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Coversheet for Thesis in Sussex Research Online A University of Sussex DPhil thesis Available online via Sussex Research Online: http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/ This thesis is protected by copyright which belongs to the author. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Please visit Sussex Research Online for more information and further details Reclaiming Dependence: Personhood, Class and the Remaking of Labour in Post-Socialist Macedonia Aleksandar Dimitrovski Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Sussex September 2015 i I hereby declare that this thesis, has not been and will not be submitted in whole or in part, to this or another University for the award of any other degree. _________________________ Aleksandar Dimitrovski ii University of Sussex Aleksandar Dimitrovski Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Reclaiming Dependence: Personhood, Class and the Remaking of Labour in Post-Socialist Macedonia Summary This thesis is primarily an anthropological and historical study of transformations of labour regimes in Macedonia within the context of a changing political economy. This process can largely be situated in the “transition” from a socialist to a market-based economic model; a process which was never only about transforming the “economic” but touched upon every intimate aspect of people’s lives. It is through these changes, and the reconceptualization of what work ought to be about, that we can explore larger questions of class identity, alienation, morality, personhood and the operations of power and social reproduction in contemporary Macedonian society. As such, this thesis is offered as a contribution to the traditional, yet, in the case of Macedonia, under-researched, themes of social and economic anthropology. My primary fieldsite and object of investigation, is the small township of Shtip, in eastern Macedonia, where I investigate the changing role and social status of industrial workers in the national economy, and the everyday working lives of garment labourers in one of Shtip’s largest garment factories. The historical chapters of this thesis analyse the making of an industrial working class within socialist Yugoslavia, and the subsequent attempts at unmaking the values, social relations and forms of personhood, that grew up within the specifics of Yugoslav socialism. I approach “class” through the indeterminate interplay of social, cultural and economic factors, and highlight the enduring cultural importance of embedded, relational forms of personhood. As I move towards more current events, and particularly the ethnographic chapters, I focus more strongly on the responses of industrial workers to such changes. I deal not only with specific practices, but also with questions of the “imagination”, or how workers, experience, and reflect on these wider changes in ways that keep open the possibility of rearranging social relations at the workplace, and beyond. In doing do, I propose that struggles over the definition of personhood, rather than class conflict, are at the forefront of debates about what work ought to be about. Also, I suggest that the outcome of these struggles has not been to challenge subordination and social inequality in itself, but to challenge the specific kinds of inequality and subject categories introduced by the transition to a neoliberal market economy (Dunn 2004). iii Table of Contents: Part I: Literature Review and Methodology Chapter I: Labour Studies and Anthropology in Macedonia 10 1.1 Introduction: Anthropology in Macedonia 10 1.2 Approaching Labour Studies: Class, Culture and Power 17 1.2.1 The Idea of a “Moral Economy” 21 1.2.2 Polanyi and the Concept of “Embeddedness” 24 1.2.3 Culture and Domination in the Work of Pierre Bourdieu 27 1.2.4 Foucault and the Productivity of Power 31 1.3 Liminality and Abjection 36 1.4 Dependent Persons 41 1.5 Language and the Moral Community 45 Chapter II: The “Work” of Anthropology 50 2.1 Finding the “Fieldsite” 50 2.2 What Field and What Work? 54 2.2.1 Participant Observation 56 2.2.2 Interviews, Memories and Scattered Narratives 59 2.5 Positionality, Reflexivity and the Politics of Knowledge 62 2.6 Brief Guide to the Chapters 64 Part II: The Making and Unmaking of an Industrial Workforce Chapter III: The Rise of Self-Management 67 3.1 Introduction 67 3.2 A Modern Socialist Republic 69 3.3 Industrializing the Yugoslav Way 73 3.3.1 The Peak of Self-Management 76 iv 3.3.2 Was it Ever? 80 3.4 Consumption and Legitimacy 87 3.4.1 The Socialist on Holidays 93 3.5 Concluding Remarks 98 Chapter IV: Decline and Transformation 101 4.1 The Long Drop: Experiences in the Garment and Textile Industries 101 4.2 In-dependence and Privatisation: Setting the Framework 110 4.3 (De)valuing the Industrial Commons 113 4.4 Suturing the Market Ideology 118 4.5 Concluding Remarks 125 Part III: Negotiating Change: Free Markets and Dependent Workers Chapter V: Subsuming Labour 131 5.1 Introduction 131 5.2 The Brief Rise and Fall of Unionized Resistance 135 5.3 “Liberating” Garment Labour 139 5.4 Framing a Counter-Narrative 146 5.4.1 The Myth of the “Social” Capitalist 152 5.5 The Black Book 158 Chapter VI: Discarding Labour 164 6.1 The Labouring Surplus 164 6.2 Pleading the Nation 166 6.3 The “Right to Live” 169 6.4 Seeking Dependence 173 6.5 Legality or Morality 178 6.6 Aftermath 182 6.7 Losing the State? 