis, S., Adcock, K. & Knight, M.H., http://pubs.iied.org/G03903.html). remove the economic incentives for the compilers. 2016. African and Asian Kachel, S.M. 2014. Evaluating the efficacy of retention of vast areas of wildlife habitat, rhinoceroses: status, conservation and wild ungulate trophy hunting as a tool for and alienate and undermine already- trade. A report from the IUCN Species snow leopard conservation in the Pamir marginalized communities who live with Survival Commission (IUCN SSC) African Mountains of Tajikistan. Thesis submitted wildlife and who will largely determine and Asian Rhino specialist groups and to the Faculty of the University of Delaware its future. u TRAFFIC to the CITES Secretariat pursu- in partial fulfilment of the requirements for ant to Resolution Conf. 9.14 (Rev. CoP15). the degree of Master of Science in Wildlife CITES CoP Doc. 68 Annex 5. Ecology. Frisina, M.R. & Tareen, N. 2009. Exploitation Lindsey, P.A. 2015. Bushmeat, wildlife-based prevents extinction: case study of endangered economies, food security and conserva- Himalayan sheep and goats. In B. Dickson, tion: insights into the ecological and J. Hutton & W.M. Adams, eds. Recreational social impacts of the bushmeat trade in hunting, conservation, and rural livelihoods: African savannahs. Harare, FAO, Panthera, science and practice, pp. 141–154. UK, Zoological Society of London & IUCN References Blackwell Publishing. SULi. Heffelfinger, J.R., Geist, V. & Wishart, W. Lindsey, P.A., Balme, G.A., Funston, P., Balfour, D., Knight, M. & Jones, P. 2016. 2013. The role of hunting in North American Henschel, P., Hunter, L., Madzikanda, H., Status of white rhino on private and com- wildlife conservation. International Journal Midlane, N. & Nyirenda, V. 2013. The tro- munal land in South Africa 2012–2014. of Environmental Studies, 70: 399–413. phy hunting of African lions: scale, current Pretoria, Department of Environmental Hurley, K., Brewer, C. & Thornton, G.N. management practices and factors undermin- Affairs. 2015. The role of hunters in conservation, ing sustainability. 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population in a protected area. Biological Packer, C., Brink, C., Kissui, B.M., Status of the world’s land and marine Conservation, 134: 548–558. Maliti, H., Kushnir, H. & Caro, T. mammals: diversity, threat, and knowl- Mace, G., Masundire, H., Baillie, J., 2011. Effects of trophy hunting on lion edge. Science, 322: 225–230 (DOI 10.1126/ Ricketts, T., Brooks, T., et al. 2005. and leopard populations in Tanzania. science.1165115). Biodiversity. In R. Hassan, R. Scholes & Conservation Biology, 25: 142–153 (DOI Valdez, R., Guzmán-Aranda, J.C., N. Ash, eds. Ecosystems and human well- 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2010.01576.x). Abarca, F.J., Tarango-Arámbula, L.A. being: current state and trends: findings of Page, L. 2015. Killing to save: trophy hunting & Clemente Sánchez, F. 2006. Wildlife the condition and trends working group, and conservation in Mongolia. Independent conservation and management in Mexico. pp. 77–122. Washington, DC, Island Press. Study Project (ISP) Collection. Paper 2086 Wildlife Society Bulletin, 34(2): 270–282. Mahoney, S.P. 2013. Monograph: conservation (available at http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/ Wilder, B.T., Betancourt, J.L., Epps, C.W., and hunting in North America. International isp_collection/2086). Crowhurst, R.S., Mead, J.I. & Ezcurra, E. Journal of Environmental Studies, 70(3): Ripple, W.J., Newsome, T.M., Wolf, C., 2014. Local extinction and unintentional 347–460. Dirzo, R. & Everatt, K.T., et al. 2015. rewilding of bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) Mallon, D. 2013. Trophy hunting of CITES- Collapse of the world’s largest herbivores. on a desert island. PLoS ONE, 9(3): e91358 listed species in Central Asia. TRAFFIC Science Advances, 1(4): e1400103 (DOI (DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0091358). report to the CITES Secretariat. 10.1126/sciadv.1400103). Wingard, J.R. & Zahler, P. 2006. Silent Michel, S. & Rosen Michel, T. 2015. Capra Rosen, T. 2014. Tajikistan brings endangered steppe: the illegal wildlife trade crisis in falconeri. IUCN Red List of Threatened wild goat from the edge of extinction to the Mongolia. Mongolia Discussion Papers. East Species 2015: e.T3787A82028427 (DOI peak of hope. Cat Watch, June 11 (avail- Asia and Pacific Environment and Social http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-4. able at http://voices.nationalgeographic. Development Department. Washington, DC, RLTS.T3787A82028427.en). com/2014/06/11/tajikistan-brings- The World Bank. Mutandwa, E. & Gadzirayi, C.T. 2007. Impact endangered-wild-goat-from-the-edge-of- Woodford, M.H., Frisina, M.R. & Awun, G.A. of community-based approaches to wildlife extinction-to-the-peak-of-hope). 2004. The Torghar conservation project: management: case study of the CAMPFIRE Saayman, M.P., van der Merwe, P. & management of the livestock, Suleiman programme in Zimbabwe. International Rossouw, R. 2011. The economic impact markhor (Capra falconeri) and Afghan Journal of Sustainable Development & of hunting in the Northern Cape Province. urial (Ovis orientalis) in the Torghar Hills, World Ecology, 14: 336–334. South African Journal of Wildlife Research, Pakistan. Game and Wildlife Science, 21: NACSO. 2015. The state of community conser- 41(1): 120–133. 177–187. u vation in Namibia: a review of communal Sandbrook, C. & Adams, W.M. 2012. conservancies, community forests and other Accessing the impenetrable: the nature CBNRM initiatives (2014/15 annual report). and distribution of tourism benefits at Windhoek, National Association of CBNRM a Ugandan national park. Society and Support Organisations (NACSO). Natural Resources, 25: 915–932 (DOI Naidoo, R., Weaver, L.C., Diggle, R.W., 10.1080/08941920.2011.644394). Matongo, G., Stuart-Hill, G. & Thouless, C. Sango Wildlife. Undated. Research. Website 2016. Complementary benefits of tourism (available at www.sango-wildlife.com). and hunting to communal conservancies Accessed 17 January 2017. in Namibia. Conservation Biology, 30(3): Schipper, J., Chanson J.S., Chiozza, F., 628–638 (DOI 10.1111/cobi.12643). Cox, N.A. & Hoffmann, M., et al. 2008.

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CITES and the international trade in wildlife

J. Stahl and T. De Meulenaer

The number of species listed in ustainable wildlife management and regulated under the Convention on the Convention on International and the trade in wildlife are closely International Trade in Endangered Species Trade in Endangered Species of linked.1 Trade can be a strong incen- of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Such Wild Fauna and Flora continues Stive for managing wildlife sustainably, trade, if legal, sustainable and traceable, to grow, along with the role of but it can also be a threat to wildlife if it can support wildlife conservation and the Convention in regulating is insufficiently regulated or controlled, contribute to sustainable development wildlife trade. poorly monitored or managed, or con- by generating income to support wildlife ducted at unsustainable levels. management and the livelihoods of rural A significant amount of the wildlife trade people. This article reviews the role of occurs within national borders, but an CITES in regulating the international important volume is traded internationally wildlife trade and encouraging sustainable wildlife management. 1 In line with the focus of the Collaborative Part- nership on Sustainable Wildlife Management, this article mainly addresses terrestrial and semi- An illegal shipment of turtles seized by terrestrial vertebrates as a subset of wildlife. customs officials in Bangkok in 2013 © PANJIT TANSOM/TRAFFIC

Johannes Stahl and Tom De Meulenaer are Enforcement Support Officer and Chief, Scientific Services Team, respectively, in the Secretariat to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora.

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VARIETY, VOLUMES AND VALUES species is unregulated. In terms of both one individual animal or plant, or products OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE volume and value, timber and fishery or derivatives of varying volumes. Annual IN WILDLIFE products are two of the most highly traded CITES-regulated trade involves more Wildlife is traded in many forms and forms of wildlife, but only a small propor- than 317 000 live birds, over 2 million for multiple purposes, ranging from live tion of the vast numbers of fish and timber live reptiles, 2.5 million crocodile skins, animals (for zoos, collections, breeding species in international trade are listed in 1.5 million lizard skins, 2.1 million snake and ranching, and as pets) to animal parts the CITES Appendices. skins, 73 tonnes of caviar, 1.1 million coral and products, including wild meat (often Between them, the 182 signatories to pieces and nearly 20 000 hunting trophies, referred to as bushmeat in the case of meat CITES register close to 1 million wildlife among many other items.2 from tropical and subtropical forest spe- trade transactions per year. Typically, each cies), skins, leather, fats, blood, oils (for such transaction encompasses more than 2 Based on data for 2005–2009 (TRAFFIC, 2016). cosmetics), bones and shells, medicinal ingredients, hunting trophies and tourist curios. The international trade in wildlife is considerable. CITES regulates international trade in more than 35 000 species of wild animals and plants, including 1 500 bird species, 2 200 invertebrates and 30 000 plant species. Approximately 3 percent of the species regulated by CITES are considered to be threatened with extinction; these are mostly listed in Appendix I of CITES, and the international commercial trade in specimens of wild origin is generally prohibited. The vast majority (about 97 percent) of CITES-listed species, however, are in Appendix II, which contains species not necessarily threatened with extinction but which may become so unless international trade is strictly regulated. Appendix II also includes a large number of “look-alike” species, which are species whose specimens in trade look like those of species listed for conservation reasons. Commercial international trade in Appendix II-listed species is allowed, subject to strict regulations to ensure that such trade is legal, sustainable and traceable. In addition to CITES-listed species, international trade is regulated for thousands of other species under various other instruments (e.g. bilateral, regional and international fisheries agreements, © LIV CAILLABET/TRAFFIC © LIV the Convention on Biological Diversity, and the International Tropical Timber Agreement), and the trade in many other

A tanned python skin, pinned for drying in Malaysia

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A handbag made from sustainably sourced crocodile and python skins

The overall economic value or importance of the trade in wildlife is not well documented, although some information exists for certain sectors. CITES estimates, for example, that the trade in skins of three species of python from Southeast Asia is worth about US$1 billion per year, and the estimated value of annual trade in bigleaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla), a timber species, is estimated at US$33 million. CAILLABET/TRAFFIC © LIV TRAFFIC estimates that the value of legal wildlife products traded globally (including fisheries and timber) grew from around US$160 billion per year in the early 1990s to US$323 billion in 2009 (TRAFFIC, 2016). The value of legal wildlife imports into the European Union was estimated to value of wildlife products, as shown in a and economies and generate incentives be worth €93 billion in 2005 and nearly recent study on the trade in python skins to conserve ecosystems and the services €100 billion in 2009 (Engler, 2008). in Southeast Asia (Box 1). The use and they provide. The average price of an The price of a live animal or plant, or subsequent trade of wildlife can also have African lion hunting trophy in Namibia, product thereof, at the point of import substantial wider benefits: for example, for example, was US$22 940 in 2011, with or (re-)export is only one aspect of its the manufacturing of species-derived daily hunting fees of US$1 975 and hunting economic importance. Incremental value products and the production, processing packages requiring a minimum stay of addition throughout the trade chain and handling of wildlife for trade can con- 20 days (Lindsay et al., 2011). can add significant amounts to the final tribute considerably to local livelihoods In addition to the legal trade in wildlife, there is a substantial illegal trade. According to TRAFFIC, the enforce- Box 1 ment authorities of the European Union Valuing species along the trade chain made more than 7 000 seizures in 2003–2004 involving more than 3.5 mil- A recent study of the trade in Southeast Asian python skins estimated the overall annual lion CITES-listed specimens, and more value of the sector at around US$1 billion, of which 96 percent was captured by the European than 12 000 seizures between 2005 and fashion industry (ITC, 2012). Although hunted snakes sold by collectors were reported to 2009. 3 Quantifying the value of illegal fetch just US$30 per snake, a finished python-skin handbag could retail for up to US$10 000. international trade in wildlife is difficult, The figure below (derived from ITC, 2012) illustrates value addition along the supply chain although Haken (2011) estimated a value for a single python, comprising income for leather products, meat and traditional medicines. of US$7.8–10 billion per year, excluding timber and fisheries.4 Table 1 provides an overview of estimated legal and illegal Raw skin, meat, Semi- Final Value trade for selected taxonomic groups. Finished traditional processed product added medicines 3 An ongoing global research initiative by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime is expected to produce more recent data in 2017. 4 Total value Total value Total value Total value Total value In 2009, the value of the international illegal US$107 US$247 US$361 US$6 630 US$6 522 timber trade was estimated at US$7 billion (Haken, 2011) and the value of the illegal or unreported fisheries catch was estimated at US$10–23.5 billion (Agnew et al., 2009).

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TABLE 1. Overview of available information on species in trade and estimates of legal and illegal trade No. of species Estimates of legal trade Estimates of illegal trade ~5 400 species (Wilson and Reeder, CITES trade: an estimated No global estimates, but estimates for poaching/illegal trade 2005) 21 000 “whole” wild-sourced for some taxa and commodities exist: e.g. 1 215 white rhinos >1 000 used for food and medicine mammals annually illegally killed in South Africa in 2014 (TRAFFIC, 2015); alone (TRAFFIC, 2010) Overall, legal international trade, 17 000 African elephants illegally killed in 2011 at reporting MIKE sites across Africa (CITES document CoP16 DoC.53.1, ~900 CITES-listed (UNEP-WCMC, particularly in non-CITES species, Mammals appears to be unquantified Addendum); and an estimated 227 000 pangolins killed 2015) in Asia between 2000 and 2013 (Challender, Harrop and MacMillan, 2015) ~10 000 species (BirdLife CITES trade: an estimated No global estimates, although regional estimates for some International, 2013) 95 000 “whole” wild-sourced birds taxonomic groups exist; many reports of instances of illegal ~4 500 used, for example as pets annually trade in live birds or for food or sport hunting Several million birds each year in (BirdLife International, 2008) domestic and international trade, Birds ~3 300 traded (Butchart, 2008) particularly finches, weavers, parrots and raptors (BirdLife International, ~1 500 CITES-listed (UNEP-WCMC, 2015) 2015) ~10 000 species (Pincheira-Donoso CITES trade: an estimated 2 million No global estimates, but estimates for some species and et al., 2013; Uetz and Hošek, 2015) “whole” wild-sourced reptiles commodities exist; many reports of instances of illegal trade Thousands used and traded annually in reptiles, both live and products (e.g. an estimated 3 500 species/ Overall, legal international trade, subspecies of reptiles and particularly in non-CITES species,

Reptiles amphibians imported as pets into appears to be unquantified the European Union; Newman, 2014) ~800 CITES-listed (UNEP-WCMC, 2015) ~7 400 species (Frost, 2014) CITES trade: an estimated No global estimates, but estimates for some taxa and >200 used for food, >260 used 15 000 “whole” wild-sourced commodities exist for pet trade and many used for amphibians annually medicinal purposes (Carpenter For example, more than 20 million et al., 2007) wild-caught live amphibians (CITES and non-CITES species) were legally Amphibians ~150 CITES-listed (UNEP-WCMC, 2015) imported into the United States of America in 2001–2009 ~100 000 species of trees 137 million m3 of roundwood, 8–10 percent of the value of global wood products (Seneca (BCGI, 2007) – not all produce 124 million m3 of sawnwood, Creek Associates and Wood Resources International, 2004) 3 exploitable timber 77 million m of wood-based panels, In 2004, just under half of all tropical logs, sawn timber >1 600 traded commercially 223 million tonnes of pulp/paper and plywood in trade was illegally sourced (Lawson and (Mark et al., 2014) products in 2013 (FAO, 2015) MacFaul, 2010)

Timber ~700 CITES-listed trees; five species and two genera were listed at the two most recent conferences of the parties to CITES (UNEP-WCMC, 2015) Note: CITES trade statistics are based on exporter-reported figures for 2003–2012 obtained from the CITES Trade Database (CITES, 2016). Trade in “whole” animals or plants refers to terms that reasonably represent a whole animal or plant. Trade is also reported in many other commodities not included in these approximations. Source: Adapted from UNEP (forthcoming).

CITES AS A REGULATORY conservation objective, which is to ensure decides to trade in a CITES-listed species, FRAMEWORK that wildlife – both animals and plants – is CITES specifies that the state must: CITES is both a trade-related and a conser- not exploited unsustainably through inter- • make a legal acquisition finding (i.e. vation convention, and it works alongside national trade. CITES has 182 Parties, and certification that the specimens to be the World Trade Organization (WTO and its rules on international trade in wildlife traded were obtained in accordance CITES, 2015) and a number of multilateral therefore carry substantial weight. The with national laws); environmental agreements, such as the Convention is legally binding, and each • make a non-detriment finding (NDF) Convention on Biological Diversity. CITES Party must adopt national legislation to (i.e. a science-based biological sus- uses trade-related measures to achieve its implement its provisions. When a state tainability finding that takes into

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account the role of the species in its CONSERVATION BENEFITS Vicuña ecosystem); and OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE The vicuña (Vicugna vicugna), the smallest • formally authorize the transaction IN WILDLIFE member of the camelid family, is believed through the issuance of the appropri- CITES recognizes that “commercial trade to be the wild ancestor of the alpaca. Its ate CITES permit or certificate, and may be beneficial to the conservation of wool, which is five times more expensive report the trade to the CITES Sec- species and ecosystems, and/or to the than cashmere, is exported worldwide retariat for compilation and analysis development of local people when car- (the price of a vicuña wool scarf starts (CITES, 2015a). ried out at levels that are not detrimental at about US$1 000). Vicuñas live in the CITES trade data show that, of the to the survival of the species in question”.5 high regions of the Andes in Argentina, more than 35 000 species listed in the Well-regulated trade in wild fauna and the Plurinational State of Bolivia, Chile, CITES Appendices, only about 5 percent flora can be an incentive for wildlife con- Ecuador and Peru. CITES regulates the are commonly traded; about 150 animal servation and sustainable management and international trade in vicuña products, species and 1 800 plant species account can have a significant positive economic and the five range states adhere to the for 90 percent of transactions under the impact on local livelihoods, as illustrated Convention for the Conservation and Convention. Table 2 provides examples of by the following case studies involving Management of the Vicuña (the “Vicuna the most commonly traded wild-sourced CITES-listed species. Convention”), adopted in 1979. species for select taxonomic groups in the Issue. Hunting reduced vicuña numbers period 1996 to 2010. to 6 000 individuals in the 1960s; by 1967, 5 Resolution Conf. 8.3 (Rev. CoP13) on Recogni- tion of the benefits of trade in wildlife at http:// the situation was so serious that some cites.org/eng/res/08/08-03R13.php range states declared the species extinct

TABLE 2. Highly traded wild-sourced species for select taxonomic groups, 1996–2010 Species Wild Captive-produced Total Item in Quantity % Quantity % trade Mammals Lycalopex griseus (South American grey fox)LC 1 421 900 100 0 0 1 421 900 Skins Pecari tajacu (collared peccary)LC 644 274 100 0 0 644 274 Skins Lontra canadensis (North American otter)LC 602 975 100 1 270 <1 604 245 Skins Arctocephalus pusillus (Afro-Australian fur seal)LC 543 644 100 0 0 543 644 Skins Lynx rufus (Canadian lynx)LC 452 487 100 59 <1 452 546 Skins Ursus americanus (American black bear)LC 154 922 100 18 0 154 940 Trophies Equus zebra hartmannae (Hartmann’s mountain zebra)VU 18 098 98 354 2 18 452 Trophies Canis lupus (grey wolf)LC 18 178 100 39 0 18 217 Trophies Ursus arctos (brown bear)LC 14 752 100 18 0 14 770 Trophies Panthera leo (lion)VU 7 741 66 3 977 34 11 718 Trophies Loxodonta africana (African elephant)VU 10 508 100 1 0 10 509 Trophies Birds Poicephalus senegalus (Senegal parrot)LC 353 617 96 13 503 4 367 120 Live Myiopsitta monachus (monk parakeet)LC 333 125 95 17 636 5 350 761 Live Leiothrix lutea (red-billed leiothrix)LC 152 552 98 2 524 2 155 076 Live Reptiles Varanus salvator (common water monitor)LC 8 103 652 100 6 500 0 8 110 152 Skins Python reticulatus (reticulated python)* 4 533 436 87 686 344 13 5 219 780 Skins Cuora amboinensis (Malaysian box turtle)VU 523 663 97 14 128 3 537 791 Live Timber Pericopsis elata (African teak)EN 316 876 100 0 0 316 876 Timber Key for IUCN Red List: EN = Endangered; VU = Vulnerable; LC = Least Concern; * = not assessed. Source: Adapted from CITES Document CoP16 Inf.32.

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Vicuña populations have made an impressive comeback from near-extinction with poaching of vicuñas and the illegal programme for markhor was initiated in commercialization of the species’ fibre a Pakistan in 1998. Twenty percent of trophy in their territories. Vicuñas were listed in persistent problem (IUCN, 2014). fees go to the government and 80 percent go CITES in 1975. to local communities; over its lifetime, the Success. Some populations had recov- Markhor project has generated more than US$2 mil- ered by the late 1980s, thanks to collective The markhor (Capra falconeri) is a large lion for community development. Thanks efforts under the Vicuña Convention, the species of wild goat found in mountainous to the success of the programme, the initial prohibition of international trade, and the terrain at elevations between 600 m and hunting quota for markhor was increased establishment of natural protected areas. 3 600 m in Afghanistan, India, Pakistan, from 6 to 12 trophies per year. Under the For some vicuña populations, international Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. protection of local tribesmen, paid by funds trade in cloth made from wool sheared Issues. Major threats are habitat deg- generated through hunting, the markhor from live animals was recommenced in radation and encroachment, competition population in Pakistan increased from 1987 and, by 2014, the total number of with livestock, and poaching for horns 700 in 1994 to 5 800 in 2013. In 2015, vicuñas had increased to 500 000 (IUCN, and meat. the conservation status of markhor on 2014). Today, the species is soundly man- Success. Under the auspices of CITES,6 the IUCN Red List was changed from aged, numbers are still on the increase, a community-based trophy-hunting Endangered to Near Threatened (Michel and indigenous and local communities and Rosen-Michel, 2015); nevertheless, 6 are benefiting directly from this resource. See Resolution Conf. 10.15 (Rev. CoP14) on stable and increasing subpopulations are Establishment of quotas for markhor hunting Nevertheless, continued vigilance and trophies at http://cites.org/eng/res/10/10-15R14. restricted to those areas with sustainable community involvement are required, php hunting management and protected areas.

