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The Macedonian Question and the Macedonians

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The Macedonian Question and the Macedonians The Macedonian Question and the Macedonians This book is a comprehensive and dispassionate analysis of the intriguing Macedonian Question from 1878 until 1949 and of the Macedonians (and of their neighbours) from the 1870s until today, with the two themes intertwining. The Macedonian Question was an offshoot of the wider Eastern Question – i.e. the fate of the European remnants of the Ottoman Empire once it dissolved. The initial protagonists of the Macedonian Question were Greece, Bulgaria and Serbia, and a Slav-speaking population inhabiting geographical Macedonia in search of its destiny, the largest segment of which ended up creating a new nation, comprising the Macedonians, something unacceptable to its three neighbours. Alexis Heraclides analyses the shifting sands of the Macedonian Question and of the gradual rise of Macedonian nationhood, with special emphasis on the Greek, Bulgarian and Serbian claims to Macedonia (1870s–1919); the birth and vicissitudes of the most famous Macedonian revolutionary organization, the VM(O)RO, and other organizations (1893–1940); the appearance and gradual establishment of the Macedonian nation from the 1890s until 1945; Titos’s crucial role in Macedonian nationhood-cum-federal status; the Greek-Macedonian naming dispute (1991–2018), including the ‘skeletons in the cupboard’– the deep-seated reasons rendering the clash intractable for decades; the final Greek-Macedonian settlement (the 2018 Prespa Agreement); the Bulgarian-Macedonian dispute (1950–today) and its ephemeral settlement in 2017; the issue of the Macedonian language; and the Macedonian national historical narrative. The author also addresses questions around who the ancient Macedonians were and the international fascination with Alexander the Great. This monograph will be an essential resource for scholars working on Macedonian history, Balkan politics and conflict resolution. Alexis Heraclides is Emeritus Professor of International Relations and Conflict Resolution at the Panteion University of Social and Political Sciences (Athens) and author of several books on self-determination, secession, the CSCE, humanitarian intervention, the Middle East conflict, the Cyprus Problem, the Greek-Turkish antagonism with emphasis on the Aegean dispute, the Macedonian Question and others. Routledge Histories of Central and Eastern Europe Romania under Communism Denis Deletant Bulgaria under Communism Ivaylo Znepolski, Mihail Gruev, Momtchil Metodiev, Martin Ivanov, Daniel Vatchkov, Ivan Elenkov, Plamen Doynow From Revolution to Uncertainty The Year 1990 in Central and Eastern Europe Edited by Joachim von Puttkamer, Włodzimierz Borodziej, and Stanislav Holubec Identities in-Between in East-Central Europe Edited by Jan Fellerer, Robert Pyrah and Marius Turda Communism, Science and the University Towards a Theory of Detotalitarianisation Edited by Ivaylo Znepolski A Nation Divided by History and Memory Hungary in the Twentieth Century and Beyond Gábor Gyáni Historicizing Roma in Central Europe Between Critical Whiteness and Epistemic Injustice Victoria Shmidt and Bernadette Nadya Jaworsky The Macedonian Question and the Macedonians A History Alexis Heraclides www.routledge.com/Routledge-Histories-of-Central-and-Eastern-Europe/ book-series/CEE The Macedonian Question and the Macedonians A History Alexis Heraclides First published 2021 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2021 Alexis Heraclides The right of Alexis Heraclides to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN: 9780367218263 (hbk) ISBN: 9780429266362 (ebk) Typeset in Times New Roman by Apex CoVantage, LLC To Argyris and his generation Contents Preface and acknowledgements ix 1 Greek, Bulgarian and Serbian claims to Macedonia 1 2 The war of ethnographic maps 20 3 The VM(O)RO and other Macedonian organizations (1893–1940) 36 4 Tracing the birth of a new Balkan nation 63 5 Tito and the Macedonians: the crucial 1940s 83 6 The ‘New Macedonian Question’: the Greek-Macedonian naming dispute 111 7 Bulgaria’s stance towards Macedonia 139 8 The Macedonian language 150 9 The Macedonian national historical narrative 167 10 The charm of Alexander the Great: who were the ancient Macedonians? 