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The Roman Salute The Roman Salute The Roman Salute Cinema, History, Ideology Martin M. Winkler THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY PREss COLUMBus Copyright © 2009 by The Ohio State University. All rights reserved. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Winkler, Martin M. The Roman salute : cinema, history, ideology / Martin M. Winkler. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-8142-0864-9 (cloth : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-8142-0864-9 (cloth : alk. paper) 1. Rome—In motion pictures. 2. Rome—In art. 3. Rome—In literature. 4. Salutations. I. Title. PN1995.9.R68W56 2009 700'.45837 [22] 2008041124 This book is available in the following editions: Cloth (ISBN 978-0-8142-0864-9) CD-ROM (ISBN 978-0-8142-9194-8) Cover design by Laurence J. Nozik Text design by Juliet Williams Type set in Adobe Bembo Printed by Thomson-Shore, Inc. The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the Ameri- can National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials. ANSI Z39.48-1992. 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 contents Illustrations vii Acknowledgments xi Introduction 1 1. History and Ideology: Half-Truths and Untruths 1 2. Ideology and Spectacle: The Importance of Cinema 6 3. About This Book 11 One Saluting Gestures in Roman Art and Literature 17 Two Jacques-Louis David’s Oath of the Horatii 42 Three Raised-Arm Salutes in the United States before Fascism: From the Pledge of Allegiance to Ben-Hur on Stage 57 Four Early Cinema: American and European Epics 77 Five Cabiria: The Intersection of Cinema and Politics 94 1. Gabriele D’Annunzio and Cabiria 95 2. Fiume: The Roman Salute Becomes a Political Symbol 101 3. From D’Annunzio to Mussolini 109 Six Nazi Cinema and Its Impact on Hollywood’s Roman Epics: From Leni Riefenstahl to Quo Vadis 122 vi / Contents Seven Visual Legacies: Antiquity on the Screen from Quo Vadis to Rome 151 1. Cinema: From Salome to Alexander 151 2. Television: From Star Trek to Rome 169 Conclusion 178 Appendices 185 1. Livy’s Account of the Horatii and Curiatii 185 2. The Roman Salute According to Il Capo-Squadra Balilla 190 3. Modern Scholarship on Fascism, Nazism, and Classical Antiquity 192 Works Cited 195 Index of Film Titles 213 General Index 217 illustrations 1. Trajan’s Column, Scenes LXXXIV–LXXXV. Trajan conducting sacrifice. From Conrad Cichorius, Die Reliefs der Trajanssäule, vol. 4 (Berlin: Riemer, 1900). 19 2. Trajan’s Column, Scenes CI–CII. Trajan being saluted. From Conrad Cichorius, Die Reliefs der Trajanssäule, vol. 4 (Berlin: Riemer, 1900). 20 3. Trajan’s Column, Scene CXLI. Trajan receiving Dacian chiefs. From Conrad Cichorius, Die Reliefs der Trajanssäule, vol. 4 (Berlin: Riemer, 1900). 21 4. Detail from Dionysus and Ariadne sarcophagus. Author’s photograph. 32 5. Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius from “Fascist” angle. Author’s photograph. 35 6. Marble statue of Marcus Aurelius. Author’s photograph. 38 7. The Robe/Demetrius and the Gladiators. Gladiators saluting Caligula. Twentieth Century-Fox. 41 8–10. The Vanishing American. The pledge and flag salute. Famous Players-Lasky/Paramount. 63 11. The Indian Fighter. Indian chief greeting white officer. Bryna Productions/United Artists. 64 vii viii / Illustrations 12. Jeremiah Johnson. Crow warrior saluting. Warner Bros. 65 13. Souvenir program of stage production of Ben-Hur; Act III, Tableau 3. Author’s collection. 72 14. Souvenir program of stage production of Ben-Hur; second image of Act IV, Tableau 1. Author’s collection. 74 15. La vie et la passion de Jésus-Christ, n. s. Jesus, age twelve, greeting Mary and Joseph in the Temple. Pathé Frères. 83 16. Nerone. The opening tableau: Nero, far r., being saluted. Ambrosio. 86 17. Gli ultimi giorni di Pompeii (1913). The opening shot. Ambrosio. 90 18. Cabiria. Furius Axilla taking his leave from his hosts. Itala Film. 100 19. Cabiria. Sophonisba and Syphax formally saluting each other. Itala Film. 100 20. Cabiria. Maciste foreshadowing Mussolini. Itala Film. 116 21. Scipione l’Africano. Scipio (center background, behind row of lictors) and the crowd. Ente Nazionale Industrie Cinematografiche. 118 22. Scipione l’Africano. Hannibal saluted by messenger. Ente Nazionale Industrie Cinematografiche. 120 23. Statue of athlete in front of the Amsterdam Olympic stadium, 1928. Author’s collection. 130 24. Cleopatra (1934). Cleopatra saluting Caesar. Paramount/ Universal. 137 25. Quo Vadis (1951). Marcus Vinicius, holding his triumph, saluting Nero. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. 144 26. Quo Vadis (1951). Nero returning salute. Metro-Goldwyn- Mayer. 144 27. Helen of Troy (1956). Priam (back to camera) saluting Trojan officer. Warner Bros. 153 28. Rex Warner, The Young Caesar. Cover illustration of paperback edition. Author’s collection. 154 Illustrations / ix 29. Ben-Hur (1959). Messala arriving in Jerusalem. Metro- Goldwyn-Mayer. 