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Crocodiles actions such as killings and nest and egg programmes under CITES for the produc- The Order Crocodylia comprises 23 spe- destruction. tion of skins and meat, thereby allowing cies of crocodiles, alligators, caimans Success. Central America’s Morelet’s their recovery in the wild. and gharials occurring in Africa, Asia, crocodile (Crocodylus moreletti) illus- Australia and Central and South America. trates the success of conservation ILLEGAL TRADE IN WILDLIFE All species in the order are protected under measures for species in this order. Hunted Illegal trade in wildlife can undermine CITES, with some listed in Appendix I and nearly to extinction in the 1970s, Morelet’s the positive effects of legal trade, with all others listed in Appendix II. crocodile benefited from total hunting potentially devastating economic, social Issue. Uncontrolled hunting of croco- and export bans enacted by Mexico, its and environmental impacts. Among the diles and alligators for their skins in the main range state, and CITES banned most obvious environmental impacts are 1950s and 1960s seriously depleted many international trade in 1975. The species reductions in wild populations due to the wild populations, and there was fear that had recovered significantly by 2000, overharvesting or illegal killing of target species extinctions would follow. Today, and concerns about extinction declined species, driven by consumer demand Crocodylia species are threatened in accordingly. In 2010, CITES reopened and the resultant illegal trade. Well- the wild mainly by habitat destruction, closely regulated trade in the species. documented cases of this involve African pollution, and human–wildlife conflicts Several crocodile species have also elephants (Loxodonta africana) (Wittemyr, that lead to preventive or retaliatory been the subject of innovative ranching 2014; CITES, 2015b), white rhinoceros © PIA JONSSON/CITES SECRETARIAT JONSSON/CITES © PIA

If adequately regulated, the trophy hunting of lions can have substantial conservation benefits

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(Ceratotherium simum) (TRAFFIC, 2015), The making of adequate NDFs by sci- establishing adaptive management pro- pangolins (Manidae spp.) (Challender, entists in exporting countries is the key grammes, as well as from socio-economic Harrop and MacMillan, 2015) and parrots condition underpinning the sustainable studies to better understand the incentives (Psittacidae spp.) (UNODC, 2016). When management of CITES-listed wildlife, and disincentives for sustainable trade. illegal offtakes and trade are additional but it is also one of the Convention’s most Because the number of taxa protected to legal harvesting and trade, the com- challenging aspects. Parties have adopted under CITES continues to grow, includ- bined impacts on wild populations may generic guidance for making NDFs ing an increasing number of economically be beyond sustainable levels. and agreed on associated management very important forest and fishery species, More broadly, illegal harvesting and measures, such as the establishment of ongoing efforts are required to assist trade can have cascading effects, with annual export quotas, ensuring the involve- CITES Parties in researching, accessing the decline of a species in an ecosystem ment of local livelihoods, and principles and applying the best available science in causing deterioration in ecosystem func- and guidelines for the sustainable use of their trade management of CITES-listed tioning and services. African elephants, biodiversity.7 In recent years, specific NDF species. Such efforts could be enhanced by for example, play significant roles in seed guidance has been developed for heavily collaboration with other intergovernmental dispersal (they may consume more seeds traded taxa, such as snakes, tortoises, fresh- organizations and multilateral environ- from more species than any other large water turtles and various marine species, mental agreements, researchers, scientific seed-dispersing vertebrate; Campos- along with best practices, practical case institutions and CITES authorities. The Arceiz and Blake, 2011). A significant studies, identification materials, online making of robust, reliable NDFs requires decline of this species, therefore, could courses and other capacity-building tools strong guidance on sustainable wildlife have considerable impacts on tree species designed to support scientists involved in management practices, such as the adaptive diversity and distribution. research, monitoring and trade manage- management of species in trade; sustain- The economic and social ramifica- ment related to CITES-listed species. Such able offtake levels; quota setting; marking tions of illegal trade in wildlife can also efforts help increase the sustainability of and tracking; population monitoring; and be severe. For example, the value of the trade in CITES-listed wildlife. the involvement of rural people and other illegal trade in pythons is estimated to be The two CITES Scientific Committees stakeholders. A key area of support is equal to that of the legal trade (CITES, (one for animals and one for plants) review continued capacity building for scientists 2014), thus depriving indigenous and local the levels of international trade in CITES- and wildlife managers involved in CITES, communities and governments of much- listed species on an ongoing basis with the particularly in biodiversity-rich exporting needed income and also jeopardizing the aim of identifying and correcting instances countries. long-term sustainability of the legal trade in which Parties appear to be allowing Another consideration is that the pro- (ITC, 2012). the export of certain species at levels that portion of CITES-listed animal species Illegal wildlife offtakes and trade may be detrimental to the survival of that in international trade reported as having are often driven by organized crime, species in the wild. The review process can been bred in captivity, born in captivity particularly in industrial biodiversity give rise to species- and country-specific or ranched has increased steadily for commodities such as fisheries and timber recommendations for improved trade man- many years: it accounted for more than and a number of specific animal products agement and to sanctions in instances in half of all reported commercial trade in (such as ivory and rhino horn). As with which Parties ignore such advice. live animals in 2000–2012. A similar organized crime in other sectors (to which Sustainable wildlife management under trend is evident for CITES-listed plants it is often linked), organized wildlife CITES could be strengthened by the elabo- (including trees in plantations) that have crime poses a serious threat to security ration of best-practice guidance for species been artificially propagated, as well as and social and economic stability in many for which this is currently lacking. CITES in aquaculture. This trend of increasing countries and regions. Parties would also benefit from support in trade in non-wild specimens of CITES- undertaking field research, data collection listed species is expected to continue, HOW CAN SUSTAINABLE WILDLIFE and monitoring of species in trade and in particularly if demand for animals and MANAGEMENT BE SUPPORTED plants remains the same or increases but UNDER CITES? supplies from the wild become more dif- 7 See Resolutions Conf. 13.2 (Rev. CoP14) on CITES has put processes and compliance Sustainable use of biodiversity: Addis Ababa ficult to obtain. The impact of changing procedures in place to support the sustain- Principles and Guidelines; Conf. 16.7 on Non- patterns of international trade from wild to ability, legality and traceability of trade detriment findings; Conf. 16.6 on CITES and non-wild sources on the conservation and livelihoods; and Conf. 14.7 (Rev. CoP15) on in the species it regulates and to reduce Management of nationally established export sustainable use of the species concerned is unsustainable or illegal trade. quotas at http://cites.org/eng/res/index.php poorly known; it requires closer analysis to

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Indigenous peoples and sustainable wildlife management in the global era

Y. Vizina and D. Kobei

The empowerment of indigenous ndigenous peoples, like other peoples international forums, speaking out on peoples is a prerequisite for of the world, face many challenges in issues that affect their lives. One of these effective wildlife conservation, developing and maintaining healthy is the Convention on Biological Diversity and international collaboration Ieconomic, social, environmental and (CBD), which brings together nation has an important role to play. cultural systems. Long-held traditions states and other stakeholders to discuss a based on understanding and honouring broad range of biodiversity-related issues. the complex relationships between humans Representatives of indigenous peoples and wildlife are under stress in both devel- from seven United Nations-defined regions oping and developed regions. For many attend CBD meetings, where they track indigenous peoples, survival is at stake as proceedings and express the views of Yvonne Vizina is a PhD candidate at the School they struggle to find the means to carry on the people they represent in an effort to of Environment and Sustainability, University of their traditions in a dramatically chang- Saskatchewan, Canada. ing world. Daniel Kobei is Executive Director of the Ogiek Peoples’ Development Program and Secretary of As part of this struggle, many indig- P. Geemi from the Ogiek the Ogiek Council of Elders, Kenya. enous peoples have become active in indigenous community in Kenya hunts for subsistence © OGIEK PEOPLES’ DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

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encourage positive change. Despite their their distinct, intuitive relationships with THE IMPORTANCE OF great diversity, indigenous peoples are nature and wildlife, indigenous peoples COLLABORATION united in the view that consideration of have acquired a wealth of traditional For indigenous peoples who continue traditional cultural practices is crucial to knowledge over many generations, which to uphold their cultural traditions, new ongoing discussions in the CBD on sus- they have used to sustainably manage and relationships spanning regions and other tainable wildlife management. conserve their lands and natural resources. peoples can be a means of reinforcing and In 2012, the 11th Conference of the The cultures of indigenous peoples are extending their knowledge and traditions. Parties to the CBD decided to advance based on sustainable approaches to land A collaborative approach to problem- work on issues related to bushmeat and management because the consequences of solving can be useful to indigenous peoples sustainable wildlife management (CBD, living unsustainably have always been fully in fostering both short-term and long-term 2012). The emergence of the Collaborative and immediately apparent. Such cultures strategies for successful wildlife manage- Partnership on Sustainable Wildlife invariably involve the strong stewardship ment that identify, plan and enact a broad Management (CPW) in 2013 provided an of wildlife (encompassing wild animals, range of solutions. Collaboration should opportunity to think through such impor- wild plants and other forms of life), without not be seen as a gateway for imposing tant issues as wildlife, food security and which indigenous communities believe life foreign strategies on indigenous commu- livelihoods; human–wildlife conflicts; would be miserable and unsustainable. nities because these can displace local illegal or unsustainable hunting; and the Experience and long-term planning are governance, fail to deliver on theoretical coordination of partnerships and outreach. essential cultural elements for ensuring benefits, and create new problems (Blaikie, Specifically, the CPW is on a mission to the survival of future generations – of both 2006; Campbell and Vainio-Mattila, 2003; “increase cooperation and coordination humans and wildlife. Drew and Henne, 2006). Support for among its members to promote the sustain- It is imperative to document the best locally appropriate actions is key. able management of terrestrial vertebrate practices of indigenous peoples who have The marginalization of holistic think- wildlife in all biomes and geographic conserved wildlife over generations in ing, women’s wisdom and indigenous areas, contributing to the conservation their territories. To do so, understanding perspectives and spirituality within global and sustainable use of biodiversity and the value and sociocultural benefits that systems has meant the loss of potentially to human food safety and security, live- indigenous peoples attach to wildlife is important contributions to a future of liv- lihoods and well-being” (CPW, 2015). significant. Many wildlife management ing well – ecologically, peacefully and Thus, the CPW addresses issues of vital practices have been recorded and shared, justly (O’Sullivan, 2012). On the other importance to indigenous peoples, no mat- but others remain unheard, often because hand, sharing examples of indigenous ter where they live. This article examines they exist within a cultural worldview that successes in wildlife conservation is an the increasing involvement of indigenous differs from science and therefore are mis- important way of instilling pride among peoples in forums on sustainable wildlife understood or undervalued (Cajete, 1999; and engaging with new generations of management, especially the CPW, and Aikenhead, 2006). Efforts are being made indigenous teachers and learners. Systemic advocates for their greater empowerment to address this glaring lack of appreciation problems associated with wildlife conser- in managing wildlife on their lands. for indigenous knowledge. In 2012, for vation will require systemic solutions, and example, representatives of indigenous maintaining the knowledge, upholding the THE LONG-TERM VIEW OF peoples from around the world met with principles and continuing the practices of INDIGENOUS PEOPLES officials from the United Nations and other traditional cultures requires investment in Indigenous peoples occupy traditional national and international organizations both formal and informal education sys- lands and territories and have distinct in Guna Yala, Panama, to discuss con- tems. Revitalizing management knowledge traditional practices for managing their cepts of knowledge and collaboration on and practices is an important pathway for natural resources, which generally have biodiversity conservation. Over several long-term wildlife conservation. low environmental impact and long-term days, indigenous, traditional and local sustainability (Perez, 2014). Indigenous knowledge systems were presented as INDIGENOUS PEOPLES AND THE peoples live in all the world’s regions; it “critical sources of understanding eco- COLLABORATIVE PARTNERSHIP is estimated that, collectively, they own, system dynamics, sustainable practices, ON SUSTAINABLE WILDLIFE occupy or use resources across all types and interdependencies between people MANAGEMENT of ecosystems on approximately 22 per- and nature; sources that often have not Recognition of the wildlife stewardship cent of the global land area, which in informed science and high-level deci- role of indigenous peoples has led to turn harbours 80 percent of the world’s sion making on ecosystem management” collaboration with conservation organi- biodiversity (Nakashima et al., 2012). With (Tengö and Malmer, 2012). zations in efforts to maintain biodiversity,

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A Maasai man in the and the CPW has welcomed indigenous and mitigate the impacts of illegal hunting eastern Serengeti, Africa perspectives. The CPW brings together on the subsistence hunting and livelihoods international organizations with sub- of indigenous and local communities, in their self-determined strategies for sus- stantive mandates and programmes for and on other subsistence users of wildlife tainable wildlife management. the sustainable use and conservation of resources”. Article 11 encourages Parties Indigenous perspectives on the envi- wildlife resources. Indigenous peoples are “to strengthen the capacity of indigenous ronment, reflected in their traditional not organizations, but many have been and local communities to exercise their knowledge, are as diverse as the ecosys- involved in international work concern- rights and responsibilities in relation to tems comprising their territorial homes. ing the environment and contribute their the sustainable management of wildlife”. Nevertheless, there are many similarities insights within such forums. Decision XII/18 also encourages Parties to in the cultural principles applied in their Although the cultural strength and wis- develop, revise or update their regulatory environmental management, as well as dom of indigenous peoples arise at the local systems to differentiate between subsis- many common challenges in honouring level, sharing and exchanging knowledge tence use, illegal hunting and domestic those principles and defending their rights. on wildlife internationally has the potential and international trade of specimens of Such cultural principles, and their com- to benefit indigenous peoples in their ter- wild species and products; and it requests monalities and differences, can only be ritories of residence. The 12th Conference the CBD’s Executive Secretary, working understood and reflected by developing of the Parties to the CBD, held in with the CPW, to analyse the impacts of relationships and mutual respect through Pyeongchang, Republic of Korea, in 2014, subsistence wildlife use on the survival and collaboration over time. The CPW is at produced Decision XII/18: “Sustainable regeneration of wild species. The CPW, an early stage of existence, and building use of biodiversity: bushmeat and sustain- therefore, can contribute to the develop- such relationships and mutual respect able wildlife management” (CBD, 2014). ment of technical advice that can be used with indigenous peoples will be crucial Article 10 of this decision encourages internationally, and it can also be a source for achieving successful outcomes in sus- Parties to the CBD “to assess, minimize of information for indigenous communities tainable wildlife management.

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INDIGENOUS PEOPLES AND The term “community-based conserva- have lived with and conserved wildlife for MODERN CONSERVATION tion” is used frequently to describe projects generations and they head many of the Indigenous peoples encompass a broad and activities carried out by communities; country’s conservancies; in dry seasons, range of communities, including fishers, it should be deployed carefully, however, they live in harmony with wildlife in the hunter-gatherers, pastoralists, peasants, because it can mean different things to use of grazing lands and water supplies desert communities and forest dwellers. different people. Community-based con- (Box 1). The culture of pastoralists does In Africa, pastoralists graze their herds servation approaches are usually described not exhibit impulse hunting or the con- across plains that often run through in one of two main ways: 1) those that focus sumption of wildlife. national reserves and national parks cre- on common-pool natural resource manage- ated to protect wildlife, doing so without ment and which employ environmental Environmental governance hindering such wildlife conservation governance practices that have evolved The conditions for successful conserva- efforts. Hunter-gatherer communities hunt within communities; and 2) those in which tion can be complex, and the immediacy for subsistence and, most importantly, resource management agencies promote of threats to wildlife can limit the time they do so sustainably. The loss of wildlife projects in communities not based on the available for developing long-term wildlife to trophy hunters or poachers, who hunt norms and institutions of those communi- management approaches that are agree- for commercial or other non-subsistence ties (Balint, 2006). Activists, indigenous able to indigenous communities and other motives, has had detrimental effects on peoples, development organizations, stakeholders. Despite such challenges, some indigenous communities, includ- conservationists and others all have their investment in long-term relationship- ing exclusions from protected areas or own interpretations of community-based building, respect for local leadership, and themselves being labelled as poachers conservation based on their contextual adherence to community protocols are (Blewitt, 2016; Ross et al., 2011). histories and motivations (Tsing, Brosius crucial; over time, these practices will help Traditional practices are being applied and Zerner, 2005). build environmental governance capac- globally with considerable success in There have been successes and fail- ity, which, in turn, will both enable the many protected areas, buffer zones and ures in all types of community-based development of long-term management non-protected areas. Indigenous peoples’ conservation, and learning from these is plans and help address immediate wildlife and community-conserved territories and the best way forward: it is more helpful management issues. areas (known as ICCAs) provide a host of to learn about the conditions in which The effectiveness of governance pro- examples and issues (ICCA Consortium, community-based conservation does and cesses and institutions has been a central 2015). The strong link between positive does not work, rather than simply to ask focus of many development institutions. environmental outcomes and social jus- whether it works or not (Berkes, 2004). Transparency, accountability, access tice is based on the premise that “local Best practices come through careful con- to information, rule of law, the effi- populations have a greater interest in the sideration and incremental steps that build ciency of bureaucracies, and control of sustainable use of resources than does the a knowledge base suitable for the local corruption are all dimensions of gover- state or distant corporate managers, that context. Pastoralists in Kenya, for example, nance identified as adaptable indicators local communities are more cognizant of the intricacies of local ecological processes and practices, and that communities are Box 1 more able to effectively manage those The Il Ngwesi conservancy in Kenya resources through local or traditional forms of access” (Tsing, Brosius and Zerner, 2005). Indigenous peoples have demonstrated that they can coexist harmoniously with wildlife Implementing proactive measures with while living and supporting their own pastoral lives and cultures. The Il Lakipiak Maasai indigenous peoples – such as relationship- (“People of Wildlife”) in the northern part of Mount Kenya, own and operate Kenya’s only building, project development, training community-owned rhino sanctuary, the Il Ngwesi conservancy. Recent changes in climate programmes, and assessments – is nec- in Kenya have reduced rainfall, leading to increased human–wildlife conflicts because, essary to guard against reactive wildlife during drought, wild animals searching for water, prey and pasture are overlapping increas- protection measures that are detrimental ingly with human activities. Among other things, the Il Lakipiak Maasai have reduced their to indigenous communities and their own bush-cutting to ensure more fodder for wildlife on their lands and to reduce degradation. In capacity to manage wildlife. Effective ongoing human–wildlife conflicts in other parts of Kenya, communities are less organized communication is an important part of for wildlife protection and conservation. planning and implementation.

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of programme governance. Governance growth and increasing threats to wildlife, affects community-based conservation the involvement in wildlife conservation projects at the local, regional and national of traditional land users – who are best levels. Weak local governance results in positioned by their proximity and know- References only limited community participation ledge to protect and manage wildlife – is and the expropriation of benefits by local imperative. A crucial part of such involve- Aikenhead, G. 2006. Towards decolonizing the leaders and others. Democracy – rule by ment is the devolution of authority, which pan-Canadian science framework. Canadian the people – can also be overwhelmed by in turn requires that indigenous peoples Journal of Science Mathematics and Tech- corruption, human-rights abuses, misin- have the capacity to maintain and expand nology Education, 6(4): 387–399. formation and public manipulation, poor their own traditional knowledge as part Balint, P.J. 2006. Improving community- leadership, and the suppression of minority of the process of conserving biodiversity. based conservation near protected areas: rights (Sernau, 2009). Where regional- or the importance of development variables. national-level governance is weak, agencies CONCLUSION Environmental Management, 38(1): 137–148. and officials may assert authority inap- The international symposium, “Beyond Berkes, F. 2004. Rethinking community-based propriately or divert community benefits. Enforcement: Communities, Governance, conservation. Conservation Biology, 18(3): Effective governance promotes and expands Incentives and Sustainable Use in 621–630. the rights of citizens (Balint, 2006). Combating Wildlife Crime”, held in Blaikie, P. 2006. Is small really beautiful? Methodologies, tools and approaches South Africa in 2015, made a range of Community-based natural resource man- identified as appropriate for community- recommendations on community rights agement in Malawi and Botswana. World based conservation include instilling pride and responsibilities and for strengthening Development, 34(11): 1942–1957. in an area’s natural value; building diverse community voices, partnerships and the Blewitt, J. 2016. Understanding sustainable relationships and engaging local communi- evidence base (IUCN SULi et al., 2015). development. 2nd edition. New York, USA, ties authentically; ensuring that science is As indicated by the title of the symposium, Routledge. transparent; demonstrating how success the effort to conserve wildlife must go Cajete, G. 1999. Native science: natural laws can be achieved; providing educational and beyond enforcement because that strat- of interdependence. Santa Fe, USA, Clear employment opportunities; linking benefits egy is not working. Communities must Light Publishers. to local systems of value and power; and be empowered to act – with help at the Campbell, L.M. & Vainio-Mattila, A. 2003. engagement and dialogue (Campbell and national level and from the international Participatory development and community- Vainio-Mattila, 2003; Drew and Henne, community (see also article on page 33). based conservation: opportunities missed 2006). The participation of local people The urgent challenges we all face in for lessons learned? Human Ecology, 31(3): and the decentralization of control and maintaining biodiversity worldwide 417– 437. decision-making are two key steps for require that indigenous peoples are CBD. 2012. COP11 Decision XI/25. Web- authentic community-based conservation empowered – through the CPW and site. Convention on Biological Diversity that bridge internal and external forces other forums, and locally – in discus- (CBD) (available at www.cbd.int/decision/ (Campbell and Vainio-Mattila, 2003; sions and actions on wildlife management. cop/?id=13186). Accessed 3 February 2016. Blaikie, 2006). There are occasions when, Indigenous peoples must play a central CBD. 2014. COP12 Decision XII/18. Web- in policies, biological concerns should role in systematic, inclusive processes site. 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First line of defence: engaging communities in tackling wildlife crime

D. Roe, R. Cooney, H. Dublin, D. Challender, D. Biggs, D. Skinner, M. Abensperg-Traun, N. Ahlers, R. Melisch and M. Murphree © MICHAEL MURPHREE © MICHAEL

An international symposium Dilys Roe is Principal Researcher and Team Griffith University, Australia, and the ARC Centre Leader (Biodiversity) at the International of Excellence for Environmental Decisions at the has concluded that recognizing Institute for Environment and Development, University of Queensland, Australia. the rights of communities to use UK, and a member of the International Union for Diane Skinner is an independent consultant and benefit from wildlife is an Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Commission for the IUCN Sustainable Use and Livelihoods on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy Specialist Group in Harare, Zimbabwe. essential complement to law (CEESP)/Species Survival Commission (SSC) Max Abensperg-Traun is Head of the enforcement in efforts to reduce Sustainable Use and Livelihoods Specialist Group. Convention on International Trade in Endangered illegal wildlife trade and to Rosie Cooney is Chair of the IUCN CEESP/ Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) SSC Sustainable Use and Livelihoods Specialist Management Authority at the Ministry of manage wildlife sustainably. Group and Visiting Fellow at the University of Environment, Vienna, Austria. New South Wales, Australia. Nick Ahlers is the Wildlife TRAPS Project Holly Dublin is Chair of the IUCN SSC African Leader at the TRAFFIC East and Southern Elephant Specialist Group, Senior Advisor at the Afr ica Office in P retor ia, South Afr ica. IUCN East and Southern Africa Regional Office, Roland Melisch is Senior Director for Africa and Nairobi, Kenya, and a member of the IUCN Europe at TRAFFIC, Germany. Above: Horns of the greater kudu CEESP/SSC Sustainable Use and Livelihoods Michael Murphree is Project Manager for (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) and Specialist Group. the United States Agency for International waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) Dan Challender is Programme Officer at the IUCN Development’s Equity and Growth through and the wire snares that poachers Global Species Programme, Cambridge, UK. Economic Research (EAGER) Project at the used to catch the animals, Limpopo Duan Biggs is Research Fellow at the African Centre for Disaster Studies, North West National Park, Mozambique Environmental Futures Research Institute, University, South Africa.