193 11 The crux of the Greek-Macedonian dispute: the skeletons in the cupboard 213 viii Contents 12 The settlement of the Greek-Macedonian dispute: the Prespa Agreement 224 13 The ephemeral Macedonian-Bulgarian rapprochement 243 Select bibliography 250 Index 261 Preface and acknowledgements The Macedonian Question is the most complex and multifaceted Balkan problem, with a troubled history of almost 150 years. This international question entered the Balkan landscape in the late 1870s, then as an offshoot of the wider Eastern Ques- tion, that is the fate of the European remnants of the Ottoman Empire (the ‘Sick Man’) when it would dissolve, which was regarded as inevitable. Yet the Mace- donian Question outlived the Eastern Question. During these 150 years the Mac- edonia Question changed in shape like a kaleidoscope but its original protagonists remained by and large the same, though with certain shifts in view of changing circumstances: they were Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia and Serb-dominated Yugoslavia, and a Slav-speaking population initially swinging among three assertive nations, in search of its destiny, the larger part of which ended up creating a new Balkan nation, the Macedonians, something not acceptable to its three neighbours, all three known for their chauvinism. In the 1940s, the main actors in the conflict were Tito’s Yugoslavia, Greece, Bulgaria and the People’s later Socialist Republic of Macedonia, as one of the six constituent states of Yugoslavia under Tito. During the Cold War, the Serbs had, nolens volens, accepted Yugoslavia’s approach regarding the Macedonians, but with Macedonia’s independence in late 1991, rump Yugoslavia, headed by Milošević’s Serbia, disputed the country’s right to become and remain an inde- pendent state. The Macedonian Question lato sensu can be divided into two phases: the Mac- edonian Question stricto sensu from the 1870s until 1949 and conflicts that have arisen to a lesser extent between Macedonia (as a constituent federal unit of Yugo- slavia, 1950–1991) and in particular by the independent Republic of Macedo- nia, now Republic of North Macedonia, and two of its neighbours, Greece and Bulgaria. The Macedonian Question stricto sensu can be divided into three periods: 1 1870–1913: National claims and conflicts among Greece, Bulgaria and Ser- bia, with the Ottoman Empire in danger of losing one of its most vital regions and evicted from Europe after five centuries. From 1893 onwards there was a new actor to reckon with: a revolutionary organization eventually named VMRO (the Internal Secret Revolutionary Organization) sought autonomy x Preface and acknowledgements for Macedonia and resisted attempts at annexation by the three claimants, including Bulgaria, despite the existing ethnic links with the latter. 2 1913–1940: The division of geographical Macedonia following the two Bal- kan Wars (1912–1913) with the Treaty of Bucharest (August 1913), with two aggrieved parties from the division, Bulgaria (defeated in the Second Balkan War) and the Macedonian revolutionary organizations, which in the interwar swayed between a Bulgarian identity (and eventual union with Bulgaria) and a new distinct national identity, as Macedonians. Comintern’s key involve- ment weighed in favour of the second option, though under a communist aegis. 3 1941–1949: The Macedonian Question from the advent of the Second World War until the end of the Greek Civil War (1946–1949), with the official for- mation of the Macedonian nation, shepherded by Tito, and the creation of the People’s, from 1963 onwards, Socialist Republic of Macedonia (SRM) within Yugoslavia, with Bulgaria under Georgi Dimitrov acquiescent from 1944 until 1948. From 1950 onwards, following the 1948 Tito-Stalin split (Yugoslavia- Cominform split) and the end of the Greek Civil War in 1949, the Macedonian Question was dormant, within the reigning spirit of the Cold War, with the occa- sional minor turbulence, due mainly to statements by representatives of the SRM, with Greece and Bulgaria not recognizing the Macedonians as a nation with a distinct language, and rejecting the existence of a ‘Macedonian minority’ in their midst, in Greece’s northwestern Macedonia and in Bulgaria’s Pirin Macedonia. From 1991 onwards, the Macedonian Question is not the appropriate term to use, though some have called it the ‘New Macedonian Question’, to distinguish it from its
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