155 30. The Greatest Story Ever Told. King Herod receiving Roman officer. United Artists/Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. 156 31. Solomon and Sheba. Pharaoh, his court, and Adonijah’s henchman hailing the false king of Israel. United Artists/ Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. 157 32. Spartacus (1960). “Hail Crassus!” Julius Caesar and senators except Gracchus acknowledging the new powers of Crassus. Bryna Productions/Universal. 158 33. Cleopatra (1963). Julius Caesar, unimpressed by Egyptian pomp, salutes King Ptolemy while looking for Cleopatra. Twentieth Century-Fox. 159 34. The Fall of the Roman Empire. Commodus saluting the crowd during his triumphal entry into Rome. Samuel Bronston Productions. 163 35. Titus. An inebriated Emperor Saturninus giving the Roman salute in front of the Fascist Colosseo quadrato. Twentieth Century-Fox. 164 36. Gladiator. Tigris of Gaul entering the Colosseum on his chariot. Dreamworks/Universal. 165 37. Alexander. Alexander on his triumphant entry into Babylon. Warner Bros. 168 38–39. Star Trek: “Mirror, Mirror.” Varieties of the Roman salute in outer space. Paramount. 170 40–41. Rome. Caesar receiving combination pectoral and straight-arm salute. HBO. 175 42. Apache Gold. The salute in the American West as imagined in Western Germany. Rialto Film. 177 43. Fahrenheit 451. A variant of the salute in a futuristic totalitarian society. Enterprise Vineyard/Universal. 177 44. The Bible: In the Beginning. Adam’s first gesture at the culmination of the world’s creation. Twentieth-Century Fox. 180 acknowledgments For valuable information about references and sources, for a variety of important points, and for other kinds of support I am greatly indebted to several friends and colleagues, primarily Frederick Ahl, the late Max Baeumer, Richard Bosworth, Ward Briggs, Paul-Georg Brisken, William Calder III, Anthony Corbeill, James Dee, Julia Gaisser, Irvin Matus, Hartmut Rahm, Jon Solomon, and the late Egon Verheyen. I have incorporated a number of their suggestions but not all; the reason is my pertinacia, as ancient Romans might have called it. In Washington, D.C., I owe thanks to Rosemary Hanes and Thomas Mann at the Library of Congress and to Betsy Walsh and Erin Blake at the Folger Shakespeare Library. None of those here named is responsible for any errors of fact or judgment. xi introduction This book is the first systematic study of the saluto romano, the Roman or Fascist salute, in the various cultural contexts that were decisive for the origin of this gesture, its appropriation by totalitarian ideologies, and its dissemination. It also traces the survival of the raised- arm salute in the popular media until today, adducing and interpreting extensive textual and visual evidence since well before the birth of Fas- cism. Popular theater and even more so the cinema are of particular importance in this. Since European and American visual culture from the 1890s to the 1920s had made forms of the raised-arm salute widely familiar, these were readily available to be adopted for political purposes. The book demonstrates that what came to be known as the Roman salute was invented on the nineteenth-century stage in long-running productions of “toga plays,” melodramas set in the Roman Empire, and that the gesture then reached the cinema screen. Film, the most power- ful new mass medium, became the chief means for the dissemination of various supposedly authentic aspects of the visual reconstructions of antiquity. European and American silent films about ancient cultures were most influential for the popularity and eager acceptance of the Roman salute in political contexts. 1. History and Ideology: Half-Truths and Untruths In the twentieth century the Roman salute was the most familiar symbol of Fascism in Italy, Nazism in Germany, Falangism in Spain, and several 1 2 / Introduction other right-wing or nationalist movements. Those executing this ges- ture extended their stiff right arm frontally and raised it to roughly 135 degrees from the body’s vertical axis, with the palm of the hand facing down and the fingers touching. According to the Fascist ideology of the 1920s and in common perceptions still current, this salute was based on an ancient Roman custom, just as the term Fascism itself is associated with the Roman fasces, the bundles of rods with an axe in their middle that were a symbol of the power of office held by higher Roman mag- istracies and some priests. As will be seen, however, the term “Roman salute” is a misnomer. Not a single Roman work of art—sculpture, coin- age, or painting—displays a salute of the kind that is found in Fascism, Nazism, and related ideologies. It is also unknown to Roman literature and is never mentioned by ancient historians of either republican or imperial Rome. The gesture of the raised right arm or hand in Roman and other ancient cultures that is attested in surviving art and litera- ture had a significantly different function and is never identical with the modern straight-arm salute.
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