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llegal wildlife trade (IWT) is at the THE ENFORCEMENT APPROACH local people to steward and sustainably top of the international conservation Literature on community-based natural manage wildlife. agenda. A surge in poaching is ravag- resource management accumulated over Law enforcement is a crucial ingredi- Iing populations of iconic animals such decades shows increasing recognition ent for successful conservation. Indeed, as rhinos and elephants: for example, the of the role of indigenous peoples and beyond formal legal systems, local people number of African rhinos (black – Diceros local communities in the governance of themselves have a wide range of social bicornis – and white – Ceratotherium natural resources, including species traded and cultural norms and values by which simum) poached in South Africa increased illegally. Yet this role has largely been they regulate their own natural resource from 13 in 2007 to over 1 200 in 2014 (Save overlooked in discussions around actions use. In the context of IWT, however, the Rhino, 2014). Many other lesser-known to address the urgent threats posed by enforcement approaches have focused species of wildlife – such as pangolins the spate of poaching and IWT. To date, mainly on state-led or private-sector-led (Manidae), turtles, fish, birds, reptiles, interventions in countries where wildlife policing, often in very militaristic opera- primates, medicinal plants and timber is poached have placed far more emphasis tions (Duffy, 2014; Carlson, Wright and species – are also heavily affected. on intensified law enforcement than on Donges, 2015). Concerns were expressed at The global policy response to this surge community-based approaches (Challender the Beyond Enforcement symposium that has emphasized three broad strategies: and McMillan, 2014; Roe et al., 2014). strategies focused predominantly on state- 1) increase law enforcement; 2) reduce Even when community-based programmes led or private-sector-led enforcement may demand; and 3) engage local communi- have attracted support, they have often have limited effectiveness, particularly in ties. A symposium held in February 2015, lacked solid legal frameworks or have the longer term. The continued depletion “Beyond Enforcement: Communities, focused on developing “alternative” liveli- of high-value species such as elephants Governance, Incentives and Sustainable hoods (as a distraction from perceived or and rhinos – despite great increases in Use in Combating Wildlife Crime” (IUCN actual unsustainable wildlife use), rather SULi et al., 2015), examined the third of than reaching out and engaging directly

these strategies. This article presents some with communities to address wildlife A male Sunda pangolin of the key findings of that symposium. crime and increasing the incentives for (Manis javanica) in Viet Nam rescued from the illegal trade © DAN CHALLENDER/SAVE VIETNAM’S WILDLIFE VIETNAM’S CHALLENDER/SAVE © DAN

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© BILL BUTCHER/US FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE, NORTHEAST REGION (WWW.FLICKR.COM/PHOTOS/USFWSNORTHEAST/5655243936/, CC BY 2.0, COMMONS.WIKIMEDIA.ORG/W/INDEX.PHP?CURID=51928992) A tiger skin seized by customs officials enforcement – confirms the limitation of • Even when enforcement is successful in the United States of America. The illegal wildlife trade is a major such approaches. The symposium found at a specific site, it may have the effect threat to many iconic wildlife species that: of displacing the poaching threat to • Not only have enforcement-dominated areas where enforcement is weaker approaches proved ineffective for and local communities are sufficiently resources can themselves be part of conservation, they have had other poor or disenfranchised to have an the problem. For example, conserva- worryingly negative social conse- incentive to engage in wildlife crime. tion policies may prevent local people quences. In the worst cases, enforcers Many populations of high-value spe- from deriving economic benefits from have perpetrated human-rights cies coincide with areas of high pov- wildlife protection, thus removing a abuses, including killings, rapes, erty, and heavy enforcement cannot be major motivation for safeguarding and torture and the deliberate destruction applied everywhere at all times; IWT, sustainably managing wild species. of property. In less extreme cases, therefore, will likely continue to move When wildlife stewardship offers no poorly targeted enforcement activities along the path of least resistance. or only low economic returns, wild- have undermined local confidence in • Addressing IWT does not simply life habitat is often converted rapidly conservation authorities and the per- mean punishing non-compliance with to other more lucrative uses. This ceived legitimacy of the legal system, wildlife laws. In some cases, the laws dynamic drives habitat loss, which is resulting in further disincentives for and policies surrounding land ten- the primary driver of wildlife decline communities to conserve wildlife. ure and the use of land and wildlife globally.

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IS COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT Box 1 THE ANSWER? A tale of two elephant projects Beyond the IWT context, there are decades of experience worldwide in In Mali in West Africa and the United Republic of Tanzania in East Africa, two different community-based conservation, with approaches have been used successfully to engage local communities in protecting elephants numerous examples ranging from forest from poachers. The Ruvuma Elephant Project in the United Republic of Tanzania, supported management in India and Nepal (Bowler by the PAMS Foundation, operates in an area where the poaching challenge has been signifi- et al., 2010) to wildlife management in cant. Game scouts recruited from local villages are trained to work alongside government southern Africa (e.g. Child, 1996a; Child, rangers, and they receive performance-related rewards. Local villagers also inform law- 1996b; Child and Barnes, 2010; Naidoo enforcement efforts by reporting poaching and other suspicious activities to rangers. But this et al., 2016). But just as sole reliance on kind of engagement comes with risks to individuals and sometimes the community — not law enforcement is unlikely to be effective least reprisals from poachers, who have been known to shoot innocent people. The project in tackling IWT, so it is with community requires good relationships and trust, so it has reciprocally tackled issues of concern to local conservation efforts: they are generally people, particularly conflicts between humans and elephants. Chilli fencing has been used inadequate, on their own, to stem the surge effectively to deter elephants from farmers’ fields, and it also produces a cash crop. The net in wildlife-related crime — especially effect has been a dramatic reduction in poaching and an improvement in the protection of given the escalating value of wildlife com- crops (Jenes and Lotter, 2015). modities, the militarization of poaching, The Mali Elephant Project employs local people as guards and informants in surveillance and the involvement of heavily armed brigades (brigades de surveillance), for which payments are made in food. In this case, the gangs and sophisticated trafficking net- crucial ingredients for success are ownership, pride, self-esteem and an improved natural works (Biggs et al., 2016; Challender resource base in which livestock can co-exist with elephants. Elephants are highly valued and MacMillan, 2014; Phelps, Biggs and culturally, and they are seen as an indicator of broader ecosystem health and therefore as Webb, 2016). a foundation for sustaining the livelihoods of local pastoralists. Before a political coup in Members of communities that share land 2012, and despite the presence of armed insurgents, the project had managed to success- with wildlife may be involved in IWT fully deter poaching, even when it was a problem elsewhere. Poaching became a problem in various ways. Some may be poach- after a breakdown in stability following the coup, and the involvement of local people ers, and others may participate in the was even more important in preventing it from escalating completely out of control. The trade indirectly by, for example, helping emphasis on locally developed solutions will likely remain central to success (Canney outsiders locate wildlife, sharing infor- and Ganame, 2015). mation on patrol locations, and providing poachers with accommodation, food and the means to transport illegal wildlife recognition of cultural values, and moral support and participate in law-enforcement products. Efforts to combat IWT need or ethical considerations. Understanding efforts. As first lines of defence, they can to understand and address the incentives which incentives are most likely to work be the eyes and ears of enforcement agen- and motivations of all the major players, in different contexts is crucial. cies — as scouts, informants and guides including members of local communities. (Box 1). Local people’s motives for contributing to SYNERGIES IN PAIRING EFFECTIVE Community engagement cannot be deliv- IWT can be diverse, including poverty, ENFORCEMENT WITH COMMUNITY ered on demand or through intimidation. redressing former injustices, thrill-seeking, ENGAGEMENT It must be based on listening, building and revenge for damage done by wildlife, The nature and scale of IWT pose trust, respecting traditional authority and and responses to IWT need to reflect fundamental challenges for both law developing shared, co-created solutions. these. For example, if the illegal killing enforcement and community-based Such engagement must also be backed by of elephants is being driven by anger and conservation approaches. To step up the effective law enforcement: local people frustration at trampled crops, then doing efficacy of enforcement, interventions to do not have the power of arrest and are something to reduce the costs associated tackle IWT need to be made in partnership at risk of reprisals from poachers if the with living with wildlife is likely to be with local communities. Local people are response of law-enforcement authorities is more effective than penalizing people for well placed to engage in poaching because slow or poorly executed (Wilkie, Painter the killings. Similarly, the incentives for of their proximity to wildlife and their and Jacob, 2015). wildlife stewardship and conservation are local knowledge. For the same reasons, The Beyond Enforcement symposium varied, including financial rewards, the however, they are also uniquely placed to concluded that recognizing the rights of

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communities to use and benefit from wild- THE WAY FORWARD a decision was taken to establish a life is fundamental to engaging them in International deliberations on how to curb working group to explore how to tackling IWT. When local people develop IWT should not continue to disregard or effectively engage rural communi- a collective sense of ownership of wildlife, underplay community-led approaches. ties in CITES processes. u poaching is viewed as stealing from the The findings of the Beyond Enforcement community rather than stealing from the symposium show that communities often state, and local people are therefore likely hold the key to finding lasting solutions to to become as protective of “their” wild- such illicit trade. Both the Kasane Confer- life as they are of their cattle, goats, fish ence on Illegal Wildlife Trade in 2015 and and other assets. Such ownership is built the Hanoi Conference on Illegal Wildlife through policies that enable communities Trade in 2016 reiterated the importance to exercise options and opportunities to of balancing enforcement with commu- benefit from wildlife and that build their nity engagement and sustainable use. To motivation and capacity to steward wild- make further progress against IWT, a step References life. This applies to domestic policies and change is needed in the way governments, laws in countries with wildlife populations non-governmental organizations and other Biggs, D., Cooney, R., Roe, D., Dublin, H.T., under threat from illegal trade as well as stakeholders work with the local people Allan, J.R., Challender, D.W.S. & in other countries that influence what who live alongside wildlife and who ulti- Skinner, D. 2016. Developing a theory of happens in the home ranges of such spe- mately hold its future in their hands. This change for a community-based response to cies. For example, unilateral (and indeed includes: illegal wildlife trade. Conservation Biology, multilateral) bans on imports of certain • supporting and upholding commu- 31(1): 5–12. wildlife products can effectively shut down nity rights and responsibilities for Bowler, D., Buyung-Ali, L., Healey, J.R., important markets for what might other- managing wildlife and tackling Jones, J.P.G., Knight, T. & Pullin, A.S. wise be a sustainably produced product illegal wildlife trade (including rec- 2010. The evidence base for community that benefits both conservation and local ognition of the distinction between forest management as a mechanism for communities. illegal and unsustainable trade and supplying global environmental benefits and Such bans may thus unintentionally the legitimate and sustainable use of improving local welfare. CEE review 08-011 undermine the benefits that accrue to wild resources); (SR48). Environmental Evidence (available local people and remove an incentive for • strengthening partnerships between at www.environmentalevidence.org/SR48). wildlife conservation. Trophy hunting, communities, state and private Canney, S. & Ganamé, N. 2015. The Mali for example, has been the subject of much law-enforcement agencies, and Elephant Project, Mali. In D. Roe, ed. heated discussion, particularly since the conservation non-governmental Conservation, crime and communities: case killing of “Cecil the Lion”, resulting in organizations; studies of efforts to engage local communi- some countries banning the import of • increasing knowledge and under- ties in tackling illegal wildlife trade. London, trophies and airlines refusing to trans- standing of the wide range of motiva- International Institute for Environment and port them. The industry is perfectly legal, tions and drivers behind IWT and the Development (IIED). however, and, when well regulated, it can effectiveness of different responses in Carlson, K., Wright, J. & Donges, H. 2015. provide crucial conservation incentives diverse contexts; In the line of fire: elephant and rhino poach- for local people. It is estimated that if • encouraging effective communication ing in Africa. In G. McDonald, E. LeBrun, trophy hunting in Namibia were to stop, between communities on best prac- A. Alvazzi del Frate, E.G. Berman & revenue losses to communities would be tices to address common issues, such K. Krause, eds. Small arms survey 2015. in the order of US$1 million per year. as those associated with livelihoods Geneva, Switzerland, Small Arms Survey. It would also profoundly affect the and tenure; and Challender, D.W.S. & MacMillan, D.C. 2014. financial viability of most of Namibia’s • strengthening community voices in Poaching is more than an enforcement prob- conservancies (areas of communal land international debates on IWT, includ- lem. Conservation Letters, 7(5): 484–494 set aside for conservation), which earn ing in the Convention on International (DOI 10.1111/conl.12082). up to 80 percent of their income from Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Child, B. 1996a. The practice and principles trophy hunting (Naidoo et al., 2015; see Fauna and Flora (CITES). Recent of community-based wildlife management also the article on page 3, which presents moves were made in this direction in Zimbabwe: the CAMPFIRE programme. the case for trophy hunting as a form of at the 17th Conference of the Parties Biodiversity and Conservation, 5(3): 369–398 sustainable use). to CITES in October 2016, at which (DOI 10.1007/BF00051780).

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Child, B. & Barnes, G. 2010. The conceptual Jenes, M. & Lotter, W. 2015. The Ruvuma rhino_info/poaching_statistics). Accessed evolution and practice of community- Elephant Project, Tanzania. In D. Roe, ed. 23 January 2016. based natural resource management in Conservation, crime and communities: Wilkie, D., Painter, M. & Jacob, A. 2015. southern Africa: past, present and future. case studies of efforts to engage local Rewards and risks associated with com- Environmental Conservation, 37(3): 283–295 communities in tackling illegal wildlife munity engagement in anti-poaching and (DOI 10.1017/S0376892910000512). trade. London, International Institute for anti-trafficking. USAID Biodiversity Tech- Child, G. 1996b. The role of community-based Environment and Development (IIED). nical Brief. Washington, DC, United States wild resource management in Zimbabwe. Naidoo, R., Weaver, L.C., Diggle, R.W., Agency for International Development Biodiversity and Conservation, 5(3): 355–367 Matongo, G., Stuart-Hill, G. & Thouless, C. (USAID) (available at http://pdf.usaid.gov/ (10.1007/BF00051779). 2016. Complementary benefits of tourism pdf_docs/PA00M3R9.pdf). u Duffy, R. 2014. Waging a war to save bio- and hunting to communal conservancies diversity: the rise of militarized conserva- in Namibia. Conservation Biology, 30(3): tion. International Affairs, 90(4): 819–834. 628–638 (DOI 10.1111/cobi.12643). IUCN SULi, International Institute for Phelps, J., Biggs, D. & Webb, E.L. 2016. Environment and Development, Center for Tools and terms for understanding illegal Environment and Energy Development, wildlife trade. Frontiers in Ecology and the Austrian Ministry of Environment & Environment, 14(9): 479–489 (DOI 10.1002/ TRAFFIC. 2015. Symposium report: fee.1325). “Beyond Enforcement: Communities, Roe, D., Milledge, S., Cooney, R., Governance, Incentives and Sustain- ‘t Sas-Rolfes, M., Biggs, D., Murphree, M. able Use in Combating Wildlife Crime”, & Kasterine, A. 2014. The elephant in the 26–28 February 2015, Glenburn Lodge, room: sustainable use in the illegal wild- Muldersdrift, South Africa. International life trade. London, International Institute Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) for Environment and Development (IIED) Sustainable Use and Livelihoods Specialist (available at pubs.iied.org/17205IIED.html). Group (SULi) (available at http://pubs.iied. Save the Rhino. 2014. Poaching statistics. org/G03903.html). Website (available at www.savetherhino.org/

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Managing human–wildlife conflicts in central and southern Africa

J.-C. Nguinguiri, R. Czudek, C. Julve Larrubia, L. Ilama, S. Le Bel, E.J. Angoran, J.F. Trebuchon and D. Cornelis © LENA ILAMA

The first steps in a coordinated uman–wildlife conflict (HWC) increasing demand for natural resources, approach to the issue are is not a recent concern in Africa. and the growing pressure for access to generating useful lessons and Several wildlife species cause land, such as for the extension of transport tools for scaling up efforts. Himportant damage to crops and live- routes and the expansion of agricultural stock systems, with impacts on human and industrial activities. Despite low popu- Jean-Claude Nguinguiri is Forestry Officer, food security, safety and well-being. In lation densities in certain rural areas in Cecilia Julve Larrubia is an international consultant and Lena Ilama is Junior Forestry extreme cases, attacks by wildlife species central Africa, many forest ecosystems Officer, all at the FAO Subregional Office for such as elephants and crocodiles can cause are subject to agriculture and logging, Central Africa in Libreville, Gabon. human injuries and death (Manfredo and causing negative direct impacts on fauna Rene Czudek is Forestry and Wildlife Officer at the FAO Subregional Office for Southern Dayer, 2004; Woodroffe, Thirgood and and fragmenting habitats. Africa in Harare, Zimbabwe. Rabinowitz, 2005; Le Bel et al., 2011). Wildlife and people will continue to Sébastien Le Bel, Jean-François Trebuchon HWCs have become more frequent share landscapes and resources in central and Daniel Cornelis are scientists at CIRAD (the French Agricultural Research Centre for and severe in Africa in recent decades and southern Africa, and it seems certain International Development) in Montpellier, due to increasing competition for land France (Le Bel and Trebuchon), and Harare, in previously wild and uninhabited areas Zimbabwe (Cornelis). Above: Local farmers in the lower southeast Elisee Joel Angoran is with the Wildlife (Lamarque et al., 2009). The underlying of Zimbabwe are introduced to the Human– Conservation Society Gabon. causes include human population growth, Wildlife Conflict Management Toolbox

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that HWCs will worsen unless action is TABLE 1. Subregional and national strategies for human–wildlife conflict taken. In several countries, inadequate management developed since 2008 in central and southern Africa compensation for the damage caused by Year Country Name of strategy Comment wildlife has angered local communities, 2010 Subregional Central Africa Subregional Developed with technical who want solutions urgently, thus bringing Human–Elephant Conflict support from the Central HWCs to the political forefront. In some Mitigation Strategy African Protected Areas countries in central Africa, HWCs – and Network demands for solutions to them – were key August 2009 Mozambique Human–Wildlife Conflict Approved by a resolution of Management Strategy the Council of Ministers issues in recent presidential elections. The conclusions of a review of HWCs October 2012 Gabon National Strategy and Action Approved by the Council of Plan for Human–Wildlife Ministers in Africa by FAO and the International Conflict Management Foundation for the Conservation of Wildlife (Ministère des Eaux et (Lamarque et al., 2009) formed the basis Forêts, 2012) of discussions at the 17th Session of the Ongoing Cameroon National Strategy and Action Not yet approved by Working Party on Wildlife Management Plan for Human–Wildlife government Conflict Management and Protected Areas, held back-to-back with the 16th Session of the African Forestry TABLE 2. Handbooks in the Human–Wildlife Conflict Management Toolbox and Wildlife Commission in Khartoum, the Sudan, in 2008. The Working Party Handbook topic Description recommended that FAO should support the Wildlife Presents a list of 17 groups of species involved in human–wildlife conflicts efforts of countries to manage HWCs by facilitating networking among stakeholders Conflict Presents the five main categories of conflict caused by wildlife (agriculture; people’s health and lives; disturbances to village life; for sharing information; generating guid- livestock; and access to water) ance on best practices; providing technical Solutions Presents a total of 45 practical solutions guidelines for the development of national Legislation Provides information on laws in various countries as well as on policies; and implementing field activities. international conventions Since then, several actions have been initi- Evaluation Proposes a human–wildlife conflict monitoring and evaluation strategy ated at the subregional and national levels in Africa. Are we moving in the right direction? This article examines the work to develop one is ongoing in Cameroon. In Research Centre for International underway and points to the way forward. addition to national strategies, the Central Development), the BIO-HUB Trust1 Africa Subregional Human–Elephant and other partners (Le Bel, Mapuvire STRATEGIC PLANS FOR Conflict Mitigation Strategy was developed and Czudek, 2010). In 2012, FAO, the ADDRESSING HUMAN–WILDLIFE in 2010. Table 1 summarizes the sub- Central African Protected Areas Network CONFLICTS regional and national strategies at the (RAPAC) and CIRAD decided to adapt the Although most countries in central and policy and planning levels. prototype to central Africa. The adaptation southern Africa have committed to miti- process had three steps: gating HWCs, the necessary political will THE HUMAN–WILDLIFE CONFLICT 1. production and critical review of the is not always evident. HWCs should be MANAGEMENT TOOLBOX toolbox; considered in the development of policy Despite (albeit limited) progress at the 2. a test phase conducted in collabora- frameworks in the forest and agriculture strategic level, the lack of on-the-ground tion with WWF, the Wildlife Conser- sectors, but many decision-makers are implementation and impact remains a major vation Society, and Agence nationale unfamiliar with the issues, and they often concern. A dearth of tools and low techni- des parcs nationaux du Gabon (Gabon fail to take them fully into account in plan- cal capacity are significant issues for the ning and policy formulation processes. staff of wildlife services, who are supposed 1 The BIO-HUB Trust is a regional platform devel- Nevertheless, there has been progress: to assist farmers in addressing HWCs. oped in Zimbabwe by a consortium (WWF, the African Wildlife Foundation, CIRAD, CIFOR, since 2008, efforts have been made A significant challenge, therefore, is to the Campfire Association and the People and to develop strategic plans for address- improve and facilitate access to such tools. Nature Trust) with a mission to integrate con- ing HWCs in Cameroon, Gabon and The first prototype of an HWC toolbox servation and natural resource management with development through a partnership promoting Mozambique. Gabon and Mozambique both was developed for southern Africa jointly the innovative transfer of skills, appropriate now have such strategies, and the process by FAO, CIRAD (the French Agricultural technologies and knowledge.

