New Age Tourism and Evangelicalism in the 'Last
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NEGOTIATING EVANGELICALISM AND NEW AGE TOURISM THROUGH QUECHUA ONTOLOGIES IN CUZCO, PERU by Guillermo Salas Carreño A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Anthropology) in The University of Michigan 2012 Doctoral Committee: Professor Bruce Mannheim, Chair Professor Judith T. Irvine Professor Paul C. Johnson Professor Webb Keane Professor Marisol de la Cadena, University of California Davis © Guillermo Salas Carreño All rights reserved 2012 To Stéphanie ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This dissertation was able to arrive to its final shape thanks to the support of many throughout its development. First of all I would like to thank the people of the community of Hapu (Paucartambo, Cuzco) who allowed me to stay at their community, participate in their daily life and in their festivities. Many thanks also to those who showed notable patience as well as engagement with a visitor who asked strange and absurd questions in a far from perfect Quechua. Because of the University of Michigan’s Institutional Review Board’s regulations I find myself unable to fully disclose their names. Given their public position of authority that allows me to mention them directly, I deeply thank the directive board of the community through its then president Francisco Apasa and the vice president José Machacca. Beyond the authorities, I particularly want to thank my compadres don Luis and doña Martina, Fabian and Viviana, José and María, Tomas and Florencia, and Francisco and Epifania for the many hours spent in their homes and their fields, sharing their food and daily tasks, and for their kindness in guiding me in Hapu, allowing me to participate in their daily life and answering my many questions. Many more Hapu people were very kind and generous during my stay there and also when they visited me while travelling to Cuzco. I would like to thank particularly don Sebastián, don Francisco, don Ramón, Ignacio, Justino, Nicanor, Vicente, Esteban, Jesús, Bautista, Cirilo, and Víctor for all their kindness and help with my research. Beyond some small favors I was able to make and the few months I taught in the Hapu primary school, I know I owe a great debt to all Hapu people. Fieldwork in the city would not have been the same without the help of several people who in different capacities were crucial at some point. Among those who helped me from an institutional capacity I would like to thank Fernando Ruiz Caro and Fausto Salinas, then representatives of the Cuzco Chamber of Commerce; Boris Gómez and Roger Valencia, then representatives of the Cuzco Chamber of Tourism; David Ugarte, iii ex director of the then Dirección Regional del Instituto Nacional de Cultura; Ronald Catpo director of Asociación para la Conservación de la Cuenca Amazónica (ACCA) in Cuzco. Several conversations with fellow Cuzqueño anthropologists informed my discussion of the region and the role of the discipline in Cuzqueño ideologies. Among them I have to mention the late Luis Barreda, Demetrio Roca, Jorge Flores Ochoa, Ricardo Valderrama, Carmen Escalante, Osvaldo Conza, and Florentino Champi. Additionally I owe special thanks to Luis Nieto Degregori for the many conversations and for his work that have confronted and inspired me since long ago. Luis and Tania Castro, as well as Manuel Gibaja have always opened the doors of their warm houses with delicious cups of coffee and always intense conversations. Frida Ibañez, Yann LeBorgne, Kike Pinto, Enrique Riveros, Braddy Romero, and Holly Wissler were of great help for many diverse aspects of the work that I was carrying out. I relied on the great help of Richard Gonzáles who carried out an outstanding work transcribing many interviews in Quechua. Iñakapalla Chávez and Victoria Bustinza did a similarly good job with interviews in Spanish. The fieldwork in the city of Cuzco, Hapu, as well as other spaces within the region of Cuzco, Peru, would have been impossible without the support of the National Science Foundation (Dissertation Improvement Grant 0817712), and at the University of Michigan, the Rackham Graduate School, the Department of Anthropology, and the International Institute. The period of writing up the dissertation was spent with the invaluable support of the University of Michigan’s Institute for the Humanities that provided the best possible atmosphere I could imagine to start writing when I had just come back from my field research, and a truly interdisciplinary context for discussion and feedback. Further support for the writing period came from the Rackham Graduate School and the Department of Anthropology. I am deeply grateful to all these institutions. I am also grateful for the helpful and constructive advice of my doctoral