185 6.8 Concluding Remarks 188 v Part IV: Life in the Factory Chapter VII: Alienation and the Asocial Division of Labour 193 7.1 Introduction 193 7.2 Introducing Stichko 200 7.3 Conceptualizing Production: Culture vs Nature 203 7.4 Spatial Organization and the Control of Bodies 208 7.5 Commoditizing Labour 213 7.5.1 Socializing Labour 219 7.6 Management and the Problem of Skill 222 7.7 Concluding Remarks 227 Chapter VIII: Manners, Personhood and the New Class 8.1 Introduction: Joking and Avoidance 230 8.1.2 Corollary Modes of Personhood 233 8.2 Joking Between Men and Women 235 8.2.1 Joking and Ethnicity 239 8.3 Avoidance and Management 242 8.3 Embodying Social Difference 246 8.4 The Gazda as a “Big Man” 253 8.5 Deference, Hierarchy and the Political Imagination 257 8.5.1 Projecting Forwards: the Ideal “West” 261 8.5.2 Projecting Backwards: Socialist Utopia 265 8.6 Concluding Remarks 267 Chapter IX: Conclusion 272 9.1 Summary of Chapters 272 9.2 Alienation or Embedded Exploitation? 279 9.3 Class, Personhood and the Politics of Dependence 281 Bibliography 285 vi Acknowledgements: I am more than happy to use this occasion to express my gratitude to all the people and institutions for the support that made this research project possible. My particular gratitude goes to the Open Society Foundation and the University of Sussex, for their generous financial assistance, without which I never would have been able to embark on this PhD program. My thesis supervisors, Jane Cowan and Geert De Neve, have given me a wealth of academic guidance and personal support throughout the past four years of writing and research. Thank you for all the discussions, comments, criticisms and encouragement; for sharing your contacts, ideas, for following my work with interest, and above all your friendship. I would also like to thank all my peers and professors at the Anthropology Department and the School of Global Studies, for providing a stimulating and enjoyable academic environment. I am especially grateful to Filippo Osella, Jane Cowan, Peter Luetchford and John Mitchell for encouraging creative and exploratory anthropological thinking in their lectures and seminars. I would like to thank all the people in Shtip for their kindness, humour and generosity; for sharing the joys and troubles of life, and for putting up with my incessant curiosity and annoying queries. This thesis owes everything to your openness. My heartfelt gratitude goes to Vane Gjorgov, my host and caretaker during my field research. I do not wish to imagine how my fieldwork experience would have turned out without his open-handed and unwavering generosity. I am infinitely indebted to my family, particularly my mother, Violeta, for her continuous support and encouragement throughout my numerous academic adventures. Last but not least, I would like to thank my loving wife, Patricia Magaz, for sharing and enduring all the hardships and sacrifices of these past four years of research. Thank you for putting a smile on my face whenever I was in despair and for reminding me there is life beyond academia. I dedicate this thesis to you, más que ayer . vii Map 1: Macedonia and Shtip (Štip) viii List of acronyms: ALA Associated Labour Act ASNOM Anti-Fascist Assembly for the National Liberation of Macedonia BOAL Basic Unit of Associated Labour CPM Communist Party of Macedonia CPY Communist Party of Yugoslavia GDP Gross Domestic Product IMF International Monetary Fund IMRO – DPMNU Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization - Democratic Party for Macedonian National Unity OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development SDUM Social Democratic Union of Macedonia SOE Socially Owned Enterprise USM Union of Syndicates of Macedonia WB World Bank 9 Part I: Literature Review and Methodology 10 Chapter I: Labour Studies and Anthropology in Macedonia 1.1 Introduction: Anthropology in Macedonia The spread of social and cultural anthropological research in Macedonia has been a relatively recent development.
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