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Box 1 Testing the Human–Wildlife Conflict Management Toolbox in Cristal Mount National Park, Gabon

In 2015, the Wildlife Conservation Society Gabon helped a local community find ways to prevent human–wildlife conflict in the Cristal Mount National Park in Gabon. We used a smartphone equipped with the KoboCollect app to obtain and transmit data to the Central African Forest Observatory for analysis, which showed that animals were destroying entire crops. The frustration of farmers – whose livelihoods depend on such crops – is understandable, and rules forbidding them to hunt protected animals for meat or to protect their crops are difficult to explain and justify. The toolbox – especially the handbook on solutions – sets out options for preventing, blocking, pushing back or eliminating fauna that damage plantations. The solutions we believed would be most feasible and effective in the case of the Cristal Mount National Park were: fencing the plantations to block animals from reaching the crops; making fires or noises to scare the animals away; and posting guards to keep watch on the plantations at night. We considered these solutions to be best because they were easy to set up and did not require funds (which were unavailable). The lack of funds meant we were unable to offer farmers hi-tech solutions – such as the use of electric fences – that might have been more effective, because it was important that villagers could put the solutions in place and maintain them without ongoing assistance. We observed that some of the proposed solutions were ineffective, showing the importance of testing different combinations of approaches best suited to local conditions and the capacity of communities to implement them.

Source: Angoran (2015).

National Agency for National Parks) at 11 pilot sites in four countries in the subregion (Angola, Cameroon, the Congo and Gabon, see Box 1); and 3. development of an improved version of the toolbox based on field-test results. “La Boîte à outil d’atténuation des conflits homme-faune” (Human–Wildlife Conflict Management Toolbox)2 is a set of five thematic illustrated handbooks (Table 2) assembled in a canvas carry bag. It provides information on HWCs in central Africa, the species involved, and guidelines on the steps that can be taken to address such conflicts. An effective solution for HWCs involving elephants proposed in the toolbox is the use of chilli-pepper dispensers, which were developed and tested in

Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe BONNICI © GEORGES (Le Bel, La Grange and Drouet-Hoguet, 2015). These dispensers fire “bullets” con- taining chilli-pepper oil at elephants, which are first surprised by the noise and later disturbed by the pepper, making them flee. Community artisans receive training in the manufacture and use of EL@OUT,* an “ambush” version of a chilli-pepper dispenser made of wood designed to discourage elephants from damaging crops 2 The toolbox, which is available only in French, can be downloaded at http://ur-forets-societes. * All reproduction and distribution rights of EL@OUT are reserved. cirad.fr/produits-et-expertises/produits/boite- Videos on the production and use of EL@OUT are available at http://ur- a-outil-bo-chf forets-societes.cirad.fr/produits-et-expertises/produits/el-out-elephant-box

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Damage caused by elephants to a plantain plantation in MONITORING HUMAN–WILDLIFE RAPAC and the Central African Forest Remboué, Gabon CONFLICTS USING SMARTPHONES Observatory (OFAC). Data on HWCs are Sharing information and experiences is entered directly onto a form generated To promote this tool, FAO, in col- essential for preventing and mitigating by the KoBoCollect app (either offline laboration with CIRAD, the Ministry in HWCs (Madden, 2006), and CIRAD has or online) and sent from the smartphone Charge of Wildlife in Gabon and Fruitière developed a monitoring system using (via Wi-Fi or a mobile phone network) Numérique (a not-for-profit organization), smartphones to collect, manage and to the OFAC server, thereby centralizing organized a capacity-building session report on HWCs (Le Bel, Chavernac all collected information. The HWCs are in Gabon to provide local artisans with and Stansfield, 2016). The first tests used geolocated using either the automatic or know-how on the manufacture and use of FrontLine SMS in the framework of HWC manual recording of global positioning pepper dispensers. The aim was to stimu- projects in Mozambique and Zimbabwe. system coordinates, and the information late the low-cost, local manufacture of An improved monitoring system that uses is encrypted (with logins and passwords) the tool and to train local communities smartphones and the KoBoCollect applica- to protect it. OFAC hosts the collected in its use. Despite the significant prog- tion3 was launched in April 2014 in central data and also processes and analyses ress made, the tool is still largely at the Africa with the support of CIRAD, FAO, them and disseminates the results via a experimental stage, and farmers require monthly newsletter. KoBoCollect is an additional support in efforts to prevent 3 https://kc.kobotoolbox.org/ofac_chf; see also innovative approach to managing HWCs, and mitigate HWCs. article on page 53. with its user-friendly features, precision

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The Human–Wildlife Conflict Management Toolbox

through geolocation, and simplified data entry (Ilama, 2015). The monitoring system is being tested at about 30 HWC observation sites in seven countries: Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Chad, the Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon. A network for sharing monitoring information among HWC managers is envisaged in the future. © LENA ILAMA © LENA COMMUNITY-BASED HUMAN– WILDLIFE CONFLICT MANAGEMENT The various tools now available can enable communities to take action and to be the driving forces in finding solutions (FAO, 2016; Figure 1). The aim of the LESSONS LEARNED to HWCs. To help communities use the guide is to help communities in planning The recent experience acquired in HWC Human–Wildlife Conflict Management their use of the toolbox and the tools management has generated the following Toolbox efficiently, a six-step guide was therein; it will also help them develop lessons, among others: prepared for the development of commu- a shared vision of preventive measures • Political will and the involvement nity action plans for HWC management for HWCs and to organize, facilitate and of regional or national bodies is a coordinate actions to mitigate them. To necessary condition for successful 1 date, five HWC community action plans HWC mitigation. Even though many The six steps in developing have been developed in Angola, the Congo HWC management initiatives began community action plans for human– wildlife conflict management and Gabon. in southern Africa, more progress appears to have been made in central Africa, possibly due to greater political will and the formal involve- 1. Start-up 2. Analysis ment and commitment of regional and Community meeting Identify conflictual species and causes national institutions. Map conflict sites • The cross-fertilization of ideas and concepts among regions and subregions helps improve tools and policies. Central Africa has advanced 4. Planning 3. Objective in its approach to the mitigation of Plan priority actions Define priority actions HWCs due largely to the tools devel- Define modalities of implementation, oped in southern Africa. Today, the monitoring and evaluation information is flowing the other way, with efforts in southern Africa making use of the experiences obtained and tools developed in central Africa. 5. Institutional arrangements 6. Prepare and validate • Adaptive approaches are best Decide decision-making modalities – community action plan who decides, who executes equipped to deal with emerging and who evaluates issues. The guide to developing community action plans for HWC management was developed in

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response to a need for a strategic It is now time, therefore, to provide local Le Bel, S., Mapuvire, G. & Czudek, R. approach to the use of the Human– communities with more assistance in 2010. Human–Wildlife Conflict Toolkit: Wildlife Conflict Management developing HWC action plans and putting comprehensive solutions for farmers and Toolbox, and the toolbox was devel- suitable tools into practice. Such support communities. Unasylva, 236: 12–13. oped in response to a need among would go a long way towards mitigating Le Bel, S., Murwira, A., Mukamuri, B., affected communities. By respond- HWCs in central and southern Africa and Czudek, R., Taylor, R. & LaGrange, M. ing directly to needs, this adaptive establishing a sound basis for the beneficial 2011. Human wildlife conflicts in southern approach has been able to quickly cohabitation of humans and wildlife. u Africa: riding the whirl wind in Mozambique address a significant issue.  and in Zimbabwe. In J. Lopez Pujol, ed. The • Local traditions and perceptions importance of biological interactions in the can be a barrier to effective HWC study of biodiversity, pp. 283–322. Rijeka, management. For example, local  Croatia, InTech. people affected directly by HWCs Madden, F. 2006. Conflit entre l’homme et find it aggravating that wildlife la faune sauvage: un cas de collaboration. is protected at their expense. In Nature & Faune, 21(2): 8–10. Angola’s Cabinda Province, people Manfredo, M.J. & Dayer, A.A. 2004. continue to think that the historical Concepts for exploring the social aspects of practice bequeathed by the colonial human–wildlife conflict in a global context. administration of “driven hunting”4 References Human Dimensions of Wildlife, 9(4): 1–20. organized by government is the best Ministère des Eaux et Forêts. 2012. Stratégie means for managing HWCs. In other Angoran, E.J. 2015. Human–wildlife conflict: nationale et plan d’actions de gestion des cases, problem animals are sometimes Crystal Mountain National Park. Internship conflits homme-faune au Gabon. Libreville. believed to be bewitched humans report. Wildlife Conservation Society Gabon. Woodroffe, R., Thirgood, S. & Rabinowitz A. transformed into animals, constrain- FAO. 2016. Gestion des conflits homme-faune: 2005. People and wildlife, conflict or co- ing possible solutions. guide pour la formulation des plans d’action existence? Cambridge University Press. u communautaires, by C. Julve Larrubia, CONCLUSION L. Ilama, S. Le Bel & J-C. Nguinguiri. HWC is a challenging issue in central Libreville, Gabon. and southern Africa that needs to be Ilama, L. 2015. A toolbox for human-wildlife addressed at various levels. Some coun- conflict management in Central Africa. tries have demonstrated political will by Nature & Faune, 29(2): 70–73. developing clear HWC strategies, but the Lamarque, F., Anderson, J., Fergusson, R., extent of practical action is often insuf- Lagrange, M., Osei-Owusu, Y. & Bakker, L. ficient to mitigate HWCs and reduce their 2009. Human-wildlife conflict in Africa: impacts on human well-being and wildlife causes, consequences and management conservation. HWC has thus become a strategies. FAO Forestry Paper No. 157. political issue – which can be seen as an Rome (available at www.fao.org/docrep/012/ opportunity for elevating it in the agendas i1048e/i1048e00.pdf). of politicians and encouraging decision- Le Bel, S., Chavernac, D. & Stansfield, F. makers to pay more attention. 2016. Promoting a mobile data collection The lack of field impact can be explained system to improve HWC incident recording: partly by a lack of adapted tools for a simple and handy solution for controlling managing HWC. The production of the problem animals in southern Africa. In Human–Wildlife Conflict Management F.M. Angelici, ed. Problematic wildlife: a Toolbox, the smartphone app for monitor- cross-disciplinary approach, pp. 395–411. ing HWCs, and the guide to assist local Springer. communities in developing HWC action Le Bel, S., La Grange, M. & Drouet-Hoguet, plans is helping fill this gap. M. 2015. Repelling elephants with a chilli pepper gas dispenser: field tests and practical 4 Driven hunting is a form of hunting in which use in Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe game is “driven” towards stationary hunters. from 2009 to 2013. Pachyderm, 56: 87–96.

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Wildlife conservation policy and practice in Central Asia

N. Yakusheva © PETRA KACZENSKY

The Central Asian Mammals entral Asia is a strategic region The global importance of the region’s Initiative is demonstrating that and an important transport cor- wildlife is recognized, and the mountains regional cooperation and the ridor located between the major of Central Asia (the Tien Shan and the strong involvement of local Cgrowing markets of Asia, Europe and the Pamirs) are among the world’s biodiver- partners can achieve tangible Middle East (Wingard et al., 2014). It is sity hotspots (Conservation International, wildlife conservation outcomes. in the process of rapid transformation 2014). The lower elevations of these moun- and faces many socio-economic, politi- tains are inhabited by, among other species, cal, environmental and security challenges the critically endangered saiga antelope, (Rakhimov, 2010). Central Asia holds sig- the goitered gazelle and the Bukhara nificant mineral, energy and other natural deer. The populations of many species resources, which are being widely exploited are transboundary – that is, they migrate or are under development. It is also a region across national borders – and cooperation in which there is a high level of social among countries is required to coordinate inequality and – despite economic growth responses to existing and emerging threats. – widespread rural poverty. The livelihoods Wildlife is one of the region’s most of rural communities are highly depend- valuable renewable resources. Sustainable ent on subsistence farming and livestock consumptive (e.g. trophy hunting) and non- herding (Karlstetter and Mallon, 2014). consumptive (e.g. nature-based tourism) Central Asia is one of the few remaining uses of wildlife can create commercial regions worldwide in which ecologically opportunities and provide local-to-national significant migrations of large mammals economic, social and environmental bene- still occur, with big herds of, for example, fits (Mischler, 2006). The financial returns Mongolian gazelle and khulan (also can help reduce rural poverty (e.g. by known as the Asiatic wild ass) moving providing employment), improve local over long distances (UNEP/CMS, 2014a).1 livelihoods (e.g. through investments in

Natalya Yakusheva is a PhD candidate at 1 The scientific names of these and other species Above: The long-distance Södertörn University, Sweden. are given in the footnote on page 46. movement of khulan, Mongolia

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local small-scale infrastructure) and sup- under the auspices of the Convention on Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. This port biodiversity conservation and other the Conservation of Migratory Species extended definition of the region ensures environmental objectives (e.g. by providing of Wild Animals (CMS), to advance that the initiative covers all the ecologically resources for the management of protected regional cooperation and support actions significant habitats of the focal species and areas) (Rosen, 2012). The conservation of for wildlife conservation from ecological promotes the ecosystem-based conserva- migratory species and their habitats would and social perspectives. The article sets out tion approaches necessary for conserving also provide essential ecosystem services, CAMI’s key propositions, provides practi- fully functioning ecosystems (Mallon and such as increasing the carbon storage cal examples of international cooperation, Jiang, 2009). CAMI covers 15 species,2 capacity of grasslands by optimizing for- and addresses some key threats. including mountain species such as the aging (Mallon and Jiang, 2009). argali sheep and snow leopard and steppe The conservation of migratory species THE CENTRAL ASIAN MAMMALS requires an ecosystem-based approach INITIATIVE 2 The 15 species are: Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx because conservation through protected CAMI and its associated programme jubatus); wild yak (Bos grunniens); wild camel (Camelus bactrianus); Bukhara deer (Cervus areas has limited applicability for species of work were adopted at the Eleventh elaphus yarkandensis); Przewalski’s horse relying on vast territories. Thus, this article Meeting of the Conference of the Parties (Equus caballus przewalskii); Asiatic wild examines the potential of the Central to the CMS in Quito, Ecuador, in 2014. It ass (Equus hemionus); kiang (Equus kiang); chinkara (Gazella bennettii); goitered gazelle Asian Mammals Initiative (CAMI), an encompasses the following 14 range states: (Gazella subgutturosa); argali sheep (Ovis international conservation initiative Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, India, the ammon); chiru (Pantholops hodgsonii); Mon- Islamic Republic of Iran, Kazakhstan, golian gazelle (Procapra gutturosa); Tibetan gazelle (Procapra picticaudata); saiga ante- Confiscated saiga horns: Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, lope (Saiga tatarica tatarica and Saiga tatarica poaching is one of the key threats the Russian Federation, Tajikistan, mongolica); and snow leopard (Uncia uncia). to wildlife in Central Asia © ALEXANDER ESIPOV ESIPOV © ALEXANDER

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Saiga antelope populations

RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Northwest Pre-Caspian Ural Betpak-dala

Ustiurt MONGOLIA

Aral Sea KAZAKHSTAN Mongolia Lake Balqash Caspian CHINA Sea

AZERBAIJAN Saiga antelope population

Overall direction of migrations UZBEKISTAN (north in summer, south in winter)

Terrestrial protected areas KYRGYZSTAN TURKMENISTAN IRAN (ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF)

Sources: ACBK, 2011; WWF Mongolia, web-based GIS database on biological diversity of Mongolia; UNEP-WCMC Protected Planet web database; Russian Committee for the UNESCO MAB Programme.

1 species such as the saiga antelope and goi- including mountain, desert, steppe and The location and range of the saiga antelope’s five populations tered gazelle (UNEP/CMS, 2014b). semi-steppe ecosystems (UNEP/CMS, The aim of CAMI is to provide a coor- 2014b). To boost local livelihoods, the dinated approach in addressing common initiative advocates support for income- regional initiatives can support the appli- threats – such as poaching, habitat deg- generation options compatible with cation of ecosystem-based measures and radation and barriers to migration – to conservation, as well as projects aimed consolidate the efforts and resources the focal species. To do this, the initiative at improving access to health, education of involved partners. Administratively, engages with state and non-state stakehold- and energy. CAMI’s programme of work the CMS Secretariat can engage more ers involved in wildlife management and defines measures for local awareness- effectively with such umbrella initiatives conservation at the local-to-international raising on conservation and wildlife, the rather than with individual species-based levels to ensure the effective use of limited use of local knowledge and skills in con- instruments. CAMI, therefore, draws on resources. Such multistakeholder partner- servation co-management and participatory the experiences of existing CMS instru- ships can benefit wildlife conservation approaches in scientific research, and the ments in the region. in various ways by enabling effective promotion of non-consumptive uses, espe- research, policy development, awareness- cially ecotourism (UNEP/CMS, 2014b). SAIGA ANTELOPE: LEARNING raising and rural development and by CAMI’s coordination functions include FROM EXISTING PRACTICES supporting sustainable livelihood pro- reducing overlap and encouraging the The saiga antelope, a Central Asian migra- grammes, which are essential for long-term best use of synergies among the various tory species, was spotlighted recently in implementation. CMS instruments in the region, such the international media (e.g. Zimmer, CAMI has identified a set of policy as the Memorandum of Understanding 2015a, 2015b) for the unfortunate reason actions to improve the governance of Concerning the Conservation, Restoration, that almost the entire population of the natural resources, address human needs and Sustainable Use of the Saiga Antelope species inhabiting the Betpak-dala plains and community engagement in conser- (“saiga MOU”) and the International Single in western Kazakhstan was wiped out, a vation, and develop scientific knowledge Species Action Plan for the Conservation loss amounting to more than 210 000 adult and transboundary cooperation. These and of the Argali. Where clear similarities saigas (UNEP/CMS, 2015b). The proxi- other ecosystem-based measures need to exist in the threats faced by species, and mate direct cause of the mass mortality be applied in the region’s key landscapes, resources for addressing them are scarce, event was established as haemorrhagic

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Saiga antelope in the Stephoi Nature Reserve, the Russian Federation decline – from more than 1 million indi- traditional Chinese medicine and traded viduals to only 55 000 (Milner-Gulland with China, Hong Kong SAR, Japan, septicaemia caused by Pasteurella multo- et al., 2001). Four of the five distinct Malaysia and Singapore – and for saiga cida. This bacterium is normally present populations of the saiga antelope – the meat, which is consumed locally (Kühl in saigas and does not harm healthy ani- Betpak-dala (Kazakhstan), Northwest Pre- et al., 2009; Milner-Gulland et al., 2001). mals, but it can attack animals weakened Caspian (the Russian Federation), Ural The Mongolian saiga population faces by other causes. More investigation into (Kazakhstan and the Russian Federation) additional threats from habitat degradation what triggered the mortality event is and Ustiurt (Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan due to overgrazing (UNEP/CMS, 2015a). underway, and there are strong indications and Uzbekistan) (Figure 1) – belong to the The international effort to conserve the that it involved a climatic factor acting at same subspecies, Saiga tatarica tatarica, saiga started in 2006. Under the auspices the population or landscape scale (UNEP/ and the Mongolian population is consti- of the CMS and in cooperation with the CMS, 2015b). tuted by the Saiga tatarica mongolica Convention on International Trade in The saiga can move up to 120 km per subspecies (UNEP/CMS, 2015a). Two of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and day in search of food and water across the five populations – Ural and Ustiurt – Flora (CITES), the five countries that the semi-deserts and steppes of Central are transboundary. The key threats to the comprise the saiga’s range – Kazakhstan, Asia (Singh et al., 2010). The species was saiga (in addition to the disease outbreak) Mongolia, the Russian Federation, listed as Critically Endangered on the are the fragmentation of habitats due to Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan – agreed International Union for Conservation of increasing barriers to migration such as on the saiga MOU (with the Russian Nature’s Red List of Threatened Species in railways and border fences, and poaching, Federation signing in 2009 and Mongolia 2004 due to a significant rapid population both for saiga horns – which are used in in 2010). Several cooperating organizations

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(mostly international environmental non- of a strong conservation network that was and non-state stakeholders. The saiga governmental organizations – NGOs) also able to attract funding for the implementa- MOU, one of the oldest CMS instruments expressed commitment to saiga conservation of the MOU as well as for international in Central Asia, has acted as a learning tion and signed the MOU. The MOU’s workshops and field projects. platform for CAMI. The saiga MOU part- medium-term work programme defines A significant number of the field projects ners actively contributed to the conceptual measures to improve the conservation of worked with local communities to create development of CAMI and engaged in its the species and to restore it to the point alternative income opportunities, raise implementation. that sustainable use might be reconstituted awareness and provide environmental edu- (UNEP/CMS, 2015c). Three meetings of cation (UNEP/CMS, 2015a). An example ADDRESSING THREATS: MOU signatories brought together repre- of non-consumptive use is safari-style INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT sentatives of the range states and interested tours for saiga observation organized by Both the saiga MOU and CAMI have stakeholders to review the conservation an NGO in Kazakhstan, which shares the addressed threats posed by the devel- status of the saiga and to update the prior- benefits with local communities (ACBK, opment of infrastructure by providing ity actions. Despite initial difficulties, the 2015). Other projects have supported local detailed technical guidelines and conduct- saiga is considered a conservation success income-generation options, such as by pro- ing studies, as well as by exerting political story; before the mass die-off in 2015, viding training in handicraft-making and pressure on national governments and pri- three of the five populations (Betpak-dala, sustainable grazing schemes designed to vate companies. The technical guidelines Ural and Mongolia) had been growing, reduce poaching and raise awareness on were developed under the saiga MOU to although both the Ustiurt and Northwest saiga conservation (Howe, Medzhidov and help mitigate the impacts on saiga popula- Pre-Caspian populations have continued Milner-Gulland, 2011; Saiga Conservation tions of the development of the transport to decline due to persistent threats from Alliance, 2015). network in Kazakhstan and the threat it poaching and infrastructure development The emergence of a strong multistake- posed to the transboundary saiga popu- (UNEP/CMS, 2015a). holder partnership – in which partners lation in Ustiurt (Olson, 2014). A newly The implementation of the saiga MOU contribute with their own resources and constructed railway transects the habitat of by governments, supported by the CMS mobilize external support – has clearly the Betpak-dala population in several parts and CITES, was backed by strong NGO increased the effectiveness of the saiga and crosses important migration corridors. partners on the ground, and the scientific MOU and led to improvements in the sta- For the Ustiurt population, the existing community actively engaged in saiga tus of three saiga populations. The MOU, research, both nationally and internation- in turn, has provided neutral ground for ally. This mobilization led to the creation engagement and dialogue among state Migration of khulan in the Great Gobi, Mongolia © P. KACZENSKY© P.