committee. Bruce Mannheim was a constant and engaged interlocutor through all my doctoral studies, generously sharing his deep knowledge of the Andes, his sharp theoretical comments and suggestions as well as providing a great deal of intellectual freedom through the process. Judith Irvine not only pushed me to clarify several conceptual issues but also gave insightful suggestions for improving the overall structure iv of the dissertation. Webb Keane’s advice at the confusing moment of starting the writing process was timely and very helpful, as much as his many comments to the first draft of the dissertation. I owe a debt of gratitude to Paul Johnson for intellectual feedback that started long ago since I participated in a great seminar he led. Marisol de la Cadena was a constant presence enriching my understandings of the society of Cuzco through her writings and, as a member of my committee, through her comments, suggestions and generous sharing of her unpublished work. While not being directly in my committee, Gillian Feeley-Harnik has been crucial for introducing me to the current literature on kinship and human relatedness that was central for my conceptualization of Quechua ontologies. She also provided me with detailed feedback on relevant chapters. During my graduate coursework, the late Fernando Coronil was a source of constant inspiration and intellectual advice, as well as warm but challenging conversations that always pushed me to go beyond what I was taking for granted. He will always be a source of inspiration for times to come. Catherine Allen, Jessaca Leinaweaver, Claire Zimmerman, Val Kivelson, and Angela Dillard have helped with insightful comments on early drafts. Continuous conversations with Gisela Cánepa and Alejandro Diez at the Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú have also informed important aspects of this dissertation. I would also like to thank the many friends who have read and commented on chapters and papers at different stages of writing, and particularly Anna Babel, Topher Davis, Nafisa Essop Sheik, Dan Birchok, Heloise Finch, Ari Friedlander, Federico Helfgott, Daniel Hershenzon, Randall Hicks, Alexandra Hoffman, Sergio Huarcaya, Sri Nair, Angela Parker, María Pérez, Esteban Rozo, and Stephen Sparks. My life in Ann Arbor would not have been the same without the greatly appreciated help that I have always received from Laurie Marx at the Department of Anthropology and from the excellent library staff and services at the University of Michigan, in particular the Inter-Library Loan office. The fieldwork in Cuzco and the writing period would not have been the same without the friendship, conversations, drinks and laughs shared with good friends which were at the same time intellectually stimulating. I’m particularly indebted to Belén Arróniz, Veronique Belisle, Allison Davis, Alysa Handelsman, Federico Helfgott, Daniel v Hershenzon, Randall Hicks, Sri Nair, Angela Parker, Angélica Serna, Josh Shapero, and Howard Tsai for many good times. I cannot overstate my gratitude to Stéphanie Rousseau, to whom this dissertation is dedicated, for her constant support, advice, and patience, as well as for bringing new horizons, hopes and dimensions in our now common project well beyond academia. My field research in Cuzco gave me the opportunity to live again with my parents, after many years of being away, as well as to stay closer to my siblings – Juan, Iván, David, and Patricia – who, in different capacities, always supported me. I cannot thank enough my father, the late David Salas Sotomayor, and my mother, Gloria Carreño Rivero for their constant support and encouragement in this project even though it was not always clear for them what it was about. My deep thanks also for all those uncountable things and actions that are impossible to reciprocate and that, to large extent, made me who I am. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii LIST OF FIGURES x CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1 Ontology, ideology and culture 6 Modernity, nationalism and social hierarchy 8 Multiple coexisting worlds 12 Quechua ontologies and religion 18 Saints and pilgrimage shrines 21 Evangelical conversion 23 Tensions in Hapu 24 Evangelicals, New Age visitors and narratives of modernity 27 Organization of the dissertation 29 Additional information on field sites, field work and field data 31 CHAPTER II: TOURISM, INKA SITES AND NARRATIVES OF MODERNITY 34 Welcome to Cuzco: Tourism, Protests, and Inka sites. 35 Narratives of modernity 55 The derogatory stereotypes reproduced by narratives of modernity 63 Fractal recursivity and conversion 73 CHAPTER III: REGIONALIST NATIONALISM AND INTERLOCKING NARRATIVES OF MODERNITY 79 The long history of Cuzqueño regionalist nationalism 80 Weakening elites and Regionalist Nationalism in the 20th