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A DANCING of ATTITUDES: BURKE's RHETORIC on SHAKESPEARE By A DANCING OF ATTITUDES: BURKE'S RHETORIC ON SHAKESPEARE By STEPHEN CHARLES ROWAN M.A., The University of British Columbia, 1975 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF ' THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH We accept this thesis as conforming tA> the required^-s^tandard. THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA September, 1985 © Stephen C. Rowan, 1985. In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. English Department of The University of British Columbia 1956 Main Mall Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Y3 September 18, 1985 ABSTRACT Since F.S. Boas coined the term in 1896, All's Well That Ends Well, Troilus and Cressida, and Measure For Measure have been generally accepted as "problem plays," and many critics have offered biographical, thematic, and formal explanations of why these plays are so "dark." In this thesis, I accept that these plays are "problems" and I propose a rhetorical explanation for dissatisfaction with them, especially with their endings. Drawing on Kenneth Burke's philosophy of literary form and his anthropology of man as the symbol-using animal, I show that in these plays Shakespeare frustrates the expectations of an audience for a definite ending through death or marriage which would define the "terms" characterized in each play; secondly, he provides no scapegoat whose victimage would allow the audience to recognize an order clearly proposed for its acceptance; finally, he supplies no symbol of order which credibly demonstrates its power to establish a renewed society. As rhetoric, these plays show an intense "dancing of attitudes" toward symbols of order and toward conventional forms which would provide a clear sense of an ending. As such, they show what Burke calls "self-interference" on the part of the playwright — a deliberate balancing of arguments for the sake of "quizzicality" toward language as symbolic action. According to this analysis, the problem plays remain problems for an audience which seeks identification with symbols of order; they are, however, a tribute to the agile mind of a master rhetorician. - ii - TABLE OF CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION 1 SMALL LATINE, LESSE GREEKE, BUT MUCH RHETORIC 7 II. BURKE'S RHETORIC: LANGUAGE AS SYMBOLIC ACTION 17 LITERATURE AS A DEFINITION OF TERMS 23 CRITICISM AS CONVERSATION: TWO REJOINDERS TO BURKE 30 FORM AND MEANING 37 A RHETORICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 43 SHAKESPEARE AS RHETORICIAN 46 III. ALL'S WELL THAT ENDS WELL 54 THE AMBIGUOUS VALUE OF HONOR IN WAR 56 THE AMBIGUOUS VALUE OF HELENA 62 THE ATTEMPT TO ESTABLISH CERTAIN VALUE 75 THE CLOWN'S PERSPECTIVE 82 THE AMBIGUITY OF THE ENDING OR ALL SEEMS WELL 85 IV. TROILUS AND CRESSIDA 97 "WHAT A PAIR OF SPECTACLES IS HERE!" 99 THE GREEKS IN COUNCIL: THE FACTION OF FOOLS 107 THERSITES: A PRIVILEGED MAN 112 HELEN: A THEME OF HONOR AND RENOWN? 119 A GORY EMULATION . 123 V. MEASURE FOR MEASURE 128 ANGELO AND ISABELLA: A FIERCE DISPUTE ..129 THE FRAILTY OF OUR POWERS 134 THE COMIC SUB-PLOT: I HOPE HERE BE TRUTHS 142 HIS GRACE THE DUKE: LIKE PROVIDENCE DIVINE? 147 - iii - LUCIO: AN "INWARD" OF THE DUKE 153 THE CONCLUSION: THIS LOOKS NOT LIKE A NUPTIAL 157 VI. LOOKING BEFORE AND AFTER 163 THIS, THEN, IS THE PRAISE OF SHAKESPEARE 171 IS THIS THE PROMISED END? 178 IMAGINARY GARDENS AND REAL TOADS ..183 VII. ENDNOTES 189 VIII. BIBLIOGRAPHY 205 - iv - ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS As I conclude this thesis, I find that "I count myself in nothing else so happy/ As in a soul remembering my good friends" (Richard II II.iii.46-47). My thanks especially to my readers, Nan Johnson, Joel Kaplan, and my adviser, Tony Dawson, all of whose careful readings and constant encouragement contributed many improvements of substance and style; to John Hulcoop and the Graduate Committee of The University of British Columbia who helped provide financial assistance and guidance; to the Basilian community of St. Mark's College whose gracious hospitality I enjoyed for three years; to my family and friends who supported me with their interest and understood my absence, especially my father, Charles Rowan, my sister, Eileen Walton, and Frs. Lawrence Reilly and Paul Magnano; to Don Beach, who patiently initiated me into the mysteries of the word processor and to his family who made room for me in their home; finally, to Raymond E. Brown, S.S., whose example of scholarship, clear writing, and dedicated teaching have been effective even at a distance. - v - I.INTRODUCTION Most critics have sensed some kinship among the plays of Shakespeare's "middle period" (from approximately 1600-1604) and have tried to define their distinguishing quality in order to appreciate better the nature of Shakespeare's