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railway and border fence pose significant of resources; the strength of established results in mostly ad hoc management. Full barriers, blocking major migration routes. regional and local partnerships; the extent implementation, therefore, will depend The efforts of the MOU partners led the of political support and clear commitments largely on the ability to increase national Government of Kazakhstan to agree to from national governments; the support political buy-in, consolidate resources, mitigation measures on the railway to provided by the scientific community, and mobilize additional donor funding. increase the potential for saiga movements. donors and the private sector; and other The CMS Secretariat (which administers The CMS Guidelines for Addressing the factors. By providing a neutral platform CAMI), interested international NGOs Impact of Linear Infrastructure on Large for inclusive engagement, CAMI has the and the scientific community can assist, Migratory Mammals in Central Asia potential to support the development of but ultimately the active engagement of (Wingard et al., 2014), developed under participatory approaches in nature con- national and local partners is needed to CAMI, provide a thorough review of the servation decision-making, policies and improve the situation. threats posed to Central Asian mammals practices in Central Asia. There is a further need, therefore, to iden- by infrastructure development, technical Existing national policy and legislative tify and support national and local partners solutions to such threats, and analyses of frameworks are especially important interested in long-term engagement. In the existing political and legal frameworks for the overall success of such regional most participating countries, governmental in Central Asian countries for addressing cooperation. To a large extent, these define authorities show a high level of enthusi- the threats. the system of wildlife management and asm but lack the capacity for continuous Infrastructure development is a key issue conservation in a country, as well as exist- engagement and project implementation for wildlife populations in Mongolia; for ing capacities and available resources, due to limited financial, administrative and example, the fenced Trans-Mongolian among other things. One way of ensuring political stability and continuity. The coor- Railway created an almost complete the long-term implementation of CAMI dination of CAMI, which spans 14 countries barrier to the movement of Mongolian would be to mainstream its provisions in with their own political and economic gazelle, khulan and other open-landscape relevant national laws. This is difficult to priorities as well as a broad range of other mammals. The CMS guidelines provided achieve universally, however, among the stakeholders with their own interests and a basis for the development of national diverse countries covered by the initiative. agendas, is itself a challenge, and inclusive standards that define obligatory wildlife- Moreover, the wildlife conservation sec- negotiations and coordinated actions are friendly measures for all development tor is prone to the governance problems difficult to achieve. Moreover, the question projects in Mongolia (Mongolian Agency common to other sectors in Central Asia, of ownership frequently arises in multi- for Standardization and Metrology, 2015). such as insufficient law enforcement and stakeholder partnerships: Who is ultimately An international workshop was held to compliance capacity, a lack of resources responsible for achieving results? Whose promote the CMS guidelines and the and qualified staff, and limited collabora- responsibility is it to ensure implementa- Mongolian standards and to develop a tion and dialogue among stakeholders. tion and the dissemination of information? pilot project in collaboration with the Existing laws on wildlife management The experience of CAMI demonstrates that Mongolian railway company to remove and the use of natural resources (e.g. regional cooperation has a higher chance parts of the fence along the railway. forests and pastures) vary greatly among of achieving tangible results when strong Such cases demonstrate that international countries in the region, as does the priority local partners take the initiative, support engagement – in addition to providing given to these in national policy agendas implementation, and develop a sense of expert technical solutions – can be an (see Morgera, Wingard and Fodella, ownership for the conservation and sustain- effective tool for initiating policy dialogue 2009, for an overview). The consolida- able use of wildlife species. and supporting national stakeholders (e.g. tion and promotion of a unified approach scientific experts and NGOs) engaged in to wildlife management and conservation CONCLUSION negotiations with government, and ulti- across the region does not seem feasible. The vast open landscapes of Central Asia mately in achieving positive outcomes, Some countries are not even members form the world’s largest interconnected even on complex issues. of the CMS, which therefore has limited steppe habitat in which mass animal competencies for engaging with them. migration still occurs. The long-term sur- POLICY IMPLICATIONS AND The diversity of national policy and legal vival of Central Asia’s migratory mammals OBSTACLES TO IMPLEMENTATION frameworks, and the differing levels of is linked inextricably to the continuing CAMI sets a general framework for policy political buy-in among governments, are conservation of these highly valuable and actions, as do other similar regional other key limitations to the implementation ecosystems and to the ability to address initiatives. The success or otherwise of of CAMI and other regional instruments. threats caused by anthropogenic influence. implementation depends on the availability Also, the lack of long-term financing Wider political and economic factors, such

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as rapid economic development, politi- communities is crucial for stabilizing wild- Milner-Gulland, E.J., Kholodova, M., cal instability, a lack of transparency, the life populations, which, in turn, will result Bekenov, A., Buhreeva, O., Grachev, I.A., inefficiency of governance structures, in healthier ecosystems and increase the Amgalan, L. & Lushchekina, A. 2001. Dra- and security issues push the conserva- resilience of ecosystems and their capacity matic decline in saiga antelope populations. tion agenda into the margins of national to cope with climate change. u Oryx, 35(4): 340–345. policies. In addition to identifying direct  Mischler, A. 2006. Wildlife Policy and conservation measures, regional conser-  Institutions for Sustainable Use and Con- vation initiatives such as CAMI aim to servation of Wildlife Resources: Joint FAO/ steer political engagement, build capacity Czech Republic Workshop. Facilitator’s and raise the profile of wildlife conser- report (available at www.cic-wildlife.org/ vation and sustainable use in national wp-content/uploads/2013/04/FAO_CIC_ governments and among policy-makers. Prague_2006_WS_Report_Final_02.pdf). The success of such a comprehensive Mongolian Agency for Standardization and initiative depends largely on establishing References Metrology. 2015. Standard of Mongolia: long-lasting partnerships among NGOs, passage for wild animals along auto and rail scientists, governments and the interna- ACBK. 2015. Big Steppe Tour. Website roads in steppe and Gobi region. General tional conservation community that can act (available at www.acbk.kz/en/pages/3778. requirements. Ulaanbaatar. at several levels of governance to mobilize html). Association for the Conservation Morgera, E., Wingard, J. & Fodella, A. 2009. resources and expertise. of Biodiversity of Kazakhstan (ACBK). Developing sustainable wildlife management There are few ongoing community-based Accessed January 2017. laws in western and Central Asia. Budapest, conservation and management schemes in Conservation International. 2014. FAO & International Council for Game and Central Asia, and even fewer such schemes Biodiversity hotspots. Mountains of Central Wildlife Conservation (CIC). operate without external donors or NGO Asia. Website (available at www.cepf.net/ Olson, K. 2014. Saiga crossing options: support. In addition to providing direct resources/hotspots/Europe-and-Central- guidelines and recommendations to monetary benefits, community-based con- Asia/Pages/Mountains-of-Central-Asia. mitigate barrier effects of border fencing servation and management could trigger aspx). Accessed January 2017. and railroad corridors on saiga antelope wider governance changes by empower- Howe, C., Medzhidov, R. & Milner- in Kazakhstan. Frankfurt Zoological ing communities and strengthening their Gulland, E.J. 2011. Evaluating the relative Society, Association for the Conservation capacity to engage in political dialogues effectiveness of alternative conservation of Biodiversity of Kazakhstan, Fauna & and defend their rights. There is a clear interventions in influencing stated Flora International & Convention on the need, therefore, to further analyse these behavioural intentions: the saiga antelope Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild existing cases to better understand the in Kalmykia (Russia). Environmental Animals (CMS) (available at www.cms.int/ key elements in the success or failure of Conservation, 38(1): 37–44. sites/default/files/publication/Kirk_Olson_ such schemes. CAMI has the potential to Karlstetter, M. & Mallon, D. 2014. Assess- Saiga_Crossing_Options_English.pdf). consolidate this knowledge and to further ment of gaps and needs in migratory Rakhimov, M. 2010. Internal and exter- streamline successful approaches among mammal conservation in Central Asia. nal dynamics of regional cooperation in stakeholders. The example of community Bonn, Germany, United Nations Environ- Central Asia. Journal of Eurasian Studies, engagement in saiga conservation provides ment Programme (UNEP)/Convention on 1: 95–101. a good starting point for such an analy- the Conservation of Migratory Species of Rosen, T. 2012. Analyzing gaps and options for sis, especially for non-consumptive uses. Wild Animals (CMS) Secretariat. enhancing argali conservation in Central The infrastructure example in Mongolia Kühl, A., Balinova, N., Bykova, E., Asia within the context of the CMS. Bonn, shows the importance of targeted political Arylov, Y., Esipov, A., Lushchekina, A. Germany, United Nations Environment negotiations and improving relevant laws. & Milner-Gulland, E.J. 2009. The role Programme (UNEP)/Convention on the The saiga MOU (one of the oldest CMS of saiga poaching in rural communities: Conservation of Migratory Species of instruments in the region), backed by a linkages between attitudes, socio-economic Wild Animals (CMS) Secretariat and strong conservation partnership and deliv- circumstances and behavior. Biological Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale ering successful conservation outcomes, Conservation, 142: 1442–1449. Zusammenarbeit (GIZ). constitutes a good learning platform for Mallon, D. & Jiang, Z. 2009. Grazers on the Saiga Conservation Alliance. 2015. Saving CAMI by demonstrating practices that plains: challenges and prospects for large saigas: projects around the world. Website could work in Central Asia. Close engage- herbivores in Central Asia. Journal of (www.saiga-conservation.com/projects. ment with, and the support of, local rural Applied Ecology, 46: 516–519. html). Accessed January 2017.

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Singh, N., Grachev, I., Bekenov, A. & UNEP/CMS. 2015b. Report of the Third Zimmer, C. 2015a. Death on the steppes: Milner-Gulland, E.J. 2010. Saiga ante- Meeting of the Signatories. United Nations mystery disease kills saigas. The New York lope calving site selection is increasingly Environment Programme (UNEP)/Con- Times, online edition, 29 May 2015 (available driven by human disturbance. Biological vention on the Conservation of Migratory at www.nytimes.com/2015/06/02/science/ Conservation, 143: 1770–1779. Species of Wild Animals (CMS) Secretariat saiga-antelope-mystery-disease-die-off. UNEP/CMS. 2014a. Central Asian Mammals (available at www.cms.int/saiga/sites/default/ html). Initiative: saving the last migrations. Bonn, files/document/unep_cms_saiga%20mos3_ Zimmer, C. 2015b. More than half of entire Germany, United Nations Environment mr_with%20Annexes_e_0.pdf). species of saigas gone in mysterious die- Programme (UNEP)/Convention on the UNEP/CMS. 2015c. Medium-term Inter- off. The New York Times, online edition, Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild national Work Programme for the Saiga 2 November 2015 (available at www.nytimes. Animals (CMS) Secretariat. Antelope (2016–2020). Bonn, Germany, com/2015/11/03/science/more-than-half- UNEP/CMS. 2014b. COP Resolution 11.24: United Nations Environment Programme entire-species-of-saigas-gone-in-mysterious- The Central Asian Mammals Initiative. (UNEP)/Convention on the Conservation die-off.html?_r=0). u Bonn, United Nations Environment Pro- of Migratory Species of Wild Animals gramme (UNEP)/Convention on the (CMS) Secretariat (available at www. Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild cms.int/saiga/sites/default/files/document/ Animals (CMS). unep-cms_saiga%20mos3_mr_annex%205_ UNEP/CMS. 2015a. Overview report on mtiwp2016-2020_rev_eng.pdf). conservation status of the saiga antelope Wingard, J., Zahler, P., Victurine, R., (Saiga spp.) and MOU implementation. Bayasgalan, O. & Buuveibaatar, B. 2014. Bonn, Germany, United Nations Environment Guidelines for addressing the impact of Programme (UNEP)/Convention on the linear infrastructure on large migratory Conservation of Migratory Species of mammals in Central Asia. Bonn, Germany, Wild Animals (CMS) Secretariat (available United Nations Environment Programme at www.cms.int/saiga/sites/default/files/ (UNEP)/Convention on the Conservation of document/Saiga%20MOS3_Overview_ Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) Report_of_Conservation_Status_Eng.pdf). Secretariat.

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High-tech participatory monitoring in aid of adaptive hunting management in the Amazon

N. van Vliet, F. Sandrin, L. Vanegas, L. L’haridon, J.E. Fa and R. Nasi © FRANÇOIS SANDRIN FRANÇOIS ©

A hunter and his family are A phone app is proving popular ushmeat (also called wild meat) instructed in the use of a phone app for monitoring hunting activity among Amazonian hunters in consumption – defined as the monitoring their offtakes, and use of any non-domesticated it shows promise as a hunting Bterrestrial mammals, birds, reptiles and can be a significant driver of defaunation management tool. amphibians harvested for food (Nasi et al., in tropical forests (Gandiwa et al., 2014; 2008) – is a reality in many tropical forest Petrozzi et al., 2016). Wildlife hunting landscapes. Millions of people worldwide can be locally intense, threatening entire rely on bushmeat as a major source of populations and contributing to the protein, calories and micronutrients, and local extirpation of vulnerable species the sale of such meat supports the liveli- (Abernethy et al., 2013). Humans have hoods of many forest-living people, who been hunting wildlife for millennia, but Nathalie van Vliet and John Emmanuel Fa often have few other sources of income the pressure exerted by hunting on wild- are senior research associates at the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR). (Fa, Peres and Meeuwig, 2002; Bakarr life today is being exacerbated by human François Sandrin, Laurane L’haridon et al., 2002; Mainka and Trivedi, 2002; population growth, improved hunting and Liliana Vanegas are researchers at Corlett, 2007; Nasi et al., 2008; Brashares technologies, expanded market access, Fundación Science International. Robert Nasi is Deputy Director General at et al., 2011; Golden et al., 2011). The over- and extractive activities that bring people CIFOR. hunting of bushmeat species, however, deep into tropical forests.

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Unsustainable hunting not only cre- THE IMPORTANCE OF MONITORING better-developed monitoring systems for ates empty forests and savannahs, it can Weinbaum et al. (2013) suggested that fisheries, as suggested by Ingram et al. affect ecosystem functioning because of adaptive management is fundamental to (2015), may help in building more robust the ecological roles played by wildlife in achieving sustainable bushmeat hunting, approaches for monitoring the exploita- such environments (Abernethy et al., 2013; and this requires efficient monitoring tion of terrestrial species (e.g. the use Effiom et al., 2013; Wilkie et al., 2011). processes. An effective monitoring sys- of mean body mass indicator to assess Moreover, the modification of ecosystems tem requires indicators that represent and whether hunters are relying on increas- caused by unsustainable hunting jeopard- explain the condition of a monitored vari- ingly smaller species over time, and the izes the culture, health and well-being of able over time (Jones et al., 2011). Despite use of the “offtake pressure indicator” indigenous groups and poor rural families the CBD’s call for more “appropriate as a measure of harvesting pressure on living within them (Bennett et al., 2007; monitoring systems of bushmeat harvest groups of wild animals). Hunting sustain- Nasi et al., 2011). and trade” (CBD, 2012), however, only lim- ability can also be investigated directly by Given the importance of unsustainable ited progress has been made in developing monitoring hunters’ catch per unit effort hunting for conservation and livelihoods, comprehensive indicators for the sustain- (CPUE), which allows spatial and temporal the 11th Conference of the Parties to the ability of wild animal offtakes, especially comparisons (Puertas and Bodmer, 2004; Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), for terrestrial species. Monitoring should Sirén, Hamback and Machoa, 2004). held in 2012, called for the development enable the detection of unexpected change, The growing field of public participa- of appropriate plans for ensuring the raise awareness among citizens and policy- tion in scientific research includes citizen sustainable hunting and consumption of makers, and allow the timely development science, volunteer monitoring and other bushmeat. This is a laudable aim, but and evaluation of management interven- forms of organized research in which attaining it is possible only in situations tions (Wintle, Runge and Bekessy, 2010; members of the public engage in the pro- where local communities fully participate Jones et al., 2013). cess of scientific investigation by asking in hunting management governed by adap- Weinbaum et al. (2013) proposed the questions, collecting data and interpreting tive processes (Stuart-Hill et al., 2005). monitoring of harvested populations over results. In the long term, population moni- Recent experiences in adaptive manage- time as one of the gold standards of sus- toring will be most effective in ensuring ment in temperate hunting systems provide tainability monitoring. Understanding the sustainable hunting if it is an ongoing par- inspiration for the sustainable use of bush- impact of human hunting alongside the ticipatory process (possibly accompanied meat in tropical areas (Fiorini, Yearley influence of exogenous factors, however, by adaptive harvesting strategies), which and Dandy, 2011; Hunt, 2013; Carter et al., is also crucial for determining the fate of in turn empowers local people (Johnson, 2014; Brown et al., 2015). wildlife populations. Learning from the Kendall and Dubovsky, 2002; Singh and © FRANÇOIS SANDRIN

A hunter checks a trap in the Ticoya Indigenous Reserve, Colombia

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Members of the hunters’ association, Airumaküchi © NATHALIE VAN VLIET © NATHALIE

Gajadhar, 2014). Such monitoring pro- more efficient method can increase the municipality. Twenty-three indigenous grammes require long-term, intensive and involvement of hunters in decision-making. communities from the Ticuna, Cocama and repetitive monitoring of hunting effort Here we present data generated by 30 hunt- Yagua ethnic groups live within the TIR, and offtake by the individuals undertak- ers during a 5-month trial and discuss the mostly along the Amazon, Loretoyacu, ing the hunting. Crucially, they require perceived advantages and disadvantages Boyahuazu and Atacuari rivers. In our methods that can be replicated over time of the use of phone apps compared with study, we sought the participation of eight and that are efficient and transferable to traditional notebooks. communities living within or bordering different communities (Meijaard et al., the TIR. The main livelihood activities 2011). To date, most offtake monitoring STUDY LOCATION are shifting cultivation (31 percent); fishing has involved the simple use of notebooks, The study was carried out in and around (24 percent); timber extraction (7 percent); in which hunters record information on the Ticoya Indigenous Reserve (TIR) in hunting (4 percent); the collection of non- their hunting trips, such as the type and the municipality of Puerto Nariño, 87 km wood forest products (4 percent); livestock numbers of animals killed, in a standard- upstream of the Colombian Amazon’s (4 percent); and salaried jobs (18 percent) ized format. But many hunters may be largest city, Leticia, on the Amazon River (Trujillo, 2008, data from three commu- illiterate, filling out notebooks is time- (Figure 1). Three types of forest are found nities). Tourism has recently become an consuming, and errors may arise due to in the municipality: terra firme forest (not important livelihood activity, providing research fatigue. subject to flooding regimes); varzea for- jobs for guides, cooks, cleaning services In this article, we present the results of est (subject to periodic flooding by white in hostels, and handicrafts. Recent stud- a study on a new method for data collec- waters); and swamp forest (seasonally ies indicate the cultural importance of tion, digitization and analysis based on a flooded by black waters) (Moreno Arocha, bushmeat and its contribution to food mobile phone application. Applications, 2014). The climate of the area is warm security, especially in situations where commonly referred to as apps, are soft- and humid, with rainfall causing four dis- there is a tendency for nutritional transi- ware programmes designed to run on tinct periods: 1) high waters (February to tions (van Vliet et al., 2015). mobile devices such as smartphones and April); 2) decreasing waters (May to July); Hunters in the TIR have formed the tablets. We tested the method through a 3) low waters (August to October); and Airumaküchi hunters’ association, the hunters’ association, Airumaküchi, in 4) rising waters (November to January). main objective of which is to ensure Puerto Nariño, Amazonas, Colombia; The average annual temperature is 26 °C sustainable hunting and the trade of sur- we found that it is not only more efficient (although it can reach 38 °C), and the rela- plus meat as a way of guaranteeing local than traditional methods of note-taking, it tive humidity is around 87 percent (Rangel food security and maintaining cultural also provides hunters with an opportunity and Luengas, 1997). values. We provided technical support for to be data providers and to distinguish The TIR, which was legally created in the development of a hunting monitor- trends in their hunting activities. More March 1990, covers 1 471 km² and repre- ing system aimed at informing adaptive importantly, the data generated using this sents 92.4 percent of the Puerto Nariño management processes for sustainability.

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Community Hunting camp Salt lick Hydrografic network Hunting trail N Ticoya Indigenous Reserve W E Tarapoto wetlands Amacayacu National Park S Colombia

South America

Peru

Colombia

Ticoya Indigenous Reserve Data: WGS84 / GPS Amazon River CIFOR / FSI / Airumaküchi

Kilometres

1 THE MONITORING APPROACH mobile devices can be transmitted via The Ticoya Indigenous Reserve, Colombia Six hunters from Airumaküchi have been the Internet (e.g. by 3G or Wi-Fi), stored monitoring their wildlife offtakes using on the KoBoCollect server (encrypted, if traditional notebooks since 2013. Given that needed), and exported for analysis using monthly 2-gigabyte Internet plans and Puerto Nariño has access to the Internet software formats such as XLS, CSV, ZIP physical protection) – and a printed and via a 3G network and that most households and KML. KoBoCollect can be used to plasticized map of the territory of the TIR already have access to technologies such produce, for example, summary tables, divided into an indexed grid; the purpose as tablets, iPhones and computers, we simple frequencies, and summary statistics of the map was to provide the locations investigated the possibility of using the (i.e. mean and median). of hunting points in case the hunter could KoBoCollect software downloaded onto We developed a first version of the ques- not fill in the form in the forest or obtain mobile devices in a participatory monitor- tionnaire based on the results of a meeting the location using the smartphone’s global ing process as an alternative to notebooks. held with hunters, at which suggestions positioning system. The first version of KoboCollect is an Android/iOS app to were made on the type of data to be col- the form was reviewed several times over facilitate data collection involving the use lected to inform their decision-making. the two-month testing period (March of smartphones or digital tablets and ques- Each hunter was trained to use the ques- and April 2015) to take into account the tionnaires created online (or offline and tionnaire. Each also received a smartphone suggestions and contributions of hunters. then uploaded onto the devices) according – the Samsung Galaxy Mini #4 model This period was key to identifying the to user requirements. Data collected via GT-I9195 (equipped with SIM cards, difficulties that hunters might encounter

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in handling the smartphones and under- pictures of the animals to assist iden- (less rainfall) and November, December standing the questionnaire. Among others, tification; hunting tool used; place and January with increasing waters (more these difficulties were as follows: and type of habitat where the hunter rainfall). The data were uploaded weekly to • Most senior hunters had trouble killed the animal; sex and age of the the KoBoCollect server and exported from handling the phone’s tactile screen. animal; and, if female, whether the CSV to a central Excel file. This file con- • Of the ten phones delivered, one was animal was pregnant); and tained formulas that automatically analysed lost in a river and two others were • the use of the animal (i.e. whether information in graphs, and these were pre- damaged by water. consumed, gifted or sold). sented to the hunters every two months. • When the hunters returned home with Hunters could also include photos of We built a wooden structure (shown in the no animals hunted, no form was filled the animals caught and add comments. photo below) in which to provide a tangible out, resulting in the underestimation The following comments, among others, display of monitoring results to visitors to of effort. were entered into the database and used as the Airumaküchi office, and we generated a • Some hunters used the whole package sources of information for management: map of hunting effort and hunting offtakes. of 3G data in downloading games and A WhatsApp group was created among the other apps, meaning that no 3G data “Migration and lack of prey due to hunters and project staff to enable rapid were available for sending the forms. the noise generated by the cutting communication between them. To correct these difficulties, we adapted of trees for new shifting cultivation The data were analysed using descrip- the method in the second month of plots.” tive graphs for ease of understanding by monitoring by: hunters. The analysis included the follow- • selecting young hunters familiar with “During my hunting trip, apart ing simple indicators: number of hunting the manipulation of smartphones and from the two animals I shot, I also trips per month; biomass hunted per month; tactile screens and putting them in saw a red deer and an agouti, but number of animals hunted per species and charge of monitoring offtakes for because I did not have any car- per month; number of unsuccessful hunting illiterate or older hunters in their tridges left, I let them go.” trips; CPUE in kg per hour; the proportion communities; of small species (less than 20 kg) in the • providing impermeable blisters to We monitored the hunting offtakes of overall monthly offtake; the use of the meat protect phones from humidity and the 30 hunters (but only 11 per month) (percentage sold versus other uses); and water; over five months (May, June, November biomass per hunter per month. • insisting on the importance of col- and December 2015 and January 2016) lecting data with rigour because the using the developed questionnaire. May This display board is a local innovation by the Airumaküchi hunters’ association collected data would be important and June correspond with decreasing waters to visualize hunting offtakes per month in helping hunters decide on future for a list of predefined species actions; and • providing access to the Internet for one day (or 200MB) four times per month, at the end of each week, rather than continuously, to ensure that all hunters had sufficient 3G data to send their forms to the server. The final version of the questionnaire used multiple-choice questions and addressed the following: • hunter’s name and community; • general information on each hunting trip, even if no animal was hunted (i.e. date of departure; duration of trip; © FRANÇOIS SANDRIN places visited using the map of the territory; and other activities carried out); • offtake data (i.e. species, using a pre-defined species list that includes

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20 No. of animals 15

0 Pacas Bush Big Agoutis Caimans Armadillos Small Deers Monkeys Tapirs Others pigs birds birds

May 2015 June 2015 November 2015 December 2015 January 2016

2 RESULTS big birds and agoutis (Dasyprocta spp.) Numbers of animals caught, by species, The hunters provided information on (Figure 2). The average biomass caught May 2015–January 2016 175 hunting trips and 172 animals caught per month by hunters was in the range over the five-month monitoring period. of 32–63 kg (Figure 3). The percent- the month; the remainder was consumed The four most hunted species were paca age of biomass sold locally varied from by the families of the hunters or given as (Cuniculus paca), bush pig (Pecari tajacu), 31 percent to 48 percent, depending on gifts to friends or family members. The analysis shows seasonal variations in 70 4.5 hunting patterns. Although the number of hunting trips was higher in the drier season Average no. of hunting trips per hunter 4 60 (i.e. decreasing waters), the total biomass 3.5 hunted per month did not vary significantly 50 between seasons. Rain reduced the number 3 of hunting trips in the rainy season but did not reduce the percentage of success- 40 2.5 ful trips, which varied from 65 percent 30 2 to 85 percent, depending on the month (Figure 4). About 75 percent of animals 1.5 Biomass (kg)Biomass 20 caught were from small-sized species 1 (i.e. less than 20 kg), and this percentage 10 did not vary significantly between months 0.5 (Figure 5). The CPUE was higher in the 0 0 rainy season (particularly in November and May June November December January 2015 2015 2015 2015 2016 3 Kg of meat per hunter Average no. of hunting trips per hunter Average biomass taken and number of hunting trips, May 2015–January 2016

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4 50 Total number of successful and unsuccessful hunting trips, 30 hunters, 45 May 2015–January 2016 40

35 date, use WhatsApp, take photos and play games. Among the disadvantages cited 30 were that the smartphones could be dam- 25 aged or stolen and that it was less easy 20 to capture details about hunting trips because all questions were multiple-choice. No. of hunts 15 For the two project staff members, the 10 main perceived advantages were that the 5 motivation of access to new technologies helped attract hunters to participate in the 0 monitoring system and in understanding May June November December January 2015 2015 2015 2015 2016 its importance. The use of the app was also seen as positive because the data Unsuccessful hunt Successful hunt could be uploaded directly to the server, saving the time required to digitize data from notebooks and avoiding transcription December) (Figure 6). Figure 7 shows the Of the six hunters, four had never pre- errors. The use of WhatsApp as a means of distribution of the catch and the number of viously used a smartphone but found it communicating among hunters and project pacas caught as an example of the output very easy to learn. Only one of the hunters staff was seen as very positive, helping that the monitoring method generated to (the eldest) preferred to use a notebook create a sense of team within the group inform hunting management. The map, as after trying the phone app. The other five and enabling the sharing of experiences, well as the various indicators used in the hunters preferred the phone app because photos and important information about monitoring process (i.e. CPUE, percent- it was easy to use and information could the monitoring protocol. age of small-sized species, percentage of be entered more quickly; they also appre- unsuccessful trips, and biomass per hunter), ciated learning about new technologies are useful for monitoring sustainability if and using their smartphones for other 5 Percentage of large (>20 kg) and used and compared over the long term. purposes, such as to check the time and small (<20 kg) species in total catch, May 2015–January 2016 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES 100 OF THE METHOD To assess the advantages and disadvantages 90 of the use of the app in monitoring offtakes 80 compared with notebooks, we developed 70 a semi-structured questionnaire and asked 6 of the 30 hunters participating in the 60 monitoring process (because those six had 50 previously worked with paper notebooks) 40 and two staff members in charge of coordi- Percent nating the project’s monitoring component 30 to complete the questionnaire. The ques- 20 tions included a comparison between paper notebooks and phone apps in terms of the 10 clarity of the questionnaire; the time spent 0 filling out the form; the added benefits of May June November December January 2015 2015 2015 2015 2016 being able to use a smartphone; and the disadvantages and advantages of using Large species Small species phone apps compared with notebooks.

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CONCLUSION 3 Our study tested the use of a smartphone app for the participatory monitoring of 2.5 hunting in the context of sustainable hunting initiatives. The results show that the 2 app can generate information on hunting on a monthly basis that, in the long run, 1.5 can be used to inform decision-making. Hunters perceive smartphones to be easier

Kg/hr 1 to use and less time-consuming than paper notebooks, reducing the risk of research 0.5 6 Average catch per 0 unit effort, May 2015– May June November December January January 2016 2015 2015 2015 2015 2016 7 Offtakes of Cuniculus paca, CPUE (kg/hr) Ticoya Indigenous Reserve, May 2015– January 2016, obtained through the KoBoCollect app

N LEGEND Offtakes of Community Cuniculus paca W E May, June, November, Salt lick December 2015 and January 2016 S Hunting camp Hydrografic network

Ticoya Indigenous Reserve Amacayacu National Park Tarapoto wetlands

Colombia

Ticoya Indigenous Reserve, municipality of Puerto Nariño, Amazonas, Colombia

Offtakes of Cuniculus paca in Ticoya Indigenous Reserve Data: WGS84 / KoBoCollect May, June, November, December 2015–January 2016 CIFOR / FSI / AIRUMAKÜCHI Amazon River Kilometres

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fatigue; moreover, there may be more moti- Brown, C.L., Seaton, K.A., Brinkman, T.J., vation to engage in monitoring over time Euskirchen, E.S. & Kielland, K. 2015. because the results are readily available to Applications of resilience theory in users. This is not to say that smartphone management of a moose-hunter system in apps are necessarily the solution in all References Alaska. Ecology and Society, 20(1): 16 (DOI contexts. Our pilot was successful partly dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-07202-200116). because the area in which the project Abernethy, K.A., Coad, L., Taylor, G., Carter N.H., Viña, A., Hull, V., was conducted already had access to the Lee, M.E. & Maisels, F. 2013. Extent McConnell, W.J., Axinn, W., Ghimire, D. Internet and phone technology was present and ecological consequences of hunting in & Liu, J. 2014. Coupled human and natural in the community. The project, therefore, central African rainforests in the twenty- systems approach to wildlife research and did not bring new technology with it; first century.Philosophical Transactions of conservation. Ecology and Society, 19(3): 43. rather, it used an existing technology as a the Royal Society of London B: Biological CBD. 2012. COP 11 Decision XI/25. Website. way of encouraging sustainable hunting; in Sciences, 368(1625): 20120303 (DOI Convention on Biological Diversity other contexts, smartphone apps may not 10.1098/rstb.2012.0303). (CBD) (available at www.cbd.int/decision/ be so readily adopted. Despite a continuous Bakarr, M.I., Ampadu-Agyei, O., Adomako, E. cop/?id=13186). Accessed 4 January 2017. decline in the prices of smartphones and & Ham, R. 2002. Bushmeat utilization, Corlett, R.T. 2007. The impact of hunting Internet access, initial costs reduce the human livelihoods and conservation of large on the mammalian fauna of tropical Asian potential for many communities to use the mammals in West Africa. In S. Mainka & forests. Biotropica, 39(3): 292–303. methodology in the absence of external M. Trivedi, eds. Links between biodiversity Effiom, E.O., Nuñez-Iturri, G., Smith, H.G., financial help. conservation, livelihoods and food security: Ottosson, U. & Olsson, O. 2013. Bushmeat Even though our study was prelimi- the sustainable use of wild meat, pp. 45–54. hunting changes regeneration of African nary and covered only seven months Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK, rainforests. Proceedings of the Royal (a two-month trial and five months of International Union for Conservation of Society of London B: Biological Sciences, implementation), it has shown the poten- Nature (IUCN). 280(1759): 20130246 (DOI 10.1098/rspb. tial of using key indicators and modern Brashares, J.S., Golden, C.D., 2013.0246). technologies in participatory monitoring Weinbaum, K.Z., Barrett, C.B. & Fa, J.E., Peres, C.A. & Meeuwig, J. 2002. as a way of improving hunting manage- Okello, G.V. 2011. Economic and geo- Bushmeat exploitation in tropical forests: an ment practices. u graphic drivers of wildlife consumption in intercontinental comparison. Conservation  rural Africa. Proceedings of the National Biology, 16(1): 232–237 (DOI 10.1046/j.1523-  Academy of Sciences, 108(34): 13931–13936. 1739.2002.00275.x).

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M. Silalahi, A.B. Utomo, T.A. Walsh, A. Ayat, Andriansyah and S. Bashir

A new form of licence for roduction forests cover more than numerous species categorized as Critically Indonesia’s logged-over state 50 percent (69.2 million hectares) Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable forests is bringing economic, of Indonesia’s 127 million hectares (IUCN, 2015). The area of lowland for- social and ecological benefits Pof state forest (Drasospolino, 2015). This ests in production forest areas has been through restoration – but it needs is more than double the total land area declining for many decades, however: sustainable sources of funding. of Indonesia’s terrestrial protected areas the islands of Kalimantan, Sulawesi and (PAs), which cover 27.9 million hectares Sumatra lost 60 percent of their remaining (15 percent of the country’s land area; lowland forests between 1985 and 1997 IUCN and UNEP-WCMC, 2016). Given due to illegal logging and conversion to their large area and the natural forest other uses, such as industrial plantations Mangara Silalahi, Agus Budi Utomo, types they contain, production forests for the production of paper, pulp or palm Thomas A. Walsh, Asep Ayat and are crucial for meeting the country’s oil (Harvard Kennedy School, 2011). Andriansyah are at Burung Indonesia (BirdLife International’s national partner in biodiversity and climate-change objec- Indonesia) in Bogor, Indonesia. tives. Sumatra’s lowland tropical forests, Sultana Bashir is an independent consultant for example, are among the world’s most Above: The landscape of on biodiversity conservation and sustainability Hutan Harapan, an ecosystem based in the United Kingdom of Great Britain biodiverse but threatened ecosystems restoration concession and Northern Ireland. (Conservation International, 2016), with in Sumatra, Indonesia

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Logged-out natural forests are un- The usual conservation strategy for Licence for Natural Forest in Production attractive for commercial logging, with reversing the trend of converting degraded Forest (IUPHHK-RE), also known as eco- the result that nearly 37 million hectares forests to other land uses would be to lobby system restoration concessions (ERCs). of Indonesia’s production forests now lack for a traditional PA, such as a national park. As Davie and Ridwansyah (2016) noted: permits (Drasospolino, 2015); without In 2002, however, Burung Indonesia (an recognized concession-holders or active Indonesian non-governmental organiza- the purpose of the ERC was to demon- on-the-ground management, they are at tion – NGO), together with other national strate how a management presence high risk of illegal exploitation and con- civil-society organizations and with the through a production forest concession version to monocultural plantations and support of the BirdLife International could offer an alternative to continuing non-forest uses. Even in their degraded Partnership, began to advocate for a new forest degradation and conversion to state, however, many production forests approach to forest governance and man- forest plantations. It would assert the retain significant biodiversity, providing agement – one that would allow degraded importance of a permanent natural habitat for endangered species as well as production forests to be restored and forest production use in the landscape crucial ecosystem services such as car- managed sustainably to meet a range of and benefit other forest functions, bon sequestration and the supply of water objectives, from biodiversity conservation especially biodiversity and ecosystem for use by rural and urban populations and climate-change mitigation to sustain- services (p. 10). (Meijaard et al., 2005). able forest-based enterprises. Their efforts led, in 2004, to a landmark policy by the This article describes efforts to put ERCs

Wreathed hornbills Government of Indonesia, creating a new into effect as a way of retaining and restor- (Rhyticeros undulatus) in the type of forest concession: the Ecosystem ing biodiverse forests while generating Hutan Harapan Ecosystem Restoration Timber Forest Utilization local economic and social benefits. Restoration Concession, Sumatra © BURUNG INDONESIA/ASEP AYAT INDONESIA/ASEP © BURUNG

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ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION CONCESSIONS AND BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION The ERC policy of 2004 was a watershed in Indonesian forestry policy because, for the first time, production forests could be managed primarily for restoration and sustainable non-wood uses rather than for timber alone. The regulation establishes a de facto moratorium on the conversion of logged forests to monocultural plantations and other non-forest uses. Although ERCs are not classed as PAs under national law, the principles of ecosystem conservation and restoration – biodiversity, endemism, landscape connectivity, productivity and sustainability – apply. Licences are issued for a 60-year period, renewable for a further 35 years, offering a real opportunity to achieve significant results in terms of © HUTAN HARAPAN ecosystem restoration, biodiversity conservation, climate-change mitigation and economic development. ERCs also allow for new systems of forest governance. Under the law, only A Sumatran tiger in the Hutan Indonesian business entities may apply BirdLife International’s global network Harapan Ecosystem Restoration Concession, Sumatra for and hold ERC licences, but NGOs of Endemic Bird Areas and Important have been actively engaged from the start, Bird and Biodiversity Areas. It is rich in with several establishing companies in globally significant biodiversity, provid- PA system. Based on the PA criteria of order to apply for ERC licences. Indeed, ing habitat for over 1 350 species, 133 of the International Union for Conservation the first two ERC licences were awarded which are globally threatened, including of Nature (IUCN), ERCs would qualify to a commercial company, PT Restorasi critically endangered species such as the as Category VI: “protected area with Ekosistem Indonesia (PT REKI), estab- Sumatran tiger and the Sumatran elephant sustainable use of natural resources”. In lished by three NGOs: Burung Indonesia, subspecies (Box 1). The area is effectively addition to conserving biodiversity and the Royal Society for the Protection a forest “island”, however, surrounded by natural ecosystems in situ, ERCs act as of Birds, and BirdLife International. industrial plantations; without the efforts buffers and corridors to existing PAs in an PT REKI was awarded its first ERC in of the BirdLife International Partnership to increasingly fragmented landscape. Thus, 2008 and a second one adjoining the establish the two ERCs, it would undoubt- ERCs can contribute to the achievement of first in 2010. Together, these two ERCs edly have been converted to oil-palm and the Convention on Biological Diversity’s (known as Hutan Harapan, or “Rainforest acacia plantations. Aichi Targets.1 of Hope”) cover 98 555 hectares in Jambi Other conservation organizations have and South Sumatra provinces on the island obtained ERCs, and well-established 1 Including the following Aichi Targets: 5) Reduc- of Sumatra (Figure 1). Although previ- companies from the palm-oil and paper ing rate of natural habitat loss (forests, etc.); 9) Control and eradication of invasive alien ously logged intensively on a commercial and pulp industries, and others, have species; 11) Increasing % terrestrial habitats basis, Hutan Harapan contains more than also successfully obtained ERC licences; protected through area-based conservation 20 percent of Sumatra’s remaining low- many are collaborating with conservation measures integrated into the wider landscape; 12) Reducing rate of loss/improving status of land forests and a high proportion of the organizations to advance restoration and threatened species; 14) Restoring and safeguard- island’s biodiversity. The area falls within conservation efforts. ing essential ecosystem services benefiting the Conservation International’s Sundaland As of mid-2016, 14 ERC licences had poor and vulnerable; and 15) Enhancing ecosystem resilience and contributing to climate Biodiversity Hotspot (one of 34 global been issued covering nearly 553 000 hect- change mitigation and adaptation by conserving biodiversity hotspots) and is part of ares, complementing Indonesia’s terrestrial and restoring forests.

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A challenge to meeting biodiversity establishing new kinds of partnerships Given the current degraded state of many and conservation objectives in ERCs is between the private sector, local communi- logged-over production forests, it is clear the large number of competing claims on ties, local and national governments, and that most ecosystem restoration efforts will forestlands in Indonesia, which can pose conservation organizations and other non- take place in forests with medium-to-heavy serious risks to the long-term survival of profits, including research institutions and degradation. The prompt action needed individual ERCs. Many parts of Indonesia international aid agencies. The success of to stop further degradation and restore are witnessing a “land race” as various ERCs is likely to depend at least partly on forests is costly, but revenue-generating groups and stakeholders claim the same such effective partnerships because a vast options in such forests are likely to be pieces of land. Logged-out timber conces- range of skills and knowledge is needed limited. To date, most ERCs have relied sions that have been set aside for allocation to achieve ERC objectives, many of which on project-based donor funding to cover as ERCs are no longer encumbered with also constitute legal obligations for the their costs. Hutan Harapan, for example, licences, making them vulnerable to illegal ERC-holder. had an annual expenditure of US$2.5 mil- logging, poaching for the illegal wildlife ERC-holders have identified potentially lion in its first five years of operation; this trade, and forest clearing by local commu- marketable forest products and services was covered by project-based funding, but nities and migrants for oil-palm plantations with which to finance the operational the company cannot rely on donor funding and other agricultural development. and management costs of ERCs, includ- for the next 95 years. With few ready-to- ing markets for carbon and non-wood extract resources, and no fiscal incentives Landscape approach forest products and payment schemes for or assistance to cover the start-up costs of The pressures of encroachment and ecosystem services such as ecotourism, developing sustainable financing mecha- especially the expansion of oil-palm plan- nature awareness, renewable energy and nisms, it is difficult for ERCs to compete tations, and the need to resolve conflicts water supply. Another possible marketable with other more remunerative land uses, over land tenure and land use (including forest product is sustainable timber, but such as palm-oil production, in the short the recurrent problem of land-clearing fires timber harvesting is only possible once and medium terms. Creating sustainable and regional haze), highlight the need for an ERC reaches “ecosystem equilibrium”, and diversified income streams and other ERCs to develop integrated landscape a state not clearly defined in the law and benefits, therefore, is key to the long-term approaches to management. Landscape which would likely also take consider- sustainability of ERCs. approaches recognize the multifunction- able time and investment to achieve.2 ality of landscapes and aim to optimize Thus, developing financially viable busi- ACHIEVEMENTS AND LESSONS relationships among the various land-cover nesses that will cover the costs of ERC FROM HUTAN HARAPAN types, institutions and human activities operations remains a major challenge With more than 550 000 hectares now at the landscape scale (Kusters, 2015). for ERC-holders, particularly companies covered by ERCs, and a further 1.6 mil- Hutan Harapan is developing a strategy established by conservation organizations, lion hectares allocated for ERCs by the to integrate the two ERCs into the wider which generally do not have pre-existing Ministry of Environment and Forestry productive socio-ecological landscape. commercial operations or market-based (MoEF), the lessons learned in Hutan sources of revenue. Harapan are contributing to national THE FINANCIAL CHALLENGE forestry policy development (Burung Ecosystem restoration is a long-term Indonesia, 2016). Hutan Harapan’s experi- 2 Biological and ecosystem equilibrium is not process requiring sustained investment, defined in government regulations, but in the ence has been instrumental in promoting and ERC-holders are expected to gener- future it may be defined at the level of ministerial an improved regulatory framework for ate the required finance through business regulations. Article 14, Chapter 1, of Govern- ERCs while simultaneously enabling ment Regulation 6/2007 refers to it but does not development in line with the ecological provide a concise definition, as follows: “An Hutan Harapan to develop and implement objectives of their ERCs. With approxi- ecosystem restoration permit (IUPHHK Resto- strategies for forest management, business mately 20 million people living in or near rasi Ekosistem) in natural forests is a permit to development and community engagement. develop the area in a natural forest ecosystem forests in Indonesia (Palmer and Engel, production forest so as to maintain the functions When ERCs were introduced they 2007), including indigenous communi- and representativeness through maintenance were categorized by the then Ministry ties, ERCs are also expected to generate activities, protection and restoration of forest of Forestry as production forest (timber) ecosystems, including planting, enrichment, benefits for local communities and will thinning, wildlife breeding, release of flora and concessions. The management and admin- need to do so if they are to receive local fauna to return the element biodiversity (flora istrative requirements, therefore, were support. and fauna) as well as non-biological elements inappropriate for ERCs, meaning consid- (soil, climate and topography) in an area to the Business development presents oppor- original type, in order to reach biological and erable unnecessary effort and high costs. tunities for resolving conflicts and ecosystem equilibrium.” Based on the experience of Hutan Harapan,

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Reinwardt’s flying frog (Rhacophorus reinwardtii) in the Hutan Harapan Ecosystem Restoration Concession, Sumatra © BURUNG INDONESIA/ASEP AYAT the MoEF has revised the Guidelines on be in keeping with concession objectives. those applied to timber concessions that Performance Assessment of Sustainable ERCs can use other restoration approaches, are producing an income. Forest Production Management (PHPL), such as assisted natural regeneration, that which originally were designed to mea- are more cost-effective than planting. LOOKING TO THE FUTURE sure performance in timber concessions ERCs can also plant tree species that are Indonesia’s commitment to preventing and focused on technical matters dealing not commercially valuable but which may further deforestation and degradation with standing timber stock inventory. The be important for maintaining the habitat under the United Nations Framework revised PHPL incorporates information on of particular wild species. And, in January Convention on Climate Change has put the vegetation, key wildlife species, the abiotic 2016, the Ministry of Finance issued country at the centre of national and inter- environment, and socio-economic condi- revised guidelines for land and property national debates on forests, biodiversity tions, thereby moving away from forest taxes in the forest sector,3 in which ERCs conservation, land rights and sustainable inventory, which was heavily focused on are categorized as unproductive areas development. These became particularly assessing the timber stock as if it were a and differentiated from productive log- acute in late 2015, when land-clearing fires production forest concession. The PHPL ging or timber concessions; thus, the tax in Kalimantan and Sumatra resulted in a previously stated that ERCs needed to rate applied to ERCs will be lower than major episode of transboundary regional plant commercial timber species in the haze, affecting several other Southeast forest. Now, the ERC-holder no longer has 3 Directorate General of Taxation Regulation Asian nations for many weeks (Islam, Pei to plant such species if to do so would not No. PER-42/PJ/2015. and Mangharam, 2016).