style, ways of thinking, and craftsmanship. Since Frederick Boas first coined the term "problem play" in 1896, and included Hamlet, All's Well, Measure for Measure, and Troilus and Cressida in the grouping, the term has been applied to various plays. Most critics include All's Well, Measure for Measure, and Troilus and Cressida in the category, while either retaining Hamlet (Tillyard), omitting it (Lawrence, Rossiter) or replacing it with another candidate (Doran). It seems, then, that a consensus exists concerning at least three plays to be retained from Boas's list and to be included in the "problem" grouping. The criteria for determining a "problem play" or "dark comedy" (E.K.Chambers) were enunciated by Boas and may be distinguished as moral or thematic and structural. For Boas, the moral concern in these plays is with unbridled passions erupting in societies "ripe unto rottenness" and with cases of conscience solved by "unprecedented" methods; the structural awkwardness is related to the "unprecedented" methods: the massive weight of issues, according to Boas, is not sustained by the framework of the plot, and therefore a satisfactory ending is precluded.^ Succeeding critics have not improved much on Boas's definition. The criteria for this grouping remain moral or thematic and structural difficulties. So, for example, W.W. Lawrence (who argues, in fact, against these plays as problems) points initially to their exploration of the darker complexities of human nature which is too analytic for comedy and too light - 1 - for tragedy; Tillyard notes that dogma and abstract speculation are seriously treated but are not absorbed well into the action; and Rossiter suggests that generalizations on the theme of man's tragi-comic "shiftingness" are treated with a seriousness that is unexpected in comedy and may even be incongruous with it.^ Structurally, the problems are likewise viewed as Boas saw them and mostly concern a putative mismanagement of effect toward the ending of the plays. So, for example, the tragic mood is without tragic issue (Lawrence); a "grand finale" of forgiveness is "engineered" after time is merely filled in between a dramatic climax at mid-play and the conclusion (Tillyard); the problems are realistically viewed, but the endings are not; that is, they neither issue in tragedy where expected (as in Troilus and Cressida) nor in the conventionally happy ending of comedy (Doran). The structure of the plays is also confused throughout by a mingling or even clashing of conventions, as when romance conventions are examined with unsparing realism (Lawrence).3 For some critics, two of these plays at least are not a problem at all. Morally or thematically they may be interpreted as allegories of mankind's moral education or redemption (for example, G.Wilson Knight and R.W.Chambers on Measure and G.K.Hunter on All's Well); structurally, they can be defended as comic because they employ conventions of fairy tale and folklore that would be well understood as "pointers" to an Elizabethan audience (Lawrence) or because they exhibit the comic framework and are therefore to be taken as such (Frye).4 Ernest Schanzer is an exception to the foregoing discussion because he argues for a different definition of a problem play. Dissatisfied with the critical thinking on these plays which does not, he believes, distinguish them sufficiently from the theme and mood of other plays in the canon, and looking - 2 - for a grouping that will offer clearer insight by suggesting unique affinities among the plays included, Schanzer offers his own definition. A problem play is one "in which we find a concern with a moral problem which is central to it, presented in such a manner that we are unsure of our moral bearings, so that uncertain and divided responses to it in the minds of the audience are possible or even probable."5 Using these criteria, Schanzer suggests that only Julius Caesar, Measure for Measure, and Antony and Cleopatra qualify as problem plays. Schanzer's criteria are not entirely satisfactory, however. They do not, for example, create a unique grouping after all, as can be seen when ^ Patrick Murray, who accepts Schanzer's definition, proceeds to extend the list of Schanzer's candidates for the grouping to include Hamlet, Troilus and Cressida, and All's Well.6 Besides, why should the "problem" with a play be limited to a moral one? What about the "existential" problem of how to respond to Lear's death, the attractiveness of Macbeth's evil, or the fate of Coriolanus? More to the point, how brush aside the many structural difficulties with Troilus, All's Well, and Measure which have troubled many critics? Most critics, it seems, have not accepted Schanzer's definition or revised grouping, nor have they been persuaded by those for whom the usual problem plays are not, for some reason, a problem.
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