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ERCs offer a strategic way of halting and with ERC-holders to resolve land-related will require considerable investments of reversing deforestation and degradation conflicts. The Directorate is using Hutan time and effort in dialogue and negotiations in production forests. Despite imple- Harapan as one of a few national pilots for to find mutually acceptable solutions to mentation challenges, interest in ERCs building experiences and shaping national complex and deeply entrenched problems remains high, with over 50 applications regulations related to conflict resolution. (Silalahi and Erwin, 2014). to date. Recognizing the importance and Since September 2015, the Directorate has In keeping with the MoEF’s policy of potential for replication and scaling up, taken the lead in negotiating with indig- decentralizing management through the the Government of Indonesia is seeking enous communities and migrants living in establishment of provincial-level forest to accelerate the pace of policy change to and around Hutan Harapan, together with management units (FMUs), Hutan Harapan strengthen the enabling environment for relevant national, provincial and local is working with the Meranti FMU in South ERCs. The MoEF established an ERC pol- stakeholders and human-rights NGOs; to Sumatra Province to address conflict icy working group in April 2015, bringing date, four livelihood agreements have been resolution, concession boundary issues, together ERC-holders, NGOs and academ- signed with the Batin Sembilan indigenous fire prevention and illegal logging and ics to define policies in several key areas, people and two land-use agreements have to design a wildlife corridor between such as the fiscal framework and the rules been made with migrant communities. Hutan Harapan and the Dangku Wildlife governing concession management. The Disentangling the various land claims in Sanctuary. The FMU has taken a lead ongoing reform of ERC-related policies the concession area is complex because role in resolving boundary disputes with and regulations has positive implications many interests and groups are involved – communities living on the Hutan Harapan for both ERC management and financial indigenous peoples, migrant peoples from concession boundary in South Sumatra. viability and reflects a major shift in the other parts of Sumatra and from Java, land As this FMU and the newly established MoEF’s approach to ERCs. speculators, local elites, and agrarian-reform FMU in Sarolangun and Batanghari in The Directorate of Conflict Resolution, activists – each with its own agenda, creat- Jambi Province develop greater capacity, Tenure and Customary Forests (Hutan Adat) ing conflicts with each other as well as with they will be key partners in addressing has also been created, and it is working Hutan Harapan. Resolving such conflicts the various pressures on Hutan Harapan.

Hutan Harapan Legend landscape Village River Sultan Thaha PT Reki Syaifuddin Hutan Harapan landscape Game Reserve Timber plantation Oil-palm plantation Conservation area Durian Luncuk I Forest Bukit Dua Belas Nature Reserve National Park Durian Luncuk II Nature Reserve

HUTAN HARAPAN

Bentayan Wildlife Sanctuary

Dangku Wildlife Sanctuary 1 Hutan Harapan and the surrounding landscape, with inset showing the location of Hutan Harapan in Sumatra

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to overcome these. Addressing land-use Box 1 pressures, strengthening good forest gov- Species richness in Hutan Harapan ernance, and government measures to support the development of viable business Although Hutan Harapan represents less than 1 percent of Sumatra’s total geographic area models for ERCs are key to the long-term of 47.3 million hectares, it contains a disproportionately high number of Sumatran species success of the ERC policy. u (Table 1) and lowland forest species, including 72 percent of the 425 bird species recorded in lowland Sumatra. To date, 64 mammal species have been recorded in Hutan Harapan, including five primate and seven cat species. The latter includes a sizeable population of the Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae), a subspecies with a total population of just a few hundred on the island and which is categorized as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. Other Endangered mammal species recorded in Hutan Harapan are the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), Asiatic wild dog (Cuon alpinus), Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica), mitred leaf monkey (Presbytis melalophos), agile gibbon (Hylobates agilis), siamang (Symphalangus syndactylus) and Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus), and there are ten Vulnerable and five Near References Threatened mammal species (Ayat, 2013). The concession also features at least 56 species of reptiles and 38 amphibians. Ayat, A. 2013. Harapan forest: saving bio- Plant diversity is high: 446 tree species have been identified to date, with meranti Shorea( spp.), diversity richness in Sumatra’s remaining medang (Litsea spp.) and balam (Palaquiums spp.) dominating. Twelve globally threatened lowland forest. Fact sheet. Bogor, Indonesia, plant species have been identified, including four that are Critically Endangered: three Burung Indonesia. dipterocarps (Hopea mengerawan, Hopea sangal and Shorea acuminatai) and the smaller Burung Indonesia. 2016. Restoring environ- Syzygium ampliflorum. It is expected that more species will be identified as surveys continue, mental services and protecting biodiversity particularly among plants and the smaller animal taxa. in the Hutan Harapan Ecosystem Resto- ration Concession, Sumatra. Phase 3: TABLE 1. Comparison of species richness in Hutan Harapan and Sumatra achieving sustainability through diversifying Taxa Total no. of Total no. of Percentage income, building partnerships, and restor- species species of Sumatra’s ing ecological functions. Bogor, Indonesia, (Sumatra) (Hutan Harapan) species found in Burung Indonesia. Hutan Harapan Conservation International. 2016. Critical Birds 626 305 48.7 Ecosystem Partnership Fund: Sundaland. Mammals 194 64 33.0 Website (available at www.cepf.net/where_ Reptiles 217 56 25.8 we_work/regions/asia_pacific/sundaland/ Fish 589 123 20.9 Pages/default.aspx). Accessed 8 March 2016. Davie, J. & Ridwansyah, Md. 2016. The Plant species 820 446 54.4 Hutan Harapan Lesson Learnt Review: Sources: Ministry of Forestry and Ministry of Marine and Fisheries, 2010; Ayat, 2013. final report. DANIDA, Jakarta, Ministry of Foreign Affairs Denmark. Drasospolino. 2015. Peran Restorasi CONCLUSION scales, such as: strengthening biodiversity Ekosistem dalam Mendukung Strategi Indonesia’s ERC policy is a bold step conservation efforts, including the sustain- Nasional Perubahan Iklim. Jakarta, Ministry forward in reversing forest loss and deg- ability of the existing national PA system; of Environment and Forestry. radation in production forest areas while developing new approaches to forest Harvard Kennedy School. 2011. From also supporting the restoration of forest management and business development; Reformasi to institutional transformation: functions and services. From modest resolving land-use conflicts and supporting a strategic assessment of Indonesia’s pros- beginnings in 2004, ecosystem restora- sustainable livelihoods; reducing carbon pects for growth, equity and democratic tion is being mainstreamed into major emissions on a large scale; and increas- governance. President and Fellows of government policies and institutions. The ing capacity to adapt to climate change. Harvard College Harvard Kennedy School ERC policy, and the large area of degraded Challenges remain in realizing the full Indonesia Program (available at http:// production forests in Indonesia, opens up potential of ERCs, and the MoEF continues unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/ many possibilities for generating eco- to work closely with civil-society actors, documents/UN-DPADM/UNPAN042322. nomic and ecological benefits at different the private sector and local governments pdf).

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Islam, Md. S., Pei, Y.H. & Mangharam, Kusters, K. 2015. Climate-smart landscapes Palmer, C. &. Engel, S. 2007. For better or for S. 2016. Trans-boundary haze pollution in and the landscape approach: an explora- worse? Local impact from decentralization Southeast Asia: sustainability through plural tion of the concepts and their practical of Indonesia’s forest sector. World Develop- environmental governance. Sustainability, implications. Wageningen, the Netherlands. ment, 35(12): 2131–2149. 8(5): 499 (DOI 10.3390/su8050499). Tropenbos International. Silalahi, M. & Erwin, D. 2015. Collaborative IUCN. 2015. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Meijaard, E., Sheil, D., Nasi, R., Augeri, D., conflict management on Ecosystem Res- Species. Website (available at http://www. Rosenbaum, B., Iskandar, D., Setyawati, T., toration Concession: lessons learnt from iucnredlist.org). Accessed 9 March 2016. Lammertink, A., Rachmatika, I., Wong, A., Harapan rainforest Jambi-South Sumatra- International Union for Conservation of Soehartono, T., Stanley, S. & O’Brien, T. Indonesia. Forest Research, 4: 134 (DOI Nature (IUCN). 2005. Life after logging: reconciling wildlife 10.4172/21689776.1000134). u IUCN & UNEP-WCMC. 2016. World Data- conservation and production forestry in base on Protected Areas (dataset). Accessed Indonesian Borneo. Bogor, Indonesia, Center 9 March 2016. URL: http://www.protected for International Forestry Research (CIFOR). planet.net/country/ID. International Union Ministry of Forestry & Ministry of Marine for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) & United and Fisheries. 2010. Gap analysis of eco- Nations Environment Programme–World logical representative on conservation area Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP- in Indonesia. Jakarta, Ministry of Forestry WCMC). and Ministry of Marine and Fisheries.

M. Rautiainen, J. Miettinen, A. Putaala, M. Rantala and M. Alhainen

Relatively simple adjustments to orest grouse species (Tetraoniae), a The Finnish populations of capercaillie management regimes are enabling subfamily of Galliformes, inhabit (Tetrao urogallus), black grouse (Lyrurus commercial forestry and grouse forests and tundra ecosystems. tetrix) and willow grouse (Lagopus lagopus) conservation to co-exist. FMany populations are declining, and spe- declined markedly nationwide or locally cies are threatened with extinction at the from the 1970s to the 2000s, although the local, national and regional scales. This stock of hazel grouse (Bonasa bonasia) was is particularly true along the southern relatively stable (Ministry of Agriculture edges of their distributions and of grouse- and Forestry, 2014). The declines in the inhabiting regions densely populated by three grouse species were attributed mainly humans – western and central Europe, to unfavourable changes in forest structure eastern and central North America, and caused by intensive forestry. In 2000, cap- parts of eastern Asia (Storch, 2007a). ercaillie, black grouse and willow grouse Human land use, particularly forestry, were categorized according to the criteria greatly influences the structure and of the International Union for Conservation Mikko Rautiainen and Ahti Putaala are at dynamics of forest grouse habitats, and it of Nature (IUCN) as Near Threatened at Metsähallitus, Oulu, Finland. is seen as the main cause of the declining Janne Miettinen, Mirja Rantala and Mikko Alhainen are at the Finnish Wildlife trend observed in many grouse species Above: A male willow grouse displays Agency, Helsinki, Finland. (Rolstad and Wegge, 1989; Storch, 2007b). just beyond a restored pine mire

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the national level (Rassi et al., 2001), and hectares of forest, which is 86 percent of that time were largely overrun by the need for a national multispecies action of the land area, and the GMP therefore production-related forestry intensification. plan was perceived. Finland’s Ministry emphasizes grouse habitat conservation Grouse-friendly forest management was of Agriculture and Forestry launched and improvement in forests. The plan aims reintroduced in the 2000s in experimental a project to prepare a national grouse to improve the quality of commercially areas, and larger-scale implementation was management plan, in cooperation with managed forests as habitats for grouse, carried out in state-owned forests. Now, representatives from research institutes, maintain shrub and field-layer vegetation private landowners are also increasingly the national game administration, the (e.g. bilberry – Vaccinium myrtillus), and interested in grouse-friendly ways of man- state forestry service, forest industries, conserve or actively restore key habitats aging their forests. and organizations of private landowners, such as spruce mires1 and the ecotones hunters and conservationists. The Grouse between forests and mires (Ministry of ONGOING POSITIVE PROGRESS Management Plan (GMP) was published Agriculture and Forestry, 2014). Grouse are still highly valued among hunt- in 2014 by the Ministry of Agriculture and There are various ways to integrate ers as quarry species. The annual breeding Forestry and is now under implementation habitat management and human land-use populations in 2006–2012 in Finland were through education, legislation and projects. practices. The grouse-friendly methods estimated at around 290 000–330 000 pairs Capercaillie, black grouse and hazel described in the GMP were introduced in for capercaillie; 600 000–710 000 pairs grouse are included in Annex I of the the 1980s, but the well-meaning initiatives for black grouse; 470 000–520 000 pairs European Union’s Birds Directive for hazel grouse; and 67 000–150 000 for (Directive 2009/147/EC), which means 1 A mire is a stretch of boggy or marshy ground. willow grouse (European Environmental that member states must take special con- A spruce mire is a type of forested mire, usually close to flowing water, in which common species servation measures to protect the habitats are Norway spruce (Picea abies), birch (Betula of those species. Finland has 26 million pubescens) and bilberry. A grouse hunter prepares a bird for cooking in Finland © TUOMO PIRTTIMAA

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Agency, 2017). All populations are subject to high levels of natural fluctuation between Box 1 years. In the ten years to 2014, the average Restoring grouse habitats annual harvest was 40 000 capercaillies, 160 000 black grouse and 80 000 hazel Among the most visible impacts of production forestry in Finland is the large-scale drainage grouse (Ministry of Agriculture and of peatlands – more than half the original 9 million hectares of peatland has been drained Forestry, 2014). for forestry purposes. According to some estimates, however, 1 million hectares of these In the most recent (2015) update of interventions have been unsuccessful, with only minor increases or no impact on timber Finnish bird species in the IUCN National growth. The restoration of drainage areas is an important activity for re-establishing good- Red List, the statuses of capercaillie and quality habitats for forest grouse species. black grouse were upgraded to Least As a result of a project in 2007–2008, Metsähallitus has developed a routine, cost-effective Concern, and both species were removed methodology for restoring willow grouse habitats in state-owned commercial forests. Forest from the Red List. The status of willow planners recognize suitable sites for restoration, prepare site-specific work plans, and record grouse weakened from Near Threatened all this in the forestry geographic information system (GIS) planning database. Restora- to Vulnerable due to a negative trend in tion involves blocking an area’s drainage network and removing the trees. The majority of the southern ranges of its distribution in restoration projects are funded using income from the sale of grouse hunting permits. As Finland (Tiainen et al., 2016). The major of the end of 2015, 3 950 hectares of potential grouse habitats had been restored, with each reason for population declines of southern area 2–100 hectares in size. willow grouse is thought to lie in global Monitoring of the restored sites has shown an increase in the number of male willow grouse. warming, which has shortened the period There are also benefits for other biodiversity, as well as for water quality and hydrological of snow cover and which, in turn, has made conditions. willow grouse more vulnerable to preda- tion because its plumage changes colour to white in winter. In addition, the drainage Grouse hunting in state-owned forests forests, and a chapter in the guidelines is of peatlands has significantly reduced the has a long history. Today, more than devoted to it. area of open mires and thereby increased 70 000 recreational hunters visit state- the isolation of local willow grouse popu- owned areas to hunt grouse. These people FRAMEWORK FOR ACTIVITIES lations (Box 1 describes steps to restore form an important stakeholder group in IN PRIVATELY OWNED FORESTS such areas). grouse management, and they are a key Approximately 60 percent of Finland’s reason for the development of grouse- total forest area is privately owned. The GROUSE HABITAT MANAGEMENT friendly forest management in state-owned Finnish Wildlife Agency’s hunter survey IN STATE-OWNED FORESTS forests. found that hunters and their families own The State of Finland owns approximately Because all state-owned forests are man- about half these forests. The vast majority 3.6 million hectares of commercial forests, aged by a single organization, it is possible of privately owned forest is used for com- 2.1 million hectares of protected areas, to manage grouse habitats using unified mercial wood production, but more than and 2.1 million hectares of wilderness methodologies on a large scale, and this half (58 percent) of all Finnish landowners reserves and other areas of special impor- has had positive impacts on grouse popu- can be characterized as managing their tance. According to the law, state-owned lations at the regional and even national forests for multiple objectives or as rec- areas should be treated in a way that levels. State-owned multiple-use forests are reationists (Kumela and Hänninen, 2011). gives the most benefit to Finnish society. managed according to the Environmental These people own 65 percent of private Responsibility for reaching this goal is guidelines for practical forest manage- forests, and many see the maintenance of given to Metsähallitus, an organization ment (Päivinen et al., 2011), a handbook abundant grouse populations as an impor- that administers all state-owned areas in for all forestry professionals (730 persons) tant goal, along with obtaining economic Finland; among its many tasks are the and contractors (1 200 persons) working benefits through timber sales. management of commercial forests and for Metsähallitus (Metsähallitus, 2016). Finnish forest legislation has changed protected areas and the provision of hunt- Biodiversity conservation through the eco- recently towards more grouse-friendly for- ing opportunities for citizens. Biodiversity system approach forms a core element of est management. The latest (2014) Forest conservation, recreational use, reindeer the guidelines, based on recent scientific Act allows uneven-aged management husbandry and the culture of the Sámi studies. The provision of game – especially (selective cuts), set-aside wildlife thickets, people are all taken into consideration, in grouse species – is considered an impor- and other structural diversity at different addition to timber production. tant ecosystem service of state-owned stages of stand rotations. After decades

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of very strict legal standards, landowners are now allowed to decide on their forest Box 2 management methods according to their Management of capercaillie lek sites personal objectives. The heart of the grouse-friendly working Capercaillie lek is a local group-play of males gathered for competitive displays that enable model in privately owned forests com- females to choose their mates. The lek area, which usually covers a couple of hundred hec- prises a voluntary participatory approach tares of forest, consists of the day territories of the males and the lek site itself; on average, and the active restoration of habitats. The the latter covers roughly 20 hectares. In state-owned areas, foresters regularly monitor lek goal is to create a new culture in forestry in sites, and more than 2 500 lek sites are registered in the forestry GIS planning database. which biodiversity conservation and mul- Capercaillie lek areas are treated with special care, with the aim of retaining their qual- tiple forest ecosystem services are taken ity. The minimum forest cover suitable for capercaillie is determined for both the lek site fully into account alongside economically and the lek area. Requirements for thinning and clearcutting are described in detail in profitable timber production. management plans (specifying, for example, the minimum density of remaining trees and Multiple studies have described the forest the tree species composition). The lek site should be managed on a small scale, with the habitat characteristics favoured by grouse size of clearcuts restricted to a maximum of 1 hectare; the centre of lek sites should be left species and form the basis of all grouse- untouched (Päivinen et al., 2011). friendly forest management (e.g. Storch, 1994; Wegge et al., 2005; Braunisch and Suchant, 2007; Miettinen, 2009; Sirkiä, GROUSE HABITAT MANAGEMENT thousands of hectares), a wider planning 2010). The procedures are compiled and METHODOLOGY approach is required to ensure continuous clarified in a book with recommendations Forest management affects game at many quality forest cover. prepared jointly by the Finnish Wildlife levels, from the nesting sites of individual The most sensitive part of the annual Agency and Tapio Ltd (formerly the birds to the landscape scale and the distri- cycle of all forest grouse species is the Finnish Forestry Development Centre butions of species. At the site scale (from a reproduction period, and the manage- Tapio) (Lindén et al., 2014). The Finnish few to some tens of hectares), the management focus is therefore on habitats for Wildlife Agency also published specific ment focus is on key habitat structures for broods. Even though requirements differ working guidelines in 2015 (Suomen single birds, pairs and broods (Päivinen somewhat between grouse species, the riistakeskus, 2015). et al., 2011). At the landscape scale (usually common denominator is a mixed forest

Wildlife thickets such as this (foreground) provide cover for grouse and enable

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In their first two weeks, grouse chicks depend on plant cover and insect food provided by the dwarf-shrub layer © TUOMO PIRTTIMAA TUOMO © type with sufficient understorey and a rich lek sites (Box 2) are two commonly used pine constitutes an important winter food vegetation of bilberry and other dwarf methods, especially in state-owned forests, source for capercaillies, while pine, birch shrubs to provide the necessary food and but these are special cases. For example, and several broadleaved species guarantee shelter. wildlife-oriented peatland restoration, that sufficient light reaches the field layer Grouse-friendly forest management which provides favourable habitats for for bilberry and other species to flourish. may comprise one of the following two willow grouse, is relatively expensive but The extent of wildlife thickets can vary approaches: does not limit the overall economic benefits from a couple of spruce trees to several 1. Actions that do not negatively affect from forestry when applied in peatland hectares of forest; combined, they should the economic profitability of forestry areas of low timber production. account for about 2 percent of the stand and simultaneously increase social area. They should consist of many tree and ecological benefits. These include MIXED STANDS, WILDLIFE species and a wide range of individual actions that promote mixed tree THICKETS AND BILBERRY tree sizes, including understorey trees species stands, wildlife thickets and In grouse-friendly management, the and shrubs. The best spots for wildlife bilberry preservation. aim is to restore or maintain forest in thickets are slacks (wet, low-lying spots), 2. Actions that may reduce the economic which at least three components – mixed forest stand edges, rocky areas, and other value of the forests but at the same stands, wildlife thickets and bilberry – places where regular forestry practices time support the preservation of high- are present and the dominant species are challenging. Thickets established in a quality wildlife habitat features on has a maximum 80 percent share of the young stand can be maintained throughout relatively small areas (i.e. key habi- total standing tree volume. In forests a rotation, and ideally they are left as set- tats). Thus, the overall income from dominated by pine (Pinus sylvestris) or aside tree groups in clearcuts (i.e. the final forestry at a property level remains birch (Betula pendula), Norway spruce felling of commercially valuable trees) largely unchanged and the social and (Picea abies) and many shrub-layer spe- and in regeneration areas of stands aged ecological benefits increase. cies provide essential cover for grouse 60–100 years. Wildlife-oriented peatland restoration and provide protection from predators. Bilberry is a crucial plant species for (Box 1) and the management of capercaillie In Norway spruce-dominated forests, several boreal forest wildlife species of

The centre of a capercaillie lek site, Finland Box 3 Implementation on private land of the dwarf-shrub layer. A mixture of The Finnish Wildlife Agency has promoted grouse-friendly forest management in practice pine and spruce accompanied by young based on numerous past and ongoing projects and, as a direct consequence, more than broadleaved trees should be favoured to 50 private forest owners have implemented grouse-friendly forest management in their for- promote the development of mixed forest. ests. In addition, about 500 forest owners have expressed a willingness to use such methods and are ready to make their forests available for demonstration purposes and future projects. KEY HABITATS The Finnish Forest Centre – the main public authority responsible for national forestry Spruce mires and transition zones between legislation – has been a key partner in recent grouse management projects, and it plays an forests and open mires and agricultural active role and has expressed interest in the development of grouse-friendly management fields are often naturally composed of methodologies and guidelines. mixed species and are multilayered. The abundance of bilberry and other dwarf shrubs is generally high, and soil moisture mammals and birds. For grouse species, young undergrowth trees as regeneration is high enough to support diverse and rich the importance of bilberries lies in a material helps preserve the important insect populations. Due to such features, crucial two- to three-week period in mid- dwarf-shrub layer. This provides shelter these areas are among the most important June, when newly hatched chicks feed on for wildlife after the clearcut and reduces brood habitats for all grouse species. insects dwelling in the leaves and shoots the costs of soil preparation and tree plant- The grouse-friendly management of tran- of bilberry and other ground-layer dwarf ing or sowing. Soil preparation should be sition zones has a high cost–benefit ratio. shrubs. In forest management, maintaining minimized to protect the shoots and roots Saving the undergrowth of tree and shrub

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species maintains structural diversity, and Rassi, P., Alanen, A., Kanerva, T. & unnecessary undergrowth preclearance Mannerkoski, I. 2001. Suomen lajien should be avoided. Thinnings made in uhanalaisuus 2000. Helsinki, Ympäristö- selective cuts (resulting in uneven-aged ministeriö & Suomen ympäristökeskus. forests) are recommended for transition References Rolstad, J. & Wegge, P. 1989. Capercaillie zones. The optimal soil moisture content populations and modern forestry: a case for in transition zones can be supported by Braunisch, V. & Suchant, R. 2007. A model landscape ecological studies. Finnish Game restricting the maintenance of drainage for evaluating the “habitat potential” of a Research, 46: 43–52. networks to those ditches away from the landscape for capercaillie Tetrao urogallus: Sirkiä, S. 2010. Effects of large-scale human edge of peat forests. Where possible, a tool for conservation planning. Wildlife land use on capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus L.) ditches close to mineral soil should be filled Biology, 13(Suppl. 1): 21–33. populations in Finland. Helsinki, Faculty in or left untouched to restore the origi- European Environmental Agency. 2017. of Biological and Environmental Sciences, nal hydrology of the area (Box 1). These Population Status and Trends at the EU and University of Helsinki (available at https:// actions reduce the economic profitability Member State Levels (dataset). Accessed helda.helsinki.fi/handle/10138/22360). of the forest only slightly and provide 16 January 2017. EIONET – European Topic Storch, I. 1994. Habitat and survival of many significant ecological benefits by Centre of Biological Diversity. URL: http:// capercaillie Tetrao urogallus. Nests and increasing forest cover and structural bd.eionet.europa.eu/article12/summary. broods in the Bavarian Alps. Biological diversity in biodiversity hotspots. Kumela, H. & Hänninen, H. 2011. Conservation, 70: 237–243. Metsänomistajien näkemykset metsänkä- Storch, I. 2007a. Conservation status of grouse THE FUTURE sittelymenetelmien monipuolistamisesta. worldwide: an update. Wildlife Biology, Grouse-friendly forest management meth- Working Papers of the Finnish Forest 13(Suppl. 1): 5–12. ods continue to be developed. A recent Research Institute No. 203. Vantaa, Finland, Storch, I. 2007b. Grouse: status survey and innovation is “doughnut thinning”: when a Finnish Forest Research Institute (available at conservation action plan 2006–2010. Gland, forest is thinned, groups of set-aside trees www.metla.fi/julkaisut/workingpapers/2011/ Switzerland, IUCN, and Fordingbridge, UK, are surrounded by clearcut circles – or mwp203.htm). World Pheasant Association. “doughnuts” – 10–15 m in diameter. The Lindén, M., Lilja-Rothsten, S., Saaristo, L. Suomen riistakeskus. 2015. Riistamet- set-aside and the stand of seedlings that will & Keto-Tokoi, P., eds. 2014. Metsänhoidon sänhoidon työohjeet (available at http:// soon grow in the surrounding doughnut suositukset riistametsänhoitoon, työopas. riista.fi/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/ provide cover for wildlife and help preserve Metsätalouden kehittämiskeskus Tapion Riistametsanhoidon-ty%C3%B6ohjeet- the dwarf-shrub layer. Doughnut thinning julkaisuja. 2015-Web.pdf). creates variations in forest structure, Metsähallitus. 2016. Forestry. Website Tiainen, J., Mikkola-Roos, M., Below, A., thereby mimicking the natural dynamics (available at www.metsa.fi/web/en/forestry). Jukarainen, A., Lehikoinen, A., of boreal forest. The method is considered Accessed 25 October 2016. Lehtiniemi, T., Pessa, J., Rajasärkkä, A., to have economic benefits because of its Miettinen, J. 2009. Capercaillie (Tetrao Rintala, J., Sirkiä, P. & Valkama, J. 2016. lower per-hectare logging costs and slightly urogallus L.) habitats in managed Finnish Suomen lintujen uhanalaisuus 2015 – the higher timber yields. forests: the current status, threats and 2015 Red List of Finnish Bird Species. The future of forest grouse species is possibilities. Dissertationes Forestales 90 Helsinki, Ympäristöministeriö & Suomen strongly related to habitat conditions (available at www.metla.fi/dissertationes/ Ympäristökeskus. in production forests. Taking habitat df90.htm). Wegge, P., Olstad, T., Gregersen, H., requirements into consideration in forest Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. 2014. Hjeljord, O. & Sivkov, A.V. 2005. management interventions can actively Suomen metsäkanalintujen hoitosuunni- Capercaillie broods in pristine boreal forest support grouse populations. The means telma (Finnish Management Plan for Forest in northwestern Russia: the importance are often simple and cost-effective; the Grouse Species). Maa- ja metsätalousmin- of insects and cover in habitat selection. main challenges are to change traditional isteriön julkaisuja 10/2014. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 83: 1547– forestry practices and to raise the aware- Päivinen, J., Björkqvist, N., 1555. u ness of landowners, forestry professionals Karvonen, L., Kaukonen, M., and grouse hunters (Box 3). By showing Korhonen, K.-M., Kuokkanen, P., concrete examples of successful outcomes, Lehtonen, H. & Tolonen, A., eds. 2011. it is possible to create a positive atmosphere Metsähallituksen metsätalouden ympäris- for grouse-friendly management in the for- töopas. Metsähallituksen metsätalouden estry and wildlife conservation sectors. u julkaisuja 67.

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A mother and her children carry wood from the FAO report finds that forest foods are vital for food Yoko Forest in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. and nutritional security in the Congo Basin Such forests are important sources of food and nutrition for millions of people in the Congo Basin The contribution of forest foods to food and nutritional security in the Congo Basin is greatly underestimated, according to a new FAO report. Living in and from the forests of central Africa found that non- The value of forest products to nutrition, culture and well-being in wood forest products (NWFPs) such as game, fruit, seeds, roots, local communities is still not widely understood and valued, according insects and fungi provide an important complement to agricultural to Raymond Mbitikon, COMIFAC Executive Secretary. products in the region, broadening the food base, diversifying diets “Despite the importance of NWFPs for food and nutritional security and helping prevent micronutrient deficiencies, especially in young in central Africa, NWFPs are not given the recognition they deserve children. in related policies and programmes,” he said. The report is based on a decade of work across central Africa Young children in particular benefit from consuming forest fruits, and the Congo Basin, which is home to 130 million people, many which are excellent sources of vitamins and important minerals, of whom depend directly on NWFPs for nutritious food and overall including iron, potassium, zinc and calcium, according to the report. well-being. The report’s findings are drawn from projects that began For example, the popular African plum, known locally as “safou”, in 2005, a long-running FAO forestry initiative aimed at understanding is rich in vitamins A, C and E, and wild mango, African cherry and and increasing the contributions of forests and trees to food and caterpillars help meet protein and iron needs, the projects found. nutritional security. The projects were implemented by FAO under the “The report is a hymn to forest peoples who live in close relation to supervision of the Central African Forests Commission (COMIFAC) in the forests and have in-depth knowledge of NWFPs,” said Ousseynou Burundi, Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Chad, the Congo, Ndoye, lead technical advisor for the projects and the report. “It is also the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, intended to describe the techniques and processes already developed Rwanda, and Sao Tome and Principe. and still in development that can enhance the value of NWFPs.”

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Training was a key component of the projects, with an emphasis Equatorial Guinea launches REDD+ investment on enhancing the marketing and organizational skills of small and plan to combat climate change and foster medium-sized forest-based enterprises. In the Democratic Republic sustainable development of the Congo, for example, training focused on helping local women The Government of Equatorial Guinea has launched an 18-month boost their incomes by improving strategies for preparing and ship- project to develop a national investment plan for the country’s par- ping njansang nuts. ticipation in REDD+, the international initiative for reducing emissions Some projects also provided training for local participants to domes- from deforestation and forest degradation. ticate local tree species to alleviate pressure on natural forests. This With technical support from FAO and funding from the Central training is now being scaled up by local organizations. Improvements African Forest Initiative (CAFI), Equatorial Guinea is set to finalize to regional policy and institutional frameworks dealing with rights its national REDD+ strategy and move quickly to the planning of its of access and use, taxation, supply chains and data collection REDD+ investments. The government says these investments will were additional components of the projects, which were funded fit with its broader strategies. by the Government of Germany, the European Union, the African “One of the strategic key objectives of the National Economic Development Bank and the Congo Basin Forest Fund. and Social Development Plan ‘Horizon 2020’ is about the protec- The report is available online at: www.fao.org/3/a-i6399e.pdf tion and conservation of the natural resources and thus in line with the objectives pursued with the country’s national investment plan on REDD+,” said Eucario Bakale, Equatorial Guinea’s Minister of Economy, Planning and Public Investment. The CAFI project follows previous country efforts to prepare for REDD+, including the crucial approval by the national parliament of the Readiness Preparation Proposal (R-PP) for REDD+. “Our government is committed to protect biodiversity and take actions to improve forest utilization practices for the benefit of mankind in general and our country’s development in particular,” said Mba Oló Bahamonde, Minister of Forests and Environment. The launch of the project is a significant milestone in building national consensus around REDD+ implementation and future investments and in strengthening the country’s efforts towards low-carbon development. Initial meetings are aimed at raising awareness of the CAFI initiative and the REDD+ process and reaching agreement on a work plan, leading to the development of the national REDD+ investment plan. CAFI supports strategic, holistic and country-level REDD+ and low- emission development investments in central African high-forest-cover countries, with the aim of recognizing and preserving the value of the subregion’s forests to mitigate climate change, reduce poverty and contribute to sustainable development. UN agencies (including FAO), the World Bank and bilateral cooperation agencies such as the French Development Agency serve as implementing organizations for the initiative. Six central African countries, and a coalition of donors, have signed the CAFI Declaration, thereby committing to coordination and harmonization and to mobilizing resources for the implementation of national investment frameworks developed by central African countries. More information on CAFI is available online: www.cafi.org

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WORLD OF FORESTRY

United Nations Biodiversity Conference Forests in the Context of National Food Security, as appropriate, This conference, which convened on 2–17 December 2016 in Cancun, to promote secure tenure rights and equitable access to land, Mexico, encompassed several meetings, including a high-level fisheries and forests; and segment on 2–3 December addressing the theme “mainstreaming • urged Parties to mainstream biodiversity in their implementation biodiversity for well-being”, and the 13th Conference of the Parties of the SDGs. to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD COP13). More than Among other outcomes of CBD COP13 was Decision UNEP/CBD/ 8 000 delegates attended the conference, representing CBD Parties COP/13/L.2 on sustainable wildlife management, which requested and other governments, United Nations agencies, intergovernmental, the CBD Secretariat (subject to the availability of resources and in non-governmental, indigenous and local community organizations, collaboration with other members of the Collaborative Partnership academia and the private sector. on Sustainable Wildlife Management) to: Responding to the high-level segment, CBD COP13 (in its Decision • elaborate technical guidance for better governance towards a UNEP/CBD/COP/13/L.31): more sustainable bushmeat sector, with a view to supporting • urged Parties to strengthen efforts to mainstream conserva- the implementation by Parties of the CBD Strategic Plan for tion and sustainable use within and across sectors, including Biodiversity 2011–2020; agriculture, forestry, fisheries and aquaculture, and tourism at • jointly scope and organize a wildlife forum event; all levels and scales, and to report to the CBD Secretariat on • enhance synergies with the Intergovernmental Science–Policy their experiences; Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services with regard • invited governments to use, in accordance with the priorities to the re-scoping of the assessment of the sustainable use of and policies of each country, FAO guidance related to bio- biodiversity; diversity and agriculture, fisheries and forestry, including the • continue to support efforts by Parties to combat illicit trafficking five elements developed by it as a basis for policy dialogue and in wildlife and to enhance institutional capacities on wildlife governance arrangements to identify sustainable development conservation and law enforcement, with relevant law enforce- pathways across the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) ment bodies; and and sectors and along related value chains; • report on progress to relevant CBD bodies before the next • encouraged Parties to make use of the Voluntary Guidelines on CBD Conference of the Parties (CBD COP14), which will be the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and convened in 2018. © IISD/FRANCIS DEJON (WWW.IISD.CA/BIODIV/COP13/ENB/7DEC.HTML) DEJON © IISD/FRANCIS

Youth volunteers prepare to plant trees as part of activities on the sidelines of the United Nations Biodiversity Conference, Cancun, Mexico, December 2016

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BOOKS

Knowing where it came from A look back at community forestry

Traceability: a management tool for enterprises and governments. Forty years of community-based forestry: a review of its extent and M. Vandenhaute & J. Laporte. 2016. FAO FLEGT Technical Paper No. 1. effectiveness. FAO Forestry Paper No. 176. D. Gilmour. 2016. Rome, FAO. Rome, FAO. ISBN: 978-92-5-109423-5. ISBN: 978-92-5-109095-4. Traceability is the ability to trace the history, application and location This publication covers 40 years of experience, building on FAO’s of an item by means of recorded identification. It involves two main two previous global reviews of community-based forestry (CBF) in aspects: the identification of the item by marking; and the record- 1991 and 2001. FAO conducted the review not only as an update ing of data on the item all the way along the production, processing on the status of CBF but also to assess the extent to which CBF is and distribution chain. This technical paper presents examples of meeting expectations and the factors that can explain successes and forest-product traceability initiatives to show the advantages of effi- failures. The review demonstrated that CBF is a powerful vehicle for cient traceability that takes into account the aims of users and the moving towards sustainable forest management while bringing about environment in which such a system operates. The paper is intended significant improvements in local livelihoods. It looks at changes for the managers of large-scale enterprises as well as of community generated by CBF in social capital (livelihoods, food security and forests and for forest officers with the task of developing traceability nutrition, influence over decisions, and access to and control over systems suited to their needs. forest resources), economic capital (employment and household Available online: www.fao.org/3/a-i6134e.pdf incomes) and environmental capital, as well as other impacts, and it identifies key issues for the future of CBF. The publication targets a range of actors, from policy-makers, practitioners and researchers to communities and civil society. It will provide them with inspiration and guidance in supporting local communities, indigenous peoples and family smallholders to sustainably manage their forests. Available online: www.fao.org/3/a-i5415e.pdf

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The gold standard for working with Improving the domestic sawnwood sector indigenous peoples in Cameroon

Free prior and informed consent: an indigenous peoples’ right and a good practice Demandes nationales de sciages: obstacle ou opportunité pour promouvoir for local communities. Manual for project practitioners. FAO. 2016. Rome. l’utilisation des ressources forestières d’origine légale au Cameroun? This manual on free, prior and informed consent (FPIC), designed as G. Lescuyer, R. Tsanga, E.E. Mendoula, B.X. Embolo Ahanda, H.A. Ouedraogo, a tool for practitioners in a broad range of projects and programmes O. Fung, E. Dubiez & P.B. Logo. 2016. Rome, FAO, and Bogor, Indonesia, in any development organization, provides information on the right to Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR). ISBN 978-92-5-109533-1. FPIC and how it can be implemented in six steps. In an FPIC process, The economic and social importance of domestic wood consump- the “how”, “when” and “with and by whom” are as important as the tion is now recognized in central Africa, but it is fuelled largely by proposed “what”. For an FPIC process to be effective and to lead informally produced sawnwood. No one has yet developed a global to either the consent or denial of a proposal, the way in which it is understanding of domestic sawnwood sectors in the subregion in conducted is paramount. The time allocated for discussions among order to develop the conditions for improving the legality of sawnwood indigenous peoples, the cultural appropriateness of the way the infor- trade and practices. This report reviews the supply and demand of mation is conveyed, and the involvement of the entire community, wood products in the Cameroonian domestic market (at Yaoundé and including women, the elderly and youth, are all crucial. A thorough Douala) and identifies options for promoting the domestic consump- and well-conducted FPIC process helps guarantee everyone’s right tion of sawnwood and furniture of legal origin, which would enhance to self-determination and enables everyone to participate in decisions sustainable forest management and sustainable economic growth. that affect their lives. This manual will enable field practitioners to Available online: www.fao.org/3/a-i6515f.pdf incorporate FPIC into the design and implementation of projects and programmes and ensure that the rights of indigenous peoples are respected. FPIC can be considered the “gold standard” because it allows for the highest form of participation of local stakeholders in development projects. Available online: www.fao.org/3/a-i6190e.pdf

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New map of priority restoration areas in Africa Evolving criteria and indicators

Building Africa’s Great Green Wall: restoring degraded drylands for stronger Criteria and indicators for the sustainable management of tropical forests. and more resilient communities. N. Berrahmouni, L. Laestadius, A. Martucci, ITTO Policy Development Series No. 21. International Tropical Timber Organization D. Mollicone, C. Patriarca & M. Sacande. 2016. Rome, FAO. (ITTO). 2016. Yokohama, Japan, ITTO. ISBN: 978-4-86507-028-6. The Great Green Wall for the Sahara and the Sahel Initiative (GGWSSI) ITTO pioneered the development of criteria and indicators (C&I) is Africa’s flagship initiative to build prosperity and resilience in more for sustainable forest management in the early 1990s to assist in than 20 countries around the Sahara. Endorsed by the African Union monitoring and assessing the condition of natural tropical forests in 2007 as a game-changer in Africa’s drylands, the GGWSSI aims to in the organization’s producer member countries and in identifying transform the lives of millions of people by creating a great mosaic of improvements needed in forest practices. ITTO published Criteria green and productive landscapes across North Africa, the Sahel and for the measurement of sustainable tropical forest management in the Horn. Early results show that degraded lands can be restored, 1992 and new versions in 1998 and 2005. This further revised set but these achievements pale in comparison with what is needed. of the ITTO C&I is timely in light of recent global developments in This brochure, and the groundbreaking map it contains, contributes forest policies, such as those related to climate-change mitigation to the understanding of what is needed in terms of restoration in and adaptation, the Convention on Biological Diversity’s Aichi Bio- the area encompassed by the GGWSSI, considering primarily tree- diversity Targets, and the Sustainable Development Goals, as well as based systems. It charts the size and provides a regional overview in view of recent work among C&I processes and FAO to streamline of the restoration challenges and opportunities, drawing on data and rationalize national reporting on forests. collected on trees, forests and land use in the context of the Global Available online: www.itto.int/policypapers_guidelines Drylands Assessment conducted by FAO and partners in 2015–2016. Available online: www.fao.org/3/a-i6476e.pdf

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Defining wildlife and its management People power in restoration monitoring

Glossary of wildlife management terms and definitions. International Union of Success from the ground up: participatory monitoring and forest restoration. CIFOR Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO). Occasional Paper No. 159. K.A. Evans & M.R. Guariguata. 2016. Bogor, Indonesia, The aim of this online glossary, launched on World Wildlife Day on Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR). ISBN: 978-602-387-039-4. 3 March 2016, is to raise awareness of the usage and meanings of New global forest restoration initiatives present an unparalleled technical terms related to wildlife management and conservation and opportunity to reverse the trend of deforestation and forest degrada- thereby to increase common understanding of the issues and enable tion. Such a reversal will require the collaboration of stakeholders an informed dialogue. The glossary includes about 250 terms – such at all levels and, most importantly, the participation and support of as wildlife, bushmeat, predator management, retrievable species, and local people. Ambitious restoration initiatives will also require moni- flagship species – and their definitions in English, with the equivalent toring systems that allow for scalability and adaptability to a range of terms also given in French, German and Spanish. local sites – this will be essential for understanding how restoration The glossary was initiated by the Collaborative Partnership on efforts are progressing, determining why they are succeeding (or Sustainable Wildlife Management (CPW) and compiled by IUFRO, not), and learning from successes and failures. This review explores with contributions from CPW members, including FAO. It is a work the potential of participatory monitoring in forest restoration and in progress and will be updated periodically as new knowledge is related forest management activities through case studies, experi- gained. ences, field tests and conceptual discussions. It seeks to deepen Available online: www.iufro.org/science/special/silvavoc/wildlife- and broaden understanding of participatory monitoring by teasing glossary out the lessons learned from existing knowledge and by mapping a possible path forward, with the aim of improving the outcomes of forest restoration initiatives. Available online: www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/ OP-159.pdf

Unasylva 249, Vol. 68, 2017/1 DANIEL TIVEAU/CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCH (CIFOR) RESEARCH FORESTRY INTERNATIONAL FOR TIVEAU/CENTER © DANIEL

The Collaborative Partnership on Collaborative Sustainable Wildlife Management (CPW) is a voluntary partnership of international Partnership organizations with substantive mandates and programmes for the sustainable use and on Sustainable conservation of wildlife resources. Its mission is to increase cooperation and coordination Wildlife among its members and other interested parties on sustainable wildlife management to Management promote the sustainable use and conservation of terrestrial vertebrate wildlife in all biomes and geographic areas.

More information on the CPW at: www.fao.org/forestry/wildlife-partnership

Photo: African elephants (Loxodonta africana), Gorom, Cameroon [email protected] www.fao.org/forestry/unasylva I6855EN/1/02.17